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{{Short description|Regional dialect group of Konkani}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}

{{Infobox language
| name = Southern Saraswat Brahman Konkani
| altname =
| nativename = Amchigele
| states = [[India]]
| region = [[South Canara]] and [[North Canara]] of [[Karnataka]], and [[Kasargod]]/[[Kochi]] areas of [[Kerala]].
| speakers = ?
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Southern Indo-Aryan languages|Southern Zone]]
| fam5 = [[Marathi–Konkani languages|Marathi–Konkani]]
| script = [[Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Devanagari]]
| minority = [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]]
| agency = Karnataka Konkani Sahitya Academy,<ref group="note" name="kksa">estd. by Govt. of Karnataka in 1994</ref> Kerala Konkani Academy<ref group="note" name="kka">estd. in 1980 by Govt. of Kerala</ref>
| iso3 = 
| iso3comment = A group of dialects that is a part of the ISO code [[ISO 639-3:gom|gom]]
| glotto = sara1313
| map = KonLinguasphere.png
| mapcaption = Distribution of Southern Saraswat Konkani speakers in India
| notice = Indic
| notice2 = IPA
}}

'''Southern Saraswat Konkani'''<ref>{{Cite web | title=Glottolog 5.2 - Southern Saraswat Brahman Konkani | url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sara1313 | access-date=2025-08-22 | website=glottolog.org}}</ref> is a set of dialects spoken by [[Saraswat Brahmins]] of the [[Canara]] sub-region of [[Karnataka]], and also in Kerala.<ref group="note" name="minority">The Constitution Act 1992 (71st Amendment)</ref><ref name="Issues">{{cite press release | title=Issues of Linguistic Minorities, Language Use in Administration and National Integration | date=19 October 2004 | publisher=Central Institute of Indian Languages}}</ref>

==Names==
The Karnataka Saraswat dialects are referred to as Canara Konkani. The Kerala dialects are referred to as Travancore Konkani or Kerala Konkani. Certain dialects like the Canara Saraswat dialects of the Gaud Saraswats and Bhanaps are called {{langx|gom|आमचीगॆलॆं|translit=āmcigelẽ|lit=ours}} and the dialect of the Cochin Gaud Saraswats is called {{langx|gom|कॊच्चिमांय|translit=koccimā̃y|lit=mother Cochin}} by the members of those communities.

The word ''Canara'' is a Portuguese rendering of the word ''Kannada''. The early Portuguese conquistadors referred to Konkani as ''lingoa Canarim'' as a reference to Canara.<ref name="indialit">{{cite book | title=The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Five (Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5 | author=Mohan Lal | author-link=Stevens, Fr. Thomas – Stotra | year=2001 | publisher=Kendra Sahitya Academy | location=New Delhi | pages=4182 | isbn=81-260-1221-8}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
The dialect is mainly spoken as a minority language in the Indian States of [[Karnataka]], and in some parts of [[Kerala]]. The speakers are concentrated in the districts of [[Uttara Kannada district]], [[Udupi]] and [[Dakshina Kannada]] in Karnataka.

==History==
Influx of Konkani speakers into Canara happened in various immigration waves:

* Exodus between 1312 and 1327 when General [[Malik Kafur]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultans]] [[Alauddin Khalji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Muhammed bin Tughlaq]] destroyed [[Govapuri|Govepuri]] and the [[Kadambas]]
* Exodus after 1470 when the [[Bahamani]] kingdom captured Goa, and subsequently in 1492 by Sultan [[Yusuf Adil Shah]] of [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]]
*Hindu exodus due to [[Christianization of Goa]] by Portuguese missionaries subsequent to [[Portuguese conquest of Goa]] in 1510<ref name="Prabhu 1999">{{Cite book
|last=Prabhu
|first=Alan Machado
|year=1999
|title=Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians
|publisher=I.J.A. Publications
|isbn=978-81-86778-25-8
}}</ref>
*Exodus of Christians who wanted to keep following Hindu customs even after the establishment of the [[Goa Inquisition]] in 1560; or wanted to escape epidemics, wars and taxation taking place in Goa<ref name="Prabhu 1999"/>

==The people==
According to the 1991 census of India, 40.1% Konkani speakers hail from the state of [[Karnataka]]. In Karnataka over 80% of them are from the coastal districts of North and South Canara, including Udupi. 3.6% of the Konkani speakers are from Kerala, and nearly half of them are from Ernakulam district.<ref name="cardona">{{cite book|last=Cardona|first=George |author2=Dhanesh Jain |others=Rocky V. Miranda|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Routledge|year=2007|edition=illustrated|series=Routledge language family series|pages=1088|chapter=20:Konkani|isbn=978-0-415-77294-5}}</ref>

Based on local language influence, Konkani speaking people are classified into three main regions:

===North Canara (Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka)===

This is the region north of the [[Gangolli]] river, starting from the [[Kali River (Karnataka)|Kali river]] of [[Karwar]]. The North Canarese are called ''baḍgikār''<ref group="note" name="BadgiTenki">Term used by Konkani speaking Gaud Saraswats and Chitrapur Sarasawts</ref> (Northerners) or simply ''baḍgi'' in Konkani. North Canarese Konkani has more of Goan Konkani influence than Kannada influence compared to South Canarese Konkani. The major Konkani speaking communities include:<ref name="sardessaya">{{cite book | title=A History of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992 | author=Sardessaya, Manoharraya | year=2000 | publisher=Kendra Sahitya Akademi | location=New Delhi | pages=7,9,298 | isbn=978-81-7201-664-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://uttarakannada.nic.in/CensusKYD.htm/ |title=Uttara Kannada Jilla Parishada |author=Chithra Salam |publisher=Open Publishing |date=14 October 2009 |work=Konkani Census |access-date=5 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313191807/http://uttarakannada.nic.in/CensusKYD.htm |archive-date=13 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[Bhandaris]]
*[[Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmin|Chitrapur Saraswat]]
*[[Daivadnya]]
*[[Gabit]]
*[[Gaud Saraswat]]
*Kharvis
*Konkani Maratha
*Ramakshatriya
*[[Vani]]

{{div col end}}

Karwar Konkani is different from Mangalorean or South Canara Konkani. It is similar to Goan Konkani but mixed with Marathi accented words. Although people of Karwar have their mother tongue as Konkani, a few are conversant in Marathi too.

===South Canara (Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts, Karnataka)===

This is the region south of the Gangolli River. The South Canarese are called ''ṭenkikār''<ref group="note" name="BadgiTenki"/> (Southerner) ''tenkabagli'' or simply ''ṭenki'' in Konkani. Rajapur Saraswat, Kudalkar,Kharvis,Kudubis,Mestas, Daivajna, Kumbhar, Gaud Saraswats and Chitrapur Saraswats are some of the Konkani speaking communities of this region. 15% of Dakshina Kannada speaks Konkani.<ref>{{cite press release | title=District Census Handbook, Dakshina Kannada District | year=2001 | publisher=Govt. of Karnataka}}</ref> South Canara Saraswats, both Gaud Saraswat and Chitrapur Saraswat affectionately refer to their dialect as ''āmcigelẽ'' (Ours)
This region has recently been bifurcated into Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts.

Konkani speakers in South Canara are trilingual; they are conversant in Konkani, Kannada and Tulu. Some of the towns in South Canara have separate Konkani names. Udupi is called ''ūḍip'' and Mangalore is called ''kodiyāl'' in Konkani.

===Travancore (Cochin and Ernakulam district, Kerala)===

Konkani speakers are found predominantly in the [[Cochin]] and [[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]], Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam districts of Kerala, the erstwhile kingdom of Travancore. [[Kudumbi]]s, Gaud Saraswats, Vaishya Vani of Cochin, and Daivajna are the major communities. The Konkani dialect of the Gaud Saraswats is affectionately referred to as ''koccimā̃y'' by members of that community.

The Gaud Saraswats of Cochin were part of the group of ''sāṣṭikār''s who migrated from Goa during the Inquisition hence their dialect is, but for usage of certain Malayalam words, similar to the dialect spoken by Gaud Saraswats of South Canara.<ref>{{cite book | title=Kerala District Gazetteer | year=1965 | publisher=Govt. Of Kerala | location=Thiruvananthapuram | pages=32–57}}</ref>

Konkani speakers in this region are bilingual; they are conversant in Konkani as well as Malayalam.

==Description==
Konkani in Karnataka has been in contact with [[Kannada]] and [[Tulu language|Tulu]], thus showing [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] influence on its syntax.<ref name="rao">{{cite book|last=Bhaskararao|first= Peri|author2=Karumuri V. Subbarao |title=Non-nominative subjects |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2004|edition=illustrated|series=Grammar, Comparative and general|volume=1|pages=332|chapter=Non-nominative subjects in Dakkhani and Konkani|isbn=978-90-272-2970-0}}</ref>

The [[phonetics]], sounds, [[nasalization]], [[grammar]], syntax and in turn [[vocabulary]] obviously differ from Goan Konkani.<ref name="rao" />

There was a small population of Konkani speakers in Canara even before the first exodus from Goa. This group was responsible for the Shravanabelagola inscription. There was a large-scale migration of Konkani communities from Goa to the coastal districts of North Canara, South Canara and Udupi. This migration, caused by the persecution of the Bahamani and Portuguese rulers, took place between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries. Most of these migrants were merchants, craftsmen and artisans. These migrants were either Hindus, Muslims or Christians and their linguistic practices were influenced by this factor also. Each dialect is influenced by its geographical antecedents.

There are subtle differences in the way that Konkani is spoken in different regions: "In Karwar and Ankola, they emphasize the syllables, and in Kumta-Honavar, they use consonants in abundance. The Konkani spoken by [[Nawayath|Nawayatis]] of Bhatkal incorporates Persian and Arabic words."<ref>{{cite book | title=The Navayats of Kanara- study in Cultural Contacts | author=D'Souza, V.S. | year=1955 | publisher=Kannada Research Institute | location=Dharwad | pages=12–20}}</ref> People of South Kanara do not distinguish between some nouns of Kannada and Konkani origin, and have developed a very business practical language. They sometimes add Tulu words also. It is but natural that Konkani has many social variations also because it is spoken by many communities such as [[Daivajna]], Serugar, Mestri, Sutar, Gabeet, Kharvi, Samgar, [[Nawayathi dialect|Nawayati]], etc.

Continuous interaction between the Konkani speaking communities with Dravidian Languages over some time has resulted in influences at the levels of morphology, syntax, vocabulary and larger semantic units such as proverbs and idioms.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Konkani Language: Historical and Linguistic Perspectives | author=V.Nithyanantha Bhat, Ela Suneethabai | year=2004 | publisher=Sukriteendra, Oriental Research Institute | location=Kochi | pages=5–27}}</ref> This phenomenon is illustrated by Nadkarni, Bernd Heine and Tanya Kuteva in their writings.

Many Kannada words such as ''duḍḍu'' (money), ''baḍḍi'' (stick) and ''bāgilu'' (door) have found permanent places in Canara Konkani. Konkani from Kerala has Malayalam words like sari and śeri (correct), etc.

'''Dialect Variation'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:65%;"
|+ Differences between North Canara, South Canara and Cochin Konkani{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}
|-
!'''Phrase'''
! Scope="col" | North Canara
! Scope="col" | South Canara
! Scope="col" | Cochin
|-
! Scope="row" | What happened?
| kasal jālẽ
| kasan jāllẽ
| kasal jāllẽ
|-
! Scope="row" | correct
| samma
| samma
| sari/ śeri
|-
! scope="row" | We are coming
| āmi yetāti
| āmmi yettāti / yettāci
| āmmi yettāci
|-
! scope="row" | Come here
| hekkaḍe/henga yo
| hāṅgā yo
| hāṅgā yo
|}

From the above table we see that South Canara and Kerala Hindu dialects undergo doubling of consonants ''āppaytā'' (calls), ''dzāllẽ'' (done), ''kellẽ'' (did), ''vhaṇṇi'' (sister in law) whereas North Canara Hindu dialects use the undoubled ones ''āpaytā'', ''dzālẽ'', ''kelẽ'', ''vhaṇi''' . The Gaud Saraswat and Kudumbi Kochi dialects uses '' ca'' and ''ja'' in place '' tsa'' and '' dza'' respectively.

===Language structure===
{{see also|Konkani Phonology|Konkani Script}}

Konkani speakers in Karnataka, having interacted with Kannada speakers in North Canara, Kannada and Tulu speakers in South Canara and Malayalam speakers in Kerala, their dialects have been influenced by [[Kannada]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Malayalam]]. This has resulted in [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] influence on their syntax.<ref name="rao"/> According to the linguists, Konkani in Karnataka has undergone a process of ''degenitivization'', and is moving towards ''dativization'' on the pattern of Dravidian languages. ''Degenitivization'' means the loss or replacement of the [[Genitive case|genitives]], and ''dativization'' means replacement of the genitive in the donor language (i.e. Konkani) by the dative case marker in the recipient language (i.e. Kannada).<ref name="rao" /> E.g.:
*''rāmācẽ/-lẽ/-gelẽ kellelẽ kām''. {{nay}}
*''rāmānẽ kellelẽ kām''. {{aye}}
::In the Goan dialects, both statements are grammatically correct. In the Karnataka dialects, only the second statement is grammatically correct.

In Karnataka Konkani [[present continuous tense]] is strikingly observable, which is not so prominent in Goan Konkani.<ref name="jana">{{cite book|last= Janardhan|first=Pandarinath Bhuvanendra|title=A Higher Konkani grammar|publisher=P.B. Janardhan|year=1991|pages=317}}</ref>
Present indefinite of the auxiliary is fused with [[present participle]] of the primary verb, and the auxiliary is partially dropped.<ref name="jana" /> This difference became more prominent in dialects spoken in Karnataka, which came in contact with Dravidian languages, whereas Goan Konkani still retains the original form.

*In Goan Konkani "I eat", as well as "I am eating", translates to ''hā̃v khātā''.
*In Kanara Konkani, "I eat" translates to ''hā̃v khātā'' and "I am eating" translates to ''hā̃v khātoāsā'' or ''hā̃v khāter āsā''

'''Script'''

Early Konkani literature in Goa, Karnataka and Kerala has been found in the [[Nāgarī script|Nāgarī Script]]. At present however, Devanagari has been promulgated as the official script.<ref group="note" name="devanagari">On 20 August 1992 Parliament of India by effecting the 78th amendment to the Constitution of India, Konkani in Devanagari script has been included in VIIIth Schedule of Constitution of India.</ref>

==Literature==

[[File:HortusCert.jpg|400px|right|thumb|Konkani in the Old [[Nāgarī script|Nagari Script]]]]

The earliest known Konkani epigraphy is claimed to be the rock inscription at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. However, the claim is disputed since as per many linguists its language is indistinguishable from that of the Old Marathi literature from the Yadava era (1200–1300 CE)- the language is nearly identical, the script is early Devanagari, so it only makes sense to call it Marathi and not Konkani. This has always been a heated debate between Marathi Speakers and Konkani Speakers. Another writing of antiquity is a रायसपत्र ''Rāyasapatra'' (writ) By Srimad [[Puttige Matha Guru Parampara|Sumatindra Tirtha swamiji]] to his disciples.

:'''Goḍḍe Rāmāyaṇ'''

In Konkani, Ramayana narration is found in both verse and prose. The story has been told in full or part in folksongs of the Kudubis and ritualistic forms like ''goḍḍe rāmāyaṇ'' of Kochi, ''sītā suddi'' and ''sītā kalyāṇa'' of Northern Kerala/South Canara and the ''rāmāyaṇa raṇmāḷe'' of Cancon. Some other texts of the Ramayana are also available in written form in Konkani. '''rāmāyaṇācyo kāṇiyo''', ascribed to Krishnadas Shama is in 16th century prose. During the 1930s Late Kamalammal wrote the ''raghurāmāyaṇa'' in ''vhōvi''<ref group="note">A vhōvi is song made of a collection two or three liner stanzas typically sung during weddings by ladies</ref> style verse. There has also been an adapted version by late Narahari Vittal Prabhu of Gokarn and recently, the translation of '''rāmacaritramānasa''' by Kochi Ananta Bhat of Kochi.<ref name="sardessaya"/><ref name="Custom">{{cite book | title=Custom Report | year=2007 | publisher=Konkani Language and Cultural Foundation | location=Mangalore | pages=2, 3}}</ref>

:'''Hortus Malabaricus'''
[[File:HortusCertificate.jpg|400px|right|thumb|The Hortus Malabaricus Konkani Document corrected for contemporary grammar]]
[[Hortus Malabaricus]] (meaning Garden of Malabar) is a comprehensive treatise that deals with the medicinal properties of the flora in the Indian state of Kerala. Originally written in Latin, it was compiled over a period of nearly 30 years and published from Amsterdam during 1678–1693. The book was conceived by [[Hendrik van Rheede]], who was the Governor of the Dutch administration in Kochi (formerly Cochin) at the time.

Though the book was the result of the indomitable will power of Hendrik Van Rheede, all the basic work and the original compilation of plant properties were done by three Konkani Physicians of Kochi, namely Ranga Bhat, Vināyaka Pandit and Appu Bhat.<ref name="Hortus">{{cite book | title=Hortus Malabaricus – Vol. I | author=Manilal, K.S. | year=2003 | publisher=Dept. of publications, University of Kerala | location=Thiruvananthapuram | pages=5–23 | isbn=81-86397-57-4}}</ref> The three have themselves certified this in their joint certificate in Konkani, which appears as such at the start of the first volume of the book.

This book also contains the Konkani names of each plant, tree and creeper are also included throughout the book, in all 12 volumes, both in their descriptive parts and alongside their respective drawings. While the names are in Roman script in the descriptive part, the names alongside the diagrams are in original Nāgarī script itself, indicated as Bramanical characters.<ref name="Hortus"/>

[[File:Maddo.JPG|300px|right|thumb|KonkaniNames of Plants in the [[Hortus Malabaricus]]]]
The 17th century certificate was etched in the manner and style of those times, which may appear unfamiliar now. Further to this, some writing notations (mostly anuswara) are seen missing in the print. Hence, to make it easily readable, the body matter is reproduced herein with enhanced clarity, modern-day spacing between words, and with the missing notations added back, for the sake of coherence and comprehension.

:'''Bhakti Movement'''
[[File:Konkani pad 01.jpg|300px|right|thumb|This rare Konkani lithograph manuscript, dated 1904 was printed in Mangalore. It contains devotional songs in Konkani in the glory of popular Hindu deities.]]
The [[Dvaita]] seer [[Madhvacharya]] converted [[Smartha]] Konkani [[Goud Saraswat Brahmin|Gaud Saraswat]]s to [[Dvaita|Dvaitism]]. This Dvaita Gaud Saraswat community was instrumental in ''kīrtanasāhitya ''and ''haridāsasāhitya''. Vasudev Prabhu was a very famous Konkani poet of the Bhakti Movement. He wrote many devotional songs in Konkani and also translated Kannada devotional poetry of Vyāsarāya, [[Naraharitirtha]], Puranadaradāsa, Kanakadāsa. These Konkani songs were, later, sung by nārāyantirtha<ref>{{cite book | title=padāñcẽ pustaka | author=Prabhu, Vasudev | year=1904 | publisher=Mangalore Trading Association's Sharada Press | location=Mangalore | pages=4–23}}</ref>

===Contemporary Literature===

Contemporary Konkani literature in Kerala made a rather late entry, as compared to its other concentrated states like Karnataka. However, according to historical annals, there can be established no exact evidence to establish exactly when Konkani language and literature began their predominant journey in Kerala. But a possible contact and interlinking between Goa with Kerala cannot be thrown to the wind, as collaborators in foreign trade. G Kamalammal is known to have contributed whole-heartedly to Konkani literature, in the domain of devotional writing. V. Krishna Vadyar, Bhakta R Kanhangad, S. T Chandrakala, S Kamat are some of the most renowned novelists in the Konkani dialect. Moving further ahead, V Venkates, K Narayan Naik, N Prakash and others have penned forceful short stories; P G Kamath has contributed to the sphere of essay writing.

Some of the greatest and legendary poets in Konkani literature from Kerala, comprise: K Anant Bhat, N Purushottam Mallya, R Gopal Prabhu, P N S Sivanand Shenoy, N N Anandan, R S Bhaskar etc. Translations, folklore, and criticism also have enriched the Konkani literature in Kerala. Stepping aside a little bit and directing the attention towards an analytic and detailed study, Konkani literature in Kerala has been legendary and celebrated for having formulated dictionaries and encyclopedias in considerable numbers.

==Culture, media and arts==
Konkani speakers have retained their language and culture in Karnataka and Kerala. Music, theatre and periodicals keep these communities in touch with the language.

Notable periodicals are ''pānchkadāyi, kodial khabar and sansakār bōdh''.

Konkani theatre made a rather late entry into the Indian art scenario. Konkani theatre groups like'' rangakarmi kumbaḷe śrīnivās bhaṭ pratiṣṭhān, and raṅgayōgi rāmānand cūryā vēdike'' played an instrumental role in bringing Konkani theatre to the masses. ''raṅgakarmi ''Kumble Shrinivas Bhat, Late Hosad Babuti Naik, Late Late K. Balakrishna Pai (''kuḷḷāppu''), Sujeer Srinivas Rao (''cinna kāsaragōḍ'') and Vinod Gangolli are some noteworthy names. Ramananda Choorya was an eminent artist who encouraged people to develop Konkani theatre. He wrote the famous play ''dōni ghaḍi hāssunu kāḍi''.

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Konkani language]]
*[[Konkani alphabets]]
*[[Konkani Language Agitation]]
*[[Konkani Phonology]]
*[[Konkani in the Roman script]]
*[[Konkani people]]
*[[Basti Vaman Shenoy]]
*[[World Konkani Hall Of Fame]]
*[[Vasudev V Shenoy]]
}}

==alphabetFootnotes==
<references group="note" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.facebook.com/konkani.chavadi Konkani Chavadi]
*[http://www.vishwakonkani.org/ Konkani Language And Cultural Foundation]
*[http://www.mangalorean.com/konkani/ Mangalorean.com]
*[http://www.konkanifriends.com/ Konkani Friends] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119200526/http://konkanifriends.com/ |date=19 November 2015 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070112230100/http://www.savemylanguage.org/ Save My Language]
*[http://www.gsbkonkani.net/ GSB Konkani]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110203163046/http://www.kanarasaraswat.in/magazine.htm Kanara Saraswat Magazine]
*[http://www.raknno.com/ Raknno]
*[http://www.ourkarnataka.com/learn_konkani/learn_konkani_main.htm Learn GSB Konkani]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110502055206/http://manglorean.net/konkani/ Online Manglorean Konkani Dictionary Project]

{{Konkani language topics}}
{{Indo-Aryan languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Southern Saraswat Konkani}}
[[Category:Konkani]]
[[Category:Southern Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Konkani languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Languages of Kerala]]

Southern Saraswat Konkani - Revision history

Sanjay: Made basic data initial version - done