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{{Short description|Species of tree in Sandalwood family}}
{{Speciesbox
|image = Santalum_album_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-128.jpg
|image_caption =
|status = VU
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Arunkumar, A.N. |author2=Dhyani, A. |author3=Joshi, G. |date=2019 |title=''Santalum album'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T31852A2807668 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T31852A2807668.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
|genus = Santalum
|species = album
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
[[File:檀香 Santalum album 20210712091332 04.jpg|thumb|x292px|The light green calyx gradually turns dark red. Some calyces have four sepals and some have five.]]

'''''Santalum album''''', or '''Indian sandalwood''', is a small tropical tree, and the traditional source of [[sandalwood oil]]. It is native to southern [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. It is considered sacred in some religions like [[Hinduism]], and some cultures place great significance on its fragrant qualities. However, the high value of the species has caused [[over-exploitation]], to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to [[species extinction|extinction]]. Indian sandalwood still commands high prices for its [[essential oil]] owing to its high [[alpha santalol]] content, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine [[woodworking]] as before. The plant is long-lived, but harvest is only viable after many years.

==Description==
[[File:Santalum album (Chandan) in Hyderabad, AP W2 IMG 0023.jpg|thumb|left|Flowers in [[Hyderabad, India]]. ]]
''Santalum album is an'' evergreen tree that grows between {{Convert|4-9|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fatima |first1=Tanzeem |last2=Srivastava |first2=Ashutosh |last3=Somashekar |first3=P. V. |last4=Hanur |first4=Vageeshbabu S. |last5=Rao |first5=M. Srinivasa |last6=Bisht |first6=Surendra Singh |date=July 2019 |title=Assessment of morphological and genetic variability through genic microsatellite markers for essential oil in Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) |journal=3 Biotech |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=252 |doi=10.1007/s13205-019-1758-9 |issn=2190-572X |pmc=6555841 |pmid=31192077}}</ref> The tree is variable in habit, usually upright to sprawling, and may intertwine with other species. The plant [[parasitise]]s the roots of other tree species, with a [[haustorium]] adaptation on its own roots, but without major detriment to its hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spallek |first1=Thomas |last2=Melnyk |first2=Charles W. |last3=Wakatake |first3=Takanori |last4=Zhang |first4=Jing |last5=Sakamoto |first5=Yuki |last6=Kiba |first6=Takatoshi |last7=Yoshida |first7=Satoko |last8=Matsunaga |first8=Sachihiro |last9=Sakakibara |first9=Hitoshi |last10=Shirasu |first10=Ken |date=2017-05-16 |title=Interspecies hormonal control of host root morphology by parasitic plants |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=114 |issue=20 |pages=5283–5288 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1619078114 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5441792 |pmid=28461500|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.5283S |doi-access=free }}</ref> An individual will form a non-[[Obligate parasite|obligate]] relationship with a number of other plants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Santalaceae - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/santalaceae |access-date=2022-06-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Up to 300 species (including its own) can host the tree's development - supplying [[macronutrient]]s [[phosphorus]], [[nitrogen]] and [[potassium]], and shade - especially during early phases of development. It may propagate itself through wood [[Sucker (botany)|suckering]] during its early development, establishing small stands. The reddish or brown [[Bark (botany)|bark]] can be almost black and is smooth in young trees, becoming cracked with a red reveal. The [[heartwood]] is pale green to white as the common name indicates. The [[leaves]] are thin, opposite and ovate to [[Leaf shape|lanceolate]] in shape. Glabrous surface is shiny and bright green, with a glaucous pale reverse. [[Fruit]] is produced after three years, viable seeds after five. These seeds are distributed by birds.
[[File:Santalum album Fruit Krish.jpg|thumb|A ripened fruit of ''Santalum album'' from [[Panchkhal]] Valley, [[Nepal]].]]

== Taxonomy ==

=== History ===

''Santalum album'' has been known for four thousand years by its [[Sanskrit]] name ''chandana''. The first extraction of its essential oil occurred in [[Mysore]], India in 1917. For many years, the oils were extracted in the perfumeries at [[Grasse]], France. Production is now controlled by the Indian state, and demand exceeds supply.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|pp=12-14}}

=== Nomenclature ===
{{see also|Sandalwood}}
The [[nomenclature]] for other "sandalwoods" and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. Etymologically it is derived from Sanskrit ''chandanam'', meaning "wood for burning incense", and related to ''candrah'', meaning "shining, glowing".<ref>{{cite web | title=Sandalwood (n.) | website=Online Etymology Dictionary | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/sandalwood | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref>

''Santalum album'' is included in the family [[Santalaceae]], and is commonly known as white or East Indian sandalwood.<ref>[http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=62651-3 ''Santalum''] ([[IPNI]])</ref> The name, ''Santalum ovatum'', used by [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|Robert Brown]] in ''[[Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae]]'' (1810) was described as a synonym of this species by [[Alex George (botanist)|Alex George]] in 1984.<ref>{{APNI|name = ''Santalum ovatum''|id=7316}} George, A.S. & Hewson, H.J. in George, A.S. (Ed) (1984), ''[[Flora of Australia]]'' 22: 61, 63, Fig. 18D, Map 71</ref> The epithet ''album'' refers to the "white" of the heartwood.

The species was the first to be known as sandalwood. Other species in the genus ''[[Santalum]]'', such as the Australian ''[[Santalum spicatum|S. spicatum]]'', are also referred to as true sandalwoods, to distinguish them from trees with similar-smelling wood or oil.

=== Phytochemistry ===

Sandalwood oil consists of about 80% α-[[Alpha-Santalol|santalol]] and [[Beta-Santalol|β-santolol]], predominantly the former, which are [[sesquiterpene]]s. Attempts to synthesise these date to 1947 by [[Givaudan]] in Switzerland. The resulting [[isobornyl cyclohexanol]] can be distinguished from santolol, but is much cheaper. Since then other synthetic sandalwood oils have been used in [[Laundry detergent|laundry detergents]] and textiles.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=14}} Three of the [[Terpene#Biosynthesis|terpene synthase]] [[gene]]s producing components employed in [[host defense]] are present in ''S. album''.<ref name="Harrasi-et-al-2021">{{cite journal | last1=Al-Harrasi | first1=Ahmed | last2=Khan | first2=Abdul Latif | last3=Rehman | first3=Najeeb Ur | last4=Csuk | first4=René | title=Biosynthetic diversity in triterpene cyclization within the ''Boswellia'' genus | journal=[[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] | volume=184 | year=2021 | issn=0031-9422 | doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.112660 | page=112660 | s2cid=231755434 | pmid=33524859| bibcode=2021PChem.184k2660A }}</ref><ref name="Zhang-et-al-2019">{{cite journal | last1=Zhang | first1=Xinhua | last2=Niu | first2=Meiyun | last3=Teixeira da Silva | first3=Jaime A. | last4=Zhang | first4=Yueya | last5=Yuan | first5=Yunfei | last6=Jia | first6=Yongxia | last7=Xiao | first7=Yangyang | last8=Li | first8=Yuan | last9=Fang | first9=Lin | last10=Zeng | first10=Songjun | last11=Ma | first11=Guohua | title=Identification and functional characterization of three new terpene synthase genes involved in chemical defense and abiotic stresses in ''Santalum album'' | journal=[[BMC Plant Biology]] | volume=19 | issue=1 | date=2019-03-28 | page=115 | issn=1471-2229 | doi=10.1186/s12870-019-1720-3| pmid=30922222 | pmc=6437863 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Distribution==
''Santalum album'' is indigenous to the tropical belt of the peninsular India, eastern Indonesia and northern Australia.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Orwa |first1=Mutua |title=Santalum album L. (Orwa et al.2009) |url=http://old.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Santalum_album.PDF |website=old.worldagroforestry.org |publisher=Agroforestry Database |access-date= 4 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dhanya |first1=Bhaskar |first2=Syam |last2=Viswanath |first3=Seema |last3=Purushothman |title=Sandal (Santalum album L.) conservation in southern India: A review of policies and their impacts |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266268084 |journal=Journal of Tropical Agriculture |volume=48 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–10 |year=2010 |access-date=12 June 2010}}</ref> The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Orwa |first1=Mutua |title=Santalum album L. (Orwa et al.2009) |url=http://old.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Santalum_album.PDF |website=old.worldagroforestry.org |publisher=Agroforestry Database |access-date= 4 April 2009}}</ref> There is still debate as to whether ''S. album'' is native to Australia and India or was introduced by fishermen, traders or birds from southeast Asia centuries ago.<ref name="Zumbroich2007">{{cite journal |last1=Zumbroich |first1=Thomas J. |title=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond |journal=eJournal of Indian Medicine |date=2007–2008 |volume=1 |pages=87–140 |url=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Orwa |first1=Mutua |title=''Santalum album'' L. |url=http://old.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Santalum_album.PDF |website=old.worldagroforestry.org |publisher=Agroforestry Database |access-date= 4 April 2009}}</ref>

Sandalwood is now cultivated in [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]] and Northern [[Australia]].

==Habitat and growth==
[[File:SantalumAlbumLeaf.jpg|thumb|left]]
''S. album'' occurs from coastal [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry forests]] up to {{convert|700| m}} elevation. It normally grows in sandy or well drained stony red soils, but a wide range of soil types are inhabited. This habitat has a temperature range from {{convert|0 to 38|C}} and annual rainfall between {{convert|500|mm}} and {{convert|3000|mm}}. ''S. album'' can grow up to {{convert|30 |feet|order=flip}} vertically. It should be planted in good sunlight and does not require a lot of water. The tree starts to flower after 7 years. When the tree is still young the flowers are white and with age they turn red or orange. The trunk of the tree starts to develop its fragrance after about 10 years of growth, but is not ready to harvest till after 20. The tree rarely lives more than 100 years.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=12}}

==Conservation==
''S. album'' is recognized as a "vulnerable" species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sandalwoodoilspecialist.com/the-sandalwood-tree/conservation-environmental/|title=CONSERVATION & ENVIRONMENTAL {{!}}|last=teamKraftt|website=sandalwoodoilspecialist.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-05}}</ref> It is threatened by [[over-exploitation]] and degradation to [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] through altered land use, fire (to which this species is extremely sensitive), [[Sandal spike phytoplasma|Spike disease]], agriculture, and land-clearing are the factors of most concern. To preserve this [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] resource from over-exploitation, legislation protects the species, and cultivation is researched and developed.<ref>http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncnl2-54.htm University of Queensland site's detail</ref><ref>[http://www.australian-aridlands-botanic-garden.org/general/plants/p_spec/sawo.htm Australian Arid Lands Botanic Garden - Plants: Sandalwood, Santalum spicatum]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/sandalwood_detail.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2007-01-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920204549/http://www.fpc.wa.gov.au/pdfs/sandalwood_detail.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-20 }} WA Gov site's detail</ref>

Until 2002, individuals in India were not allowed to grow sandalwood. Due to its scarcity, sandalwood is not allowed to be cut or harvested by individuals. The State grants specific permission to officials who then can cut down the tree and sell its wood.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/gardens/time-to-lift-restrictions-on-planting-sandalwood/article7285956.ece|title=Time to lift restrictions on planting sandalwood?|last=Vijay|first=Hema|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-04-05|language=en}}</ref> The Indian government has placed a ban on the export of the timber.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

==Uses and production==
[[File:SantalumAlbumSapling.jpg|thumb|Young sapling]]
''S. album'' has been the primary source of sandalwood and the [[sandalwood oil|derived oil]]. These often hold an important place within the societies of its naturalised distribution range. The central part of the tree, the heartwood, is the only part of the tree that is used for its fragrance. It is yellow-brown in color, hard with an oily texture and due to its durability, is the perfect material for carving. The outer part of the tree, the sapwood, is unscented. The sapwood is white or yellow in color and is used to make turnery items. The high value of sandalwood has led to attempts at cultivation, this has increased the [[Population distribution|distribution]] range of the plant. It was valued in construction, since it was considered rotproof.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=12}}

The [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] Standard for the accepted characteristics of this essential oil is ISO 3518:2002.<ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=32037 ISO 3518:2002]</ref> HPTLC and GC,{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} GC-MS based methods are used for qualitative and quantitative analyses of the volatile <ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Misra | first1 = Biswapriya B. | last2 = Das | first2 = Shibendu S. | last3 = Dey | first3 = Satyahari | year = 2013| title = Volatile profiling from heartwood of East Indian sandalwood tree | journal = Journal of Pharmacy Research | volume = 7 | issue = 4| pages = 299–303 | doi = 10.1016/j.jopr.2013.04.030 | doi-access = free }}</ref> essential oil constituents.

Indian sandalwood has a high [[alpha santalol|santalol]] content, at about 90%, compared with the other main source of the oil, the cheaper{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=14}} ''[[Santalum spicatum]]'' (Australian sandalwood), at around 39%, and India used to dominate production of sandalwood oil world-wide, but the industry has been in decline in the 21st century.<ref name="Yousaf 2012">{{cite web | last=Yousaf | first=Shamsheer | title=Indian sandalwood production set to lose home ground edge | website=mint | date=25 January 2012 | url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/BDsfOQH2DCWR5ikaMVlaqI/Indian-sandalwood-production-set-to-lose-home-ground-edge.html | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> Another source is ''[[Santalum austrocaledonicum]]'' from New Caledonia. Sandalwood is used in the production of the [[perfume]] Samsara by [[Guerlain]] (1989).{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=14}}

The long maturation period and difficulty in cultivation have restricted extensive planting. Harvest of the tree involves several curing and processing stages, also adding to the commercial value. The wood and oil are in high demand and are an important trade item in three main regions:

===India===

The use of ''S. album'' in India is noted in literature for over two thousand years. It has use as wood and oil in religious practices, and was burned in cremation. In modern times only a small fragment is added to the [[pyre]] for symbolic purposes.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=12}} It also features as a construction material in temples and elsewhere. The [[Government of India|Indian government]] has banned the export of the species to reduce the threat by over-harvesting. In the southern Indian states of [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]],<ref name=karn/> and [[Tamil Nadu]] all trees of greater than a specified girth were the property of the state until 2001/2.<ref name="Yousaf 2012"/> Cutting of trees, even on private property, was regulated by the Forest Department.<ref name=karn>[http://karnatakaforest.gov.in/English/Acts_Rules/acts/KFD_Manual_1976.pdf Karnataka Forest Department Rules] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217051358/http://www.karnatakaforest.gov.in/English/Acts_Rules/acts/KFD_Manual_1976.pdf |date=2007-02-17 }}</ref> After that, they were allowed to be sold to private growers, but the product can only be sold to the state forest department. Annual production fell from a high of 4,000 tonnes in the early 1970s, to fewer than 300 tonnes in 2011. The decline is blamed on government policy and [[over-exploitation]], and moves have been made to encourage planters to grow the trees again.<ref name="Yousaf 2012"/>

===Australia===
The native species, ''[[Santalum spicatum]]'', is more common and extensively grown in [[Western Australia]], but {{as of|lc=yes|2020}} there are two commercial Indian sandalwood plantations in full operation based in [[Kununurra]], in the far north of Western Australia: Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services), which in 2017 controlled around 80 per cent of the world's supply of Indian sandalwood,<ref>{{cite web | title=Tropical Forestry Services becomes Quintis as the company shifts focus|first=Clint|last= Jasper| website=ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) | date=21 March 2017 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/rural-news/2017-03-22/tropical-forestry-services-rebrands-sandalwood-co-to-quintis/8374366 | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> and Santanol.<ref>{{cite web | title=About Santanol | website=Santanol | url=https://santanol.com/about-santanol/ | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref>

=== Comoros ===
Indian sandalwood is grated against a stone, coral, or ceramic surface to make a sun-protective medicinal paste called [[msindzano]], worn on the faces of women and girls in Comoros.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

===Sri Lanka===
The harvesting of sandalwood is preferred to be of trees that are advanced in age. Saleable wood can, however, be of trees as young as seven years. The entire plant is removed rather than cut to the base, as in [[coppicing|coppiced]] species. The extensive removal of ''S. album'' over the past century led to increased vulnerability to extinction.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

{{as of |2020}}, small plantations of Indian sandalwood also exist in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Pacific Islands.<ref name=waspfaq>{{cite web | title=Frequently Asked Questions | website=WA Sandalwood Plantations | url=https://www.wasandalwood.com/faq | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref>

=== China ===

Sandalwood has been used over a longtime in China for the construction of statues and temples, and was burned in [[Censer|censers]] during religious rites.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=12}}

=== Egypt ===

Sandalwood was used for [[embalming]] [[Mummy|mummies]], and later was burned as part of Muslim funerals.{{sfn|Ellena|2022|p=12}}

==See also==
* [[Sandal spike phytoplasma]] - disease of ''S. album''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ellena |first=Jean-Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yrZNEAAAQBAJ |title=Atlas of Perfumed Botany |trans-title=Atlas de botanique parfumée|date=2022 |translator=Erik Butler|origyear=2020 Flammarion, Paris|publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]|isbn=978-0-262-04673-2 }}
{{refend}}

*{{Commons-inline}}
*{{Wikispecies-inline}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q210858}}

{{Karnataka topics}}

[[Category:Santalum|album]]
[[Category:Flora of India (region)]]
[[Category:Flora of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Essential oils]]
[[Category:Vulnerable plants]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]

Santalum album - Revision history

Mdfaisalahmed121: brief improve details per standard format further and updated info

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article