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{{short description|Standard formula to introduce Buddhist discourses}}
{{italic title}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox Buddhist term
| title = ''Thus have I heard'' | en = | | pi = Evaṃ me sutaṃ | my-Latn = | zh = 如是我聞 | zh-Latn = rúshìwǒwén | ja =如是我聞 | ja-Latn = nyozegamon | km = | km-Latn = Yŏsi amun | ko = 여시아문 | ko-Latn = yeosiamun | lo = | mnw = | mnw-Latn = | shn = | shn-Latn = | si = | si-Latn = | tl = Ganito ang narinig ko | ta = | th = | bo = འདི་སྐད་བདག་གིས་ཐོས་པ་དུས་གཅིག་ན |bo-Latn = 'di skad bdag gis thos pa dus gcig na | vi = như thị ngã văn / ta nghe như vầy | pwn = lemangeda aken a maitucu | id = |sa=Evaṃ mayā śrutam}}
{{Theravada Buddhism|Traditions}}
'''''Thus have I heard''''' ({{langx|pi|Evaṃ me sutaṃ|italic=yes}}; {{langx|sa|Evaṃ mayā śrutam|italic=yes}}) is the common translation of the first line of the standard introduction (Pāli and {{langx|sa|nidāna|italic=yes |link=no}}) of [[sutra|Buddhist discourses]]. This phrase serves to confirm that the discourse is coming from the Buddha himself, as a "seal of authenticity".{{sfn |Tola |Dragonetti |1999 |p=54}}{{sfn |Brough |1950 |p=424}} Buddhist tradition maintains that the disciple [[Ānanda]] used the formula for the first time, as a form of personal testimony, but this is disputed by some scholars. It is also disputed how the phrase relates to the words that follow, and several theories have been developed with regard to how the text was originally intended to be read. The formula has also been used in later [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] discourses.

== History and function ==
[[File:唐彩繪石雕阿難陀像（石灰岩）-Monk, probably Ananda (Anantuo) MET DP170269.jpg|thumb|8th-century Chinese limestone sculpture of [[Ānanda]] |alt=Colored limestone sculpture of monk holding unidentified object|upright]]
According to Buddhist tradition—based on the [[atthakatha|commentary]] to the [[Digha Nikaya|Dīgha Nikāya]]—the formula was first used by the disciple [[Ānanda]] during the [[First Buddhist Council]] held at Rājagṛha (present-day [[Rajgir]]).{{sfn |Nanayakkara |1990 |p=174}}{{sfn |Powers |2013 |loc=Evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ ekasmin samaye}} At this gathering, the [[Tripitaka|Buddhist Canon]] was established,{{sfn |Powers |2013 |loc=Evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ ekasmin samaye}} and Ānanda was given the role of [[Wikt:rapporteur|rapporteur]] ({{langx|sa|saṃgītakāra|italic=yes |link=no}}) of the Buddha's teachings, being the personal attendant of the Buddha.{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Saṃgītakāra}}

The formula is usually followed by the place where the discourse is given, as well as the names and numbers of those it is given to.{{sfn |Keown |2004 |page=89}} In the Chinese [[exegesis|exegetical]] tradition, the formula is known as the ''generic preface'' ({{zh|t=通序|p=tōngxù}}), as opposed to the subsequent part that differs between discourses, introducing the specifics, known as the ''specific preface'' ({{zh|t=別序|p=biéxù}}).{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Er xu}} In some [[Early Buddhist Texts]], other similar constructions are used, such as 'This was said by the Blessed One' ({{langx|pi|Vutaṃ hetaṃ bhagavatā |italic=yes |link=no}}) in the [[Itivuttaka]].{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Itivuttaka}}{{sfn |Analayo |2007 |p=19}}

== Interpretation and translation ==
The formula is glossed by the 5th-century Indian commentator [[Buddhaghosa]] as "received in the Buddha's presence".{{sfn |Przyluski |1940 |p=247, note 2}} Indologist [[Jean Filliozat]] (1906{{en dash}}82) disagreed with the traditional explanation that Ānanda was the one who invented the formula, arguing that the formula is an odd way to describe a first-hand witness account, as it sounds as though what follows is hearsay. He argued instead that it was a later compiler who added it.{{sfn |Nanayakkara |1990 |pp=174{{en dash}}5}} However, comparing Buddhist with [[Jain]] texts, Sanskrit scholar John Brough (1917{{en dash}}84) concluded the formula indicates personal testimony as opposed to hearsay.{{sfn |Brough |1950 |p=424}}{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |p=316}}

Indologist [[Jean Przyluski]] (1885{{en dash}}1944) argued that the formula originally may also have meant that the Buddhist discourses were presented as part of sacred revelation (''[[śruti]]''). This was intended to prove that the Buddhist texts were on the same level with, or superior than, the [[Vedas]] in the [[Brahmanical]] tradition.{{sfn |Przyluski |1940 |p=247, note 2}} Brough concurred with Przyluski that this may have played some role in the development of the phrase, but concluded that the motivation of declaring oneself a witness of the Buddha's teaching "could by itself quite adequately explain it".{{sfn |Brough |1950 |p=425}} Brough relates a traditional account in which the [[disciples of the Buddha|Buddha's disciples]] weep when they hear Ānanda say the words ''Thus have I heard'' for the first time, "marvelling that they should hear again the very words of their dead master".{{sfn |Brough |1950 |p=425}} Indologist {{ill|Konrad Klaus|de}} disagrees with Brough, however, citing two discourses from the Dīgha Nikāya and [[Majjhima Nikaya|Majjhima Nikāya]] in which the formula refers to what "... was acquired through communication by others", as opposed to personal experience.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |p=319 |ps=, "... durch Mitteilung durch Andere erworbenen wurde."}} Klaus also points at another expression which {{em|does mean}} that a discourse has been directly received from someone, that is ''samukkhā me taṃ ... samukkhā paṭiggahitaṃ'', meaning 'I heard and learned this {{nowrap|from ...'s}} own lips': an expression often used with regard to the Buddha.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |pp=319{{en dash}}20}} He proposes that the formula ''Thus have I heard'' does mark a discourse as the [[buddhavacana|Buddha's word]], but not because the discourse has been heard from the Buddha's own lips by the speaker. He does admit that the early Sanskrit texts contain a later interpretation of the formula, which does refer to personal experience.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |p=320{{en dash}}1}}

Indologist [[Étienne Lamotte]] (1903{{en dash}}83) argued it was the Buddha who had the formula placed at the beginning of the Buddhist discourses, conveying this through Ānanda.{{sfn |Lamotte |2005 |p=190}}

In addition, the formula may have been used by editors to standardize the discourses, as it is even used in discourses given by Ānanda himself.{{sfn |Nanayakkara |1990 |pp=174{{en dash}}5}}

== Punctuation ==
There has been considerable debate as to how the first sentences of the preface of Buddhist discourses should be translated, especially with regard to punctuation. There are three main opinions.{{sfn |Nattier|2014 |p=39}} The first possible and most common translation is ''Thus have I heard. At one time the [[Gautama Buddha|Blessed One]] was at ... in ...''{{sfn |Nattier|2014 |p=39}}{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ}} Buddhist studies scholar Mark Allon has defended this translation based on metrical and rhyme patterns.{{sfn |Tola |Dragonetti |1999 |p=53}} The words of the Pāli formula indicate the oral tradition through which the discourses were passed down. As with many parts of the discourses, the preface consist of rhymes to help memorization of the text, such as repetition of initial consonant sounds ([[alliteration]]; ''evaṃ'', ''ekaṃ'') and final sounds ([[homoioteleuton]]; ''evaṃ'', ''suttaṃ'', ''ekaṃ'' and ''samayaṃ'').{{sfn |Analayo |2007 |pp=5{{en dash}}6}}{{sfn |Allon |1997 |p=195}} These rhyme patterns show that the two phrases, the first phrase starting with 'thus' (''evaṃ me suttaṃ'') and the second phrase, ''ekaṃ samayaṃ'' (Pāli; {{langx|sa|ekasmin samaye|italic=yes |link=no}}), 'at one time', were seen as two separate units.{{sfn |Allon |1997 |p=195}} On a similar note, the first phrase has a ''vedha'' type metrical pattern, which is repeated by the second phrase, ''ekaṃ samayaṃ'', 'at one time'.{{sfn |Allon |1997 |pp=195, 246}} Buddhist studies scholars Fernando Tola and Carmen Dragonetti have also argued for this translation with a three-word pre-amble (the three words being ''evaṃ me suttaṃ''), on the grounds that it gives the best meaning to the context.{{sfn |Tola |Dragonetti |1999 |pp=54{{en dash}}5}}

However, numerous scholars read the words 'at one time' ({{langx|pi|ekaṃ samayaṃ|italic=yes |link=no}}; {{langx|sa|ekasmin samaye|italic=yes |link=no}}) as combined with the first phrase, making for a five-word preamble. In their opinion, the first lines should be translated to '''''Thus have I heard at one time'''. The Blessed One was staying at ... in ...''{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ}}{{sfn |Nattier |2014 |p=39}} This translation is often attributed to Brough, but was first proposed by Orientalist [[Alexander von Staël-Holstein]] (1877{{en dash}}1937).{{sfn |Nattier |2014 |p=39 note 4}} Von Staël-Holstein preferred this translation, basing himself on Indian commentaries,{{sfn |Chen |Montoneri |2011 |pp=286{{en dash}}7}} and Brough based himself on Tibetan translations, common usage in [[Avadana|Avadānas]] and Early Buddhist Texts, as well as [[atthakatha|Pāli]] and Sanskrit commentators.{{sfn |Brough |1950 |pp=418, 423}}{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |pp=310{{en dash}}1}} Indologist [[Oskar von Hinüber]] rejects Von Staël-Holstein's and Brough's interpretation, however. He argues that although in Sanskrit it may be possible to connect the two phrases in one sentence, in Pāli this is highly unusual. Von Hinüber further states that in the early Pāli texts, as well as the Pāli commentaries, separating the two phrases is actually quite common.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |pp=311{{en dash}}2}} Konrad Klaus agrees with von Hinüber's arguments.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |pp=311{{en dash}}6}} Buddhist studies scholar Brian Galloway further states that many Tibetan and Indian commentators such as [[Vimalamitra]] (8th century) did not support a five-word but rather a three-word pre-amble, reading ''at one time'' with the text following it.{{sfn |Galloway |1991 |p=101}}{{sfn |Galloway |1997 |p=367}} Religious Studies scholar Mark Tatz disagrees with Galloway's interpretation, however, providing several reasons.{{sfn |Tatz |1993 |pp=335{{en dash}}6}} In response, Galloway rejects most of Tatz' arguments.{{sfn |Galloway |1997 |loc=passim}}

A third group of scholars believe that the details of the place should also be mentioned within the same sentence, with no punctuation: ''Thus have I heard at the one time when the Blessed one was staying at ... in ...'' This type of translation, called the "double-jointed construction", has been proposed by Religious Studies scholar [[Paul Harrison (scholar)|Paul Harrison]] and Buddhologist {{ill|Tilmann Vetter|nl}}.{{sfn |Nattier |2014 |p=39, note 5}}{{sfn |Tola |Dragonetti |1999 |p=53}} Harrison bases himself on Tibetan translations and discussion in Sanskrit commentaries.{{sfn |Klaus |2007 |pp=314{{en dash}}5}}

== Usage in Buddhist history ==
[[File:Kumarajiva at Kizil Caves, Kuqa.jpg|thumb |upright |Statue of [[Kumarajiva|Kumārajīva]] in front of the [[Kizil Caves]], [[Xinjiang]], China |alt=Statue of monk sitting with the right leg touching his left knee]]
Prior to the 5th century, Chinese translations of Buddhist texts would often translate the standard formula as ''Heard like this'' ({{zh|c=聞如是}}), leaving out the ''I'' for stylistic reasons. During the 5th century, translator [[Kumarajiva|Kumārajīva]] (344{{en dash}}413 CE) started rendering the formula as ''Rushi wowen'' ({{zh|c=如是我聞 |l=Like this I hear}}), which became the standard Chinese translation, despite its unnatural construction.{{sfn |Nattier |2014 |pp=40{{en dash}}1, 53{{en dash}}4}}{{refn |group=note |The word order does not follow Chinese, but rather Indian syntax.{{sfn |Nattier |2014 |p=41}}}}

[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] traditions considered many later discourses the Buddha's word, and also included the formula at the beginning of those.{{sfn |Skilton |2004 |pp=745{{en dash}}6}} Indeed, the 5th-century Chinese commentary ''[[Dazhidulun]]'' recommends editors to do so.{{sfn |Walser |2005 |p=154}} Often, Mahāyāna commentaries state that the formula can not only refer to Ānanda, but also to certain ''[[bodhisattvas]]'', such as [[Manjusri|Mañjuśrī]].{{sfn |Buswell |Lopez |2013 |loc=Evaṃ mayā śrutaṃ}} Modern scholarship has drawn into question the historical value of most of these introductions of Mahāyāna discourses, though some scholars do not exclude the possibility that some of the content of the discourses themselves goes back to the Buddha.{{sfn |Williams |2009 |p=39}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist |group=note}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist |20em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last1=Allon |first1=Mark |title=Style and Function: A Study of the Dominant Stylistic Features of the Prose Portions of Pāli Canonical Sutta Texts and Their Mnemonic Function |date=1997 |publisher=The International Institute for Buddhist Studies of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies |location=Tokyo |isbn=4-906267-40-8}}
* {{Citation |last=Analayo |first=Bhikkhu |author-link=Bhikkhu Analayo |year=2007 |title=Oral Dimensions of Pali Discourses: Pericopes, Other Mnemonic Techniques and the Oral Performance Context |journal=Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies|volume= 3 |url=http://journals.sfu.ca/cjbs/index.php/cjbs/article/viewFile/75/72 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125162733/http://journals.sfu.ca/cjbs/index.php/cjbs/article/viewFile/75/72 |archive-date=25 November 2018 |url-status=live}}
* {{Citation |last=Brough |first=J. |year=1950 |title=Thus Have I Heard... |journal=[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |url=https://namakajiri.net/misc/nonfree/609284.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124220121/https://namakajiri.net/misc/nonfree/609284.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2018 |url-status=live |pages=416{{en dash}}26|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00083555 |s2cid=170920833 }}
* {{Citation|last1=Buswell|first1=Robert E. Jr.|last2=Lopez|first2=Donald S. Jr.|author2-link=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2013|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=New Jersey |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3|url=http://www.daophatngaynay.com/vn/files/file-nen/Princeton_Dictionary_of_Buddhism_890707662.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144307/http://www.daophatngaynay.com/vn/files/file-nen/Princeton_Dictionary_of_Buddhism_890707662.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}
* {{Citation |last1=Chen |first1=Chu-Fen |last2=Montoneri |first2=Bernard |editor1-last=Jing-Schmidt |editor1-first=Zhuo |title=Study of the Punctuation Errors in the Taisho Diamond Sutra Based on Sanskrit{{en dash}}Chinese Comparison |encyclopedia=Proceedings of the 23rd North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-23) |date=June 2011 |volume=2 |pages=279{{en dash}}95 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307970517 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20181125164736/https://naccl.osu.edu/sites/naccl.osu.edu/files/NACCL-23_2_20.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2018 |url-status=live |publisher=[[University of Oregon]] |location=Eugene}}
* {{Citation |last=Galloway |first=B. |year=1991 |title=Thus have I heard: At one time ... |journal=[[Indo-Iranian Journal]] |volume=34 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/BF00176054 |pages=87{{en dash}}104|s2cid=161314510 }}
* {{Citation |last=Galloway |first=B. |year=1997 |title=A Reply To Professor Mark Tatz |journal=[[Indo-Iranian Journal]] |volume=40 |issue=4 |jstor=24662125 |pages=367{{en dash}}71|doi=10.1163/000000097124992269 |s2cid=161380445 }}
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== External links ==
* [http://www.andrew-may.com/zendynamics/thus.htm ''Thus have I heard''], overview of the punctuation debate as of 1994, by translator Maurice Walshe, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060210020455/http://www.andrew-may.com:80/zendynamics/thus.htm archived] from the original on 10 February 2006

{{refend}}

{{Buddhism topics}}

[[Category:Buddhist literature]]
[[Category:Oral tradition]]
[[Category:Buddhist practices]]

Thus have I heard - Revision history

Abhishek Mandal: stub