imported>Eievie: Number glos

2021-08-06T22:53:15Z

Number glos

New page

{{short description|Austro-Asiatic language spoken in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Santali
| nativename = ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ, संताली, সাঁওতালী, ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ,চাওঁতালি
| states = [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]]
| ethnicity = [[Santal people|Santal]]
| speakers = {{sigfig|7.645|2}} million
| date = 2011 census<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=7 July 2018}}</ref>
| ref = e21
| image = Santali written in Ol Chiki script.svg
| imagesize = 250
| imagecaption = The word "Santali" in [[Ol Chiki script]]
| familycolor = Austroasiatic
| fam2 = [[Munda languages|Munda]]
| fam3 = North
| fam4 = Kherwarian
| fam5 = Santhalic
| dia1 = Mahali (Mahli)
| script = Official: [[Ol Chiki script]]<ref>{{cite web |title=P and AR & e-Governance Dept. |url=http://wbpar.gov.in/writereaddata/Issue%20of%20Gazette%20Notification%20issued%20on%2027.02.2014.pd |website=wbpar.gov.in |access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref>
Others: [[Devanagari]], [[Bengali-Assamese script]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ethnologue.com/21/language/sat/ | title=Redirected| date=19 November 2019}}</ref> [[Odia script]], [[Roman script]]
| nation = {{flag|India}}
* [[Jharkhand]] (additional)
* [[West Bengal]] (additional)
| iso2 = sat
| lc1 = sat
| ld1 = Santali
| lc2 = mjx
| ld2 = Mahali
| glotto = sant1410
| glottoname = Santali
| glotto2 = maha1291
| glottoname2 = Mahali
| map =
}}

[[File:WIKITONGUES- Sathi speaking Santhali.webm|thumb|A girl speaking Santali.]]
'''Santali''' ([[Ol Chiki]]: {{Lang|sat|ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ}}), also known as '''Santhali''', is the most widely spoken language of the [[Munda languages|Munda]] subfamily of the [[Austroasiatic languages]], related to [[Ho language|Ho]] and [[Mundari language|Mundari]], spoken mainly in the Indian states of [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Mizoram]], [[Odisha]], [[Tripura]] and [[West Bengal]].<ref name="e18"/> It is a recognised regional language of India per the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule]] of the Indian Constitution.<ref name="2001census" /> It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]], making it the third most-spoken [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] language after [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and [[Khmer language|Khmer]].{{Infobox language/ref|e18|lc1=sat|ld1=Santhali|lc2=mjx|ld2=Mahali|refname=}}

Santali was a mainly oral language until the development of [[Ol Chiki script|Ol Chiki]] by Pandit [[Raghunath Murmu]] in 1925. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts, and is now widely used to write Santali in India.

==History==
According to linguist [[Paul Sidwell]], [[Munda languages]] probably arrived on the coast of [[Odisha]] from [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indochina]] about 4000–3500 years ago, and spread after the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] to Odisha.<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2018. [https://www.academia.edu/36689736/Austroasiatic_Studies_state_of_the_art_in_2018 Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522203539/https://www.academia.edu/36689736/Austroasiatic_Studies_state_of_the_art_in_2018 |date=22 May 2018}} Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, 22 May 2018.</ref>

Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no [[written language]] and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the [[languages of India]] led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]], [[Odia script|Odia]] and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, [[Lars Olsen Skrefsrud|Lars Skrefsrud]] and [[Paul Olaf Bodding|Paul Bodding]]. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.

The [[Ol Chiki script]] was created for Santali by [[Mayurbhanj State|Mayurbhanj]] poet [[Raghunath Murmu]] in 1925 and first publicised in 1939.<ref name="Hembram">{{cite book|last1=Hembram|first1=Phatik Chandra|title=Santhali, a Natural Language|date=2002|publisher=U. Hembram|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIlkAAAAMAAJ|language=en}}</ref>

Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.<ref name="scriptsource">{{cite web |url=http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Olck |title=Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet', Ol, Santali) |website=Scriptsource.org |access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="andovar">{{cite web |url=http://www.andovar.com/resource-center/languages/santali-localization/|title=Santali Localization |website=Andovar.com |access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref> However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.

Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission of India]] decided to introduce the language in the [[National Eligibility Test]] to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ugcnetonline.in/Subject_Code_95.pdf|title=Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013|access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

== Geographic distribution ==
The highest concentrations of Santali speakers are in [[Santhal Pargana division]], as well as [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]] and [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]] districts of Jharkhand, the Jangalmahals region of West Bengal ([[Jhargram district|Jhargram]], [[Bankura district|Bankura]] and [[Purulia district|Purulia]] districts) and [[Mayurbhanj district]] of Odisha.

Smaller pockets of Santhal speakers are found in the northern Chota Nagpur plateau ([[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]], [[Giridih district|Giridih]], [[Ramgarh district|Ramgarh]], [[Bokaro district|Bokaro]] and [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]] districts), [[Balasore district|Balasore]] and [[Kendujhar district|Kendujhar]] districts of Odisha, and throughout western and northern West Bengal ([[Birbhum district|Birbhum]], [[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]], [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]], [[Paschim Bardhaman district|Paschim Bardhaman]], [[Purba Bardhaman district|Purba Bardhaman]], [[Malda district|Malda]], [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]], [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]] and [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]] districts), [[Banka district]] and [[Purnia division]] of Bihar ([[Araria district|Araria]], [[Katihar district|Katihar]], [[Purnia district|Purnia]] and [[Kishanganj district|Kishanganj]] districts), and tea-garden regions of Assam ([[Kokrajhar district|Kokrajhar]], [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]], [[Chirang district|Chirang]] and [[Udalguri district|Udalguri]] districts). Outside India, the language is spoken in pockets of [[Rangpur Division|Rangpur]] and [[Rajshahi Division|Rajshahi]] divisions of northern Bangladesh as well as the [[Morang District|Morang]] and [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] districts in the Terai of [[Province No. 1]] in Nepal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sat|title=Santhali|website=Ethnologue|access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="ht">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/santhali-becomes-india-s-first-tribal-language-to-get-own-wikipedia-edition/story-fUP5LRZI0lEBlVGNCjW5cK.html|title=Santhali becomes India's first tribal language to get own Wikipedia edition|date=9 August 2018|work=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=22 February 2019}}</ref>

Santali is spoken by over seven million people across [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Nepal]].<ref name="e18" /> According to [[2011 Indian census|2011 census]], India has a total of 7,368,192 Santali speakers.<ref>{{cite web |title=SCHEDULED LANGUAGES IN DESCENDING ORDER OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH - 2011 |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-4.pdf |website=census.gov.in |access-date=17 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ABSTRACT OF SPEAKERS' STRENGTH OF LANGUAGES AND MOTHER TONGUES - 2011 |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |website=census.gov.in |access-date=17 December 2019}}</ref> State wise distribution is [[Jharkhand]] (3.27 million), [[West Bengal]] (2.43 million), [[Odisha]] (0.86 million), [[Bihar]] (0.46 million), [[Assam]] (0.21 million) and a few thousand in each of [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Mizoram]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and [[Tripura]].<ref>{{cite web |title=PART-A: DISTRIBUTION OF THE 22 SCHEDULED LANGUAGES-INDIA/STATES/UNION TERRITORIES - 2011 CENSUS |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf |website=census.gov.in |access-date=17 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Official status ===
Santali is one of India's 22 scheduled languages.<ref name="2001census">{{cite web|title=Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/parta.htm|website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=Census of India|date=20 May 2013}}</ref> It is also recognised as the second state language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Second language |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/second-official-language-of-jharkhand-governor-syed-ahmad-143959-2011-10-22 |access-date=5 November 2019 |work=India Today |date=22 October 2011 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Anirban |title=West Bengal to have six more languages for official use |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/story/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-languages-134507-2011-05-27 |access-date=5 November 2019 |work=India Today |date=27 May 2011 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Dialects ===
Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Karmali (Khole), Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.<ref name="e18"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Glottolog 3.2 – Santali|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sant1410|website=glottolog.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="GRN">{{cite web|title=Santali: Paharia language|url=http://globalrecordings.net/en/language/16318|website=Global recordings network|access-date=26 February 2018|language=en}}</ref>

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===
Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur primarily, but not exclusively, in [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.<ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Gregory D.S. |title=The Munda verb: typological perspectives |year=2007 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2" |  
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| ({{IPA|ɳ}})*
| {{IPA|ɲ}}
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
|  
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! {{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA|p (pʰ)}}
| {{IPA|t (tʰ)}}
| {{IPA|ʈ (ʈʰ)}}
| {{IPA|c (cʰ)}}
| {{IPA|k (kʰ)}}
|  
|-
! {{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA|b (bʱ)}}
| {{IPA|d (dʱ)}}
| {{IPA|ɖ (ɖʱ)}}
| {{IPA|ɟ (ɟʱ)}}
| {{IPA|ɡ (ɡʱ)}}
|  
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|  
| {{IPA|s}}
|  
|  
|  
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|  
| {{IPA|r}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|  
|  
| {{IPA|ɽ}}
|  
|  
|  
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|  
| {{IPA|l}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Semivowel|Glide]]
| {{IPA|w}}
|  
|  
| {{IPA|j}}
|  
|  
|-
|}
:*{{IPA|ɳ}} only appears as an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/ɖ/}}.

In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.

=== Vowels ===
Santali has eight oral and six [[nasal vowel|nasal]] vowel phonemes. With the exception of /e o/, all oral vowels have a nasalized counterpart.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|High]]
| {{IPA|i ĩ}}
|  
| {{IPA|u ũ}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Mid-high]]
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ə ə̃}}
| {{IPA|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Mid-low]]
| {{IPA|ɛ ɛ̃}}
|  
| {{IPA|ɔ ɔ̃}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Low]]
|  
| {{IPA|a ã}}
|  
|-
|}

There are numerous diphthongs.

== Morphology ==
Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing [[agglutinating language]].

=== Nouns ===
Nouns are inflected for number and case.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=32}}

==== Number ====
Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|pp=32–33}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singular
| {{lang|sat|seta}}
| 'dog'
|-
! Dual
| {{lang|sat|seta-'''kin'''}}
| 'two dogs'
|-
! Plural
| {{lang|sat|seta-'''ko'''}}
| 'dogs'
|}

==== Case ====
The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|pp=34–38}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! Marker
! Function
|-
! [[Nominative]]
| -Ø
| Subject and object
|-
! [[Genitive]]
| {{lang|sat|-rɛn}} (animate) {{lang|sat|-ak'}}, {{lang|sat|-rɛak'}} (inanimate)
| Possessor
|-
! Comitative
| {{lang|sat|-ʈhɛn}}/{{lang|sat|-ʈhɛc'}}
| Goal, place
|-
! Instrumental-Locative
| {{lang|sat|-tɛ}}
| Instrument, cause, motion
|-
! [[Sociative case|Sociative]]
| {{lang|sat|-são}}
| Association
|-
! [[Allative]]
| {{lang|sat|-sɛn}}/{{lang|sat|-sɛc'}}
| Direction
|-
! [[Ablative]]
| {{lang|sat|-khɔn}}/{{lang|sat|-khɔc'}}
| Source, origin
|-
! Locative
| {{lang|sat|-rɛ}}
| Spatio-temporal location
|}

==== Possession ====
Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person ''-ɲ'', 2nd person ''-m'', 3rd person ''-t''. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=38}}

=== Pronouns ===
The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=41}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal pronouns
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|sat|iɲ}}
| {{lang|sat|əliɲ}}
| {{lang|sat|alɛ}}
|-
! inclusive
| {{lang|sat|alaŋ}}
| {{lang|sat|abo}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| {{lang|sat|am}}
| {{lang|sat|aben}}
| {{lang|sat|apɛ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! Anaphoric
| {{lang|sat|ac'}}
| {{lang|sat|əkin}}
| {{lang|sat|ako}}
|-
! Demonstrative
| {{lang|sat|uni}}
| {{lang|sat|unkin}}
| {{lang|sat|onko}}
|}

The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=43}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative pronouns
|-
!
! Animate
! Inanimate
|-
! Referential
| {{lang|sat|ɔkɔe}}
| {{lang|sat|oka}}
|-
! Non-referential
| {{lang|sat|cele}}
| {{lang|sat|cet'}}
|}

The indefinite pronouns are:{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=44}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indefinite pronouns
|-
!  
! Animate
! Inanimate
|-
| 'any'
| {{lang|sat|jãheã}}
| {{lang|sat|jãhã}}
|-
| 'some'
| {{lang|sat|adɔm}}
| {{lang|sat|adɔmak}}
|-
| 'another'
| {{lang|sat|ɛʈak'ic'}}
| {{lang|sat|ɛʈak'ak'}}
|}

The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=45}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Demonstratives
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Simple
! colspan="2" | Particular
|-
! Animate || Inanimate
! Animate || Inanimate
|-
! Proximate
| {{lang|sat|nui}}
| {{lang|sat|noa}}
| {{lang|sat|nii}}
| {{lang|sat|niə}}
|-
! Distal
| {{lang|sat|uni}}
| {{lang|sat|ona}}
| {{lang|sat|ini}}
| {{lang|sat|inə}}
|-
! Remote
| {{lang|sat|həni}}
| {{lang|sat|hana}}
| {{lang|sat|hini}}
| {{lang|sat|hinə}}
|}

=== Numerals ===
The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/Santali.htm |title= Santali|publisher=The Department of Linguistics, Max Planck Institute (Leipzig, Germany) |date= 2001|access-date=27 November 2017}}</ref> are:

{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:middle; background-color:#F8F9FA; color:#202122;"
|-
! 1
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱢᱤᱫ}}
| {{lang|sat|mit'}}
|-
! 2
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱵᱟᱨ}}
| {{lang|sat|bar}}
|-
! 3
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱯᱮ}}
| {{lang|sat|pɛ}}
|-
! 4
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱯᱩᱱ}}
| {{lang|sat|pon}}
|-
! 5
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱢᱚᱬᱮ}}
| {{lang|sat|mɔ̃ɽɛ̃}}
|-
! 6
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ}}
| {{lang|sat|turui}}
|-
! 7
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱮᱭᱟᱭ}}
| {{lang|sat|eae}}
|-
! 8
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ}}
| {{lang|sat|irəl}}
|-
! 9
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱟᱨᱮ}}
| {{lang|sat|arɛ}}
|-
! 10
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱜᱮᱞ}}
| {{lang|sat|gɛl}}
|-
! 20
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱤᱥᱤ}}
| {{lang|sat|-isi}}
|-
! 100
| {{wikt-lang|sat|ᱥᱟᱭ}}
| {{lang|sat|-sae}}
|}

The numerals are used with [[numeral classifier]]s. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. ''babar'' 'two each'.

Numbers basically follow a [[Decimal|base-10]] pattern. Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by addition, "gel" ('10') followed by the single-digit number (1 through 9). Multiples of ten are formed by multiplication: the single-digit number (2 through 9) is followed by "gel" ('10'). Some numbers are part of a base-20 number system. 20 can be "bar gel" or "isi".

{{fs interlinear|lang=sat|indent=3
|ᱯᱮ {} ᱜᱮᱞ { {{indent|10}} } or { {{indent|10}} } (ᱢᱤᱫ) {} ᱤᱥᱤ {} ᱜᱮᱞ
|pe {} gel {} or {} (mit’) {} isi {} gel
|({{no gloss|3}} × {{no gloss|10}}) {} or {} (({{no gloss|1}}) × {{no gloss|20}} + {{no gloss|10}})
|30}}

=== Verbs ===
Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject and sometimes of the object.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=53ff.}}

==== Subject markers ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! dual
! plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | ''-ɲ(iɲ)''
| ''-liɲ''
| ''-lɛ''
|-
! inclusive
| ''-laŋ''
| ''-bon''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ''-m''
| ''-ben''
| ''-pɛ''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
| ''-e''
| ''-kin''
| ''-ko''
|-
|}

==== Object markers ====
Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular
! dual
! plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | ''-iɲ-''
| ''-liɲ-''
| ''-lɛ-''
|-
! inclusive
| ''-laŋ-''
| ''-bon-''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ''-me-''
| ''-ben-''
| ''-pɛ-''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
| ''-e-''
| ''-kin-''
| ''-ko-''
|-
|}

== Syntax ==
Santali is an [[Subject–object–verb|SOV language]], though topics can be fronted.{{sfnp|Ghosh|2008|p=74}}

==Influence on other languages==
{{unreferenced|section|date=July 2021}}
Santali, belonging to the Austroasiatic family, has retained its distinct identity and co-existed with languages belonging to the Indian-Subcontent or South Asia family, in Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and other states. This affiliation is generally accepted, but there are many cross-questions and puzzles.{{clarify |date=April 2019}}

Borrowing between Santali and other Indian languages has not yet been studied fully. In modern Indian languages like Western Hindi the steps of evolution from Midland Prakrit Sauraseni could be traced clearly. In the case of [[Bengali language|Bengali]] such steps of evolution are not always clear and distinct, and one has to look at other influences that moulded Bengali's essential characteristics.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

A notable work in this field was initiated by linguist [[Byomkes Chakrabarti]] in the 1960s. Chakrabarti investigated the complex process of assimilation of Austroasiatic family, particularly Santali elements, into Bengali. He showed the overwhelming influence of Bengali on Santali. His formulations are based on the detailed study of two-way influences on all aspects of both languages and tried to bring out the unique features of the languages. More research is awaited in this area.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

Notable linguist [[Khudiram Das]] authored the '''Santali Bangla Samashabda Abhidhan'<nowiki/>'' ({{Lang|bn|সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান}}), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. '[http://professorkhudiramdas.com/files/ebooks/Bangla-santali-vasa-samporko-by-khudiram-das.pdf Bangla Santali Bhasha Samparka] ({{Lang|bn|বাংলা সাঁওতালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক}}) is a collection of essays in [[E-book]] format authored by him and dedicated to linguist [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.

== See also ==
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[Languages with official status in India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]
* [[National Translation Mission]]
* [[Santali Wikipedia]]
* [[Ol Chiki script]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Arun |year=2008 |chapter=Santali |editor-last=Anderson |editor-first=Gregory D.S. |title=The Munda Languages |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=11–98}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* [[Byomkes Chakrabarti]] (1992). ''A comparative study of Santali and Bengali''. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. {{ISBN|81-7074-128-9}}
* Hansda, Kali Charan (2015). ''Fundamental of Santhal Language''. Sambalpur.
* Hembram, P. C. (2002). ''Santali, a natural language''. New Delhi: U. Hembram.
* Newberry, J. (2000). ''North Munda dialects: Mundari, Santali, Bhumia''. Victoria, B.C.: J. Newberry. {{ISBN|0-921599-68-4}}
* Mitra, P. C. (1988). ''Santali, the base of world languages''. Calcutta: Firma KLM.
* Зограф Г. А. (1960/1990). Языки Южной Азии. М.: Наука (1-е изд., 1960).
* Лекомцев, Ю. K. (1968). Некоторые характерные черты сантальского предложения // Языки Индии, Пакистана, Непала и Цейлона: материалы научной конференции. М: Наука, 311–321.
* {{Linguistic Survey of India|4}}
* Maspero, Henri. (1952). ''Les langues mounda''. Meillet A., Cohen M. (dir.), Les langues du monde, P.: CNRS.
* Neukom, Lukas. (2001). ''Santali''. München: LINCOM Europa.
* Pinnow, Heinz-Jürgen. (1966). ''A comparative study of the verb in the Munda languages''. Zide, Norman H. (ed.) Studies in comparative Austroasiatic linguistics. London—The Hague—Paris: Mouton, 96–193.
* {{Cite book
| publisher = Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India
| last = Sakuntala De.
| title = Santali : a linguistic study
| location = Kolkata
| series = Memoir (Anthropological Survey of India)
| year = 2011 }}
* [[Hans Vermeer|Vermeer, Hans J.]] (1969). ''Untersuchungen zum Bau zentral-süd-asiatischer Sprachen (ein Beitrag zur Sprachbundfrage)''. Heidelberg: J. Groos.
* 2006-d. Santali. In E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.

=== Dictionaries ===
* [[Paul Olaf Bodding|Bodding, Paul O.]] (1929). ''A Santal dictionary''. Oslo: J. Dybwad.
* {{cite book |author=A. R. Campbell |year=1899 |title=A Santali-English dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/asantalienglish00campgoog |publisher=Santal Mission Press}}
* [http://wesanthals.tripod.com/id54.html English-Santali/Santali-English dictionaries]
* Macphail, R. M. (1964). ''An Introduction to Santali'', Parts I & II. Benagaria: The Santali Literature Board, Santali Christian Council.
* Minegishi, M., & Murmu, G. (2001). ''Santali basic lexicon with grammatical notes''. Tōkyō: Institute for the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. {{ISBN|4-87297-791-2}}

=== Grammars and primers ===
* Bodding, Paul O. 1929/1952. ''A Santal Grammar for the Beginners'', Benagaria: Santal Mission of the Northern Churches (1st edition, 1929).
* {{Cite book
| last = Cole
| first = F. T.
| year = 1896
| title = Santạli primer
| url = https://archive.org/details/santliprimer00colegoog
| publisher = Santal Mission Press | location = Manbhum }}
* Macphail, R. M. (1953) ''An Introduction to Santali''. Firma KLM Private Ltd.
* Muscat, George. (1989) ''Santali: A New Approach''. Sahibganj, Bihar : Santali Book Depot.
* {{ cite book | given = Lars Olsen | surname = Skrefsrud | author-link = Lars Olsen Skrefsrud | title = A Grammar of the Santhal Language | location = Benares | publisher = Medical Hall Press | year = 1873 | url = https://archive.org/details/aau0434.0001.001.umich.edu }}
* Saren, Jagneswar "Ranakap Santali Ronor" (Progressive Santali Grammar), 1st edition, 2012.

=== Literature ===
* Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1925) ronor : Mayurbhanj, Odisha Publisher ASECA, Mayurbhanj
* Bodding, Paul O., (ed.) (1923—1929) ''Santali Folk Tales''. Oslo: Institutet for sammenlingenden kulturforskning, Publikationen. Vol. I—III.
* {{Cite book
| last = Campbell, A.
| year = 1891
| title = Santal folk tales
| url = https://archive.org/details/cu31924024159489
| location = Pokhuria, India
| publisher = Santal Mission Press }}
* Murmu, G., & Das, A. K. (1998). ''Bibliography, Santali literature''. Calcutta: Biswajnan. {{ISBN|81-7525-080-1}}
* {{Cite book
| title = Santali Genesis Translation
| url = https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_sat_gen-1 }}
* ''The Dishom Beura'', India's First Santali Daily News Paper. Publisher, Managobinda Beshra, National Correspondent: Mr. Somenath Patnaik

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=sat}}
{{Incubator|sat|Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.ntm.org.in/languages/Santali/default_Santali.asp National Translation Mission's (NTM) Santali Pages]
* [http://www.language-archives.org/language/sat OLAC resources in and about the Santali language]
* [http://www.language-archives.org/language/mjx OLAC resources in and about the Mahali language]
* [http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage]
* [http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-A6AF-2@view Santali language in RWAAI Digital Archive]
* [https://santhaligaana.in/ Santali Song]

{{Languages of Bangladesh}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of Nepal}}
{{Austro-Asiatic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Santali Language}}
[[Category:Santali language| ]]
[[Category:Munda languages]]
[[Category:Santhal]]
[[Category:Official languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Assam]]
[[Category:Languages of Bihar]]
[[Category:Languages of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Languages of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Languages of Odisha]]
[[Category:Languages of Tripura]]
[[Category:Languages of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Languages of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 19th century]]
[[Category:Santali people]]

Santali language - Revision history

27.32.27.142 at 07:58, 23 April 2026

imported>Eievie: Number glos