UpdateBot at 23:50, 6 April 2022

2022-04-06T23:50:22Z

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	# ha L		# ha L

	Each verse consists of a group of basic Sanskrit phonemes (i.e. ~~either~~ open syllables consisting either of initial vowels or consonants followed by the ''basic'' vowel "a") followed by a single 'dummy letter', or ''anubandha'', conventionally rendered in upper case and named '{{IAST\|IT}}' by Pāṇini.		Each verse consists of a group of basic Sanskrit phonemes (i.e. open syllables consisting either of initial vowels or consonants followed by the ''basic'' vowel "a") followed by a single 'dummy letter', or ''anubandha'', conventionally rendered in upper case and named '{{IAST\|IT}}' by Pāṇini.

	==Scheme==		==Scheme==

	This allows Pāṇini to refer to groups of phonemes with ''{{IAST\|pratyāhāras}}'', which consist of a phoneme-letter and an ''anubandha'' (and often the vowel ''a'' to aid pronunciation) and signify all of the intervening phonemes. ''Pratyāhāras'' are thus single syllables, but they can be [[Declension\|declined]] (see Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.77 below). Hence the ''pratyāhāra'' ''aL'' refers to all phonemes (because it consists of the first phoneme of the first verse (''a'') and the last ''anubandha'' of the last verse (''L''); ''aC'' refers to vowels (i.e., all of the phonemes before the ''anubandha'' ''C'': i.e. ''a i u ṛ ḷ e o ai au''); ''haL'' to consonants, and so on.		This allows Pāṇini to refer to groups of phonemes with ''{{IAST\|pratyāhāras}}'', which consist of a phoneme-letter and an ''anubandha'' (and often the vowel ''a'' to aid pronunciation) and signify all of the intervening phonemes. ''Pratyāhāras'' are thus single syllables, but they can be [[Declension\|declined]] (see Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.77 below). Hence the ''pratyāhāra'' ''aL'' refers to all phonemes (because it consists of the first phoneme of the first verse (''a'') and the last ''anubandha'' of the last verse (''L'')); ''aC'' refers to vowels (i.e., all of the phonemes before the ''anubandha'' ''C'': i.e. ''a i u ṛ ḷ e o ai au''); ''haL'' to consonants, and so on.

	===Issues===		===Issues===
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	===Combinations===		===Combinations===
	From these 14 verses, a total of ~~281~~ ''pratyāhāras'' can be formed: 143 + 132 + 122 + 112 + 104 + 91 + 85 + 72 + 63 55 + 48 + 32 + 23 +1*1, minus 14 (as Pāṇini does not use single element ''pratyāhāras'') minus 10 (as there are 10 duplicate sets due to ''h'' appearing twice); the second multiplier in each term represents the number of phonemes in each. But [[Pāṇini]] uses only 41 (with a 42nd introduced by later grammarians, ''raṆ''=''r l'') ''pratyāhāras'' in the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī''.		From these 14 verses, a total of 280 ''pratyāhāras'' can be formed: 143 + 132 + 122 + 112 + 104 + 91 + 85 + 72 + 63 55 + 48 + 32 + 23 +1*1, minus 14 (as Pāṇini does not use single element ''pratyāhāras'') minus 11 (as there are 11 duplicate sets due to ''h'' appearing twice); the second multiplier in each term represents the number of phonemes in each. But [[Pāṇini]] uses only 41 (with a 42nd introduced by later grammarians, ''raṆ''=''r l'') ''pratyāhāras'' in the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī''.

	===Arrangement===		===Arrangement===
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	*[[Sanskrit grammar]]		*[[Sanskrit grammar]]

	;~~Other~~ languages		;Organization of sounds in other languages
	*[[Alphabet song]]		*[[Alphabet song]]
	*[[Iroha]], a Japanese ~~poem with similar function~~		*[[Iroha]], a Japanese [[pangram]]
	*[[Thousand Character Classic]], Chinese ~~poem with similar function, esp. used~~ in Korea		*[[Thousand Character Classic]], a Chinese mnemonic traditionally popular in Korea

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==

imported>CircularToucan: /* Consonant groups */ Typo Team Moss.

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Consonant groups: Typo Team Moss.

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{{short description|14 verses organizing the phonemes of Sanskrit}}
{{hatnote|For the [[Kashmir Shaivism|Kashmir Shaivistic]] text, see [[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta]]}}
{{italic title}}
{{refimprove|date=September 2016}}

The '''Śiva·sūtras''', technically '''akṣara·samāmnāya''', variously called ''{{IAST|māheśvarāṇi sūtrāṇi}}'', ''pratyāhāra·sūtrāṇi'', ''varṇa·samāmnāya'', etc., refer to a set of fourteen aphorisms devised as an arrangement of the sounds of Sanskrit for the purposes of grammatical exposition as carried out by the grammarian [[Pāṇini]] in the [[Aṣṭādhyāyī]].<ref name=B1>Böhtlingk, p. 1.</ref><ref name=CV12>Vasu, pp. 1-2.</ref>

Pāṇini himself uses the term ''akṣara·samāmnāya'' whereas the colloquial term "Shiva sutra" is a later development, as per claims by Nandikeśvara in his Kāśikā, that the god Śiva sounded his drum fourteen times to reveal these sounds to Pāṇini. They were either{{efn|Since hardly any grammatical literature from before Pāṇini has survived, it might be impossible to determine this either way}} composed by Pāṇini to accompany his ''{{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}}'' or predate him.<ref name=B1/><ref name=CV12/><ref>Cardona, §131.</ref>

==Text and notation==

# a i u Ṇ
# ṛ ḷ K
# e o Ṅ
# ai au C
# ha ya va ra Ṭ
# la Ṇ
# ña ma ṅa ṇa na M
# jha bha Ñ
# gha ḍha dha Ṣ
# ja ba ga ḍa da Ś
# kha pha cha ṭha tha ca ṭa ta V
# ka pa Y
# śa ṣa sa R
# ha L

Each verse consists of a group of basic Sanskrit phonemes (i.e. either open syllables consisting either of initial vowels or consonants followed by the ''basic'' vowel "a") followed by a single 'dummy letter', or ''anubandha'', conventionally rendered in upper case and named '{{IAST|IT}}' by Pāṇini.

==Scheme==

This allows Pāṇini to refer to groups of phonemes with ''{{IAST|pratyāhāras}}'', which consist of a phoneme-letter and an ''anubandha'' (and often the vowel ''a'' to aid pronunciation) and signify all of the intervening phonemes. ''Pratyāhāras'' are thus single syllables, but they can be [[Declension|declined]] (see Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.77 below). Hence the ''pratyāhāra'' ''aL'' refers to all phonemes (because it consists of the first phoneme of the first verse (''a'') and the last ''anubandha'' of the last verse (''L''); ''aC'' refers to vowels (i.e., all of the phonemes before the ''anubandha'' ''C'': i.e. ''a i u ṛ ḷ e o ai au''); ''haL'' to consonants, and so on.

===Issues===

Note that some ''pratyāhāras'' are ambiguous. The ''anubandha'' ''Ṇ'' occurs twice in the list, which means that you can assign two different meanings to ''pratyāhāra'' ''aṆ'' (including or excluding ''ṛ'', etc.); in fact, both of these meanings are used in the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī''. On the other hand, the ''pratyāhāra'' ''haL'' is always used in the meaning "all consonants"—Pāṇini never uses ''pratyāhāras'' to refer to sets consisting of a single phoneme.

===Combinations===
From these 14 verses, a total of 281 ''pratyāhāras'' can be formed: 14*3 + 13*2 + 12*2 + 11*2 + 10*4 + 9*1 + 8*5 + 7*2 + 6*3 * 5*5 + 4*8 + 3*2 + 2*3 +1*1, minus 14 (as Pāṇini does not use single element ''pratyāhāras'') minus 10 (as there are 10 duplicate sets due to ''h'' appearing twice); the second multiplier in each term represents the number of phonemes in each. But [[Pāṇini]] uses only 41 (with a 42nd introduced by later grammarians, ''raṆ''=''r l'') ''pratyāhāras'' in the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī''.

===Arrangement===
The Akṣarasamāmnāya puts phonemes with a similar [[manner of articulation]] together (so [[sibilants]] in 13 ''śa ṣa sa R,'' [[Nasal stop|nasals]] in 7 ''ñ m ṅ ṇ n M''). Economy {{efn-lg|{{IAST|lāghava}}}} is a major principle of their organization, and it is debated whether Pāṇini deliberately encoded [[Phonology|phonological]] patterns in them (as they were treated in traditional phonetic texts called [[Shiksha|Prātiśakyas]]) or simply grouped together phonemes which he needed to refer to in the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' and which only ''secondarily'' reflect phonological patterns.{{efn|as argued by [http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/siva-t.pdf Paul Kiparsky] and [http://user.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~petersen Wiebke Petersen], for example}} Pāṇini does not use the Akṣarasamāmnāya to refer to homorganic stops,{{efn|[[stop consonants]] produced at the same [[place of articulation]]}} but rather the ''anubandha'' ''U'': to refer to the [[palatals]] ''c ch j jh'' he uses ''cU''.

==Example==

As an example, consider ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' 6.1.77: ''{{IAST|iKaḥ yaṆ aCi}}'':<ref>Vasu, Book VI, pp. 1074-1075.</ref>

* ''iK'' means ''i u ṛ ḷ'',
* ''iKaḥ'' is ''iK'' in the [[genitive]] case, so it means ' in place of ''i u ṛ ḷ'';
* ''yaṆ'' means the [[semivowels]] ''y v r l'' and is in the nominative, so ''iKaḥ yaṆ'' means: ''y v r l'' replace ''i u ṛ ḷ''.
* ''aC'' means all vowels, as noted above
* ''aCi'' is in the [[locative]] case, so it means ''before any vowel''.

Hence this rule replaces a vowel with its corresponding semivowel when followed by any vowel, and that is why ''{{IAST|dadhi}}'' together with ''{{IAST|atra}}'' makes ''{{IAST|dadhyatra}}''. To apply this rule correctly we must be aware of some of the other rules of the grammar, such as:
*1.1.49 ''{{IAST|ṣaṣṭhī sthāneyogā}}'' which says that the genitive case in a sutra signifies "in the place of"<ref>Vasu, Book I, pp. 36-37.</ref>
*1.1.50 ''{{IAST|sthāne 'ntaratamaḥ}}'' which says that in a substitution, the element in the substitute series that most closely resembles the letter to be substituted should be used (e.g. ''y'' for ''i'', ''r'' for ''ṛ'' etc.)<ref>Vasu, Book I, pp. 37-39.</ref>
*1.1.71 ''{{IAST|ādir antyena sahetā}}'' which says that a sequence with an element at the beginning (e.g. ''i'') and an ''IT'' letter (e.g. ''K'') at the end stands for the intervening letters (i.e. ''i u ṛ ḷ'', because the Akṣarasamāmnāya sutras read ''{{IAST|i u ṛ ḷ K}}'').<ref>Vasu, Book I, pp. 64-65.</ref>

Also, rules can be debarred by other rules:

* 6.1.101 ''{{IAST|aKaḥ savarṇe dīrghaḥ}}'' <ref>Vasu, Book VI, p. 1087.</ref> teaches that vowels (from the ''aK pratyāhāra'') of the same quality come together to make a long vowel, so for instance ''{{IAST|dadhi}}'' and ''{{IAST|indraḥ}}'' make ''{{IAST|dadhīndraḥ}}'', not ''{{IAST|*dadhyindraḥ}}''. This ''{{IAST|aKaḥ savarṇe dīrghaḥ}}'' rule takes precedence over the general ''{{IAST|iKaḥ yaṆ aCi}}'' rule mentioned above, because this rule is more specific.

==Pratyāhāras==

Despite the possible combinations seen above, here are the 41 pratyāhāras in actual use by Pāṇini:<ref>Cardona, §129.</ref>

# ''aL'' ⇒ all sounds {{efn-lg|varṇas}}
# ''ac'' ⇒ vowels {{efn-lg|svaras}}
# ''haL'' ⇒ consonants {{efn-lg|vyañjanas}}

===Vowel groups===

# <li value="4">''aK'' ⇒ ''a i u ṛ ḷ'' {{efn-lg|samānākṣaras - simple vowels}}</li>
# ''aṆ'' ⇒ ''a i u''
# ''iC'' ⇒ ''i u ṛ ḷ e o ai au'' {{efn-lg|nāmins - retroflexing vowels}}
# ''iK'' ⇒ ''i u ṛ ḷ''
# ''uK'' ⇒ ''u ṛ ḷ''
# ''eC'' ⇒ ''e o ai au'' {{efn-lg|sandhyakṣaras - 'complex' vowels}}
# ''eṆ'' ⇒ ''e o''
# ''aiC'' ⇒ ''ai au''

===Vowel and consonant groups===

# <li value="12">''aŚ'' ⇒ vowels and voiced consonants</li>
# ''aM'' ⇒ vowels, ''h'', semivowels, and nasal stops
# ''aṆ'' ⇒ vowels, ''h'', and semivowels
# ''aṬ'' ⇒ vowels, ''h'', and semivowels other than ''l''
# ''iṆ'' ⇒ vowels other than ''a''; ''h'' and semivowels

===Consonant groups===

# <li value="17">''haŚ'' ⇒ voiced consonants {{efn-lg|ghoṣavats}}</li>
# ''yaR'' ⇒ semivowels, stops, and voiceless spirants
# ''yaY'' ⇒ semivowels and stops
# ''yaÑ'' ⇒ semivowels, nasal stops, ''jh bh''
# ''yaM'' ⇒ semivowels and nasal stops
# ''yaṆ'' ⇒ semivowels {{efn-lg|antaḥsthas}}
# ''vaL'' ⇒ consonants other than ''y''
# ''vaŚ'' ⇒ voiced consonants other than ''y''
# ''raL'' ⇒ consonants other than ''y'' and ''v''
# ''maY'' ⇒ stops other than ''ñ''
# ''ṅaM'' ⇒ ''ṅ ṇ n''
# ''jhaL'' ⇒ consonants other than nasal stops and semivowels
# ''jhaR'' ⇒ nonnasal stops, voiceless aspirants
# ''jhaY'' ⇒ nonnasal stops
# ''jhaŚ'' ⇒ voiced nonnasal stops
# ''jhaṢ'' ⇒ voiced aspirated stops
# ''bhaṢ'' ⇒ voiced aspirated stops other than ''jh''
# ''jaŚ'' ⇒ voiced unaspirated nonnasal stops
# ''baŚ'' ⇒ voiced unaspirated nonnasal stops other than ''j''
# ''khaR'' ⇒ voiceless stops, voiceless aspirants
# ''khaY'' ⇒ voiceless stops
# ''chaV'' ⇒ ''ch ṭh th c ṭ t''
# ''caR'' ⇒ voiceless unaspirated stops, voiceless spirants
# ''śaL'' ⇒ spirants
# ''śaR'' ⇒ voiceless spirants

==See also==
*[[Generative grammar]]
*[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]
*[[Pāṇini]]
*[[Sanskrit grammar]]

;Other languages
*[[Alphabet song]]
*[[Iroha]], a Japanese poem with similar function
*[[Thousand Character Classic]], Chinese poem with similar function, esp. used in Korea

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== Glossary ==
{{notelist-lg|15em}}

==References==
{{reflist|15em}}

==Bibliography==

*{{cite book |last= Böhtlingk |first = Otto |title=Pâṇini's Grammatik |year= 1887 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}
*{{cite book |last= Vasu |first = Chandra |title=The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini |year= 1891 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}} (Books I to VIII reflecting the original)
*{{cite book |last= Cardona |first = George |title=Pāṇini - His work and its traditions |year= 1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0419-8 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/siva-t.pdf] Paper by [[Paul Kiparsky]] on 'Economy and the Construction of the Śiva sūtras'
*[http://kornai.com/Papers/mol2.pdf] Paper by [[Andras Kornai]] relating the Śiva sūtras to contemporary [[Feature Geometry]].
*[http://user.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~petersen/paper/petersen_jolli_proof.pdf] Paper by Wiebke Petersen on 'A Mathematical Analysis of Pāṇini’s Śiva sūtras.'
*[https://www.scribd.com/doc/81266812/Who-Inspired-Panini-Reconstructing-the-Hindu-and-Buddhist-Counter-Claims-Madhav-M-Deshpande] Paper by Madhav Deshpande on 'Who Inspired Pāṇini? Reconstructing the Hindu and Buddhist Counter-Claims.'

[[Category:Vyakarana]]
[[Category:Collation]]
[[Category:Shaiva texts]]
[[Category:Sanskrit texts]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]

Shiva Sutras - Revision history

UpdateBot at 23:50, 6 April 2022

imported>CircularToucan: /* Consonant groups */ Typo Team Moss.