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{{Short description|63 illustrious people in Jainism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Jainism}}
According to the [[Jain cosmology]], the '''śalākapuruṣa''' ({{lang-sa|शलाकपुरूष}}) "illustrious or worthy persons" are 63 illustrious beings who appear during each half-time cycle.<ref name=devdutt>{{cite web | last =Pattanaik | first =Devdutt | title =63 worthy beings | publisher =Mid-day | date = 2009-08-18 | url =http://www.mid-day.com/specials/2009/aug/180809-Vardhamana-Mahavir-Jainism-Devlok-Play-24th-Tirthankara.htm| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120927173952/http://www.mid-day.com/specials/2009/aug/180809-Vardhamana-Mahavir-Jainism-Devlok-Play-24th-Tirthankara.htm| archive-date =2012-09-27 }}</ref> They are also known as the ''triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣa'' (63 illustrious persons).{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=377—378}} The Jain universal or legendary history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=12}} Their life stories are said to be most inspiring.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2015|p=199}}

The ''śalākāpuruṣa'' comprise 24 ''[[Tirthankara]]s'' (Teaching Gods), twelve [[Chakravartin]] (universal monarchs, emperors of six continents), nine [[Balabhadra]]s (gentle heroes), nine ''Narayanas'' (warrior heroes) and nine ''Prati-narayanas'' (anti-heroes).<ref name=devdutt/><ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHnXAAAAMAAJ|title=Jainism in South India|first=P. M.|last=Joseph|date=1997|isbn=9788185692234|page=178}}</ref> According to [[Jain cosmology]], time is without beginning and eternal. The ''Kālacakra'', the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, ''Utsarpiṇī'' or ascending time cycle and ''Avasarpiṇī'', the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other. ''Utsarpiṇī'' is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale while the ''[[Avasarpiṇī]]'' is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in time spans of the epochs.<ref>Kothari, Dr. P. Ajay (2000) p. 90—91</ref> During each such time cycle, these 63 illustrious persons appear and establish the religion and order in society. According to Jain cosmology, since time is eternal, infinite ''kalacakras'' have elapsed and will occur in future and hence infinite sets of these 63 illustrious persons have appeared, and will appear, to establish order and religion in their respective eras.{{sfn|Kapadia|1941|p=65}}

==Origin and Etymology==
The word ''salakapurusa'' is often translated as illustrious persons or worthy persons or mighty persons. It is derived from the Sanskrit compound of words [[Chuugi|''salaka'']] and ''purusa''. "''Purusa''" means person, but "''salaka''" is of ambiguous etymology in this context. The primary meaning of the word salaka (Sanskrit: ''Śalākā'', Pali: ''salākā'', Prakrit: ''salāgā'', ''salāyā'') is "stick". In the Buddhist context it meant a ticket consisting of wooden sticks meant for voting or to distribute food; but in Jain context it was used to mean a stick and also a measurement and when combined with "purusa" to denote great heroes.<ref>Cort, John (1997) p. 1357</ref> According to 11th century Jain author, monk [[Acharya Hemachandra]], these persons are called ''salaka'' as they have been specially marked among men. This emphasised that the names of the salakapurusas were underlined or specially significant due to their deeds. John Cort also quotes another author, S. D. Parekh, who emphasises the root meaning of voting sticks and concludes that a salakapurusa is a great person, as his greatness has been accepted by general public.<ref>Cort, John (1997) p. 1358</ref> Certain ''Śvētāmbara'' texts use the word ''Baladeva'', ''Vāsudeva'' and ''Prativasudeva'' to refer ''Balabhadra'', ''Narayana'' and ''Pratinarayana'' respectively. A 1975 treatise, detailing [[Mahavira]]'s life and doctrine seems to imply the voting-etymology of the word, i.e. they are called ''salakapurusa'', because they are men-that-count.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sramana Bhagavan Mahavira: Life & Doctrine|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13257|last=Lalwani|first=K.C.|publisher=Minerva Associates|year=1975|location=Calcutta|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13257/page/n68 10]–11|quote=The author of the Kalpa Sutra has not bothered about introducing lesser personalities, though nonetheless important as men-that-count (salakapurusas).}}</ref>

The tradition of ''salakapurusas'' or Jain universal history started with the biographies of the [[Tirthankara]]s. [[Kalpasutra (Jainism)|Kalpasutra]] gives the names and brief biographies of only tirthankaras. It does not use the word ''salakapurusa''s or mention them by name, but does say that the categories of [[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]]s, [[Chakravartin]]s, ''Balabhadras'' and Vasudevas are always born in royal families, thus foreshadowing 54 of the 63 ''salakapurusas''. Furthermore, Jaini traces the origin of list of Baladeva and Vasudeva to the ''Jinacharitra'' (lives of the ''Jina''s) by [[Bhadrabahu]] (3–4th century BCE).{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=377}} A notable [[hagiography]] of these individuals is [[Hemachandra]]'s ''Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra''.<ref name="HemacandraFynes1998">{{cite book|author1=Hemacandra|author2=R. C. C. Fynes|title=The Lives of the Jain Elders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283227-6}}</ref>

The following [[Jain texts]] chronicle the deeds of the ''salakapurusas'':<ref>John cort p.1356—57</ref>

===Digambara texts===
*''[[Satkhandagama]]'' (1st century) – This gives a description of Jain universal history in a rudimentary form.
*''[[Tiloya Panatti]]'' by [[Yativṛṣabha]] (7th century) – This text gives descriptions of other Jain heroes i.e. 9 [[Narada]]s, 11 [[Rudra]]s and 24 [[Kamadeva]]s,{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=550}} but specifically states that there are only 63 salakapurusas.
*''[[Adipurana]]'' by [[Jinasena|Acharya Jinasena]] and Gunabhadra (9th century) – This text is also known as Trisastilaksanamahapurana (The great purana describing 63 great heroes). By this time the number of heroes had come to be fixed at 63.
*''[[Harivamsa Purana]]'' composed by ''Acharya Jinasena''.

===Śvētāmbara texts===
*''[[Kalpasutra (Jainism)|Kalpasutra]]'' – Devoted mainly to stories of ''[[Rishabhanatha]]'', ''Neminatha'', ''[[Parshvanatha]]'' and Mahavira. It names other tirthankaras and also mentions the categories of Chakravartins, Baldeva and Vasudeva without giving individual names.
*''[[Samavayanga Sutra]]'' – This text gives description of sixty-three and fifty-four salakapurusas in different places.
*''Paumacarya''' by Vimalasuri (2nd century) – This is the Jain version of Ramayana. The story of Rama the eighth Baladeva is narrated within the context of 63 salakapurusas. The later texts were influenced by Paumacarya.
*''Cauppanamahapurisacariya'' by Silanka (9th century) – This narrates the deeds of fifty-four great heroes.
*''Trisastisalakapurusacaritra'' by Hemacandra (11th century) – The deeds of 63 illustrious persons, and one of the most popular text of Jain universal history.
*''Kahavali'' by Bhadresvara (13th century) — This text raised the number of salakapurusa to 72 by adding 9 Naradas.

All traditions of Jainism now agree to the figure of 63 ''salakapurusas''. However, the number of persons is 60 as three persons ([[Shantinath]], [[Kunthunath]] and [[Aranath]]) were ''Chakravartins'' who later on became ''Tirthankaras''.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

==Tirthankaras==
''[[Tirthankara|Tīrthankaras]]'' (also known as ''Jinas'') are ''Arhatas'' who are teachers and revivers of the Jain philosophy. There are 24 Tīrthankaras in each half time cycle;{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=550}} [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]] was the 24th and last Tīrthankara of the current descending time cycle and Rishabha was the first Tirthankara. Tīrthankaras are literally "the ford makers", who have shown the way to cross the ocean of rebirth and transmigration and hence have become a focus of reverence and worship amongst Jains. The Tirthankara provides all creatures with the means to liberate the soul from the confines of the body and to rise towards bliss, enlightenment and release from the eternal cycle of rebirth. He advocates continence, truth, non-violence, simplicity and purity for those who seek liberation. Tīrthankaras ultimately become ''Siddhas'' on liberation.
[[File:Mahavra 1900 art.jpg|thumb|Mahavira was the last Tirthankara and Salakapurusa of this descending time cycle as per the Jain Universal History]]
The twenty four Tīrthankaras of this descending time cycle are:
#[[Rishabha (Jain tirthankar)|Rishabha or Adinatha]]
# [[Ajitnath]]
# [[Sambhavanath]]
# [[Abhinandannath]]
# [[Sumatinath]]
# [[Padmaprabha]]
# [[Suparshvanath]]
# [[Chandraprabha]]
# [[Pushpadanta]]
# [[Sheetalnath]]
# [[Shreyansanath]]
# [[Vasupujya]]
# [[Vimalnath]]
# [[Anantanatha]]
# [[Dharmanatha]]
# [[Shantinatha]]
# [[Kunthunatha]]
# [[Aranatha]]
# [[Mallinath]]
# [[Munisuvrata]]
# [[Nami Natha|Naminatha]]
# [[Neminatha]]a
# [[Parshvanath]]
# [[Mahavira|Mahavira Swami]]

==Chakravartin==
[[File:14 Ratna of Chakravartin.png|thumb|14 ''Ratna'' (jewels) of Chankravartin. Miniature from the 17th century, ''Saṁgrahaṇīratna'' by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.]]
A [[Chakravartin]] (Universal Monarch) is the emperor of the world, lord of the material realm.<ref name=devdutt/> Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the enormity of the cosmos. Jain purunas give a list of 12 Chakravartins who flourished in this descending time cycle.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=550}} Golden in complexion, they all belonged to Kasyapa gotra.<ref>Shah, Umakant Premchand (1987) p. 72</ref> One of the greatest Chakravartis mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata in whose memory India came to be known as "Bharata-varsha". After conquering the whole world, King Bharata, brimming with pride, sought to inscribe his great feat on the slopes of Mount Meru. To his great dismay, he found the names of many other kings carved on Meru. Like him, they too had conquered the world. He was not the first man to do so. He was not the last. There were many before him, there were many after him. Bharata, humbled by the experience, returned to his kingdom to do his duty, aware that his actions were not unique and that his existence was not special.<ref name=devdutt/> The names of the twelve Chakravartins as per Jain Texts are:<ref>Jaini, J.L. (1940) Appendix III</ref>
[[File:Shantinatha.jpg|thumb|Lord Shantinatha, the sixteenth Jain Tirthankara was also a Chakravarti]]
#[[Bharata Chakravarti|Bharata]] - Tirthankara [[Rishabha]]'s son.
#[[Sagara (Vedic king)|Sagara]] - Ancestor of [[Bhagiratha]] as per Hindu [[Puranas]].
# Maghava
#[[Sanat Kumara Chakravarti|Sanat Kumara]]
#[[Shantinatha]] - (also a Tirthankara)
#[[Kunthunatha]] - (also a Tirthankara)
#[[Aranatha]] - (also a Tirthankara)
#[[Subhuma]]
#Padmanabha
#[[Harishena]]
# Jayasena
#[[Brahmadatta]]

In Jainism, a chakravarti was characterised by possession of ''saptaratna'', or "seven jewels":
# [[Sudarshana Chakra]], a miraculous wheel that never misses its target
# Queen
# Huge army of chariots
# Jewellery
# Immense wealth
# Huge army of horses
# Huge army of elephants

Some texts cite ''navaratna'' or "nine jewels" instead, adding "prime minister" and "son". Some texts even further expands to 14 ''Ratna'', jewels.

==Triad of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva==
[[File:Weapons and symbols of Vasudeva or Narayana.png|thumb|Weapons and symbols of Vasudeva or Narayana. Miniature from the 17th century, ''Saṁgrahaṇīratna'' by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.]]
In every half time cycle, there are 9 sets of ''[[Balabhadra]]s'' (gentle heroes), ''Vasudevas'' (violent heroes) and ''Prativāsudevas'' (anti-heroes).{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=550}} Unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names ''Balabhadra'' and ''Narayana'' are not restricted to [[Balarama]] and [[Krishna]] in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty half brothers, who appear nine times in each half of the time cycles of the [[Jain cosmology]] and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravarti. Ultimately ''Prati-naryana'' is killed by ''Narayana'' for his unrighteousness and immorality. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the ''Jinacaritra'' (lives of the [[Tirthankara|Jinas]]) by [[Bhadrabahu]] swami (3-4th century BCE).{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=377}} Jain Ramayana is based on the stories of [[Rama in Jainism|Rama]], [[Lakshmana]] and [[Ravana]] who are the eighth [[Balabhadra|Baladeva]], ''Narayana'', ''Pratinarayana'' and respectively. Similarly ''[[Harivamsa Purana]]'' is based on the stories of [[Balarama]], [[Krishna]] and [[Jarasandha]], who are the ninth and the last set of ''Balabhadra'', ''Narayana'', and ''Pratinarayana''.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=305}} However, the main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha who is killed by Krishna.

According to Jain texts, ''Narayana'' are generally of dark complexion and wear yellow garments. There are seven weapons and symbols of ''Narayana'', namely: conch, discus ([[sudarshana chakra]]), club, bow, sword, jewel (kaustubha mani) and a garland of flowers (vanamala). Baladevas, half-brothers of Vasudevas, are described as fair in complexion and wear garments of dark blue and have a banner of palm tree. Their symbols or weapons are: bow, plough, pestle and arrow. The two brothers are inseparable and they jointly rule three continents as half-Chakravarti. Although ''Narayana'' is the mightier of the two, ''Balabhadra'' is depicted as superior for his non-violent ways and he achieves liberation. According to the Jain ''puranas'', the ''Balabhadras'' lead an ideal Jain life.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pnXAAAAMAAJ|page=146|title=Jainism and Prakrit in Ancient and Medieval India|isbn=9788173040511|last1=Jain|first1=Jagdish Chandra|last2=Bhattacharyya|first2=Narendra Nath|date=1994-01-01}}</ref> Out of nine ''Balabhadra'', eight attain liberation and the last one goes to heaven. On the other hand, ''Narayana'' go to hell on account of their violent exploits, even though they did these in order to uphold righteousness.<ref>Shah, Umakant Premchand (1987) p. 74–75</ref>

[[File:Rama Lakshmana.jpg|thumb|Rama and Lakshmana are the eighth set of Baladeva and Vasudeva according to the Jain universal history]]
The list of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva are:<ref>Shah, Umakant Premchand (1987) p. 73–76</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#9cf; font-weight:bold; vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="width:21.6; height:13.2;"| No.
| style="width:123px;"| Baladeva / Balabhadra
| style="width:132.6;"| Vasudeva / Narayana
| style="width:157.2;"| Prativasudeva / Pratinarayana
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 1
|| [[Acala]]
|| [[Tripushta]] (or Prishtha)
|| [[Asvagriva]]
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 2
|| [[Jaya-Vijaya|Vijaya]]
|| [[Dvipushta]] (or Prishtha)
|| Taraka
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 3
|| [[Dharmaprabha]] (Bhadra)
|| Svayambhu
|| Naraka
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 4
|| Suprabha
|| Purushottama
|| Nisumbha
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 5
|| [[Sudarsana]]
|| Nara (Purusha) simha
|| [[Madhukatiabha]]
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 6
|| Nandi (Ananda)
|| Pundarika
|| [[Prahlada]]
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 7
|| [[Nandimitra]] (Mandana){{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|p=308}}
|| [[Dattadeva]]
|| [[Mahabali|Bali]]
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 8
|| [[Rama in Jainism|Rama]]
|| [[Lakshmana]]
|| [[Ravana]]{{sfn|Choksi|Chhapia|2011}}
|- style="vertical-align:bottom;"
| style="text-align:center; height:13.2; "| 9
|| Rama ([[Balarama]])
|| [[Krishna#Jainism|Krishna]]{{sfn|Choksi|Chhapia|2011}}
|| [[Jarasandha]]
|}

==Hierarchy==
Out of the above five classes of illustrious persons, Tirthankaras are placed at the top. They establish the religion and attain liberation. The Chakravarti attain liberation if they renounce their kingdom, or else go to hell if they indulge in sensual pleasures. Next in rank are Baladevas who are gentle heroes and devout laymen, who attain liberation corresponding to Tirthankaras. Vasudevas are also devout Jain laymen and ultimately attain liberation, but are first reborn in hell because of their violent actions.

The mother of a Tirthankara sees 16 [[Auspicious dreams in Jainism|auspicious dreams]] (14 dreams in some traditions) when the soul descends into her womb. The mother of a Vasusdeva sees seven dreams, while that of a ''Balabhadra'' sees only four dreams. The mother of a Prati-vasudeva sees no dreams.<ref>Cort, John (1997) p. 1360</ref>

Certain Jain texts also depict the comparative powers of ''Salakapurusas'' in the following manner:<ref>Muni Nagraj. p. 203</ref>
*A bull is as powerful as 12 warriors.
*A horse is as powerful as 10 bulls.
*A buffalo is as powerful as 12 horses.
*An elephant is as powerful as 15 buffalos.
*A lion with a mane is as powerful as 500 elephants.
*An [[Sharabha|octoped]] (Astapada mythical eight limbed animal) is as powerful as 2,000 maned lions.
*A Baldeva is as powerful as 1 million octopeds.
*A Vasudeva is as powerful as 2 Baldevs. (A Prati-vasudeva is slightly less powerful that a Vasudeva)
*A Chakravartin is as powerful as 2 Vasudevs.
*A Nagaraja (king of serpent gods) is as powerful as 100,000 [[Chakravartin#Jain tradition|Chakravartins]].
*An [[Indra#Jainism|Indra]] is as powerful as 10 million Nagarajas (kings of serpent gods).
*The power of innumerable Indras is insignificant as compared to that of the small finger of a [[Tirthankara]].

==Other classes of heroes==
In Jain universal history, other than these 63 Salakapurusa, there are other classes of 106 people who, though not depicted as salakapurusas, are important enough to be mentioned separately. They are:

*9 [[Narada]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Height !! Lifespan (Total Age) !! Narka
|-
| 1 || [[Bhima]] || 80 dhansha || 84 lakh years || 7th
|-
| 2 || [[Mahabhima]] || 70 dhanusha || 72 lakh years || 6th
|-
| 3 || [[Rudra]] || 60 dhanusha || 60 lakh years || 6th
|-
| 4 || [[Maharudra]] || 50 dhanusha || 30 lakh years || 6th
|-
| 5 || Kala || 45 dhanusha || 10 lakh years || 6th
|-
| 6 || [[Mahakala]] || 29 dhanusha || 65,000 years || 6th
|-
| 7 || [[Durmukha]] || 22 dhanusha || 32,000 years || 5th
|-
| 8 || [[Narakamukha]] || 16 dhanusha || 12,000 years || 4th
|-
| 9 || [[Adhomukha]] || 10 dhanusha || 1,000 years || 3rd
|}
*11 [[Rudras]] ([[Bhimabali]], [[Jitasatru]], [[Rudra]], [[Visvanala]], [[Supratishtha]], [[Achala]], [[Pundarika]], [[Jitadhara]], [[Jitanabhi]], [[Pitha]], [[Satyaki]])
*24 [[Kamadeva|Kamdevas]] ([[Bahubali]], [[Prajapati]], [[Sridhara]], [[Prasenacandra]], [[Candravarna]], [[Agniyukta]], [[Sanatkumara]], [[Vatsaraja]], [[Kanakaprabha]], [[Meghaprabha]], [[Shantinatha]], [[Kunthunatha]], [[Arahanatha]], [[Vijayaraja]], [[Srichandra]], [[Nalaraja]] (male figure of the mythological couple [[Nala|Nalraja]] and Queen [[Damayanti]]), [[Hanuman]], [[Baliraja]], [[Vasudeva]], [[Pradyumna]], [[Nagakumata]], [[Jivamdhara]], [[Jambusvami]])
*24 Fathers of the [[Tirthankaras]] ([[Tirthankara#Narration Chart of 24 Tirathankars|For list refer Tirthankara Table]])
*24 Mothers of the [[Tirthankaras]]. ([[Tirthankara#Narration Chart of 24 Tirathankars|For list refer Tirthankara Table]])
*14 ''[[Kulakara]]'' (patriarchs) who teaches worldly deeds to people when [[Kalpavriksha]] declines as per [[Jain Cosmology]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No. !! Name !! Wife !! Height !! Teaching !! Lifespan (Total Age)
|-
| 1 || [[Pratisvati]] || Swyamprabha || 1800 dhanusha || eliminated fear (due to lack of knowledge) of Sun and Moon || 87 lakh years
|-
| 2 || [[Sammati]] || Yashasvati || 1300 dhanusha || explained fear (due to lack of knowledge) Darkness and Stars|| 77 lakh years
|-
| 3 || [[Kshemamkara]] || Sunanda || 800 dhanusha || company of carnivorous animals should be avoided || 67 lakh years
|-
| 4 || [[Kshemamdhara]] || Vimla || 775 dhanusha || defence from carnivorous animals || 37 lakh years
|-
| 5 || [[Simamkare]] || Manohari || 750 dhanusha || limit of [[Kalpavriksha]] || 17 lakh years
|-
| 6 || [[Simamdhara]] || Yashodhara || 725 dhanusha || division ownership over trees by marking || 67,000 years
|-
| 7 || [[Vimalavahana]] || Sumati || 700 dhanusha || how to ride an elephant, etc. || 37,000 years
|-
| 8 || [[Chakshushment]] || Dharini || 675 dhanusha || how to see a child's face || 17,000 years
|-
| 9 || [[Yasasvin]] || Kaantmaala || 650 dhanusha || how to name a child || 1,200 years
|-
| 10 || [[Abhichandra]] || Shrimati || 625 dhanusha || show a child moon etc., when he cries || 87 lakh years
|-
| 11 || [[Chandrabha]] || Prabhavati || 600 dhanusha || defence of children || 77 lakh years
|-
| 12 || [[Merudeve]] || Satya || 575 dhanusha || transportation || 67 lakh years
|-
| 13 || [[Prasenachandra]] || Amitmati || 550 dhanusha || how to cure diseases || 37 lakh years
|-
| 14 || [[Nabhi]] || [[Marudevi]] || 525 dhanusha || how to cut umbilical cord || 17 lakh years
|}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{citation |editor-last=Doniger |editor-first=Wendy |editor-link=Wendy Doniger |title=Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |date=1999 |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |isbn=0-87779-044-2 }}
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*{{cite book | last =Kothari | first =Dr. P. Ajay | title =The concept of divinity in Jainism | publisher =Prakrit Bharti Academy | year =2000 | location =Jaipur | oclc =54249279 }}
*{{citation|last=von Glasenapp|first=Helmuth|title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|date=1 January 1999|location=[[Delhi]]|isbn=81-208-1376-6}}
*{{cite book | last =Jaini | first =Padmanabh | title =The Jaina Path of Purification | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | year =1998 | location =New Delhi | isbn =81-208-1578-5 }}
*{{cite book | last =Cort | first =John | editor =Nagendra Kr. Singh | title =Encyclopedia of Hinduism | publisher =Anmol Publications | year =1997 | location =New Delhi | isbn =81-7488-168-9 | chapter =Jaina Puranas }}
* {{citation |last=Shah |first=Umakant P. |title=Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana: Jaina iconography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC |date=1987 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=81-7017-208-X |ref={{sfnref|Umakant P. Shah|1987}} }}
*{{cite book | last =Kapadia | first =H. R. | title =A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas| publisher =Shardaben Chimanbhai Educational research Centre | year =1941 | location =Ahmedabad | oclc =17048447 }}
*{{cite book | last =Jaini | first =J. L. | editor = F. W. Thomas| title =Outlines of Jainism| publisher =University Press | year =1940 | location = Cambridge (England) | oclc =3944002 }}
*{{cite book | last =Muni Nagraj | title =Āgama and Tripiṭaka: A Comparative Study : a Critical Study of the Jaina and the Buddhist Canonical Literature, Volume 1| year =1986| publisher =Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers| isbn =978-81-7022-730-4 }}
* {{citation|last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acarya Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra: Adoration of The Twenty-four Tirthankara |date=2015 |publisher=Vikalp Printers |isbn=978-81-903639-7-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xI8HBgAAQBAJ |quote={{PD-notice}} |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2015}} |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916101903/https://books.google.com/books?id=xI8HBgAAQBAJ |archive-date=16 September 2015 }}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Salakapurusa}}
[[Category:Salakapurusa| ]]
[[Category:Jain cosmology]]
[[Category:History of Jainism]]
[[Category:Jainism]]

Salakapurusa - Revision history

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