Tibetan dual system of government - Revision history

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{{About|the system of government in Tibet|other past and present governments of this kind|Diarchy}}
[[Image:Lozang Gyatso.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, "The Great" 5th Dalai Lama|Fifth Dalai Lama]] implemented the traditional Cho-sid-nyi (dual system) in [[Tibet]].]]

The '''Dual System of Government '''is the traditional [[diarchy|diarchal]] political system of [[Tibetan people]]s whereby the Desi (temporal ruler) coexists with the spiritual authority of the realm, usually unified under a third single ruler. The actual distribution of power between institutions varied over time and location. The Tibetan term Cho-sid-nyi ({{bo|t=ཆོས་སྲིད་གཉིས་|w=chos-srid-gnyis}}; alternate spellings include ''Chhos-srid-gnyis'', ''Chhoe-sid-nyi'', and ''Chos-sid-nyi'') literally means "both [[Dharma]] and temporal,"<ref name=Sinha>{{cite web|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_05_03_02.pdf |title=Chhos Srid Gnyis Ldan |work=Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. V, No. 3 |last=Sinha |first=Nirmal C. |date=1968-11-12 |pages=13–27 |accessdate=2010-10-18}}</ref><ref name=DWBDict>{{cite web |url=http://www.diamondway-buddhism.org/diction/diction.htm |title=Tibetan-English-Dictionary of Buddhist Teaching & Practice |publisher=Rangjung Yeshe Translations & Publications |work=Diamond Way Buddhism Worldwide |year=1996 |accessdate=2010-10-18 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328014624/http://www.diamondway-buddhism.org/diction/diction.htm |archivedate=2010-03-28 }}</ref> but may also be translated as "dual system of religion and politics."<ref name=CoBE>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20(A5).pdf |title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan (English) |publisher=Government of Bhutan |date=2008-07-18 |accessdate=2010-10-13 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162637/http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20%28A5%29.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-06 }}</ref>

Because the ultimate ruler is the patron and protector of [[state religion]], some aspects of the dual system of government may be likened to the [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governance]] of the [[Church of England]], or even to [[theocracy]]. However, other aspects resemble [[secularism]], aiming to separate the doctrines of religion and politics. Under the Cho-sid-nyi, both religious and temporal authorities wield actual political power, albeit within officially separate institutions. Religious and secular officials might work side by side, each responsible to different [[bureaucracy|bureaucracies]].

==History==
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-13-11-31, Tibetexpedition, Minister.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Tibetan [[Kashag]] in 1938–39. From 1751 to 1951, the Kashag replaced the office of Desi in the Cho-sid-nyi (dual system) of [[Tibet]]]]

Since at least the period of the [[Mongol-Tibetan relations in the 13th and 14th centuries|Mongol presence]] in Tibet during the 13th and 14th centuries, [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Bön]] clerics had participated in secular government, having the same rights as laymen to be appointed state officials, both military and civil.<ref name=Sinha/> This system stood in stark contrast with that of [[China]], in which the Buddhist view of politics as a "dismal science" as well as the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] monopoly on the bureaucracy precluded such political activity by the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]].<ref name=Sinha/> By the [[Ming Dynasty]] (founded 1368), the [[Sakya#Feudal lordship over Tibet|Sakya]] held office above the heads of both components, embodying a government of both ''chos'' and ''srid''. As a result, there were two sets of laws and officials, the religious ({{bo|t=ལྷ་སདེ་|w=lha-sde}}) and the temporal ({{bo|t=མི་སྡེ་|w=mi-sde}}), however the branches shared the government and did not operate exclusively of each other.<ref name=Sinha/> This system often operated under Mongol and Chinese overlordship<ref>Whether historical Mongol/Chinese power over Tibet is classified as suzerainty or sovereignty is debated, with views often split along modern political lines.</ref> with the respective emperor above the local Tibetan administration.

The Tibetan form of government from 1642 until 1951 was the Cho-sid-nyi.<ref name=Sinha/> The dual system was implemented during a period of consolidation under the [[Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, "The Great" 5th Dalai Lama|Fifth Dalai Lama]] (r. 1642–1682), who unified Tibet religiously and politically after a prolonged civil war. He brought the government of Tibet under the control of the [[Gelug]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] after defeating the rival [[Kagyu]] and [[Jonang]] sects and the secular ruler, the [[Tsangpa]] prince. The Tibetan model sought to produce a synthesis of the complementary components of the mundane norm: [[Dharma]] ({{bo|t=ཆོས་ལུགས་|w=chos-lugs}}) and [[Samsara]] ({{bo|t=འཇིག་རྟེན་|w='jig-rten}}).<ref name=Sinha/><ref name=DWBDict/> One basic assumption of this system is that the temporal lord depended on religion for legitimacy, while the institution of [[state religion]] depended on patronage and protection from the political élite.<ref name=Sinha/>

In 1751, the [[Kelzang Gyatso|Seventh Dalai Lama]] abolished the post of Desi (or Regent), in whom too much power had been placed. The Desi was replaced by the [[Kashag]] (Council) to represent the [[Central Tibetan Administration|civil administration]]. The [[Dalai Lama]] thus became the spiritual and political leader of Tibet.<ref name=Namgyal>{{cite web |url=http://namgyalmonastery.namgyalarchive.com/dala-lama/7th-dalai-lama/his-holiness-the-seventh-dalai-lama-kelsang-gyatso/ |title=His Holiness the Seventh Dalai Lama, Kelsang Gyatso |work=Namgyal Monastery: Personal Monastery of [[14th Dalai Lama|His Holiness the XIVth Dalai Lama]] |date=2009-12-18 |accessdate=2010-10-18 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714150509/http://namgyalmonastery.namgyalarchive.com/dala-lama/7th-dalai-lama/his-holiness-the-seventh-dalai-lama-kelsang-gyatso/ |archivedate=2011-07-14 }}</ref><ref name=Samphel>{{cite book |last1=Samphel |first1=Thubten |last2=Samphel |first2=Tendar |title=The Dalai Lamas of Tibet |page=[https://archive.org/details/dalailamasoftibe0000thub/page/101 101] |publisher=Roli & Janssen |location=[[New Delhi]] |year=2004 |isbn=81-7436-085-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/dalailamasoftibe0000thub/page/101 }}</ref><ref name=Shakabpa>{{cite book|last=Shakabpa |first=Tsepon W. D. |authorlink=Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa |title=Tibet, a Political History |location=[[New Haven]] |publisher=Yale |year=1967 |page=150}}</ref>

[[File:Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] instituted the Tibetan Cho-sid-nyi (dual system) in [[Bhutan]]]]
In [[Bhutan]], the Cho-sid-nyi was established by [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] in the 17th century under the code known as the [[Tsa Yig]]. Having fled sectarian persecution in Tibet, Ngawang Namgyal established the [[Drukpa Lineage]] as the state religion. Under the Bhutanese system, the powers of the government were split between the religious branch headed by the [[Je Khenpo]] of the [[Drukpa Lineage]] and the civil administrative branch headed by the [[Druk Desi]]. Both the Je Khenpo and Druk Desi were under the nominal authority of the [[Shabdrung]], a reincarnation of Ngawang Namgyal. After the death of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, Bhutan nominally followed the dual system of government. In practice, the Shabdrung was often a child under the control of the Druk Desi, and regional [[penlop]]s (governors) often administered their districts in defiance of the Druk Desi until the rise of the unified monarchy at the beginning of the 20th century.

In [[Ladakh]] and [[Sikkim]], two related [[Chogyal]] dynasties reigned with [[absolute monarchy|absolute control]], punctuated by periods of invasion and colonization by [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], [[India]], [[Nepal]], and the [[British Empire]]. The basis of the Chogyal monarchy in both Ladakh and Sikkim was its recognition by Three Lamas, and the title ''Chogyal'' ({{bo|t=ཆོས་རྒྱལ་|w=chos-rgyal}}; "Dharma Raja" or "Religious King") itself refers to the dual system of government. [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Ladakh's Namgyal dynasty]] lasted from 1470 until 1834. The autonomy of the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] élite in Ladakh, as well as their system of government, ended with the campaigns of [[General Zorawar Singh]] and [[Rajput]] [[suzerainty]]. Ladakh became a region within the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] until 2019, when it was formed into a separate [[union territory]]. The Namgyal dynasty continued in Sikkim from 1542 until 1975, when the kingdom voted by plebiscite to join the union of [[India]].

==Contemporary systems==

===Kingdom of Bhutan===
{{see|Constitution of Bhutan|Druk Gyalpo|Shabdrung}}
[[Image:King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck (edit).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Bhutanese [[Druk Gyalpo]] [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]] is the embodiment of the '''Cho-sid-nyi''' under the [[Constitution of Bhutan]]]]
The only modern example of a sovereign government operating under the Cho-sid-nyi is [[Bhutan]], although it exists in a highly modified form. In 1907, in an effort to reform the dysfunctional political system, the [[penlop]]s (governors) of Bhutan orchestrated the establishment of a Bhutanese monarchy with [[Ugyen Wangchuck]], the [[penlop]] of [[Trongsa]] installed as hereditary king, with the support of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and against the wishes of Tibet. Since the establishment of the [[House of Wangchuck|Wangchuck]] dynasty in 1907, the office of the [[Druk Desi]] has been held by the reigning [[Druk Gyalpo]] (King of Bhutan). Under the monarchy, the relative influence of the [[Je Khenpo]] has diminished. Nonetheless, the position remains a powerful one and the Je Khenpo is typically viewed as the closest and most powerful advisor to the Druk Gyalpo.

The office of [[Shabdrung]] has fared less well, and has been subsumed by the office of the [[Druk Gyalpo]]. The royal family suffered from questions of legitimacy in its early years, with the reincarnations of the various Shabdrungs posing a threat. According to one Drukpa source, the Shabdrung's brother [[Chhoki Gyeltshen]] challenged the 1926 accession of King [[Jigme Wangchuck]]. He was rumored to have met with [[Mahatma Gandhi]] to garner support for the Shabdrung against the King. The Seventh Shabdrung, [[Jigme Dorji]] was then "retired" to [[Nalanda bhutan|Talo monastery]] and died in 1931, under rumors of assassination. He was the last Shabdrung recognized by Bhutan; subsequent claimants to the incarnation have not been recognized by the government.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Politics of Bhutan |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofbhutan00rose |url-access=limited |last=Rose |first=Leo E. |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1977 |isbn=0-8014-0909-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofbhutan00rose/page/27 27] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Rongthong Kunley Dorji |title=My understanding of Shabdrung |work=The Bhutan Today |year=2003 |accessdate=4 March 2009 |url=http://www.bhutandnc.com/aprilmay03_3.htm }}</ref> In 1962, [[Jigme Ngawang Namgyal]], known as ''Shabdrung Rimpoche'' to his followers, fled Bhutan for [[India]] where he spent the remainder of his life. Until 2002, Bhutanese pilgrims were able to journey to [[Kalimpong]], just south of Bhutan, to visit with the Master. On April 5, 2003, the Shabdrung died. Some of his followers claim he was poisoned, while [[Kuensel]] took pains to explain he died after an extended bout with cancer. In early 2007, reports alleged that the current Shabdrung Pema Namgyel, then a small child, had been held under house arrest in [[Bhutan]] along with his parents since 2005 after being invited to Bhutan from his home in [[India]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Respected Buddhist teacher under house arrest in Bhutan |work=The Buddhist Channel |date=Feb 3, 2007 |accessdate=4 March 2009 |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=40,3674,0,0,1,0 }}</ref>

The [[Constitution of Bhutan]], enacted in 2008, confirms Bhutan's commitment to the Cho-sid-nyi system. However the title "Druk Desi" never appears in the Constitution, and all administrative powers are vested in the [[Druk Gyalpo]] and civilian offices directly. Furthermore, the Druk Gyalpo appoints the [[Je Khenpo]] on advice of the Five Lopons, and the [[democracy|democratic]] Constitution itself is the supreme law of the land, as opposed to a Shabdrung figurehead.<ref name=CoBE/> In the 2008 Constitution, there is no reference whatsoever to the office of Shabdrung.

===Government of Tibet in exile===
{{main|Central Tibetan Administration}}
The [[Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration|Parliament]] of the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan government in exile]] consists of 43–46 members including 10 religious delegates (2 members each from the four schools of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and the traditional [[Bön]] school). Aside from seats reserved for religious representatives, offices are generally open to clerics: the [[Kalon Tripa|Prime Minister]] of its [[Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration|Parliament]] is [[Lobsang Tenzin]], a Buddhist monk. The administration of the government in exile was headed for decades by the [[Dalai Lama]], but in 2011, he ceded his temporal (secular) powers, keeping only his role as spiritual leader.

==See also==
*[[Politics of Bhutan]]
*[[History of Bhutan]]
*[[History of Tibet]]
*[[History of Sikkim]]
*[[History of Ladakh]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutan2008.bt/en/node/305 |title=Establishment of Monastic body |publisher=Bhutan 2008 |year=2008 |accessdate=2010-10-19 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120312151153/http://www.bhutan2008.bt/en/node/305 |archivedate=2012-03-12 }}
*{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35839.htm |title=Background Note: Bhutan |date=2010-02-02 |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]] |accessdate=2010-10-27}}

{{Bhutanese society}}
{{History of Bhutan}}

[[Category:State religion in Bhutan]]
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[[Category:History of Tibet]]
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