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{{short description|Process of transferring technology from an owner or holder to another}}
'''Technology transfer (TT)''', also called '''transfer of technology''' ('''TOT'''), is the process of transferring (disseminating) [[technology]] from the person or organization that owns or holds it to another person or organization, in an attempt to transform inventions and scientific outcomes into new products and services that benefit society.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bozeman |first1=Barry |title=Technology transfer and public policy: a review of research and theory |journal=Research Policy |date=1 April 2000 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=627–655 |doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00093-1 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=What is technology transfer? {{!}} Knowledge for policy|url=https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/technology-transfer/what-technology-transfer_en|access-date=2021-12-31|website=knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu}}</ref> Technology transfer is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) [[knowledge transfer]].

A comprehensive definition of technology transfer today includes the notion of collaborative process as it became clear that global challenges could be resolved only through the development of global solutions. Knowledge and technology transfer plays a crucial role in connecting innovation stakeholders and moving inventions from creators to public and private users.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Case Studies on Cooperation and Exchange Between R&D Institutions in Developed and Developing Countries|url=https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=287221|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref>

[[Intellectual property]] (IP) is an important instrument of technology transfer, as it establishes an environment conducive to sharing research results and technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is Tech Transfer, Anyway?|url=https://autm.net/about-tech-transfer/what-is-tech-transfer|url-status=live|access-date=31 December 2021|website=AUTM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Technology Transfer and Development|url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2006/05/article_0005.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref> Analysis in 2003<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kremic |first1=Tibor |title=Technology Transfer: A Contextual Approach |journal=The Journal of Technology Transfer |date=2003 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1023/A:1022942532139 |s2cid=152744672 }}</ref> showed that the context, or environment, and motives of each organization involved will influence the method of technology transfer employed. The motives behind the technology transfer were not necessarily homogenous across organization levels, especially when commercial and government interests are combined.<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 2012|title=Technology Transfer in Countries in Transition: Policy and Recommendations|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_transition_2_b.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=31 December 2021|website=WIPO.int}}</ref> The protection of [[IP rights]] enables all parties, including universities and research institutions to ensure ownership of the scientific outcomes of their intellectual activity, and to control the use of IP in accordance with their mission and core values. IP protection gives academic institutions capacity to market their inventions, attract funding, seek industrial partners and assure dissemination of new technologies through means such as licensing or creation of start-ups for the benefit of society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Project on Intellectual Property and Technology Transfer: Common Challenges - Building Solutions (Recommendations 19, 25, 26 and 28)|url=https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=156582|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref>

== Technology transfer in practice ==
Technology transfers may occur between [[universities]], [[Business|businesses]] (of any size, ranging from [[Small business|small]], [[Small and medium-sized enterprises|medium]], to [[Big business|large]]), [[government]]s, across [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] [[border]]s, both formally and informally, and both openly and secretly. Often it occurs by concerted effort to share [[Skill|skills]], [[Knowledge transfer|knowledge]], technologies, manufacturing methods, samples, and facilities among the participants.

While the Technology Transfer process involves many activities, which can be represented in many ways, in reality, technology transfer is a fluid and dynamic process that rarely follows a linear course.<ref name=":0" /> Typical steps include:

* Knowledge creation
* Disclosure
* Assessment and evaluation
* IP protection
* Fundraising and technology development
* Marketing
* Commercialization
* Product development, and
* Impact.

Technology transfer aims to ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further develop and exploit the technology into new products, processes, applications, materials, or services. It is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) [[knowledge transfer]]. Horizontal transfer is the movement of technologies from one area to another.

Transfer of technology is primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer occurs when technologies are moved from applied research centers to research and development departments.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Grosse|first=Robert|title=international Technology Transfer in Services|journal=Journal of International Business Studies|date=1996|volume=27|issue=4|page=782|doi=10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490153|jstor=155512|s2cid=166609098}}</ref>

=== Spin-outs ===
Spin-outs are used where the host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Successful Technology Transfer through a Spin-off Company|url=https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2553|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Pomffyová|first1=Mária|url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/64012|title=The Role of Spin-Off Companies in the Technology Transfer and IS Management Potential in Developing a Sharing Economy|last2=Rostašová|first2=Mária|last3=Krajčík|first3=Vladimír|date=2018-11-05|publisher=IntechOpen|isbn=978-1-78985-453-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Licence or Spin|url=http://www.technologytransferinnovation.com/licence-or-spin.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=Technology Transfer Innovation|language=en}}</ref> Often these approaches are associated with raising of [[venture capital]] (VC) as a means of funding the development process, a practice common in the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. [[Research spin-off]] companies are a popular vehicle of commercialization in [[Canada]], where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of the US. Local venture capital organizations such as the Mid-Atlantic Venture Association (MAVA) also sponsor conferences at which investors assess the potential for commercialization of technology.

[[Technology brokering|Technology brokers]] are people who discovered how to bridge the emergent worlds and apply scientific concepts or processes to new situations or circumstances.<ref>Hargadon, Andrew. [http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/3613.html ''Harvard Business School Working Knowledge for Business Leaders''], August 4, 2003.</ref> A related term, used almost synonymously, especially in Europe, is "technology [[valorisation]]". While conceptually the practice has been utilized for many years (in ancient times, [[Archimedes]] was notable for applying science to practical problems), the present-day volume of research, combined with high-profile failures at [[Xerox PARC]] and elsewhere{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}, has led to a focus on the process itself.

Whereas technology transfer can involve the dissemination of [[high tech|highly complex technology]] from capital-intensive origins to low-capital recipients (and can involve aspects of dependency and fragility of systems), it also can involve [[appropriate technology]], not necessarily high-tech or expensive, that is better disseminated, yielding [[robustness]] and [[autonomy|independence]] of systems.

=== Informal promotion ===
Technology transfer is also promoted through informal means, such as at conferences organized by various groups, including the [[Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation]] and the [https://autm.net/ Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM)], and at "challenge" competitions by organizations such as the [[Center for Advancing Innovation]] in Maryland. AUTM represents over 3,100 technology transfer professionals, and more than 800 universities, research centers, hospitals, businesses and government organizations.

The most frequently used informal means of technology transfer are through education, studies, professional exchange of opinions, movement of people, seminars, workshops. .

There are numerous professional associations and TTO Networks enhancing different forms of collaboration among technology managers in order to facilitate this “informal” transfer of best practices and experiences.

In addition to AUTM, other regional and international associations include the Association of European Science and Technology Transfer Professionals (ASTP), the [https://attp.global/about/ Alliance of Technology Transfer Professionals (ATTP)], [[Licensing Executives Society International|Licensing Executives Society]] [https://www.lesi.org/ (LES)], [https://www.praxisauril.org.uk/ Praxis Auril] and others. There are also national Technology transfer associations and networks, such as the National Association of Technology Transfer Offices in Mexico (Red OTT Mexico), the Brazilian Forum of Innovation and Technology Transfer Managers (FORTEC), the Alliance of TechTransfer Professionals of the Philippines (AToP), the South African Research and Innovation Management Association [https://www.sarima.co.za/ (SARIMA)], and other associations.

They promote cooperation in technology transfer and the exchange of best practices and experiences among professionals, as today international technology transfer is considered one of the most effective ways to bring people together to find solutions to global problems such as COVID-19, climate change or cyber-attacks.

== Technology transfer offices ==
Many universities and research institutions, and governmental organizations now have an Office of Technology Transfer (TTO, also known as "Tech Transfer" or "TechXfer") dedicated to identifying research that has potential commercial interest and strategies for how to exploit it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About IP|url=https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/universities_research/ip_policies/index.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref> Technology Transfer Offices are usually created within a university in order to manage IP assets of the university, and the transfer of knowledge and technology to industry. Sometimes, their mandate includes any interaction or contractual relation with the private sector, or other responsibilities, depending on the mission of the institutions. Common names for such offices differ. Some examples include [[University technology transfer offices|Technology Licensing Office]] (TLO), Technology Management Office, Research Contracts and IP Services Office, Technology Transfer Interface, Industry Liaisons Office, IP and Technology Management Office, and Nucleus of Technological Innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Guidelines for Customization of the IP Policy Template|url=https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/universities_research/ip_policies/|url-status=live|access-date=31 December 2021|website=wipo.int}}</ref>

For instance, a research result may be of scientific and commercial interest, but [[patent]]s are normally only issued for practical processes, and so someone—not necessarily the researchers—must come up with a specific practical process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miron-Shatz |first1=Talya |last2=Shatz |first2=Itamar |last3=Becker |first3=Stefan |last4=Patel |first4=Jigar |last5=Eysenbach |first5=Gunther |title=Promoting Business and Entrepreneurial Awareness in Health Care Professionals: Lessons From Venture Capital Panels at Medicine 2.0 Conferences |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |date=6 August 2014 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=e3390 |doi=10.2196/jmir.3390 |pmid=25100579 |pmc=4129187 }}</ref> Another consideration is commercial value; for example, while there are many ways to accomplish [[nuclear fusion]], the ones of commercial value are those that generate more energy than they require to operate. The process to commercially exploit research varies widely. It can involve licensing agreements or setting up joint ventures and partnerships to share both the risks and rewards of bringing new technologies to market. Other corporate vehicles, e.g. spin-outs, are used where the host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology. Often these approaches are associated with raising of [[venture capital]] (VC) as a means of funding the development process, a practice more common in the [[United States]] than in the [[European Union]], which has a more conservative approach to VC funding.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/invest-in-research/monitoring/statistical01_en.htm EU Report on EU/global comparisons in the commercialization of new technologies]</ref> [[Research spin-off]] companies are a popular vehicle of commercialisation in [[Canada]], where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of the US.<ref>[http://www.stic-csti.ca/eic/site/stic-csti.nsf/eng/h_00011.html State of The Nation 2008 - Canada's Science, Technology and Innovation System]</ref>

Technology transfer offices may work on behalf of research institutions, governments, and even large multinationals. Where start-ups and spin-outs are the clients, commercial fees are sometimes waived in lieu of an equity stake in the business. As a result of the potential complexity of the technology transfer process, technology transfer organizations are often multidisciplinary, including economists, engineers, lawyers, marketers and scientists. The dynamics of the technology transfer process have attracted attention in their own right, and there are several dedicated societies and journals.

== Government and intellectual property support ==
There has been a marked increase in technology transfer intermediaries specialized in their field since 1980, stimulated in large part by the [[Bayh-Dole Act]] and equivalent legislation in other countries, which provided additional incentives for research exploitation. Due to the increasing focus on technology transfer there are several forms of intermediary institutions at work in this sector, from TTOs to IP 'trolls' that act outside the Bayh-Dole Act provisions. Due to the risk of exploitation, intellectual property policy, training and systems support for technology transfer by government, research institutes and universities, have been international and regionally-focused organisation, such as the [[World Intellectual Property Organization|World Intellectual Property Organisation]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=IP for Innovators|url=https://www.wipo.int/about-wipo/en/activities_by_unit/index.jsp?id=22|url-status=live|access-date=31 Dec 2021|website=wipo.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Supporting Technology and Knowledge Transfer|url=https://www.wipo.int/patents/en/technology/index.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref> and the [[European Union]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Technology Transfer|url=https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/technology-transfer_en|access-date=2021-12-31|website=knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources {{!}} Knowledge for policy|url=https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/resources_en?f%5B0%5D=knowledge_service:Technology%20Transfer|access-date=2021-12-31|website=knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu}}</ref>

=== Partnership intermediaries ===
The U.S. government's annual budget funds over $100 billion in research and development activity, which leads to a continuous pipeline of new inventions and technologies from within government laboratories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sargent|first=John F., Jr.|date=January 25, 2018|title=Federal Research and Development Funding: FY2018|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44888.pdf|journal=Congressional Research Service}}</ref> Through legislation including the [[Bayh–Dole Act|Bayh-Dole Act]], Congress encourages the private sector to use those technologies with commercial potential through technology transfer mechanisms such as Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, Patent License Agreements, Educational Partnership Agreements, and state/local government partnerships.

The term “partnership intermediary” means an agency of a state or local government—or a nonprofit entity owned, chartered, funded, or operated by or on behalf of a state or local government—that assists, counsels, advises, evaluates, or otherwise cooperates with small business firms; institutions of higher education defined in section 201(a) of the [[Higher Education Act of 1965]] (20 USC § 1141 [a]); or educational institutions within the meaning of section 2194 of Title 10, United States Code, that need or can make demonstrably productive use of technology-related assistance from a federal laboratory, including state programs receiving funds under cooperative agreements entered into under section 5121 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (15 USC § 2781).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/3715|title=15 U.S. Code § 3715 - Use of partnership intermediaries|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-05-29}}</ref>

== Technology transfer facilitation during COVID-19 pandemic ==
Technology transfer had a direct impact on contributing to global public health issues, by enabling global access to COVID-19 vaccines.<ref>{{Cite book|date=August 2021|title=Promoting Access to Medical Technologies and Innovation: Intersections between public health, intellectual property and trade|url=https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/policy/en/global_health/pdf/wipo_pub_628_2020_covid19_insert.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=31 December 2021|website=wipo.int|isbn=978-92-805-3319-4}}</ref> During 2021, vaccine developers concluded over 200 technology transfer agreements. One example was [[AstraZeneca]] concluding the licensing and technology transfer agreements on [[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine|AstraZeneca]] with the [[Serum Institute of India]] and with [[Daiichi Sankyo]] of [[Japan]] to supply [[COVID-19 vaccine|vaccines for COVID-19]], which were developed in collaboration with the [[University of Oxford]]. In this process Intellectual Property was part of the solution and an important tool for facilitation of affordable global access to COVID 19 treatments – as it was the case in two licensing agreements between [[Medicines Patent Pool]] (MPP) and pharmaceutical companies [[Merck Group|Merck]] and [[Pfizer]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Access to COVID-19 treatments and the Medicines Patent Pool: Here's Why it Matters and How IP Makes it Possible|url=https://www.wipo.int/research/en/news/2021/news_0023.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref>

== Drawbacks ==
Despite incentives to move research into production, the practical aspects are sometimes difficult to perform in practice. Using DoD [[technology readiness levels]] as a criterion (for example), research tends to focus on TRL (technology readiness level) 1–3 while readiness for production tends to focus on TRL 6–7 or higher. Bridging TRL-3 to TRL-6 has proven to be difficult in some organizations. Attempting to rush research (prototypes) into production (fully tested under diverse conditions, reliable, maintainable, etc.) tends to be more costly and time-consuming than expected.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d08467sp.pdf|title= Assessments of Selected Weapon Programs}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Angel investor]]
* [[Bayh-Dole Act]]
* [[Business incubator]]
* [[Commercialization]]
* [[Diffusion of innovations]]
* [[Discovery (observation)]]
* [[Innovation]]
* [[Intellectual property]]
* [[Invention]]
* [[Licensing Executives Society International]]
* [[National Technology Transfer Network]]
* [[New product development]]
* [[Open innovation]]
* [[Patent]]
* [[Prior art]]
* [[Seed money]]
* [[Startup company]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Technology licensing office]] (TLO)
* [[Technological revolution]]
* [[Value chain]]
* [[Venture capital]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{curlie|Business/Opportunities/Inventions/Products_and_Services/Technology_Transfer_Offices|Technology transfer offices}}
*[http://documentacion.ideam.gov.co/openbiblio/bvirtual/005133/ipcc/tectran/IPCC_SRTT.pdf Special Report：Methodological and Technological issues in Technology Transfer] ([[IPCC]])
* ''[https://www.springer.com/business+%26+management/journal/10961 The Journal of Technology Transfer]''
* [http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=5271 Technology Transfer Systems in the United States and Germany: Lessons and Perspectives (1997)]
* {{cite journal
| last1 = Beatty
| first1 = Edward
| title = Approaches to Technology Transfer in History and the Case of Nineteenth-Century Mexico
| journal = Comparative Technology Transfer and Society
| date = 2003
| volume = 1
| issue = 2
| pages = 167–197
| doi = 10.1353/ctt.2003.0013
}}
*[https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/universities_research/ip_policies/ The WIPO IP Toolkit for Universities and research institutions]
*[https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/universities_research/ip_policies/ The IP Policy Database]
*[https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/resources_en?f%5B0%5D=knowledge_service%3ATechnology%20Transfer European Union Database of Technology Transfer Country reports]

{{Science and technology studies}}

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Technology transfer| ]]
[[Category:Intellectual property law]]
[[Category:Knowledge transfer]]

Technology transfer - Revision history

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