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{{short description|Aesthetic concept in Indian arts related to emotions and feelings}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
In [[Indian aesthetics]], a '''rasa''' ({{lang-sa|रस}}) literally means "juice, essence or taste".<ref name=mmwrasa>Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0900/mw__0902.html Rasa], Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Motilal Banarsidass (Originally Published: Oxford)</ref><ref name=britrasa/> It connotes a concept in Indian arts about the aesthetic flavour of any visual, literary or musical work that evokes an emotion or feeling in the reader or audience but cannot be described.<ref name=britrasa>[https://www.britannica.com/art/rasa Rasa: Indian Aesthetic Theory], Encyclopedia Britannica (2013)</ref> It refers to the emotional flavors/essence crafted into the work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitive spectator' or ''sahṛdaya,'' literally one who "has heart", and can connect to the work with emotion, without dryness.

Rasas are created by ''bhavas'':<ref>Farley Richmond. "India" in ''The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre''. ed. James R. Brandon ([[Cambridge University Press]], 1993), p. 69.</ref> the state of mind.

The ''rasa'' theory has a dedicated section (Chapter 6) in the [[Sanskrit]] text ''[[Natya Shastra]]'', an ancient scripture from the 1st millennium BCE attributed to [[Bharata Muni]].<ref name=lidovarasa>{{harvnb|Natalia Lidova|2014}}</ref> However, its most complete exposition in drama, songs and other performance arts is found in the works of the Kashmiri [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 1000 CE), demonstrating the persistence of a long-standing aesthetic tradition of ancient India.<ref name=britrasa/><ref name="Schwartz2004p12"/><ref name=meyer102>{{cite book|author=Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe |title=Approaches to Acting: Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KiJn_o4R5MC |year=2005|publisher= Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4411-0381-9|pages=73, 102–106, 120}}</ref> According to the ''Rasa'' theory of the ''Natya Shastra'', entertainment is a desired effect of performance arts but not the primary goal, and the primary goal is to transport the audience into another parallel reality, full of wonder and bliss, where they experience the essence of their own consciousness, and reflect on spiritual and moral questions.<ref name="Schwartz2004p12">{{cite book|author=Susan L. Schwartz |title=Rasa: Performing the Divine in India |url=https://archive.org/details/rasa00susa |url-access=registration |year=2004|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13144-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rasa00susa/page/12 12]–17}}</ref><ref name=meyer102/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Ketu H. Katrak|author2=Anita Ratnam|title=Voyages of Body and Soul: Selected Female Icons of India and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMYxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-6115-1|page=45}}</ref>

Although the concept of rasa is fundamental to many forms of [[Indian art]]s including [[Dance in India|dance]], [[Indian classical music|music]], theatre, painting, sculpture, and [[Indian literature|literature]], the interpretation and implementation of a particular rasa differs between different styles and schools.{{Sfn|Wallace Dace|1963|pp=249-252}}{{Sfn|Rowell|2015|pp=327-333}}<ref name="Tymieniecka2012p295"/> The Indian theory of ''rasa'' is also found in the Hindu arts and [[Ramayana]] musical productions in [[Bali]] and [[Java]] (Indonesia), but with regional creative evolution.<ref name="Benamou2010p172">{{cite book|author=Marc Benamou|title=RASA: Affect and Intuition in Javanese Musical Aesthetics| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xrXitSIcS0C&pg=PA172| year=2010| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-971995-2| pages=122, 172–194}}</ref>
{{Indian classical music}}

==History==
The word ''rasa'' appears in ancient [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature. In ''[[Rigveda]]'', it connotes a liquid, an extract and flavor.<ref name="Meyer2005p102"/>{{Refn|group=note|See Rigvedic hymns 1.187.4–5 composed by [[Agastya]], for example. The entire hymn praises liquid extract of foods as the spirit of greats gods, the source of great strength within humans, as Agastya glorifies foods. Sanskrit: तव त्ये पितो '''रसा''' रजांस्यनु विष्ठिताः । दिवि वाता इव श्रिताः ॥४॥ तव त्ये पितो ददतस्तव स्वादिष्ठ ते पितो । प्र स्वाद्मानो '''रसानां''' तुविग्रीवा इवेरते ॥५॥<ref>{{cite book|author=Laurie L. Patton|title=Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSZmbbsg9bEC|year=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93088-9|pages=100–101}}; For original text: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१८७ Rigveda 1.187], Wikisource (in Sanskrit)</ref>}} In ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', ''rasa'' in many contexts means "taste", and also the sense of "the sap of grain". According to Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe – a professor of Drama, ''rasa'' in the [[Upanishad]]s refers to the "essence, self-luminous consciousness, quintessence" but also "taste" in some contexts.<ref name="Meyer2005p102">{{cite book|author=Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe|title=Approaches to Acting: Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KiJn_o4R5MC&pg=PA102 |year=2005|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-0381-9|pages=102–103}}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Many Upanishads use the word ''rasa''. For example, the "Ananda Valli" section of the ''[[Taittiriya Upanishad]]'' states, according to Dinkgrafe Daniel Meyer, "rasa is essence par excellence, the universal essence/bliss". ('''रसो''' वै सः । '''रसँ''' ह्येवायं लब्ध्वाऽऽनन्दी भवति ।)<ref>{{cite book|author=Dinkgrafe Daniel Meyer|title=Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICcrBwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-3491-9|page=243}}; For Sanskrit original, see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/तैत्तिरीयोपनिषदत्/ब्रह्मानन्दवल्ली तैत्तिरीयोपनिषद ब्रह्मानन्दवल्ली], Wikisource</ref>}}{{Refn|group=note|The philosophical or mystical meaning of ''rasa'' is common in the ''[[bhasya]]'' or commentaries on [[Principal Upanishads]] of Hinduism. For example, [[Adi Shankara]] comments that ''rasa'' means "bliss as is innate in oneself and manifests itself even in the absence of external stimuli" because bliss is a non-material state that is spiritual, subjective and an intrinsic state of a human being. Happiness, to Shankara, does not depend on others or external material things, it is a state one discovers and reaches within through ''atma-jnana'' (self knowledge).<ref name="Meyer2005p102"/>}} In post-Vedic literature, the word generally connotes "extract, essence, juice or tasty liquid".<ref name=mmwrasa/><ref name="Meyer2005p102"/>

Rasa in an aesthetic sense is suggested in the Vedic literature, but the oldest surviving manuscripts, with the ''rasa'' theory of [[Hinduism]], are of ''Natya Shastra''. The Aitareya [[Brahmana]] in chapter 6, for example, states:

{{Quote|
<poem>
Now (he) glorifies the arts,
the arts are refinement of the self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atma]]-samskrti'').
With these the worshipper recreates his self,
that is made of rhythms, meters.
</poem>
|''Aitareya Brahmana 6.27'' (~1000 BCE)|Translator: Arindam Chakrabarti<ref name="Chakrabarti2016p1">{{cite book|author=Arindam Chakrabarti|title=The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Indian Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXFYCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4725-2430-0|pages=1–2}}</ref>}}

The Sanskrit text ''Natya shastra'' presents the ''rasa'' theory in Chapter 6, a text attributed to Bharata Muni.<ref name=lidovarasa/> The text begins its discussion with a [[sutra]] called in Indian aesthetics as the ''rasa sutra'':<ref>{{cite book|author=Narendra Nath Sarma|title=Paṇḍitarāja Jagannātha, the Renowned Sanskrit Poet of Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vc_eBshVJf8C&pg=PA75 |year=1994|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-393-3|page=75}}</ref>

{{Quote|
''Rasa'' is produced from a combination of Determinants (''vibhava''), Consequents (''anubhava'') and Transitory States (''vyabhicaribhava'').
|''Natyashastra 6.109'' (~200 BCE–200 CE)|Translator: Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe<ref name="Meyer2005p102"/>}}

According to the ''Natya shastra'', the goals of theatre are to empower aesthetic experience and deliver emotional ''rasa''. The text states that the aim of art is manifold. In many cases, it aims to produce repose and relief for those exhausted with labor, or distraught with grief, or laden with misery, or struck by austere times.<ref name="Chakrabarti2016p1"/> Yet entertainment is an effect, but not the primary goal of arts according to ''Natya shastra''. The primary goal is to create ''rasa'' so as to lift and transport the spectators, unto the expression of ultimate reality and transcendent values.<ref name="Schwartz2004p12"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe |title=Approaches to Acting: Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-KiJn_o4R5MC |year=2005|publisher= Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4411-0381-9|pages=102–104, 155–156}}</ref>

The ''[[Abhinavabharati|Abhinavabhāratī]]'' is the most studied commentary on ''Natyasastra'', written by [[Abhinavagupta]] (950–1020 CE), who referred to ''Natyasastra'' also as the ''Natyaveda''.<ref>{{cite book |last = Ghosh |first = Manomohan |title = Natyasastra |year = 2002 |isbn =81-7080-076-5 |page =2 note 3|url= https://archive.org/stream/NatyaShastra/natya_shastra_translation_volume_1_-_bharat_muni#page/n87/mode/2up }}</ref>{{Sfn|Ananda Lal|2004|p=308, 492}} Abhinavagupta's analysis of ''Natyasastra'' is notable for its extensive discussion of aesthetic and ontological questions.{{Sfn|Ananda Lal|2004|p=308, 492}} According to Abhinavagupta, the success of an artistic performance is measured not by the reviews, awards or recognition the production receives, but only when it is performed with skilled precision, devoted faith and pure concentration such that the artist gets the audience emotionally absorbed into the art and immerses the spectator with pure joy of ''rasa'' experience.{{Sfn|Tarla Mehta|1995|p=24}}

==Elements==
[[File:Sringara3sm.jpg |thumb|Expression of ''Sringāra'' (Romance) in [[Bharatanatyam]] |alt=Sringara or Romance in Bharatanatyam]]
[[File:Durga-mudra.png|right|thumb|Raudram rasa of the destructive fury of goddess [[Durga]] in Bharatanatyam]]
[[Bharata Muni]] enunciated the eight Rasas in the ''[[Nātyasāstra]]'', an ancient Sanskrit text of [[dramatic theory]] and other performance arts, written between 200 BC and 200 AD.<ref name=lidovarasa/> In the [[India]]n performing arts, a ''rasa'' is a sentiment or emotion evoked in each member of the audience by the art. The ''Natya Shastra'' mentions six rasa in one section, but in the dedicated section on ''rasa'' it states and discusses eight primary ''rasa''.<ref name="Meyer2005p102"/>{{Sfn|Wallace Dace|1963|pp=249-250}} Each rasa, according to Nātyasāstra, has a presiding deity and a specific colour. There are 4 pairs of rasas. For instance, [[Hāsya]] arises out of [[Sringara]]. The [[Aura (paranormal)|Aura]] of a frightened person is black, and the aura of an angry person is red. [[Bharata Muni]] established the following:<ref>{{cite book |last= Ghosh |first= Manomohan |title= Natyasastra |year= 2002 |isbn=81-7080-076-5}}</ref>

*'''[[Srungara|{{IAST|Śṛṅgāraḥ}}]]''' (शृङ्गारः): Romance, Love, attractiveness. Presiding deity: [[Vishnu]]. Colour: light green
*'''[[Hāsya|{{IAST|Hāsyam}}]]''' (हास्यं): Laughter, mirth, comedy. Presiding deity: [[Shiva]]. Colour: white
*'''{{IAST|Raudram}}''' (रौद्रं): Fury. Presiding deity: [[Shiva]]. Colour: red
*'''[[Karuṇā|{{IAST|Kāruṇyam}}]]''' (कारुण्यं): Compassion, mercy. Presiding deity: [[Yama]]. Colour: grey
*'''{{IAST|Bībhatsam}}''' (बीभत्सं): Disgust, aversion. Presiding deity: [[Shiva]]. Colour: blue
*'''[[Bhayānaka|{{IAST|Bhayānakam}}]]''' (भयानकं): Horror, terror. Presiding deity: [[Yama]]. Colour: black
*'''{{IAST|Veeram}}''' (वीरं): Heroism. Presiding deity: [[Indra]]. Colour: [[Saffron (color)|saffron]]
*'''{{IAST|Adbhutam}}''' (अद्भुतं): Wonder, amazement. Presiding deity: [[Brahma]]. Colour: yellow<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.thenavarasa.com/flash/
|title=The Navarasa
|access-date=2012-04-22
}}</ref>

===Śāntam rasa===
A ninth rasa was added by later authors. This addition had to undergo a good deal of struggle between the sixth and the tenth centuries, before it could be accepted by the majority of the Alankarikas, and the expression "''Navarasa''" (the nine rasas), could come into vogue.

*'''{{IAST|[[Shanta Rasa|Śāntam]]}}''': Peace or tranquility.<ref name="Pollock2016">{{cite book|last= Pollock|first=Sheldon|title=A Rasa Reader: Classical Indian Aesthetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ub51CwAAQBAJ|date=26 April 2016|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-54069-8|page=48}}</ref> deity: [[Vishnu]]. Colour: perpetual white.

Shānta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set of rasas, but it is simultaneously distinct as being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shānta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by [[yogis]].

== List of bhavas ==
According to the ''Natyashastra'', bhavas are of three types: sthayi, sanchari, sattvika based on how they are developed or enacted during the aesthetic experience. This is seen in the following passage:
<blockquote>
पुनश्च भावान्वक्ष्यामि स्थायिसञ्चारिसत्त्वजान्॥६.१६॥
</blockquote>

Some bhavas are also described as being anubhava if they arise from some other bhAva.

===Sthayee ===
The ''Natyasastra'' lists eight ''[[Sthayibhava|Sthayibhavas]]'' with eight corresponding ''rasas'':
*''Rati'' (Love)
*''Hasya'' (Mirth)
*''Soka (शोक)'' (Sorrow)
*''Krodha'' (Anger)
*''Utsaha'' (Energy)
*''Bhaya'' (Terror)
*''Jugupsa'' (Disgust)
*''Vismaya'' (Astonishment)

This list is from the following passage:
<blockquote>
रतिहासश्च शोकश्च क्रोधोत्साहौ भयं तथा। 
जुगुप्सा विस्मयश्चेति स्थायिभावाः प्रकीर्तिताः॥६.१७॥
</blockquote>

===Sanchari===
Sanchari Bhavas are those crossing feelings which are ancillary to a permanent mood.<ref name=ty>C.Ramanujachari and Dr. V. Raghavan. ''The Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja''.</ref> A list of 33 bhAvas are identified therein.

<blockquote>
निर्वेदग्लानिशङ्काख्यास्तथासूया मदः श्रमः। 
आलस्यं चैव दैन्यं च चिन्तामोहः स्मृतिर्धृतिः॥१८॥ 
व्रीडा चपलता हर्ष आवेगो जडता तथा। 
गर्वो विषाद औत्सुक्यं निद्रापस्मार एव च॥१९॥ 
सुप्तं विबोधोऽमर्षश्चापि अवहित्थं अथोग्रता। 
मतिर्व्याधिस्तथा उन्मादस्तथा मरणमेव च॥२०॥ 
त्रासश्चैव वितर्कश्च विज्ञेया व्यभिचारिणः। 
त्रयस्त्रिंशदमी भावाः समाख्यातास्तु नामतः॥२१॥
</blockquote>

===Satvika===
The Satvika-Bhavas themselves are listed below.
There are eight Satvika-Bhavas.
<blockquote>स्तम्भः स्वेदोऽथ रोमाञ्चः स्वरभेदोऽथ वेपथुः। 
वैवर्ण्यं अश्रु-प्रलय इत्यष्टौ सात्विकाः स्मृताः॥२२॥</blockquote>

These are explained by [[Bharata Muni|Bharata]] and [[Dhanika]] as below:
<blockquote>
"सत्त्वं नाम मनःप्रभवम्। एतदेव समाहितमनस्त्वादुत्पद्यते। " इति भरतः। 
"एतदेवास्य सत्त्वं यत् दुःखितेन प्रहर्षितेन वा अश्रु-रोमाञ्चादयो निवर्त्यन्ते। 
तेन सत्त्वेन निर्वृत्ता भावाः - सात्त्विकाः भावाः। तद्भावभावनं च भावः।" इति धनिकः। 
"पृथग् भावा भवन्त्यन्येऽनुभावत्वेऽपि सात्त्विकाः। 
सत्त्वादेव समुत्पत्तेस्तच्च तद्भावभावनम्॥" इति धनिकः। 

</blockquote>

Thus, physical expression of the feelings of the mind are called Sattvika.

==Role in art==
According to ''Natya shastra'', a ''rasa'' is a synthetic phenomenon and the goal of any creative performance art, oratory, painting or literature.<ref name="Benamou2010p172"/><ref name= Lavezzoli23>{{cite book|author=Peter Lavezzoli|title=The Dawn of Indian Music in the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSZKCXtx-wEC&pg=PA23|year=2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-0-8264-1815-9|page=23}}</ref> Wallace Dace translates the ancient text's explanation of ''rasa'' as "a relish that of an elemental human emotion like love, pity, fear, heroism or mystery, which forms the dominant note of a dramatic piece; this dominant emotion, as tasted by the audience, has a different quality from that which is aroused in real life; rasa may be said to be the original emotion transfigured by aesthetic delight".{{Sfn|Wallace Dace|1963|pp=249-250}}

Rasas are created through a wide range of means, and the ancient Indian texts discuss many such means. For example, one way is through the use of gestures and facial expressions of the actors.<ref>Farley Richmond, "India", in ''The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre'', ed. James R. Brandon ([[Cambridge University Press]], 1993), p.69.</ref> Expressing ''Rasa'' in classical Indian dance form is referred to as '''Rasa-abhinaya'''.

The theory of rasas forms the [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] underpinning of all Indian classical dance and theatre, such as [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kathak]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Odissi]], [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]], [[Kudiyattam]], and others.{{Sfn|Wallace Dace|1963|pp=249-252}}

In [[Indian classical music]], each ''[[raga]]'' is an inspired creation for a specific mood, where the musician or ensemble creates the ''rasa'' in the listener.<ref name= Lavezzoli23/> However, predominantly all ''ragas'' and musical performances in Hindu traditions aim at one of six ''rasa'', wherein music is a form of painting "love, compassion, peace, heroism, comic or the feeling of wonder" within the listener. Anger, disgust, fear and such emotions are not the subject of ''raga'', but they are part of Indian theories on dramatic arts. Of the six ''rasa'' that are aimed at in Indian music, each has sub-categories. For example, love ''rasa'' in Hindu imagination has many musical flavors, such as erotic love (''sringar'') and spiritual devotional love (''bhakti'').<ref name= Lavezzoli23/>{{Sfn|Emmie Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=34-42}}

{{Quote box
|quote =
<poem>
''Rasa'' is a fusion of word and meaning,
that bathes the minds of readers,
with savor of bliss.
It is the truth of poetry,
shining without cessation.
Clear to the heart,
it is yet beyond the words.
</poem>
|source = —''Hrsikesa''<ref name="Tymieniecka2012p295"/>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
In the theories of Indian poetics, ancient scholars state that the effectiveness of a literary composition depends both on what is stated and how it is stated (words, grammar, rhythm), that is the suggested meaning and the experience of ''rasa''.<ref name="Tymieniecka2012p295"/> Among the most celebrated in Hindu traditions on the theory of poetics and literary works, are 5th-century [[Bhartṛhari|Bhartrhari]] and the 9th-century Anandavardhana, but the theoretical tradition on integrating ''rasa'' into literary artworks likely goes back to a more ancient period. This is generally discussed under the Indian concepts of ''Dhvani'', ''Sabdatattva'' and ''Sphota''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sebastian Alackapally|title=Being and Meaning: Reality and Language in Bhartṛhari and Heidegger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=liCLrmfnKSoC&pg=PA86 |year=2002|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1803-3|pages=78–97}}</ref><ref name="Tymieniecka2012p295">{{cite book|author= W.S. Hanley|editor= Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka|title=Analecta Husserliana, Ingardeniana III: The Performing Arts, the Fine Arts, and Literature|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EovtCAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-011-3762-1|pages=299–300, 295–309}}</ref><ref name="Coward1980">{{cite book|author=Harold G. Coward|title=The Sphota Theory of Language: A Philosophical Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEUNRgQ1VOYC&pg=PA17 |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0181-3|pages=17–23}}</ref>

The literary work ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' deploys ''rasa'', presenting [[Bhakti]] of [[Krishna]] in aesthetic terms. The rasa it presents is as an emotional relish, a mood, which is called Sthayi Bhava. This development towards a relishable state results by the interplay on it of attendant emotional conditions which are called ''Vibhavas'', ''[[Anubhava (Hindu thought)|Anubhavas]]'' and ''Sanchari Bhavas''. Vibhavas means Karana or cause: it is of two kinds - ''Alambana'', the personal or human object and substratum, and ''Uddipana'', the excitants. Anubhava, as the name signifies, means the ensuants or effects following the rise of the emotion. ''Sanchari Bhavas'' are those crossing feelings which are ancillary to a mood. Later scholars added more emotional states such as the ''Saatvika Bhavas''.<ref name=ty/>

In the Indian theories on sculpture and architecture (''[[Shilpa Shastras]]''), the ''rasa'' theories, in part, drive the forms, shapes, arrangements and expressions in images and structures.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alice Boner|author2=Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā|author3=Bettina Bäumer|title=The essence of form in sacred art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2eKhTXstG4C&pg=PA72 |year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0090-8|pages=72–78, 45–46, 57–58, 115–116, 121–122}}</ref> Some Indian texts on ''Shilpa'' on image carving and making, suggest nine ''rasas''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alice Boner|author2=Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā|author3=Bettina Bäumer|title=The essence of form in sacred art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2eKhTXstG4C&pg=PA72 |year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0090-8|pages=73–74}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich|title=The Sense of Adharma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB3oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508341-5|pages=30–31}}</ref>

==Influence on cinema==
''Rasa'' has been an important influence on the [[cinema of India]]. [[Satyajit Ray]] has applied the ''Rasa'' method of classical Sanskrit drama to movies, for instance in ''[[The Apu Trilogy]]'' (1955–1959).<ref name="Cooper 2000 1-4">{{citation|last=Cooper|first=Darius|title=The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=0-521-62980-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cinemaofsatyajit00coop/page/1 1–4]|url=https://archive.org/details/cinemaofsatyajit00coop/page/1}}</ref>

In Hindi cinema, it is the theme of the film [[Naya Din Nayi Raat]], where [[Sanjeev Kumar]] played nine characters corresponding to nine ''Rasa''.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

==See also==
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
* [[Abhinaya]]
* [[Natya Shastra]]
* [[Rasa lila]]
* [[Telugu literature]]
* [[Sanskrit Literature]]
* [[Sanskrit Theatre]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite journal | author =Wallace Dace | title=The Concept of "Rasa" in Sanskrit Dramatic Theory | journal=Educational Theatre Journal | volume=15 | issue=3 | pages=249–254 | year=1963 | jstor=3204783 | doi=10.2307/3204783 }}
*{{cite book |author=René Daumal|title=Rasa, or, Knowledge of the self: essays on Indian aesthetics and selected Sanskrit studies|translator= Louise Landes Levi |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0wLXAAAAMAAJ| year=1982| isbn=978-0-8112-0824-6}}
*{{cite news|author=Natalia Lidova|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 |title= Natyashastra }}
*{{cite book|author=Natalia Lidova |title=Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TKarwqJJP0C |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1234-5}}
*{{cite book|author=Ananda Lal |title=The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Tarla Mehta |title=Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC |year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1057-0 }}
*{{cite book|first=Lewis |last= Rowell|title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-73034-9}}
*{{cite book|author= Emmie Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}
*{{cite book| author1=Farley P. Richmond|author2=Darius L. Swann|author3=Phillip B. Zarrilli|title=Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OroCOEqkVg4C |date=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0981-9 }}
*{{cite book|author=Kapila Vatsyayan |title=Bharata, the Nāṭyaśāstra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKW1PAAACAAJ |year=2001|publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1220-6}}
*{{cite book| author=Kapila Vatsyayan |title=Indian classical dance |year=1974 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |oclc= 2238067}}
*{{cite book| author=Kapila Vatsyayan |title=Aesthetic theories and forms in Indian tradition |year=2008 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |oclc= 286469807| isbn= 978-8187586357}}

==External links==
* [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-natyashastra/d/doc209700.html Rasa (sentiments) in the Natya-shastra], Translated into English by Manomohan Ghosh
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/428251 "Rasas" as Springs of Art in Indian Aesthetics], Radhakamal Mukerjee ([http://www.srinivasreddy.org/summer/Springs%20of%20Art.pdf Archive])
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/428249 "Rasa" as Aesthetic Experience], G. B. Mohan Thampi ([http://www.srinivasreddy.org/summer/Aesthetic%20Experience.pdf Archive])
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/428204 The Theory of Rasa], P. J. Chaudhury
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23329292 The Aesthetics of Ancient Indian Drama], V. Raghavan
{{Rasa theory|state=expanded}}{{aesthetics}}
{{Hindudharma}}

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[[Category:Dance in India]]
[[Category:Concepts in aesthetics]]
[[Category:Literary theory]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]

Rasa (aesthetics) - Revision history

imported>InesBaumgartner: small fix

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