Special Frontier Force - Revision history

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← Older revision		Revision as of 14:48, 28 August 2023
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	{{Short description\|Special covert unit of Indian armed forces}}		{{Short description\|Special covert unit of Indian armed forces}}
	{{Use Indian English\|date=~~June 2018~~}}		{{Use Indian English\|date=August 2023}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=~~September 2013}}~~		{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2023}}
	~~{{distinguish\|Frontier Force Regiment~~}}
	{{Infobox military unit		{{Infobox military unit
	\| unit_name = Special Frontier Force		\| unit_name = Special Frontier Force
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	\| dates =		\| dates =
	\| country = {{flag\|India}}		\| country = {{flag\|India}}
	\| type = [[Special forces of India\|Special ~~forces]]~~		\| type = [[Special forces of India\|Special Forces]] <br />
	~~\| role = * [[Clandestine operation~~]] <br />		[[Airborne forces\|Airborne Infantry]]
	* [[~~Covert operation]]~~
	* [[Counterterrorism]]
	* [[Direct action (military)\|~~Direct action]]~~
	* [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)\|Human intelligence]]
	* [[Unconventional warfare]]
	* [[Special operations]]
	* [[Special reconnaissance]]
	\| size = Classified (5,000–12,000 troopers speculated)<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas"/>		\| size = Classified (5,000–12,000 troopers speculated)<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas"/>
	\| command_structure = [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)\|Cabinet Secretariat]]<ref name=":0" />		\| command_structure = [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)\|Cabinet Secretariat]]<ref name=":0" />
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	}}		}}

	The '''Special Frontier Force''' ('''SFF''') is an [[Special forces of India\|Indian special operations]] unit created on 14 November 1962. It mainly comprised [[Refugees in India#Tibet\|Tibetan refugees]] living in India. Now it has increased in size and scope of operations. Its primary goal originally was to conduct covert operations behind Chinese lines in the event of another [[Sino-Indian War]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news\|author-last=Shukla \|author-first=Ajai \|author-link=Ajai Shukla \|date=2 September 2020 \|title=Ladakh intrusions: Special Frontier Force takes first casualties \|work=Business Standard India \|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/defence/ladakh-intrusions-special-frontier-force-takes-first-casualties-120090200030_1.html \|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> Throughout its history, SFF has fought in India's major external wars including the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] and the [[Kargil War]]. It has also been involved in internal security, including [[Operation Blue Star]] and also serving as the "Personal Force" of Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] to suppress opposition parties during the [[The Emergency (India)\|state of emergency]] from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="indira">{{cite news\|author-last1=Bobb \|author-first1=Dilip \|date=15 December 1980 \|title=Special Frontier Force: More of a white elephant than an effective intelligence outfit? \|work=India Today \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19801215-special-frontier-force-more-of-a-white-elephant-than-an-effective-intelligence-outfit-773611-2013-12-02 \|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> It has been part of border operations against China, including the [[2020–2021 China–India skirmishes]].<ref name=":2" />		The '''Special Frontier Force''' ('''SFF''') is an [[Special forces of India\|Indian special operations]] unit created on 14 November 1962. It mainly comprised [[Refugees in India#Tibet\|Tibetan refugees]] living in India. Now it has increased in size and scope of operations. Its primary goal originally was to conduct covert operations behind Chinese lines in the event of another [[Sino-Indian War]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news\|author-last=Shukla \|author-first=Ajai \|author-link=Ajai Shukla \|date=2 September 2020 \|title=Ladakh intrusions: Special Frontier Force takes first casualties \|work=Business Standard India \|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/defence/ladakh-intrusions-special-frontier-force-takes-first-casualties-120090200030_1.html \|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref>

	Based in [[Chakrata]],<ref>{{cite web\|date=17 December 1971 \|title=Establishment 22 \|url=http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706173443/http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm \|archive-date=~~17 January 2016~~ \|access-date=28 September 2012 \|publisher=chushigangdruk.org \|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Uttarakhand, the force was put under the direct supervision of the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)\|Intelligence Bureau]] (IB), and later the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW), India's external [[intelligence agency]],<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 \|title=Bollywood Sargam – Special: Tibetan faujis in Bluestar \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502133625/http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 \|archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> and is not part of the [[Indian Army]] but functions under their operational control with its own rank structure, charter and training infrastructure.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web \|~~last~~=Chhina \|~~first~~=Man Aman Singh \|last2=Kaushik \|first2=Krishn \|date=2020-09-01 \|title=Special Frontier Force: Why is a covert group now under the spotlight? \|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/ \|access-date=2022-11-14 \|website=The Indian Express \|language=en}}</ref> It falls under the authority of the Directorate General on Security in the [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)\|Cabinet Secretariat]] headed by an Inspector General (SFF) who is selected from the Major General rank of the Indian Army and who reports directly to the [[Prime Minister's Office (India)\|Prime Minister's Office]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web\|author-last1=Chhina \|author-first1=Man Aman Singh \|author-last2=Kaushik \|author-first2=Krishn \|date=2 September 2020 \|title=Explained: What is the Special Frontier Force, referred to as Vikas Battalion? \|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/ \|access-date=2 September 2020 \|website=The Indian Express \|language=en}}</ref>		Throughout its history, SFF has fought in India's major external wars including the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] and the [[Kargil War]]. It has also been involved in internal security, including [[Operation Blue Star]] and also serving as the "Personal Force" of Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] to suppress opposition parties during the [[The Emergency (India)\|state of emergency]] from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="indira">{{cite news\|author-last1=Bobb \|author-first1=Dilip \|date=15 December 1980 \|title=Special Frontier Force: More of a white elephant than an effective intelligence outfit? \|work=India Today \|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19801215-special-frontier-force-more-of-a-white-elephant-than-an-effective-intelligence-outfit-773611-2013-12-02 \|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> It has been part of border operations against China, including the [[2020–2021 China–India skirmishes]].<ref name=":2" />

			Based in [[Chakrata]],<ref>{{cite web\|date=17 December 1971 \|title=Establishment 22 \|url=http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706173443/http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm \|archive-date=6 July 2015 \|access-date=28 September 2012 \|publisher=chushigangdruk.org \|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Uttarakhand, the force was put under the direct supervision of the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)\|Intelligence Bureau]] (IB), and later the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW), India's external [[intelligence agency]],<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 \|title=Bollywood Sargam – Special: Tibetan faujis in Bluestar \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502133625/http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 \|archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> and is not part of the [[Indian Army]] but functions under their operational control with its own rank structure, charter and training infrastructure.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web \|last1=Chhina \|first1=Man Aman Singh \|last2=Kaushik \|first2=Krishn \|date=2020-09-01 \|title=Special Frontier Force: Why is a covert group now under the spotlight? \|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/ \|access-date=2022-11-14 \|website=The Indian Express \|language=en}}</ref> It falls under the authority of the Directorate General on Security in the [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)\|Cabinet Secretariat]] headed by an Inspector General (SFF) who is selected from the Major General rank of the Indian Army and who reports directly to the [[Prime Minister's Office (India)\|Prime Minister's Office]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web\|author-last1=Chhina \|author-first1=Man Aman Singh \|author-last2=Kaushik \|author-first2=Krishn \|date=2 September 2020 \|title=Explained: What is the Special Frontier Force, referred to as Vikas Battalion? \|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/ \|access-date=2 September 2020 \|website=The Indian Express \|language=en}}</ref>

	==History==		==History==
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	With war imminent, SFF successfully executed several mission plans that included the destruction of the [[Kaptai Dam]] and other bridges of strategic value. The Inspector General also urged that the SFF be used to capture the second largest city, [[Chittagong]], but the idea found no support among military planners in [[New Delhi]] since the unit lacked artillery support and airlift capabilities to conduct a mission of such magnitude. After three weeks of border fighting, the SFF divided its six battalions into three columns and moved into East Pakistan on 3 December 1971. The Tibetans were given [[Mortar (weapon)\|mortars]] and [[recoilless rifle]]s and two [[Mil Mi-4]] helicopters of the [[Indian Air Force]], and captured several villages in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The air-operations were handled by [[Aviation Research Centre]] (ARC) at [[Balasore]].		With war imminent, SFF successfully executed several mission plans that included the destruction of the [[Kaptai Dam]] and other bridges of strategic value. The Inspector General also urged that the SFF be used to capture the second largest city, [[Chittagong]], but the idea found no support among military planners in [[New Delhi]] since the unit lacked artillery support and airlift capabilities to conduct a mission of such magnitude. After three weeks of border fighting, the SFF divided its six battalions into three columns and moved into East Pakistan on 3 December 1971. The Tibetans were given [[Mortar (weapon)\|mortars]] and [[recoilless rifle]]s and two [[Mil Mi-4]] helicopters of the [[Indian Air Force]], and captured several villages in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The air-operations were handled by [[Aviation Research Centre]] (ARC) at [[Balasore]].

	On the night of 14 November 1971 in the forests of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Brigadier [[Dhondup Gyatotsang]] during Operation Mountain Eagle was killed in a firefight with [[Special Service Group]] of the [[Pakistan Army]]. With the [[fall of Dhaka]] and Lieutenant General [[A. A. K. Niazi\|A.A.K. Niazi]] surrendering on 16 December 1971,<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Josy \|first=Joseph \|date=6 November 2011 \|title=US forces had orders to target Indian Army in 1971 \|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-forces-had-orders-to-target-indian-army-in-1971/articleshow/10625404.cms \|access-date=2022-10-30 \|website=The Times of India \|language=en}}</ref> SFF had lost 49 men<ref>{{cite web \|last=Arpi \|first=Claude \|date=26 December 2006 \|title=1971 War: How the US tried to corner India \|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm \|access-date=4 September 2020 \|website=Rediff}}</ref> and nearly 190 were wounded.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Samad \|first=Saleem \|date=2019-12-27 \|title=Remembering the 'Phantoms of Chittagong' \|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/2019/12/27/remembering-the-phantoms-of-chittagong \|access-date=2020-09-04 \|website=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref> The SFF later joined with Seaborne Expedition Task Force consisting of [[Regiment of Artillery (India)\|2nd Artillery Brigade]], [[3rd Gorkha Rifles\|1st Battalion 3rd Gorkha Rifles]], [[Bihar Regiment\|11 Battalion Bihar Regiment]] that was able to block potential escape route for East Pakistani forces into [[Burma]]. They also halted members of Pakistan's 97th Independent Brigade and 2nd Commando Battalion at the Chittagong Hill Tracts. For their bravery and courage, 580 SFF Task Force members were awarded cash prizes by the [[Union Government of India]]. Their swift covert capabilities won the force the nickname ''Phantoms of Chittagong''.<ref>{{Cite book\|author-last=Uban \|author-first=Sujan Singh \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/15054054 \|title=Phantoms of Chittagong: the "Fifth Army" in Bangladesh \|date=1985 \|publisher=Allied Publishers \|isbn=81-7023-042-X \|oclc=15054054}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|author=John Pike \|title=Bihar Regiment \|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/rgt-bihar.htm \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420015632/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/rgt-bihar.htm \|archive-date=20 April 2015 \|access-date=26 November 2014 \|website=globalsecurity.org}}</ref>		On the night of 14 November 1971 in the forests of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Brigadier [[Dhondup Gyatotsang]] during Operation Mountain Eagle was killed in a firefight with [[Special Service Group]] of the [[Pakistan Army]]. With the [[fall of Dhaka]] and Lieutenant General [[A. A. K. Niazi\|A.A.K. Niazi]] surrendering on 16 December 1971,<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Josy \|first=Joseph \|date=6 November 2011 \|title=US forces had orders to target Indian Army in 1971 \|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/us-forces-had-orders-to-target-indian-army-in-1971/articleshow/10625404.cms \|access-date=2022-10-30 \|website=The Times of India \|language=en}}</ref> SFF had lost 49 men<ref>{{cite web \|last=Arpi \|first=Claude \|date=26 December 2006 \|title=1971 War: How the US tried to corner India \|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm \|access-date=4 September 2020 \|website=Rediff}}</ref> and nearly 190 were wounded.<ref>{{cite web \|last=Samad \|first=Saleem \|date=2019-12-27 \|title=Remembering the 'Phantoms of Chittagong' \|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/2019/12/27/remembering-the-phantoms-of-chittagong \|access-date=2020-09-04 \|website=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref> The SFF later joined with Seaborne Expedition Task Force consisting of [[Regiment of Artillery (India)\|2nd Artillery Brigade]], [[3rd Gorkha Rifles\|1st Battalion 3rd Gorkha Rifles]], [[Bihar Regiment\|11 Battalion Bihar Regiment]] that was able to block potential escape route for East Pakistani forces into [[Burma]]. They also halted members of Pakistan's 97th Independent Brigade and 2nd Commando Battalion at the Chittagong Hill Tracts. For their bravery and courage, 580 SFF Task Force members were awarded cash prizes by the [[Union Government of India]]. Their swift covert capabilities won the force the nickname ''Phantoms of Chittagong''.<ref>{{Cite book\|author-last=Uban \|author-first=Sujan Singh \|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/15054054 \|title=Phantoms of Chittagong: the "Fifth Army" in Bangladesh \|date=1985 \|publisher=Allied Publishers \|isbn=81-7023-042-X \|oclc=15054054}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|author=John Pike \|title=Bihar Regiment \|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/rgt-bihar.htm \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420015632/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/rgt-bihar.htm \|archive-date=20 April 2015 \|access-date=26 November 2014 \|website=globalsecurity.org}}</ref>

	==== Kargil War ====		==== Kargil War ====
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	== See also ==		== See also ==

	* [[Research and Analysis Wing]]		* [[Research and Analysis Wing]]
	* [[Intelligence Bureau (India)\|Intelligence Bureau]]		* [[Intelligence Bureau (India)\|Intelligence Bureau]]
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	[[Category:1962 establishments in India]]		[[Category:1962 establishments in India]]
	[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1962]]		[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1962]]
			[[Category:Tibetan refugees]]
			[[Category:Tibetan diaspora in India]]

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{{Short description|Special covert unit of Indian armed forces}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}

{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Special Frontier Force
| image = SFF badge.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Snow Lion [[insignia]] of the Special Frontier Force
| dates =
| country = {{flag|India}}
| type = [[Special forces]]
| role = [[Special reconnaissance]] [[Direct action (military)|Direct action]] [[Hostage rescue]] [[Counter-terrorism]] [[Unconventional warfare]] [[Foreign Internal Defence]] [[Covert Operations]]
| size = Classified (5,000 - 12,000 troopers speculated)<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas"/>
| command_structure = [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)|Cabinet Secretariat]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Chhina|first=Man Aman Singh|last2=Kaushik|first2=Krishn|date=2020-09-02|title=Explained: What is the Special Frontier Force, referred to as Vikas Battalion?|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
| garrison = [[Chakrata]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]]
| garrison_label = Headquarters
| motto =
| colours =
| colours_label = Colour
| battles = [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] [[Operation Blue Star]] [[Operation Cactus]] [[IPKF|Operation Pawan]] [[Kargil War]] [[Terrorism in Kashmir|Operation Rakshak]] [[2020 China–India skirmishes]]
| website =
| commander1 =
| commander1_label =
| notable_commanders = Maj.Gen Sujan Singh Uban
| identification_symbol =
| identification_symbol_label =
| identification_symbol_2 =
| identification_symbol_2_label =
| aircraft_electronic =
| aircraft_helicopter = [[HAL Cheetah]] [[HAL Lancer]]
| aircraft_helicopter_cargo = [[Mil Mi-17|Mi-17V-5]]
| aircraft_helicopter_utility = [[HAL Dhruv]] [[HAL Chetak]]
| aircraft_recon = [[IAI Searcher II]] [[IAI Heron]] [[DRDO Rustom]]
| aircraft_transport = [[Gulfstream III]] IAI Astra 1125
| start_date = 14 November 1962
| nickname = Establishment 22, "Phantoms of Chittagong"
| ceremonial_chief_label =
}}

The '''Special Frontier Force (SFF)''' is an [[Special forces of India|Indian special operations]] unit created on 14 November 1962. It mainly comprised [[Refugees in India#Tibet|Tibetan refugees]] living in India. Now it has increased in size and scope of operations. Its primary goal originally was to conduct covert operations behind Chinese lines in the event of another [[Sino-Indian War]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Shukla|first=Ajai|author-link=Ajai Shukla|date=2020-09-02|title=Ladakh intrusions: Special Frontier Force takes first casualties|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/defence/ladakh-intrusions-special-frontier-force-takes-first-casualties-120090200030_1.html|access-date=2020-09-24}}</ref> Throughout its history, SFF has fought in India's major external wars including the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] and the [[Kargil War]]. It has also been involved in internal security, including [[Operation Blue Star]] and also serving as the "Personal Force" of Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] to suppress opposition parties during the [[The Emergency (India)|state of emergency]] from 1975 to 1977.<ref name="indira">{{cite news|last1=Bobb|first1=Dilip|date=15 December 1980|title=Special Frontier Force: More of a white elephant than an effective intelligence outfit?|work=India Today|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19801215-special-frontier-force-more-of-a-white-elephant-than-an-effective-intelligence-outfit-773611-2013-12-02|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> It has been part of border operations against China, including the [[2020 China–India skirmishes]].<ref name=":2" />

Based in [[Chakrata]],<ref>{{cite web|date=17 December 1971|title=Establishment 22|url=http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706173443/http://www.chushigangdruk.org/history/history11.htm|archive-date=17 January 2016|access-date=28 September 2012|publisher=chushigangdruk.org|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Uttarakhand, the force was put under the direct supervision of the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] (IB), and later the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW), India's external [[intelligence agency]],<ref>[http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 Bollywood Sargam – Special: Tibetan faujis in Bluestar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502133625/http://www.bollywoodsargam.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=2813 |date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> and is not part of the [[Indian Army]] but functions under their operational control with its own rank structure, charter and training infrastructure. It falls under the authority of the Directorate General on Security in the [[Cabinet Secretariat (India)|Cabinet Secretariat]] headed by an Inspector General (SFF) who is selected from the Major General rank of the Indian Army and who reports directly to the [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Chhina|first=Man Aman Singh|last2=Kaushik|first2=Krishn|date=2020-09-02|title=Explained: What is the Special Frontier Force, referred to as Vikas Battalion?|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/|access-date=2020-09-02|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===British India precursor===
[[Tibetans]] have been a part of the modern Indian Army for as long as it has existed. During the time of the [[Great Game]], the British Indian Army began to employ Tibetans as spies, intelligence agents, and even covert militia in [[northern India]] and Tibet proper.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===1950s training with IB and CIA===
At the time of [[Partition of India|Indian independence]], the northern mountain-covered region of India remained the most isolated and strategically overlooked territory of the subcontinent. During the 1950s, the American [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and the Indian [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] established Mustang Base in [[Mustang (kingdom)|Mustang]] in Nepal,<ref>{{cite web|last=Arpi|first=Claude|author-link=Claude Arpi|date=8 January 2003|title=The Phantoms of Chittagong|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/jan/08spec.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030210163934/http://rediff.com/news/2003/jan/08spec.htm|archive-date=10 February 2003|website=Rediff}}</ref> which trained Tibetans in [[guerilla warfare]]. The Mustang rebels brought the [[14th Dalai Lama]] to India during the [[1959 Tibetan Rebellion]].

===Formation===
[[File:Chakrata small.JPG|thumb|Chakrata, Uttarakhand, is where SFF personnel are trained in stealth combat and scouting techniques.]]

The idea of raising a specialized force consisting of [[Tibetan refugees in India|Tibetan refugees]] and [[Tibetan resistance]] fighters in India against the Chinese was first mooted by General [[Kodandera Subayya Thimayya|K S Thimayya]] when he was leading the Indian Army between May 1957 and May 1961.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thimayya|first=K.S.|date=1 January 1963|title=Chinese Aggression and After|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002088176300500105|journal=International Studies|volume=5|issue=1-2|pages=50–53|doi=10.1177/002088176300500105|issn=0020-8817}}</ref> During the [[Sino-Indian War]] and towards the end of 1962, after hectic lobbying by the IB Chief [[Bhola Nath Mullik]] and [[World War II]] veteran [[Biju Patnaik]],<ref name=":3" /> the Jawaharlal Nehru government finally ordered the raising of an elite [[commando]] unit and specialised mountain division.<ref name=":0" />

The primary task of SFF is defence against the [[People's Liberation Army|People's Libration Army]] (PLA) Ground Force as well as conducting [[clandestine operation|clandestine]] [[intelligence]] gathering and commando operations along the Chinese border. [[Chushi Gangdruk]] leaders were contacted for recruitment of [[Kham]]pas into this new unit. The initial strength was 5000 men, mostly Khampas who were recruited at its new Mountain Training Facility at [[Chakrata]], 100 km from the city of [[Dehradun]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Chauhan|first=Bala|date=4 September 2020|title=Establishment-22 draws its strength from Karnataka|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2020/sep/04/establishment-22-draws-its-strength-from-karnataka-2192215.html|access-date=2020-09-04|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The SFF is also known as 'Establishment 22' or just '22' due to its first Inspector General, Maj. Gen. [[Sujan Singh Uban]], who commanded the 22nd Mountain Regiment, Royal Indian Artillery during [[World War II]].<ref name=":3">{{cite web|last=Sanyal|first=Amitava|date=14 November 2009|title=The curious case of establishment 22|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/the-curious-case-of-establishment-22/story-eiDenZvNioffJFupLzNGOI.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091117121047/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/ColumnsOthers/The-curious-case-of-establishment-22/Article1-476533.aspx|archive-date=17 November 2009|access-date=29 May 2013|website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Dubey|first=Ravi|date=2020-09-03|title=DNA Special: How India's Special Frontier Force is nightmare for China|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dna-special-how-india-s-special-frontier-force-is-nightmare-for-china-2840936|access-date=2020-09-04|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref> Uban also went on to command a [[Long Range Desert Group]] Squadron (LRDS) in North Africa during the war.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Uban|first=Gurdip Singh|date=20 September 2020|title=On The Roof Of The World, The Shadow Of The Celestial Snow Lion|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-on-the-roof-of-the-world-the-shadow-of-the-celestial-snow-lion/360585|access-date=2020-09-24|website=Outlook India}}</ref> The SFF made its home base at Chakrata, a mountain town in the foothills of the [[Himalayas]] home to a large Tibetan refugee population. Starting with a force of 5,000 men, the SFF commenced six months of training in rock climbing and [[guerrilla warfare]]. Initial training was conducted by the Intelligence Bureau [[special operations|Special Operations]] Unit. Both the RAW and the CIA helped in raising the force.

During the same period, the Indian government also formed the [[Ladakh Scouts]] and the [[Nubra Guards]] paramilitary forces on similar lines. Many SFF members were also absorbed from the Gurkha Rifles. SFF was later incorporated into the [[Special Services Bureau]]. By late 1963, inter-service rivalry led to severe criticism by the Indian Army. To prove the SFF's worth, the Inspector General sent 120 men from the SFF on a field exercise, codenamed Garuda, with the Army. The exercise proved to be a dramatic success for the SFF and the Army was now less inclined to criticise the force.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shulkla|first=Ajai|date=9 September 2020|title=Special Frontier Force: India's secret weapon against PLA|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/special/special-frontier-force-indias-weapon-against-pla/20200909.htm|access-date=2020-09-24|website=Rediff|language=en}}</ref> However the force faced other problems such as mass desertions by Tibetans. The Tibetan recruits found that smuggling was a much easier way of making money than risking their lives along the border.<ref name="indira" />

In 1964, the SFF, led by the Inspector General, began its airborne training at Agra. The SFF then began its own airborne training program at [[Sarsawa Air Force Station]]. In 1968 with the help of [[Aviation Research Centre]] (ARC), SFF were provided with airlift facilities and became fully airborne-qualified with a dedicated [[Mountain warfare|mountain]] and [[jungle warfare]] unit.

===CIA support and pull-out===
The SFF's weapons were all provided by the US and consisted mainly of M-1, M-2 and M-3 sub-machine guns. Heavy weapons were not provided.<ref name="bharat-rakshak1">{{cite web|title=Land Forces Site – SFF|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/SFF.html|access-date=12 August 2013|publisher=Bharat Rakshak}}</ref> The US government pulled out the CIA from the training program as relations with India soured in the early 1970s during the period of [[Cold War (1962–1979)|Cold War]], with the [[Sino-Soviet split]] and [[Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China]] for improving the bilateral relationship.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Special Frontier Force: Tibetan refugees, once trained with US help|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/09/01/special-frontier-force-tibetan-refugees-once-trained-with-us-help.html|access-date=2020-09-04|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref> The unit conducted limited cross-border reconnaissance missions as well as highly classified joint operations with the CIA in 1965 on Mount [[Nanda Devi]] in the Himalayas.<ref name="bharat-rakshak1" />

==Battalions and composition==
The SFF has a total of six battalions called 1 Vikas, 2 Vikas, 3 Vikas, 5 Vikas, 6 Vikas, and 7 Vikas. Each battalion has around 800 troopers.<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas">{{cite web|last1=Unnithan|first1=Sandeep|date=5 September 2020|title=The Tibetan ghost warriors|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/20200914-the-tibetan-ghost-warriors-1718584-2020-09-05|access-date=6 September 2020|website=India Today}}</ref> The six battalions are commanded by Indian Army officers of colonel rank. At least five other Indian Army officers are in a battalion.<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas"/> At the helm of SFF is the Inspector General (SFF), an officer of Major General rank. The [[Special Group (India)|Special Group]], or 4 Vikas, functions under a separate chain of command under the RAW.<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas" /> Historically, by the late 1960s, the SFF was organised into six battalions for administrative purposes. In the past, each battalion, consisting of six companies, was commanded by a Tibetan who had a rank equivalent to a lieutenant colonel in the Indian Army. A Tibetan major or captain commanded each company, which was the primary unit used in operations.<ref name="bharat-rakshak1" /> After the 1980s, the practice of giving Indian Army commissions to Tibetans was discontinued.<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas" />

Ethnically, the unit is a mixture of Tibetans and [[Gurkha]]s from Nepal.<ref name="indianexpress">{{cite news |title=Special Frontier Force: why is a covert group under the spotlight now? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/what-is-special-frontier-force-vikas-battalion-6578568/ |work=Indian Express |date=September 8, 2020}}</ref> The Tibetan troopers are recruited from the dwindling population of Tibetans in India, which stood at 85,000 in 2018.<ref name="tibetindians">{{cite news |title=Latest India-China border clash turns spotlight on Tibetan refugees in Special Frontier Force |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3100153/rare-spotlight-indias-mysterious-special-frontier-force-amid |work=South China Morning Post |date=September 4, 2020}}</ref> The flow of Tibetans joining SFF has slowed due to the declining population of Tibetans, leading to a more ethnically mixed unit.<ref name="tibetindians"/><ref name="indianexpress"/> Gurkhas have been recruited to the SFF since 1965.<ref name="hindustantimes">{{cite news |title=Centre says it’s ready to restore service pension of special force veterans |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/centre-says-it-s-ready-to-restore-service-pension-of-special-force-veterans/story-z00beC5CoP0uQ6lnPzIsWI.html |work=Hindustan Times |date=June 22, 2016}}</ref> Tibetans currently serve as soldiers and non-commissioned officers and were in the past given officer commissions.<ref name="India Today 4 Vikas"/> Women are also recruited for specialized operations as well as in signal and medical companies.<ref name="bharat-rakshak1" />

==Operations==
SFF was raised with covert operations in mind, mainly along the Indo-China border; however, SFF has been fielded by the R&AW and the Indian government in various covert and overt operation theatres.<ref name="bharat-rakshak1"/>

===China===
====Cold War====
In 1964 intelligence reports kept indicating that China was preparing to test a nuclear weapon at its [[Lop Nor]] nuclear installation in [[Xinjiang]]. On 16 October 1964 China did indeed test a nuclear weapon in Xinjiang. It was expected, but not enough details were known. Later in November 1964, the CIA launched a [[Lockheed U-2|U2]] flight out of [[Aviation Research Centre]] (ARC)'s [[Charbatia Air Base]] in Orissa, but its return turned out to be something of a mishap.<ref name=ht16a13>{{cite news|title=India used US spy planes to map Chinese incursion in Sino-Indian war|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/Americas/India-used-US-spy-planes-to-map-Chinese-incursion-in-1962-war/Article1-1108481.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816111143/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/Americas/India-used-US-spy-planes-to-map-Chinese-incursion-in-1962-war/Article1-1108481.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 August 2013|access-date=16 August 2013|newspaper=Hindustan Times|date=16 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Nehru permitted CIA spy planes to use Indian air base|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/nehru-permitted-cia-spy-planes-to-use-indian-air-base-113081600225_1.html|access-date=16 August 2013|newspaper=Business Standard|date=16 August 2013}}</ref> The [[Lockheed U-2]] overshot the runway and got stuck in slushy ground caused by heavy rain in the [[monsoon]]. Getting it unstuck and out of India without being noticed by the Indian press, then even more subject to leftist influences and hence antagonistic to the US, was another clandestine operation. This gave all concerned quite a scare and it was decided to rely on other technical means.

The [[CIA]] therefore decided to launch an [[electronic intelligence]] (ELINT) operation along with RAW and to track China's nuclear tests and monitor its missile launches. The operation, in the garb of a mountaineering expedition to [[Nanda Devi]], involved celebrated Indian climber [[M S Kohli]] who, along with operatives of SFF and CIA (most notably Jim Rhyne, a veteran [[STOL]] pilot), was to emplace a permanent ELINT device, a transceiver powered by a [[plutonium battery]], that could detect and report data on future nuclear tests carried out by China. The plan to install a snooping device was devised far away in Washington D.C., in the offices of the [[National Geographic Society]]. [[Barry Bishop (mountaineer)|Barry Bishop]], a photographer with the magazine, interested General [[Curtis LeMay]] of the [[US Air Force]] in the idea.<ref>{{cite web|date=2020|title=Book Extract: Spies in the Himalayas By M.S. Kohli and Kenneth Conboy|url=http://vayu-sena.tripod.com/other-spies-in-the-himalayas.html|website=Vayu Sena}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=O'Toole|first=homas|date=13 April 1978|title=CIA Put Nuclear Spy Devices in Himalayas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/04/13/cia-put-nuclear-spy-devices-in-himalayas/61cf72f2-dfdc-4586-a695-11a6d823a097/|access-date=2 September 2020|website=The Washington Post}}</ref>

The actual efforts called for the placement of a permanent ELINT device powered by a nuclear SNAP 19C power pack fuel cell. The first attempt to place this device on Nanda Devi, by a Kohli-led SFF team under the cover of a mountaineering expedition, failed as the team had to retreat in the face of adverse conditions and left the device in a small unmarked mountain cave after having hauled the device just short of the 25,645-foot peak. When another Kohli-led expedition returned the following year to recover the device, it was found to be missing.<ref name="ht16a13" /><ref>Harish Kapadia, "Nanda Devi", in ''World Mountaineering'', Audrey Salkeld, editor, Bulfinch Press, 1998, {{ISBN|0-8212-2502-2}}, pp. 254–257.</ref><ref>There are many theories about what happened. Likely ones are that the device rolled off the mountain and is now lodged at the bottom of the glacier. More imaginative theories speculate that the supposedly indestructible nuclear power pack with a highly toxic [[plutonium]] isotope in its core, with a half-life of many thousand years, is inching its way into the [[Ganges]]. Another plausible theory is that another team of Indian mountaineers came up secretly early the next season and spirited the device away for Indian nuclear scientists to study. Many Americans lean towards this, and with the legendary spymaster [[R. N. Kao|RN Kao]] in the picture anything was possible.</ref> In the meantime the Chinese not only kept testing not only nuclear weapons but also ballistic missiles at regular intervals. The urgency to gather information was never greater.

Another mission was launched in 1967 to place a similar device on the [[Nanda Kot]]. This mission was successful but a couple of years later another problem cropped up: snow would pile up over the antenna and render it blind. So Kohli and a SFF team were sent once again to bring it down; this time they retrieved it successfully. In October 1967 the Chinese began testing an [[ICBM]] capable of reaching targets 6000 miles away. There was renewed urgency to find out more. So SFF [[mountaineers]] went off on one more mission in December 1969 to successfully place a gas-powered device on an undisclosed mountain, supposedly in Chinese-controlled areas. However, by the following year, the US had the first generation of TRW [[spy satellites]] in place and did not have to rely on the old ELINT devices.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Madan|first=Tanvi|date=2020-02-27|title=The pitfalls and promise of a US-India partnership driven by China|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/02/27/the-pitfalls-and-promise-of-a-us-india-partnership-driven-by-china/|access-date=2020-09-01|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref>

====2020 Ladakh skirmishes====
During the [[2020 China–India skirmishes]], SFF was reported to have conducted operations along the LAC, including the capture of heights in South [[Pangong Tso]] range.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 September 2002|title=India-China standoff: Indian Army captures Pangong North Finger 4 in Ladakh|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/current/economy-politics/breaking-india-captures-pangong-north-finger-4-in-ladakhbu/story/414959.html|access-date=2020-09-03|website=Business Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2020|title=India uses commandos from covert Special Frontier Force to stop Chinese misadventure - Misadventure thwarted|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-uses-commandos-from-covert-special-frontier-force-to-stop-chinese-misadventure/misadventure-thwarted/slideshow/77869488.cms|access-date=2020-09-02|website=The Economic Times}}</ref> In another incident, an official statement by the Indian Army read: "Indian troops pre-empted this PLA activity on the southern bank of [[Pangong Tso]], undertook measures to strengthen our positions and thwart Chinese intentions to unilaterally change facts on ground".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Som|first=Vishnu|date=31 August 2020|title=China Says "Taking Countermeasures" As India Foils Ladakh Move: 10 Points|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/chinese-troops-carried-out-provocative-movements-to-change-status-quo-in-eastern-ladakh-thwarted-by-india-government-2287873|access-date=2020-08-31|website=NDTV}}</ref> During this operation, on 1 September 2020, company leader [[Nyima Tenzin]] died in a landmine blast while undertaking a [[reconnaissance mission]] along the line of actual control.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shukla|first=Ajai|date=2020-09-02|title=Ladakh intrusions: Special Frontier Force takes first casualties|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/defence/ladakh-intrusions-special-frontier-force-takes-first-casualties-120090200030_1.html|access-date=2020-09-02}}</ref>

===Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971===
[[File:Bangladesh 1971 Liberation.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Illustration showing military units and troop movements during the war]]
SFF was part of major combat operations during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. Starting in late October and November 1971, elements of the force were sent to [[Mizoram]]. An SFF Task Force of around 3000 members was deployed to conduct [[pre-emptive strike]] in support of the Indian Army formations along the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] and to train the local underground unit called [[Mujib Bahini]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bangladesh. Mantrī Parishada Bibhāga.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/841212999|title=Bāṃlādeśa Muktiyuddha Sammānanā : Muktiyuddha Maitrī Sammānanā = Bangladesh Liberation War Honour : Friends of Liberation War Honour.|oclc=841212999}}</ref>

With cross-border attacks becoming more frequent, SFF was ordered to attack the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Bangladeshi campaign was designated ''Operation Mountain Eagle'',<ref name=":1" /> and SFF members were given Bulgarian [[AK-47]]s and US-made [[carbine]]s. This operation saw the first Dapon, the Tibetan equivalent of a Brigadier, in command of part of the SFF Task Force.

With war imminent, SFF successfully executed several mission plans that included the destruction of the [[Kaptai Dam]] and other bridges of strategic value. The Inspector General also urged that the SFF be used to capture the second largest city, [[Chittagong]], but the idea was found not favourable to military planners in [[New Delhi]] since the unit lacked artillery or airlift support capabilities to conduct a mission of such magnitude. After three weeks of border fighting, the SFF divided its six battalions into three columns and moved into East Pakistan on 3 December 1971. The Tibetans were given [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]] and [[recoilless rifle]]s and two [[Mil Mi-4]] helicopters of the [[Indian Air Force]], and captured several villages in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The air-operations were handled by ARC at [[Balasore]].

On the night of 14 November 1971 in the forests of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Brigadier [[Dhondup Gyatotsang]] was killed by the elite [[Special Service Group]] of the [[Pakistan Army]]. With the [[fall of Dhaka]] and Lieutenant General [[A. A. K. Niazi|A.A.K. Niazi]] surrendering on 16 December 1971, SFF had lost 49 men<ref>{{Cite web|title=1971 War: How the US tried to corner India|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/26claude.htm|access-date=2020-09-04|website=www.rediff.com}}</ref> and nearly 190 were wounded.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-27|title=Remembering the ‘Phantoms of Chittagong’|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/2019/12/27/remembering-the-phantoms-of-chittagong|access-date=2020-09-04|website=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref> The SFF Task Force was able to block a potential escape route for East Pakistani forces into [[Burma]]. They also halted members of Pakistan's 97 Independent Brigade and 2 Commando Battalion at the Chittagong Hill Tracts. For their bravery and courage, 580 SFF Task Force members were awarded cash prizes by the [[Union Government of India]]. Their swift covert capabilities won the force the nickname '''Phantoms of Chittagong''<nowiki/>'.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Uban, Sujan Singh.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/15054054|title=Phantoms of Chittagong : the "Fifth Army" in Bangladesh|date=1985|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=81-7023-042-X|oclc=15054054}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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{{Border guards}}
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[[Category:Special forces of India]]
[[Category:Paramilitary forces of India]]
[[Category:Research and Analysis Wing]]
[[Category:Non-military counter-terrorist organizations]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1962]]