Shaka era - Revision history

84.213.187.136 at 10:34, 3 January 2022

2022-01-03T10:34:23Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:04, 3 January 2022
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	~~:''This is about the~~ historical calendar era~~. For the~~ "Śaka calendar" of 1957~~, see [[~~Indian national calendar~~]].''~~		{{About\|historical calendar era\|"Śaka calendar" of 1957\|Indian national calendar}}
	[[File:Western Satrap Damasena year 153.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|Coin of [[Western Satrap]] ruler [[Damasena]]. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg\|Brahmi script numerals]]) of the Saka era, therefore 231 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.]]		[[File:Western Satrap Damasena year 153.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|Coin of [[Western Satrap]] ruler [[Damasena]]. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg\|Brahmi script numerals]]) of the Saka era, therefore 231 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.]]
	[[File:Nepal30005a.JPG\|thumb\|250px\|Mohar of Gorkhali king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] dated Shaka era 1685 (AD 1763)]]		[[File:Nepal30005a.JPG\|thumb\|250px\|Mohar of Gorkhali king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] dated Shaka era 1685 (AD 1763)]]
	The '''Shaka era''' ([[IAST]]: '''Śaka, Śāka''') or ''Shalivahana Śaka'' is a historical [[calendar era]] (year numbering), the [[epoch]] (its year zero){{refn \|Like most Indian eras, the Śaka era uses expired, elapsed, or complete years, where a year must have elapsed before it can be counted. This is similar to the Western method of determining a person's age, whose first year must have been completed before that person reaches one year old. The uncounted first year of the era is numbered as year zero. This differs from Western eras which use current years.<ref name=Report/>}} of which corresponds to [[Julian year (calendar)\|Julian year]] 78. It is commonly known in Indian languages as ''Shalivahana Śaka'' ("era of [[Shalivahana]]") or in [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription\|RTGS]] ''Mahasakkarat'' ("Greater Era") and continues to be used in traditional calendars.<ref name=Report>{{citation \|author=Government of India \|title=Report of the Calendar Reform Committee \|chapter=The Saka Era \|chapter-url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/39692 \|year=1955 \|pages=255–256}}</ref>		The '''Shaka era''' ([[IAST]]: '''Śaka, Śāka''') or ''Shalivahana Śaka'' is a historical Hindu [[calendar era]] (year numbering), the [[epoch]] (its year zero){{refn \|Like most Indian eras, the Śaka era uses expired, elapsed, or complete years, where a year must have elapsed before it can be counted. This is similar to the Western method of determining a person's age, whose first year must have been completed before that person reaches one year old. The uncounted first year of the era is numbered as year zero. This differs from Western eras which use current years.<ref name=Report/>}} of which corresponds to [[Julian year (calendar)\|Julian year]] 78. It is commonly known in Indian languages as ''Shalivahana Śaka'' ("era of [[Shalivahana]]") or in [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription\|RTGS]] ''Mahasakkarat'' ("Greater Era") and continues to be used in traditional calendars.<ref name=Report>{{citation \|author=Government of India \|title=Report of the Calendar Reform Committee \|chapter=The Saka Era \|chapter-url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/39692 \|year=1955 \|pages=255–256}}</ref>

	==History==		==History==

	~~The origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial.{{sfn\|Richard Salomon\|1998\|p=182–184}}~~ There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina inscriptions and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other is called ''Saka Era of 78 CE'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the ''Vikrama Era'', which is used by the [[Vikrami calendar]] linked to Vikramaditya.{{sfn\|Richard Salomon\|1998\|p=181–183}}		There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina inscriptions and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other is called ''Saka Era of 78 CE'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the ''Vikrama Era'', which is used by the [[Vikrami calendar]] linked to Vikramaditya.{{sfn\|Richard Salomon\|1998\|p=181–183}}

	The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of king [[Chashtana]] in 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA69 \|title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE \|editor=Patrick Olivelle \|chapter=Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta interlude in the Gangetic Plains \|author=Shailendra Bhandare \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2006 \|isbn=9780199775071 \|page=69 }}</ref> His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in [[Kutch]] region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).<ref>{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkOdPtZmVcC&pg=PA193 \|title=Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy \|editor1=Adalbert J. Gail \|editor2=Gerd J. R. Mevissen \|editor3=Richard Salomon \|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] \|year=2006 \|page=193 \|isbn=9788120829442 }}</ref> A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of [[Kanishka I]] in 78 CE.{{sfn\|Richard Salomon\|1998\|p=182–184}} However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE.<ref>{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 \|title=Greek Gods in the East \|author=Ladislav Stančo \|publisher= [[Karolinum Press]] \|year=2012 \|page=18 \|isbn=9788024620459 }}</ref> Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a [[Kushana]] ruler.<ref name="KCS_1992">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA135 \|title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India \|author=Krishna Chandra Sagar \|publisher=Northern Book Centre \|year=1992 \|isbn=9788172110284 \|pages=135–136 }}</ref> Other historical candidates have included rulers such as [[Vima Kadphises]], [[Vonones II\|Vonones]], and [[Nahapana]].<ref name="KCS_1992"/>		The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of king [[Chashtana]] in 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA69 \|title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE \|editor=Patrick Olivelle \|chapter=Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta interlude in the Gangetic Plains \|author=Shailendra Bhandare \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|year=2006 \|isbn=9780199775071 \|page=69 }}</ref> His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in [[Kutch]] region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).<ref>{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkOdPtZmVcC&pg=PA193 \|title=Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy \|editor1=Adalbert J. Gail \|editor2=Gerd J. R. Mevissen \|editor3=Richard Salomon \|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] \|year=2006 \|page=193 \|isbn=9788120829442 }}</ref> A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of [[Kanishka I]] in 78 CE.{{sfn\|Richard Salomon\|1998\|p=182–184}} However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE.<ref>{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 \|title=Greek Gods in the East \|author=Ladislav Stančo \|publisher= [[Karolinum Press]] \|year=2012 \|page=18 \|isbn=9788024620459 }}</ref> Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a [[Kushana]] ruler.<ref name="KCS_1992">{{cite book \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA135 \|title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India \|author=Krishna Chandra Sagar \|publisher=Northern Book Centre \|year=1992 \|isbn=9788172110284 \|pages=135–136 }}</ref> Other historical candidates have included rulers such as [[Vima Kadphises]], [[Vonones II\|Vonones]], and [[Nahapana]].<ref name="KCS_1992"/>
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	* [[Vikram Samvat]]		* [[Vikram Samvat]]
	* [[Indian national calendar]]		* [[Indian national calendar]]
			* [[Gregorian calendar]]
			* [[Rudrasimha I]]

	==References==		==References==

imported>Florian Blaschke: My understand is that Śaka Era is converted into Christian Era by adding 78, as the other examples in the article imply the same.

2021-07-25T00:02:32Z

My understand is that Śaka Era is converted into Christian Era by adding 78, as the other examples in the article imply the same.

New page

:''This is about the historical calendar era. For the "Śaka calendar" of 1957, see [[Indian national calendar]].''
[[File:Western Satrap Damasena year 153.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of [[Western Satrap]] ruler [[Damasena]]. The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 in [[:File:Brahmi numeral signs.svg|Brahmi script numerals]]) of the Saka era, therefore 231 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.]]
[[File:Nepal30005a.JPG|thumb|250px|Mohar of Gorkhali king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] dated Shaka era 1685 (AD 1763)]]
The '''Shaka era''' ([[IAST]]: '''Śaka, Śāka''') or ''Shalivahana Śaka'' is a historical [[calendar era]] (year numbering), the [[epoch]] (its year zero){{refn |Like most Indian eras, the Śaka era uses expired, elapsed, or complete years, where a year must have elapsed before it can be counted. This is similar to the Western method of determining a person's age, whose first year must have been completed before that person reaches one year old. The uncounted first year of the era is numbered as year zero. This differs from Western eras which use current years.<ref name=Report/>}} of which corresponds to [[Julian year (calendar)|Julian year]] 78. It is commonly known in Indian languages as ''Shalivahana Śaka'' ("era of [[Shalivahana]]") or in [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription|RTGS]] ''Mahasakkarat'' ("Greater Era") and continues to be used in traditional calendars.<ref name=Report>{{citation |author=Government of India |title=Report of the Calendar Reform Committee |chapter=The Saka Era |chapter-url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/39692 |year=1955 |pages=255–256}}</ref>

==History==

The origin of the Shaka era is highly controversial.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called ''Old Shaka Era'', whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist and Jaina inscriptions and texts use it, but this is a subject of dispute among scholars. The other is called ''Saka Era of 78 CE'', or simply ''Saka Era'', a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. A parallel northern India system is the ''Vikrama Era'', which is used by the [[Vikrami calendar]] linked to Vikramaditya.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=181–183}}

The beginning of the Shaka era is now widely equated to the ascension of king [[Chashtana]] in 78 CE.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA69 |title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |editor=Patrick Olivelle |chapter=Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta interlude in the Gangetic Plains |author=Shailendra Bhandare |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780199775071 |page=69 }}</ref> His inscriptions, dated to the years 11 and 52, have been found at Andhau in [[Kutch]] region. These years are interpreted as Shaka years 11 (89 CE) and 52 (130 CE).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwkOdPtZmVcC&pg=PA193 |title=Script and Image: Papers on Art and Epigraphy |editor1=Adalbert J. Gail |editor2=Gerd J. R. Mevissen |editor3=Richard Salomon |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=2006 |page=193 |isbn=9788120829442 }}</ref> A previously more common view was that the beginning of the Shaka era corresponds to the ascension of [[Kanishka I]] in 78 CE.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} However, the latest research by Henry Falk indicates that Kanishka ascended the throne in 127 CE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKJyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |title=Greek Gods in the East |author=Ladislav Stančo |publisher= [[Karolinum Press]] |year=2012 |page=18 |isbn=9788024620459 }}</ref> Moreover, Kanishka was not a Shaka, but a [[Kushana]] ruler.<ref name="KCS_1992">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA135 |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |author=Krishna Chandra Sagar |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1992 |isbn=9788172110284 |pages=135–136 }}</ref> Other historical candidates have included rulers such as [[Vima Kadphises]], [[Vonones II|Vonones]], and [[Nahapana]].<ref name="KCS_1992"/>

According to historian [[Dineshchandra Sircar]], the historically inaccurate notion of "Shalivahana era" appears to be based on the victory of the [[Satavahana]] ruler [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] over some Shaka ([[Western Kshatrapa]]) kings. Sircar also suggests that the association of the northern king Vikramaditya with [[Vikrama era]] (also historically inaccurate) might have led the southern scholars to fabricate a similar legend of their own.<ref name="DCS_1965">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA262 |title=Indian Epigraphy |author=D. C. Sircar |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1965 |pages=262–266 |isbn=9788120811669 }}</ref> Another similar account claims that the emperor Shalivahana,<ref>{{cite book|author=kamlesh kapur |title= History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&q=shalivahan+ujjain&pg=PA321 |year=2010|publisher= Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd |page=321|isbn=978-81-207-5212-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=RajendraSingh Kushwaha|title=Glimpses of Bhartiya History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZuAAAAMAAJ&q=shalivahan |year=2003|publisher= Ocean books|page=184|isbn=9788188322404 }}</ref> grandson of legendary emperor Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas in 78 CE, and the Shaka era marks the day of this conquest. This legend has been mentioned in the writings of [[Brahmagupta]] (7th century CE), [[Al-Biruni]] (973-1048 CE), and others.{{sfn|Richard Salomon|1998|p=182–184}} Over time, the word "Shaka" became generic, and came to be mean "an era"; the era thus came to be known as "Shalivahana Shaka".<ref>{{cite book |author=P. V. Jagadisa Ayyar |title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSGFW1uZboC&pg=PA80 |year=1982 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=978-81-206-0151-2 |pages=80–81 }}</ref>

==Usage==

The earliest known users of the era are the [[Western Satraps]], the [[Saka|Shaka]] ([[Indo-Scythians|Indo-Scythian]]) rulers of [[Ujjain]]. From the reign of [[Rudrasimha I]] (178–197), they recorded the date of minting of their coins in the Shaka era, usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in [[Brahmi numerals]].<ref>Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc." p. CCVIII</ref>

The use of the calendar era survived into the [[Gupta period]] and became part of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] tradition following the [[decline of Buddhism in India]]. It was in widespread use by the 6th to 7th centuries, e.g. in the works of [[Varāhamihira]] and [[Brahmagupta]], and by the 7th century also appears in epigraphy in [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu Southeast Asia]].

The calendar era remained in use in India and Southeast Asia throughout the medieval period, the main alternative era in traditional Hindu timekeeping being the [[Vikram Samvat]] era (56 BC). It was used by Javanese courts until 1633, when it was replaced by [[Anno Javanico]], a hybrid Javanese-Islamic system.<ref>{{Cite book | isbn = 9780804721950 | last = Ricklefs | first = Merle Calvin | title = A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 | year = 1993 | publisher = Stanford University Press and Macmillans | edition = 2nd |pages=5 and 46}}</ref> It was adopted as the era of the [[Indian national calendar]] (also known as "Śaka calendar") in 1957 but not widely used.

The Shaka era is the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]] of the year AD 78. The year of the official Shaka Calendar is tied to the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian date]] of 22 March every year, except in Gregorian leap years when it starts on 21 March. The Lunisolar Shalivaahana Saka continues to be used widely in Southern and Western India for many religious and some secular purposes such as sowing and agriculture.

==See also==
* [[Vikram Samvat]]
* [[Indian national calendar]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA181|year=1998|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3}}
{{ref end}}

{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book|author=RajendraSingh Kushwaha|title=Glimpses of Bhartiya History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZuAAAAMAAJ&q=shalivahan|year=2003|publisher= Ocean books|page=184|isbn=9788188322404 }}
{{ref end}}

[[Category:Hindu calendar]]
[[Category:Calendar eras]]