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{{Main|Western Ganga Dynasty}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
The '''Western Ganga Dynasty''' (350 - 1000 CE) ({{lang-kn|ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ}}) was an important ruling dynasty of ancient [[Karnataka]]. Its members are known as '''Western Gangas''' to distinguish them from the '''Eastern Gangas''' who in later centuries ruled over modern [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]. The Western Gangas ruled as a sovereign power from the middle of fourth century to middle of sixth century, initially from [[Kolar]], later moving their capital to [[Talakad]] on the banks of the [[Kaveri River]] in modern [[Mysore district]]. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to [[polity]], [[culture]] and [[literature]] of the modern south Karnataka region is considered noteworthy. The Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards [[Jainism]] resulting in the construction of fine monuments in such places as [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]].

==Religion==
The Western Gangas gave [[patronage]] to all the major religious faiths of the time; [[Jainism]] and different sects of [[Hinduism]] such as [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Mīmāṃsā]] school. However scholars have argued that not all Ganga kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths. Some historians believe the Gangas were ardent Jains,<ref name="religion">Dr. Lewis Rice, S. R. Sharma and M. V. Krishna Rao {{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Gangas of Talkad|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=2007-01-18}}</ref> though inscriptional evidence is not conclusive since they mention ''kalamukhas'' (staunch Shaiva ascetics), ''pasupatas'' and ''lokayatas'' (followers of ''Pasupatha'' doctrine) who flourished in Gangavadi, indicating Shaivism was also popular. King Madhava and Harivarman were devoted of cows and Brahmins and King Vishnugopa was a devout [[Vaishnava]].<ref name="early kings">Srikantha Shastri in Kamath (2001), p49</ref> Madhava III's and Avinita's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and temples.<ref name="jain1">Adiga (2006), p249</ref> There is also inscriptional evidence King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices prompting historians to claim he was a [[Hindu]] and was either a Vaishnavite or a [[Shaivite]].<ref name="Hindu">Srikanta Sastri in {{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Gangas of Talkad|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=2007-01-18}}</ref> However, Western Ganga records from the 8th century reveal a strong Jain influence evidenced by the many ''[[basadi]]s'' they built and due to popularity of saints such as Pushpdanta, Pujyapada, Vajranandi, Srivaradhadeva, Ajitasena.<ref name="push">Kamath (2001), p49</ref>

===Jainism===
[[File:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|[[Gommateshwara]] at Shravanabelagola (982–983) C.E.]]
[[File:Panchakuta Basadi (10th century AD) at Kambadahalli.JPG|thumb|left|[[Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli]] ]]
[[File:Seeyamangalam rock cut jain temple.JPG|thumb|[[Seeyamangalam#Rock_Cut_Jain_Temple|Seeyamangalam Mahavira Rock Cut Temple]] ]]

Prior to the 8th century, [[derasar|Jain temples]] were called ''Chaitya'', ''Cediya'', ''Jainalaya'', ''Jinageha'' or ''Jinabhavana'', the term ''[[Basadi]]'' being used only later on.<ref name="jain2">Adiga (2006), p251</ref> Jain popularity received a further boost from the Ganga overlords, the Rashtrakutas, from the time of [[Amoghavarsha I]]. However evidence shows a decline in its popularity among local leadership (landlords or ''gavundas'') from the 10th century when they began to favour Shaivism .<ref name="vedic">Adiga (2006), p253</ref> The true age of Jain popularity in the region was from the 8th century rule of King Shivamara I leading to the construction of numerous ''basadi''s.<ref name="jain4">From the Kulaganga and Narasimhapura copper plates (Adiga 2006, p255)</ref> King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the Gomateshwara monolith.<ref name="jain5">From the Kudlur plates of Butuga II (Adiga 2006, p256)</ref> A historian has claimed that majority of those Jains seeking release from the material world ([[moksha]]) by inviting death through rituals and asceticism ([[sannyasa]]) were from the aristocratic and prosperous mercantile community, such rituals among people from lower social classes being a rarity.<ref name="jain6">Settar in Adiga (2006), p258</ref> Women made endowments to Jain causes too, a royal concubine Nandavva and a wealthy feudal lady [[Attimabbe]] being examples.<ref name="jain7">Adiga (2006), p259</ref>

Jains worshipped the twenty four [[Tirthankara]]s (''Jina''s), whose images were consecrated in their [[temples]]. Some scholars believe that Jain worship was not meant to gain boons or favours from the deity, rather to meditate and obtain perfection through detachment.<ref name="jain8">Upadhye, Stevenson et al. in Adiga (2006), p261</ref> However one historian claims a study of contemporary Jain literature reveals that spiritual and temporal benefits ware sought.<ref name="jain9">Singh in Adiga (2006), p262</ref> The assignment of creative and destructive powers to ''tirthankars'' is considered a parallel to the beliefs of Hindus who assigned these powers to [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]], the holy trinity ([[Trimurti]]).<ref name="jain10">Adiga (2006), p262</ref> The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of [[Bhadrabahu]] in [[Shravanabelagola]] from the 10th century is considered a parallel to [[Buddhism]].<ref name="jain17">P.B.Desai and Jaiswal in Adiga (2006), pp263-264</ref> Some [[brahminical]] influences are seen in the consecration of the [[Gomateshwara]] monolith which is the statue of Bahubali, the son of ''tirthankar'' Adinatha (just as Hindus worshipped the sons of Shiva).<ref name="jain11">Adiga (2006), p264</ref>

The worship of subordinate deities such as [[yaksha]]s and [[yakshini]]s, earlier considered as mere attendants of the tirthankaras, was a development of the 7th century to 12th century.<ref name="jain12">Adiga (2006), pp264-265</ref> This is considered the beginning of devotional cults which elevated yakshi Jvalamalini Kalpa and Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa to deity status. Jvalamalini, depicted with flames issuing forth from her head and holding such attributes as a bow, shield, arrows, sword, discuss (''cakra'') etc., in her eight arms and riding a buffalo was the attendant of the eighth tirthankara, [[Chandraprabha]].<ref name="jain13">Settar sees parallels in Buddhism and Hinduism (Adiga 2006, p265)</ref> Padmavati was the ''yaksi'' of the twenty-third tirthankara, [[Parshva]], and may have been derived from the Hindu namesake.<ref name="jain14">Nandi in Adiga (2006), p266</ref> Cult worship is considered consistent with the assimilation of forest and tribal dwellers into the Jain faith and a caste based society.<ref name="jain15">Adiga (2006), p266</ref> While asceticism was upheld in the earlier period, an increased inflow of endowments from wealthy merchants and royalty made monks more settled in temples.<ref name="jain16-270">Adiga (2006), p270</ref> Prayers, chantings, decoration and anointment of the deity in [[Digambar]]a temples were carried out by [[upajjhaya]]s or [[acharya]]s. In contrast, lay devotees in [[Svetambara]] [[derasar]]s undertook these activities and the temple staff merely did the cleaning.<ref name="dig">Paul Dundas in Adiga (2006), p280</ref> Ascetics did not indulge in any direct contact with the image of the deity, rather they spent time in penance and contemplation.<ref name="jain16-280">Adiga (2006), p280</ref> A historian has proposed that Jain temples may have employed courtesans (''[[Devadasi]]'' or ''Sule'') though this may have been a post 10th century development.<ref name="jain177">Chennakka Yeligar in Adiga (2006), p280</ref>

===Hinduism===
[[File:Kalleshvara Temple at Aralaguppe (10th century AD).JPG|thumb|right|upright|Kalleshwara Temple Complex, built in the 10th century by the [[Nolambas]], a Western Ganga feudatory, at Aralaguppe in the [[Tumkur district]]]]
[[Vedic Brahminism]] was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries when inscriptions refer to grants made to ''Srotriya'' Brahmins.<ref name="vedic" /> These inscriptions also describe the ''gotra'' (lineage) affiliation to royal families and their adherence of such Vedic rituals as ''[[ashvamedha]]'' (horse sacrifice) and ''[[hiranyagarbha (donation)|hiranyagarbha]]''.<ref name="vedic1">From the Bendiganhalli and Bangalore copper plates, the [[Chaluvanahalli]] plates, Kutalur grant, Kadagattur and Nallala grants of King Durvinita, Kondunjeruvu grant of King Avinita (Adiga 2006, pp281-282)</ref> Brahmins and kings enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship, rituals performed by the Brahmins gave legitimacy to kings and the land grants made by kings to Brahmins elevated them in society to the level of wealthy landowners who brought forest dwellers into the religious caste based society.<ref name="vedic2">Adiga (2006), p282</ref> During the later part of the Ganga rule, with the rise in Jain popularity, patronage to Brahmins reduced. The Brahmins now sought and occupied influential positions in the military and administration.<ref name="vedic3">Adiga (2006), p283</ref> Brahmins started to make donations to building memorials for fallen heroes and land grants to build temples.<ref name="vedic4">From 7th century Kannada inscription in Aihole describing endowment made by Mahajans (brahmins) to the excavation of a cavern in memory of King [[Pulakeshin II]], the Punajur and Madur inscriptions (Adiga 2006, pp288-9)</ref> By the end of the 10th century, Brahmins resident in ''agraharas'' (schools of learning) were participating in [[puranas|puranic]] forms of worship in temples, constructing new ones or acting as trusties for ''devabhoga'' grants (temple grants).<ref name="vedic5">Adiga (2006), p291</ref> [[Vaishnavism]], however, was in a low profile and not many inscriptions describe grants towards its cause.<ref name="vai">Adiga (2006), p313</ref> Some Vaishnava temples built by the Gangas were the ''Narayanaswami'' temples in Nanjangud, Sattur and Hangala in modern Mysore district, Kodandarama and Yoga Narasimha temples at modern Chikkamagaluru district and the [[Nolamba]] Narayaneshvara temple at Avani in modern Kolar district.<ref name="vai2">From the Kalkunda inscription (Adiga 2006, pp314-316)</ref> The deity Vishnu was depicted with four arms holding a conch (''Shanka''), discus (''chakra''), mace (''gada'') and lotus (''Padma'').<ref name="vai3">Adiga (2006), p317</ref>

From the beginning of the 8th century, patronage to [[Shaivism]] increased from every section of society; from the landed elite, the landlords, the assemblies (''samaya'') and the schools of learning (''aghraharas'').<ref name="vedic5" /> Hereditary ruling families such as the Bana, [[Nolamba]] and Chalukya clans gave patronage to the [[Shaivism]].<ref name="sai4">From the Nandi copper plates of Rashtrakuta [[Govinda III]] of 800, Koyattur-12000 grant of King Dodda Naradhipa Bana in 810, the Ganiganur inscription, Nolamba King Mahendradhirajas grant of his house towards a Shaiva temple in 878, Baragur inscription of 914 of King Ayappadeva Nolamba, the Ninneshvaradeva temple built by King Dilipayya Nolamba in 942 (Adiga 2006, pp293-294)</ref> Among minor Chalukya kings in Gangavadi region, Narasinga Chalukya of Mysore constructed the Narasingeshwara temple and Kings Goggi and Durga build the Buteshvara temple at Varuna in modern Mysore region.<ref name="sai5">From the Kukkarahalli, Manalevadi, Aragodupalli and Torevalli inscriptions, (Adiga 2006, 294)</ref> Shaivism received patronage from local landlords, particularly from the 9th century onwards when temple priests and ascetics played an active role in temple construction.<ref name="sai6">From the Homma inscription, inscription of Pontiff Tribhuvna Kavttara Bhatara of Avanya (Adiga 2006, pp298-99)</ref>

Unlike the Jainism where strict doctrines prevented ascetics and monks from being involved in temple based activities, such regulations did not hamper the Shaiva preceptors who dedicated their energies towards gathering devotee support for monastic activities.<ref name="sai6a">Adiga (2006), p300</ref> The Shaiva temples enshrined a Shiva ''linga'' (phallus) in the [[sanctum sanctorum]] along with images of the mother goddess and [[Surya]] (Sun god) for worship.<ref name="ling">This was popularised by the ''kalamukha'' monks (Adiga 2006, p292)</ref> Sometimes Vaishnava deity images were included asserting the all encompassing nature of Shiva. Nandi (a bull and attendant of Shiva) was normally enshrined in a separate pavilion facing the sanctum.<ref name="sai7">Adiga (2006), p301</ref><ref name="sai77">H.V.Stietencron in Adiga 2006, p303</ref> The ''linga'' was man made and on occasion had etchings of [[Ganapati]] (son of Shiva) and Parvati (consort and wife of Shiva) on it.<ref name="sai7"/> Due to the vigorous efforts of priests and ascetics, Shaiva monastic orders flourished in many places including modern [[Nandi Hills, Karnataka|Nandi Hills]], [[Avani]] and Hebbata in Kolar district, Baragur and Hemavati in Tumkur district, Pemjeru, Mysore and Shimoga.<ref name="sai8">From Nandi copper plates of 800, Avani pillar inscription, Perbetta hero stones, 878 inscription of Nolamba Mahendradhiraja, Baragur inscription of 919, 942 Tumkur grant and Basavanahalli inscriptions (Adiga 2006, p304-305)</ref> Apart from these monasteries, seats of ''kalamukha'' orders existed in modern Kolar, Mysore and Tumkur districts. These orders were less visible in modern [[Hassan District|Hassan]] and Chikkamagaluru regions where Jainism was popular.<ref name="sai9">From the Kempanapura inscription of 991, Kannambadi and Atakur inscriptions of 949 (Adiga 2006, p304)</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
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*{{cite book |last= Adiga|first= Malini|title= The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400-1030|orig-year=2006|year= 2006|publisher= Orient Longman|location= Chennai|isbn= 81-250-2912-5}}
*{{cite web|author=Arthikaje|title=The Gangas of Talakad|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka11.htm|publisher=OurKarnataka.Com|work=History of karnataka|access-date=2006-12-31}}
*{{cite news|author=Havalaiah, N|title=Ancient inscriptions|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040218052747/http://www.hindu.com/2004/01/24/stories/2004012407180300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2004-02-18 |access-date=2007-05-30|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2004-01-24}}
*{{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title= A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present|orig-year=1980|year= 2001|publisher= Jupiter books|location= Bangalore|oclc= 7796041 |lccn= 80905179}}
*{{cite web|author=Kamat, Jyotsna|title=The Ganga Dynasty|url= http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/gangas.htm|publisher=Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=2007-05-30}}
*{{cite book |last= Karmarkar|first= A.P.|title= Cultural history of Karnataka : ancient and medieval|orig-year=1947|year=1947|publisher= Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha|location= Dharwar|oclc= 8221605 }}
{{Col-2-of-2}}
*{{cite book |last= Keay|first= John|title= India: A History|orig-year=2000|year=2000|publisher= Grove Publications|location= New York|isbn= 0-8021-3797-0}}
*{{cite news|author=Khajane, Muralidhara|title=An ancient site connected with Jainism |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/03/stories/2006020313510400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821015942/http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/03/stories/2006020313510400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-08-21 |access-date=2007-06-30|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2006-02-03}}
*{{cite book |last= Narasimhacharya|first= R|title= History of Kannada Literature|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.489059|orig-year=1988|year=1988|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi, Madras|isbn= 81-206-0303-6}}
*{{cite web|author=Prabhu, Govindaraya S|title=Coins of Gangas|url=http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/ganga/south_gangacat.html|publisher=Prabhu's web page on Indian coinage|work=Indian Coins|access-date=2007-06-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710231517/http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/ganga/south_gangacat.html|archive-date=2007-07-10}}
*{{cite book |last= Sastri|first= Nilakanta K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Thapar|first= Romila|title= Penguin History of Early India: From origins to AD 1300|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Penguin|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-14-302989-4}}
*{{cite news|author=Staff Reporter|title=Inscription reveals Bangalore is over 1,000 years old |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/20/stories/2004082016400300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912144705/http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/20/stories/2004082016400300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2004-09-12|access-date=2007-06-30|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2004-08-20}}

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[[Category:Social history of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Western Ganga dynasty]]

Religion in Western Ganga kingdom - Revision history

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