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{{Short description|Geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
[[File:South India in Sangam Period.jpg|thumb|300px|Tamilakam in the [[Sangam Period]].]]
[[File:Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE 2.png|thumb|300px|Tamilakam comprised that part of India south of the [[Maurya Empire]] {{Circa|250 BCE}}.]]
'''Tamilakam''' ({{lang-ta|தமிழகம்|Tamiḻakam}}) is the geographical region inhabited by the ancient [[Tamil people]], covering the southernmost region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Tamilakam covered today's [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[Lakshadweep]] and southern parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref name="Iyengar" /> Traditional accounts and the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'' referred to these territories as a single cultural area, where [[Tamil language|Tamil]] was the natural language{{refn|group=note|Thapar mentions the existence of a common language of the Dravidian group: "Ashoka in his inscription refers to the peoples of South India as the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras - the crucible of the culture of Tamilakam - called thus from the predominant language of the Dravidian group at the time, Tamil".{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=229}}}} and permeated the culture of all its inhabitants.{{refn|group=note|See, for example, Kanakasabhai.{{sfn|Kanakasabhai|1904|p=10}}}} The ancient Tamil country was divided into kingdoms. The best known among them were the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyans]] and [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]]. During the [[Sangam period]], Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} Ancient Tamil settlements were also established in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[Sri Lankan Tamils]]) and the [[Maldives]] ([[Giraavaru people|Giravarus]]).

During the Prehistorical, Classical, Middle and Early Modern ages, the entire region of Tamilakam remained unconquered by the Northern [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] dynasties, ranging from the [[Maurya Empire]] to the [[Mughal Empire]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}

In contemporary India, Tamil politicians and orators often use the name ''Tamilakam'' to refer to Tamil Nadu alone.

==Etymology==
[[File:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg|thumb|Part of Tamilakam from [[Tabula Peutingeriana]]|244x244px]]
{{Tamils}}
{{Dravidian}}
{{TNhistory}}
{{Keralahistory}}
{{Sri Lankan Tamil history}}

"Tamiḻakam" is a portmanteau of a word and suffix from the [[Tamil language]], namely ''Tamiḻ'' and -[[akam (poetry)|akam]]. It can be roughly translated as the "home of [[Tamil language|Tamil]]". According to [[Kamil Zvelebil]], the term seems to be the most ancient term used to designate Tamil territory in the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn |Zvelebil |1992 |p=xi}}

The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', as well as [[Ptolemy]]'s writings, mention the term "[[Limyrike]]" which corresponds to the [[Malabar Coast]] of south-western India. The Roman map ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'' includes a place named "Damirica" (or "Damirice") and because this sounds like "Tamil," some modern scholars have equated it with Limyrike, considering both to be synonyms of "Tamilakam". However, the "Damirice" mentioned in the ''Tabula Peutingeriana'' actually refers to an area between the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Ganges]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Lionel Casson |title=The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC&pg=PA213 |year=2012 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4320-6 |pages=213–214}}</ref>

== Extent ==

The term "Tamilakam" appears to be the most ancient term used for designating the Tamil territory. The earliest sources to mention it include ''[[Purananuru]]'' 168.18 and ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu]] [[Patikam]]'' 2.5.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=xi}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Peter Schalk |author2=A. Veluppillai |author3=Irāmaccantiran̲ Nākacāmi |title=Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial Tamilakam and Īlam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2QEAAAAYAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |isbn=978-91-554-5357-2 |page=56}}</ref> The Specific Preface (''cirappuppayiram'') of the more ancient text ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'' mentions the terms ''tamil-kuru nal-lulakam'' ("the beautiful world [where] Tamil is spoken") and ''centamil ... nilam'' ("the territory ... of refined Tamil"). However, this preface, which is of uncertain date, is definitely a later addition to the original ''Tolkāppiyam''.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=x}} According to the ''Tolkāppiyam'' preface, "the virtuous land in which Tamil is spoken as the mother tongue lies between the northern [[Venkata (hill)|Venkata hill]] and the southern [[Kanyakumari|Kumari]]."<ref name="Shu_1989">{{cite book |author=Shu Hikosaka |title=Buddhism in Tamilnadu: A New Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XmQEAAAAYAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |page=3 }}</ref>

The ''[[Silappadikaram]]'' ({{Circa|2nd century CE}}) defines the Tamilakam as follows:<ref>{{cite book |author=Kanakalatha Mukund |title=The World of the Tamil Merchant: Pioneers of International Trade |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bha2eLqMPWcC&pg=PT27 |year=2015 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-81-8475-612-8 |page=27 }}</ref>

{{cquote|The Tamil region extends from the hills of Vishnu [Tirupati] in the north to the oceans at the cape in the south. In this region of cool waters were the four great cities of: [[Madurai]] with its towers; [[Uraiyur]] which was famous; tumultuous [[Kanchi]]; and [[Puhar, Nagapattinam|Puhar]] with the roaring waters [of the Kaveri and the ocean].}}

While these ancient texts do not clearly define the eastern and western boundaries of the Tamilakam, scholars assume that these boundaries were the seas, which may explain their omission from the ancient definition.<ref>{{cite book |author=P. C. Alexander |title=Buddhism in Kerala |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2175 |year=1949 |publisher=Annamalai University |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2175/page/n98 2] }}</ref> The ancient Tamilakam thus included the present-day [[Kerala]].<ref name="Shu_1989"/> However, it excluded the present-day Tamil-inhabited territory in the [[North Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|North-East]] of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite book |author=K. P. K. Pillay |title=South India and Ceylon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukHRAAAAMAAJ |year=1963 |publisher=University of Madras |page=40 }}</ref>

== Subdivisions ==

===Kingdoms===
{{Main|History of Tamil Nadu}}{{Further|Three Crowned Kings}}
From around 600 BCE to 300 CE,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-traceable-to-6th-century-bce-report/article29461583.ece|title=Keezhadi excavations: Sangam era older than previously thought, finds study|last=Jesudasan|first=Dennis S.|date=20 September 2019|work=The Hindu|access-date=29 October 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Tamiḻakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties: the [[Chola dynasty]], the [[Pandyan dynasty]] and the [[Chera dynasty]]. There were also a few independent chieftains, the [[Velirs]] ([[Satyaputra]]). The earliest datable references to the Tamil kingdoms are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE during the time of the Maurya Empire.

The Chola dynasty ruled from before the Sangam period (~3rd century BCE) until the 13th century in central Tamil Nadu. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the [[Kaveri]]. The Pandyan dynasty ruled parts of South India until the late 17th century. The heartland of the Pandyas was the fertile valley of the [[Vaigai River]]. They initially ruled their country from [[Korkai]], a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to [[Madurai]]. The Chera dynasty ruled from before the Sangam period (~3rd century) until the 12th century over an area corresponding to modern-day western [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]].

The Vealirs (''Vēḷir'') were minor dynastic kings and aristocratic chieftains in Tamiḻakam in the early historic period of [[South India]].<ref name="Meluhha and Agastya">{{cite web |url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/meluhha_and_agastya_2009.pdf |title=Meluhha and Agastya : Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script |first=Iravatham |last=Mahadevan |year=2009 |location=Chennai, India |page=16 |quote=The Ventar - Velir - Vellalar groups constituted the ruling and land-owning classes in the Tamil country since the beginning of recorded history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607212814/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/meluhha_and_agastya_2009.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Fairservis">{{cite book| last = Fairservis| first = Walter Ashlin| title = The Harappan civilization and its writing. A model for the decipherment of the Indus Script| orig-year = 1921| year = 1992| publisher = Oxford & IBH| isbn = 978-81-204-0491-5| pages = 52–53 }}</ref>

===Nations of Tamilakam===
Tamiḻakam was divided into political regions called ''Perunadu'' or "Great country" ("nadu" means country).<ref name="Iyengar">{{Cite book|title = History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to 600 A.D.|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC&q=aruva+nadu&pg=PA151|publisher = Asian Educational Services|date = 1 January 1929|isbn = 9788120601451|first = P. T. Srinivasa|last = Iyengar}}</ref>

There were three important political regions which were [[Chera Dynasty|Chera Nadu]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ponnumuthan|first=Sylvister|title=The Spirituality of Basic Ecclesial Communities in the Socio-Religious Context of Trivandrum/Kerala, India|year=1996|publisher=Gregorian&Biblical BookShop}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=S. Soundararajan|title=Ancient Tamil country: its social and economic structure|year=1991|publisher=Navrang|pages=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=K. Lakshminarasimhan |author2=Muthuswamy Hariharan |author3=Sharada Gopalam |title=Madhura kala: silver jubilee commemoration volume|year=1991|publisher=CBH Publications|pages=141}}</ref> [[Chola Nadu]] and [[Pandya Nadu]].<ref name="Iyengar"/> Alongside these three, there were two more political regions of Athiyaman Nadu (Sathyaputha) and Thamirabharani Nadu (Then Paandi) which were later on absorbed into Chera and Pandya Nadu by 3rd century BCE. [[Tondaimandalam|Tondai Nadu]] which was under Chola Nadu, later emerged as independent Pallava Nadu by 6th century CE.

Tamilakam was also divided into 13 socio-geographical regions called ''Nadu'' or "country", each of which had their own dialect of Tamil.{{sfn|Kanakasabhai|1904}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Thenpandi Nadu]]
*[[Panri Nadu]]
*[[Kuda Nadu]]
*[[Punal Nadu]]
*[[Mushika Kingdom|Puzhi Nadu]]
*[[Venad (historical region)|Venad]]u
*[[Tondai Nadu|Aruva Nadu]]
*[[Kakkanadu]]<ref>History of the Tamils from the Earliest Times to 600 A.D., P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Asian Educational Services 1929, p.151</ref>
*[[Kuttanadu]]
*[[Aruva Vadathalai Nadu]]
*[[Sida Nadu]]
*[[Mysore|Erumai Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Malabar region|Malai Nadu]]<ref>Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture, K.V. Raman Abhinav Publications, 1 June 2003, p.17</ref>
*[[Tulu Nadu]]<ref>A handbook of Kerala Band 1 (2000), T. Madhava Menon, International School of Dravidian Linguistics, p.98</ref>
{{div col end}}

===Nations outside Tamilakam===

Some other ''Nadus'' are also mentioned in Tamil literature which were not part of Tamilakam, but the countries traded with them in ancient times.

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}Tamil speaking lands:
*[[Eelam|Eela Nadu]] (Eelam)<ref>Census of India, 1961: India, India. Office of the Registrar General
Manager of Publications.</ref>
*[[Naga people (Lanka)|Naga Nadu]] or [[Jaffna Peninsula|Yazh Kuthanadu]] (Jaffna Peninsula)<ref name="The Sri Lanka Reader p.85">The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics, By John Holt, Duke University Press, 13 April 2011 see (Tamil Nadus in Rajarata p.85.)</ref>
*[[Vannimai|Vanni Nadu]] (Vanni region)<ref name="The Sri Lanka Reader p.85"/>

Other:
*[[Vengi|Vengi Nadu]]<ref>Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India, By Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Asian Educational Services 1911, p.121.</ref>
*Chavaka Nadu (Java)<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|title = International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics: IJDL.|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BHtkAAAAMAAJ|publisher = Department of Linguistics, University of Kerala|date = 1 January 2001}}</ref>
*[[Kedah|Kadara Nadu]] (Kedah)<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Tambapanni|Singhala Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Bellary|Vadugu Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Karnataka|Kannada Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/> (Land of [[Kannada people]])
*[[Telugu people|Telunka Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/> (Land of [[Telugu people]])
*[[Kolhapur|Kolla Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Bangladesh|Vanka Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Magadha|Magadha Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*Kucala Nadu<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Konkan|Konkana Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Cambodia|Kampocha Nadu]] (Cambodia)<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Maldives|Palantivu Nadu]] (Maldives)<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Kutch|Kupaka Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Maharashtra|Marattha Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Rayalaseema|Vatuka Nadu]]<ref name="books.google.com"/>
*[[Andaman and Nicobar Islands|Tinmaitivu]] (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)<ref name="goi1908">{{Cite journal | title=The Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Local Gazetteer |author=Government of India | publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta | year=1908 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrwBAAAAYAAJ | quote=''... In the great Tanjore inscription of 1050 AD, the Andamans are mentioned under a translated name along with the Nicobars, as ''Nakkavaram'' or land of the naked people.}}</ref>{{div col end}}

== Geocultural unity==
[[File:Kerala and Tamil Nadu - combined district map.svg|thumbnail|A major part of ancient Tamilakam lies in the modern Indian states of [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
Although the area covered by the term "Tamilakam" was divided among multiple kingdoms, its occurrence in the ancient literature implies that the region's inhabitants shared a cultural or ethnic identity, or at least regarded themselves as distinct from their neighbours.{{sfn|Abraham|2003|p=211}} The ancient Tamil inscriptions, ranging from 5th century BCE to 3rd century CE, are also considered as linguistic evidence for distinguishing Tamilakam from the rest of South India.{{sfn|Abraham|2003|pp=211-212}} The ancient non-Tamil inscriptions, such as those of the northern kings [[Ashoka]] and [[Kharavela]], also allude to the distinct identity of the region. For example, Ashoka's inscriptions refer to the independent states lying beyond the southern boundary of his kingdom, and Kharavdela's [[Hathigumpha inscription]] refers to the destruction of a "confederacy of Tamil powers".{{sfn|Abraham|2003|p=212}}

==Interaction with Sri Lanka==
{{see also|Sri Lankan Tamils}}

With the advent of the early historical period in South India{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} and the ascent of the three Tamil kingdoms in South India in the 6th century BCE,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamiḻakam. Prior to 3rd century BCE, Tamil settlers arrived in Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Wenzlhuemer|2008|p=19-20}} The [[Annaicoddai seal]], dated to the 3rd century BCE, contains a bilingual inscription in [[Tamil-Brahmi]].{{refn|group=note|An archaeological team led by K.Indrapala of the University of Jaffna excavated a megalithic burial complex at Anaikoddai in Jaffna District, Sri Lanka. In one of the burials, a metal seal was found assigned by the excavators to c. the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}}}}{{Sfn|de Silva|2005|p=129}}{{Sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=91}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Subramanian|first=T. S.|title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way:Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne|journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=27 January 2006|volume=23|issue=1|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20060127003610200.htm&date=fl2301/&prd=fline&|access-date=9 July 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}} Excavations in the area of [[Tissamaharama]] in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins produced between the second century BCE and the second century CE, some of which carry Tamil personal names written in early Tamil letters,<ref>Mahadevan, I. "Ancient Tamil coins from Sri Lanka", pp. 152–154</ref> which suggest that Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.<ref>Bopearachchi, O. "Ancient Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu", pp. 546–549</ref> Around 237 BCE, "two adventurers from southern India"{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} established the first Tamil domains in Sri Lanka. In 145 BCE Elara, a Chola general{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} or prince known as [[Ellalan (monarch)|Ellāḷaṉ]]<ref name="mahavamsa">{{cite web|url=http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/21-five-kings/|title=The Five Kings - Mahasiva, Suratissa, Elara, Asela, Sena, and Guttika|date=8 October 2011 |publisher=mahavamsa.org|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=March 2018}} took over the throne at [[Anuradhapura]] and ruled for forty-four years.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} [[Dutugamunu]], a [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]], started a war against him, defeated him, and took over the throne.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}}{{sfn|Deegalle|2006|p=30}} Tamil Kings have been dated in Sri Lanka to at least the 3rd century BCE.{{Sfn|Indrapala|2007|p=324}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|title=An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/24/stories/2010062451701100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701211040/http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/24/stories/2010062451701100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2010|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=24 June 2010|author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan}}</ref>

==Religion==
{{main|Religion in ancient Tamil country}}
{{see also|Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}}
[[Hinduism]] ([[Vaishnavism]], [[Kaumaram]], [[Shaktism]], [[Shaivism]],{{sfn|Aiyangar|2019|p=16}}), [[Dravidian folk religion]], [[Jain]]s and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] have coexisted in Tamil country since at least the second century BCE.{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=187}}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of ancient Tamil country}}

==Agriculture==
{{main|Agriculture in ancient Tamil country}}

==Industry==
{{main|Industry in ancient Tamil country}}

==See also==
*[[Sources of ancient Tamil history]]
*[[Chronology of Tamil history]]
*[[History of Tamil Nadu]]
*[[History of Kerala]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|2}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==

===Printed sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Shinu |year =2003 | title=Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India | journal =Asian Perspectives | volume =42 |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=GfpTLJYcL1XJGP4Vv1mSvT1hvmCvCxGMhrrDBZ23l2vmKVN1JkYG!-2096127210?docId=5002047766 |issue=2 |pages=207–223 | doi=10.1353/asi.2003.0031|hdl=10125/17189 |s2cid=153420843 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{citation |editor=John E. Cort |editor-link=John E. Cort |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3785-X }}
* {{Cite book |last =Aiyangar | first =Muttusvami Srinivasa | year =1986 |title=Tamil studies: essays on the history of the Tamil people, language, religion, and literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vMMKAQAAIAAJ|access-date=24 April 2012|publisher=Asian Educational Services | isbn =9788120600294 }}
* {{Cite book |last =Aiyaṅgār | first =Sākkoṭṭai Krishṇaswāmi | year =1994 |title=Evolution of Hindu Administrative Institutions in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6jRR9yu-u4kC&pg=PA10|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0966-2 }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Deegalle | first =Mahinda | year =2006 | title =Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka | publisher =Routledge }}
* {{Cite journal |last =Hanumanthan | first =Krishnaswamy Ranaganathan | year =1979 | title =Untouchability: a historical study upto 1500 A.D. : with special reference to Tamil Nadu|publisher=Koodal Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvQtAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Holt | first =John | year =2011 | title =The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics | publisher =Duke University Press }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Indrapala | first =K. | year =1969 | title =Early Tamil settlements in Ceylon | journal =Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1969, XIII:54 }}
* {{Cite book | last =Kanakasabhai | first =V |year=1904 | title =The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago | publisher =Asian Educational Services | isbn =8120601505 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=VuvshP5_hg8C&q=Tamilakam&pg=PA1 }}
* {{Cite book | last =Krishnan | first =Shankara | year =1999 | title =Postcolonial Insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the Question of Nationhood | publisher =University of Minnesota Press|isbn =0-8166-3330-4|page=172 }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Mahadevan | first =Iravatham | year =2002 | title =Aryan or Dravidian or Neither? – A Study of Recent Attempts to Decipher the Indus Script (1995–2000) | journal =Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies | volume =8 | issue =1 | url =http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0801/ejvs0801.txt | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070723121117/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0801/ejvs0801.txt | archive-date =23 July 2007 | df =dmy-all }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Manogaran | first =Chelvadurai | year =1987 | title =Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka | publisher =University of Hawaii Press }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Rajayyan | first =K. | year =2005 |title =Tamil Nadu, a real history | publisher =Ratna Publications }}
* {{Cite book |last =Ramaswamy | first =Sumathi | year =1997 |title=Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20805-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Npvv-ALoQFcC&pg=PA89 }}
* {{Cite book |last =Ramaswamy | first =Vijaya | year =2007 | title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5379-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Reddy | first =L.R. | year =2003 | title =Sri Lanka: Past and Present | publisher =APH Publishing }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Singh | first =Upinder | year =2009 | title =A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century | publisher =Pearson Education India }}
* {{Cite book | last =Smith | first =Vincent A. |year =1999 | title=The Early History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&pg=PA438|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-618-1 }}
* {{Cite book | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =2004 | title =Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 | publisher =University of California Press | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&q=Tamilakam | isbn =9780520242258 }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Wenzlhuemer | first =Roalnd | year =2008 | title =From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880-1900: An Economic and Social History | publisher =BRILL }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Zvelebil | first = Kamil | year =1973 | title =The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India | place =Leiden | publisher =Brill }}
* {{Cite journal | last =Zvelebil | first =Kamil | year =1992 | title =Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature | publisher =BRILL }}
{{refend}}

{{Portal bar|Tamils|India}}

[[Category:Tamilakam| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:Regions of Asia]]
[[Category:Regions of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]

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	[[Category:Ancient Indian geography]]		[[Category:Ancient Indian geography]]

Tamilakam - Revision history

Tox Digital: expand structure based on references and updated info

Aoufa: updated page

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article