Sangam literature - Revision history

Greek India: Sangam literature

2026-10-14T23:57:37Z

Sangam literature

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	The Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=5–8, 51-56}}{{refn\|group=note\|This collaboration was two way, and evidence for this is found in the earliest known Hindu scripture, the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (1500–1200 BCE). About 300 words in the ''Rigveda'' are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar [[Frits Staal]].<ref name="Staal2008p23"/> Of these 300, many – such as ''kapardin'', ''kumara'', ''kumari'', ''kikata'' – come from Munda or proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in Austro-Asiatic languages. The others in the list of 300 – such as ''mleccha'' and ''nir'' – have Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu) roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins.<ref name="Staal2008p23">{{cite book\|author=Frits Staal\|title=Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC\|year=2008\|publisher=Penguin \|isbn=978-0-14-309986-4\|pages=23–24}}</ref><ref name="HockBashir2016">{{cite book\|author=Franklin C Southworth\|editor1-last=Hock\|editor1-first=Hans Henrich\|editor1-link=Hans Henrich Hock\|editor2-last=Bashir\|editor2-first=Elena\|editor2-link=Elena Bashir\|title=The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFBDAAAQBAJ \|year=2016\|publisher=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn=978-3-11-042330-3\|pages=252–255}}</ref> The linguistic sharing provide clear indications, states [[Michael Witzel]], that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<ref name="Erdosy2012p98">{{cite book\|author=Michael Witzel\|editor=George Erdosy\|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ \|year=2012\|publisher=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn=978-3-11-081643-3\|pages=98–110 with footnotes}}, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indus Civilisation and certainly during the time of the ''earliest texts of the Rigveda'', cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers."</ref>}} One of the early loan words, for example, is ''acarya–'' from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as ''aciriyan'' (priest, teacher, scholar), ''aciriyam'' or ''akavar'' or ''akaval'' or ''akavu'' (a poetic meter).{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=13–14}}{{refn\|group=note\|According to George Hart, other than loan words, it is obvious to any scholar who has studied both classical Sanskrit and classical Tamil that the mid to late Sangam literature (1st to 3rd century CE) and ancient Sanskrit literature are related. However, adds Hart, the earliest layer of the Sangam literature "does not seem to be much influenced by Sanskrit".<ref>{{cite book\|author=George L. Hart\|title=The Relation Between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqE5c4QAs9gC&pg=PA317\|year=1976\|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag\|isbn=978-3-447-01785-5\|pages=317–326}}</ref>}}		The Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=5–8, 51-56}}{{refn\|group=note\|This collaboration was two way, and evidence for this is found in the earliest known Hindu scripture, the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (1500–1200 BCE). About 300 words in the ''Rigveda'' are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar [[Frits Staal]].<ref name="Staal2008p23"/> Of these 300, many – such as ''kapardin'', ''kumara'', ''kumari'', ''kikata'' – come from Munda or proto-Munda languages found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in Austro-Asiatic languages. The others in the list of 300 – such as ''mleccha'' and ''nir'' – have Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu) roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins.<ref name="Staal2008p23">{{cite book\|author=Frits Staal\|title=Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC\|year=2008\|publisher=Penguin \|isbn=978-0-14-309986-4\|pages=23–24}}</ref><ref name="HockBashir2016">{{cite book\|author=Franklin C Southworth\|editor1-last=Hock\|editor1-first=Hans Henrich\|editor1-link=Hans Henrich Hock\|editor2-last=Bashir\|editor2-first=Elena\|editor2-link=Elena Bashir\|title=The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFBDAAAQBAJ \|year=2016\|publisher=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn=978-3-11-042330-3\|pages=252–255}}</ref> The linguistic sharing provide clear indications, states [[Michael Witzel]], that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<ref name="Erdosy2012p98">{{cite book\|author=Michael Witzel\|editor=George Erdosy\|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ \|year=2012\|publisher=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn=978-3-11-081643-3\|pages=98–110 with footnotes}}, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indus Civilisation and certainly during the time of the ''earliest texts of the Rigveda'', cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers."</ref>}} One of the early loan words, for example, is ''acarya–'' from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as ''aciriyan'' (priest, teacher, scholar), ''aciriyam'' or ''akavar'' or ''akaval'' or ''akavu'' (a poetic meter).{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=13–14}}{{refn\|group=note\|According to George Hart, other than loan words, it is obvious to any scholar who has studied both classical Sanskrit and classical Tamil that the mid to late Sangam literature (1st to 3rd century CE) and ancient Sanskrit literature are related. However, adds Hart, the earliest layer of the Sangam literature "does not seem to be much influenced by Sanskrit".<ref>{{cite book\|author=George L. Hart\|title=The Relation Between Tamil and Classical Sanskrit Literature\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqE5c4QAs9gC&pg=PA317\|year=1976\|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag\|isbn=978-3-447-01785-5\|pages=317–326}}</ref>}}

			Words with Greek connections can also be observed in Sangam literature. In Sangam literature, the act of predicting natural disasters in advance by observing the behavior of birds was known as 'Pul Orthal' (Kuruntokai 218). Interestingly, in ancient Greek literature, this was also referred to as 'Orthal' (from ὄρνις—órnis). In this way, the term reveals the historical connection between the ancient Tamils and the Greeks. Furthermore, it is from this very root word that the modern scientific study of birds, 'Ornithology', derives its name. Thus, Sangam literature proves to be a rich source and potential foundation for modern terminology creation.
			(Reference: Sanga Ilakkiyam (Tamil), Rig Veda, Mahabharata (Sanskrit), Old Testament (Hebrew), Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Greek ἄρχον (Achilles, Osiris, Bhishma and Karikalan), GJHSS Volume 26 Issue H1, https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/104671)

	The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is almost entirely non-religious, except for the occasional mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of ''Paripaatal'' in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan.<ref name="Singh2008p27"/><ref name=britsangam/>{{refn\|group=note\|Other Sangam poems mention gods and goddesses. For example, ''Purananuru 23'', ''Akananuru 22'', ''Tirumurukarruppatai 83–103'' and others mention god Murugan, his wife Valli, the iconographic peacock, and the Vedas; Murugan's mother – goddess Korravai (Amma, Uma, Parvati, Durga) is mentioned in ''Akananuru 345'', ''Kalittokai 89'', ''Perumpanarruppatai 459'' and elsewhere. She is both a mother goddess and the goddess of war and victory in Sangam poetry.<ref name="rf108">{{cite book\|author=Ronald Ferenczi\|editor=Róbert Válóczi\|title=Goddess Woman \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d3kyuwEACAAJ \|year=2019\|publisher=Museum of Fine Art Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery\|isbn=978-615-5304-84-2\|pages=108–111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last=Hart III \| first=George L. \| title=Woman and the Sacred in Ancient Tamilnad \| journal=The Journal of Asian Studies \| publisher=Cambridge University Press \| volume=32 \| issue=2 \| year=1973 \| doi=10.2307/2052342 \| pages=233–250\| jstor=2052342 }}</ref>}} Similarly, the 150 poems of ''Kalittokai'' – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the ''Mahabharata'', Kama, Krishna, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}} One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of [[Varanasi\|Benares]]", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}} Some of the ''Paripaatal'' love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals ([[Magh Mela]]) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}		The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is almost entirely non-religious, except for the occasional mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of ''Paripaatal'' in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and Murugan.<ref name="Singh2008p27"/><ref name=britsangam/>{{refn\|group=note\|Other Sangam poems mention gods and goddesses. For example, ''Purananuru 23'', ''Akananuru 22'', ''Tirumurukarruppatai 83–103'' and others mention god Murugan, his wife Valli, the iconographic peacock, and the Vedas; Murugan's mother – goddess Korravai (Amma, Uma, Parvati, Durga) is mentioned in ''Akananuru 345'', ''Kalittokai 89'', ''Perumpanarruppatai 459'' and elsewhere. She is both a mother goddess and the goddess of war and victory in Sangam poetry.<ref name="rf108">{{cite book\|author=Ronald Ferenczi\|editor=Róbert Válóczi\|title=Goddess Woman \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d3kyuwEACAAJ \|year=2019\|publisher=Museum of Fine Art Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery\|isbn=978-615-5304-84-2\|pages=108–111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last=Hart III \| first=George L. \| title=Woman and the Sacred in Ancient Tamilnad \| journal=The Journal of Asian Studies \| publisher=Cambridge University Press \| volume=32 \| issue=2 \| year=1973 \| doi=10.2307/2052342 \| pages=233–250\| jstor=2052342 }}</ref>}} Similarly, the 150 poems of ''Kalittokai'' – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the ''Mahabharata'', Kama, Krishna, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}} One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of [[Varanasi\|Benares]]", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}} Some of the ''Paripaatal'' love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals ([[Magh Mela]]) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}

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	Further, the colophons of the ''Paripaatal'' poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}		Further, the colophons of the ''Paripaatal'' poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}

	~~== Sangam Literature – A Historical Treasure House ==~~

	The ideas and depictions found in Sangam literature extend far beyond mere literary expression; they serve as valuable historical records. For instance, Poem 149 of Akananuru vividly records the arrival of foreign ships at the ancient port of Musiri.

	~~"In Musiri, rich in wealth,~~
	~~where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful,~~
	~~wide Periyar River stirs,~~
	~~foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive~~
	~~laden with gold, and return laden with pepper."~~
	~~— Akananuru 149: 7–11~~

	~~This account is further substantiated by Greek historical records.~~

	Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandion. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.
	~~Periplus of the Eritheranian Sea~~
	~~(Ref: Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Tamil: The Meaning of the Word Ἐρυθρὰν , https://www.athensjournals.gr/philology/2022-9-1-3-Pugazhendhi.pdf)~~

	== Modern musical renditions ==		== Modern musical renditions ==

2405:201:E006:48A2:6092:3D57:D25B:F1DB: "In Musiri, rich in wealth, where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful, wide Periyar River stirs, foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive laden with gold, and return laden with pepper." — Akananuru 149: 7–11

2026-09-30T11:43:24Z

"In Musiri, rich in wealth, where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful, wide Periyar River stirs, foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive laden with gold, and return laden with pepper." — Akananuru 149: 7–11

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:13, 30 September 2026
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	Further, the colophons of the ''Paripaatal'' poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}		Further, the colophons of the ''Paripaatal'' poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1973\|pp=123-128}}

			== Sangam Literature – A Historical Treasure House ==

			The ideas and depictions found in Sangam literature extend far beyond mere literary expression; they serve as valuable historical records. For instance, Poem 149 of Akananuru vividly records the arrival of foreign ships at the ancient port of Musiri.

			"In Musiri, rich in wealth,
			where the white foam of the Chera king's beautiful,
			wide Periyar River stirs,
			foreign ships crafted by fine workmanship arrive
			laden with gold, and return laden with pepper."
			— Akananuru 149: 7–11

			This account is further substantiated by Greek historical records.

			Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandion. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.
			Periplus of the Eritheranian Sea
			(Ref: Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Tamil: The Meaning of the Word Ἐρυθρὰν , https://www.athensjournals.gr/philology/2022-9-1-3-Pugazhendhi.pdf)

	== Modern musical renditions ==		== Modern musical renditions ==

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
	~~{{Portal\|Literature}}~~
	* [[List of historic Indian texts]]		* [[List of historic Indian texts]]
	* [[Tamilakam\|Tamiḻakam]]		* [[Tamilakam\|Tamiḻakam]]

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