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{{Short description|Four goals of human life in Hinduism}}
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{{Hinduism small}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
'''{{IAST|Puruṣārtha}}''' ([[Sanskrit]]: पुरुषार्थ) literally means an "object of human pursuit".<ref name=se1>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=puruSArtha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 puruSArtha] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> It is a key concept in [[Hinduism]], and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four ''puruṣārthas'' are [[Dharma]] (righteousness, moral values), [[Artha]] (prosperity, economic values), [[Kama]] (pleasure, love, psychological values) and [[Moksha]] (liberation, spiritual values, self-actualization).<ref>{{harv|Flood|1996|p=17}}, {{harv|Olivelle|1993|pp=216–219}}; Cf. also {{harv|Apte|1965|p=626}}; {{harv|Hopkins|1971|p=78}}</ref><ref>M Hiriyanna (2000), Philosophy of Values, in Indian Philosophy: Theory of value (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-3612-9}}, pages 1–10</ref>

All four ''Purusarthas'' are important, but in cases of conflict, ''Dharma'' is considered more important than ''Artha'' or ''Kama'' in Hindu philosophy.<ref name=gavinf16/><ref name=po4/> ''Moksha'' is considered the ultimate ideal of human life.<ref name="The Principles of Hindu Ethics">Alban Widgery (1930), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 The Principles of Hindu Ethics], International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 239–240</ref> At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.

Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called ''[[Nishkama Karma]]'' as a possible solution to the tension.<ref name=ghr/><ref name=gede/>

==Etymology==

''Puruṣārtha'' (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from ''Purusha'' (पुरुष) and ''Artha'' (अर्थ). ''Purusha'' means "primaeval human being as the soul and original source of the universe".<ref
>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=purusha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning= purusha] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref
> ''Artha'' in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning".<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 artha] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> Together, ''Purusartha'' literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit".<ref name=se1/><ref name=rp>R Prasad (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-544-5}}, page 125</ref>

[[Alf Hiltebeitel]] translates ''Purusartha'' as "Goals of Man".<ref name=h17/> Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts.<ref name=rp/> Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life".<ref>{{harv|Olivelle|1993|p=216}}</ref>

Purusartha is also referred to as ''Caturvarga''.<ref>Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, page 4, Quote: "There are four categories or life-ideals (caturvarga or purusartha) that usually are said to provide the framework for classical Hindu society".</ref>

==Discussion==
{{Main article|Dharma|Artha|Kama|Moksha}}
''Purusartha'' is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that every human has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for a fulfilling and happy life,<ref>See:
* A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140–142;
* A. Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism], The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
* Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|0-415-17281-0}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443</ref>
*[[Dharma]] – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with ''[[rta]]'', the order that makes life and universe possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, ''Dharma''], The [[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and ''right way of living''.<ref name=tce>Dharma, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, {{ISBN|978-0-7876-5015-5}}</ref> Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce/> Dharma, according to [[ J. A. B. van Buitenen |van Buitenen]],<ref name=vanbuitenen>J. A. B. van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp 33–40</ref> is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.<ref name=vanbuitenen/>
*[[Artha]] – signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.<ref name=johnk>John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315–319</ref> ''Artha'' incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pp 55–56</ref><ref name=bruces>Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, {{ISBN|978-0-8108-3327-2}}, pp 29–30</ref>
*[[Kama]] – signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses, the [[aesthetic]] enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macy |first1=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–60 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/156852775X00095 |jstor=3269765}}</ref> [[Gavin Flood]] explains<ref name=gavinf>Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, {{ISBN|978-1-896209-30-2}}, pp 11–13</ref> kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation).
*[[Moksha]] – signifies emancipation, liberation or release.<ref>John Bowker, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-213965-8}}, pp. 650</ref> In some schools of Hinduism, ''moksha'' connotes freedom from ''[[saṃsāra]]'', the cycle of death and rebirth, in other schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this life.<ref>See:
* E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3, {{ISBN|0-8153-3608-X}}, Taylor and Francis, pp 343–360;
* T. Chatterjee (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0-7391-0692-1}}, pp 89–102; Quote - "Moksa means freedom"; "Moksa is founded on atmajnana, which is the knowledge of the self."</ref><ref>See:
* Jorge Ferrer, Transpersonal knowledge, in Transpersonal Knowing: Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness (editors: Hart et al.), {{ISBN|978-0-7914-4615-7}}, State University of New York Press, Chapter 10
* Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}};
</ref>

===Relative importance between four goals of life===
Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama - profit and pleasure respectively - lead to social chaos.<ref name=gavinf16>Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in [[Julius Lipner]] (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, {{ISBN|978-1-896209-30-2}}, pp 16–21</ref> The [[Gautama's Dharmasutra|Gautama]] Dharmashastra, [[Apastamba]] Dharmasutra and [[Yājñavalkya Smṛti]], as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama.<ref name=po4>See:
* Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-283882-2}}, Note 24.23 at pp 364;
* Gautama Dharmashastra at 1.9.46–47, Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-283882-2}}, paragraph overlapping pp 92–93;
* Yajnavalkya Smrti at 1.115, Translation by Rai Vidyarnava (1918), [https://archive.org/stream/yajnavalkyasmrit00yj#page/232/mode/2up/search/dharma The Sacred Books of Hindus] Volume XXI, Verse CXV and commentary at pp 232;
* Apastamba Dharmasutra 2.20.18–23; Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-283882-2}}, Miscellaneous Rules 18–23 at pp 64</ref>

[[Kama]] states the relative value of three goals as follows: artha is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha.<ref name=ksv>The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), [https://archive.org/stream/kamasutraofvatsy00vatsuoft#page/8/mode/2up The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana], University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8</ref> Kautiliya's [[Arthashastra]], however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya.<ref name=gavinf16/> Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including the one excessively pursued.<ref name=ka>See:
* Kautilya Arthashastra at 1.7.3–7; For English translation - Rangarajan (1987), Penguin Classics, {{ISBN|978-0-14-044603-6}};
* Ashok S. Chousalkar (2004), Methodology of Kautilya's Arthashastra, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 55–76</ref> The [[sastra]]s, states Kane,<ref>P.V. Kane (1941), History of Dharmasastra, Volume 2, Part 1, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pp. 8–9</ref> observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different with age.

Moksha is considered in Hinduism as the ''parama-puruṣārtha'' or ultimate goal of human life.<ref name=h17/>

===Tension between four goals of life===
Indian scholars recognized and have debated the inherent tension between renunciation and ''Moksha'' on one hand, and the active pursuit of ''Kama'' and ''Artha'' on the other.<ref>R. V. De Smet (1972), Early Trends in the Indian Understanding of Man, Philosophy East and West, 22(3): 259–268</ref> This has led to the concepts of ''Pravrtti'' (प्रवृत्ति, Pravritti) and ''Nivrtti'' (निवृत्ति, Nivritti), with the former meaning "giving or devoting one's self to" external action, while the latter means "withdrawing and restraining one's self from" external action in order to focus on one's own liberation. ''Artha'' and ''Kama'' are ''Pravrtti'', while ''Moksha'' is ''Nivrtti''.<ref>Stephen N Hay and William Theodore De Bary (1988), Sources of Indian Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0467-8}}, page 211</ref> Both are considered important in Hinduism. Manusmriti, for example, describes it as,<ref name=ghr/>

{{Quote|
Activity, according to orthodox tradition, is of two kinds: ''pravrtti'' and ''nivrtti'',<br>
The first kind of activity leads to progress (''abhyudaya''), and the second, to perfection (''nihsreyasa'').
|Manusmriti|12.88 <ref name=ghr>GH Rao (1926), The Basis of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, 37(1): 19–35</ref>}}

Indian scholars offered a creative resolution to the tension between "action"-filled life and "renunciation"-driven life, by suggesting the best of both worlds can be achieved by dedicating oneself to "action with renunciation", that is when "action is without attachment or craving for results". Action must be engaged in because it is ''Dharma'', that is, it is good, virtuous, right, a duty and a moral activity, and not because of one's craving for the results or material rewards without any consideration for Dharma. This idea of "craving-free, dharma-driven action" has been called ''[[Nishkama Karma]]'' in [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=gede>Gerard Delanty (2012), Routledge Handbook of Cosmopolitanism Studies, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-60081-1}}, page 465</ref><ref>P Bilimoria (1993), ''Indian Ethics'', in A Companion to Ethics (Editor: Peter Singer), Wiley, {{ISBN|978-0-631-18785-1}}, page 73</ref> Other Indian texts state the same answer to tension between "pursue wealth and love" versus "renounce everything" ''Purusarthas'', but using different words. Isa Upanishad, for example, states "act and enjoy with renunciation, do not covet".<ref name=ghr/>

===Origins of puruṣārtha theory===
The concept of ''mokṣa'' appears in the ''[[Upanishads]]'', while the preceding ''[[Vedas|Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas]]'' commonly refer to ''kāma'', ''artha'' and ''dharma'' as the "''trivarga''" or "three categories" of possible human pursuits. The ''[[Dharmaśāstra]]s'' and the epics ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends.<ref name=h17>{{harv|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=17}}</ref> Prasad (2008) states that the division between the ''trivarga'' and ''mokṣa'' is intended to highlight the context between the social (''trivarga'') and personal (''mokṣa'') spheres.<ref>{{harv|Prasad|2008|pp=360–362}}</ref>

The ''[[Sannyasa]]'' is entirely focussed on the pursuit of ''Moksha'' without violating ''Dharma''. Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in ''Sannyasa'',<ref name=mmbd2>[[Max Muller]] (Translator), [https://archive.org/stream/pt2sacredlawsof14bhuoft#page/278/mode/2up Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18], The [[Sacred Books of the East]], Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279–281</ref>
{{Quote|
These are the vows a Sannyasi must keep –

Abstention from injuring living beings, truthfulness, abstention from appropriating the property of others, abstention from sex, liberality (kindness, gentleness) are the major vows. There are five minor vows: abstention from anger, obedience towards the guru, avoidance of rashness, cleanliness, and purity in eating. He should beg (for food) without annoying others, any food he gets he must compassionately share a portion with other living beings, sprinkling the remainder with water he should eat it as if it were a medicine.
|[[Baudhayana|Baudhāyana]]|Dharmasūtra, II.10.18.1–10 <ref name=mmbd2/>}}

Baudhāyana also makes repeated references to the ''Sannyasa'' (ascetic) stage and its behavioral focus, such as in verses II.13.7 and 11.18.13. This reference, [[Patrick Olivelle|Olivelle]] states, is found in many early to mid 1st millennium BC texts, and is clearly from [[gnomic poetry]] about an established ascetic tradition by the time Baudhayana Dharmasutra and other texts were written.<ref>{{harv|Olivelle|1993|pp=215–216}}</ref> Katha Upanishad, in hymns 2.1–2.2 contrasts the human feeling of pleasant (''preyas'', प्रेयस्) with that of bliss (''sreyas'', श्रेयस्), praising the latter.<ref>{{harv|Olivelle|1993|p=64, see footnote}}</ref> The hymns of [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]] in Book 10 Chapter 136, mention ''[[Rishi|Muni]]'' (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later concepts of renunication-practising, ''Moksha''-motivated ascetics (''Sannyasins'' and ''Sannyasinis''). These ''Muni'' are said to be ''Kesins'' (केशिन्, long haired) wearing ''Mala'' clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) and engaged in the affairs of ''Mananat'' (mind, meditation).<ref name=gsg>GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 162–184;<br>For Sanskrit original: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१३६ Rigveda] Wikisource;<br>For English translation: [https://archive.org/stream/hymnsrigveda00unkngoog#page/n588/mode/2up Kesins] Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator)</ref>

{{quote|
<nowiki>केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥

'''मुनयो''' वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥</nowiki>

He with the long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The ''Munis'', girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course go where the Gods have gone before.|Rig Veda|Hymn 10.CXXXVI.1–2 <ref name=gsg/>}}

Scharfe states, "there are abundant references both to the ''trivarga'' and ''caturvarga'' in Hindu literature throughout the ages".<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2004), ''Artha'', in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, page 251</ref>

==Purusartha-focused literature==
Each of these four canonical ''puruṣārthas'' was subjected to a process of study and extensive literary development in Indian history. This produced numerous treatises, with a diversity of views, in each category. Some purusartha-focused literature include,

* On Dharma
:These texts discuss ''dharma'' from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by [[Gautama's Dharmasutra|Gautama]], [[Apastamba]], [[Baudhayana]] and [[Vāsiṣṭha]]) and Dharma-sastras (particularly [[Manusmṛti]], [[Yājñavalkya Smṛti]], [[Nāradasmṛti]] and [[Viṣṇusmṛti]]). At personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yogasutras]]. The [[Book of Aram|Book I]] of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] moral text of the [[Tirukkural]] exclusively focuses on ''aram'', the Tamil term for dharma, although the entire work of the Tirukkural keeps dharma as its base.<ref name="Lal1992">{{cite book |author=Mohan Lal |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4341 |access-date=7 March 2018|year=1992 |pages=4333–4334|publisher=Sahitya Akademi |location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-260-1221-3 }}</ref>
* On Artha
:Artha-related texts discuss ''artha'' from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Chanakya|Kauṭilya]], the Kamandakiya Nitisara,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/kamandakiyanitis00kamarich#page/n15/mode/2up Kamandakiya Niti Sara] MN Dutt (Translator)</ref> Brihaspati Sutra,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/brihaspatisutrao00brharich#page/n5/mode/2up Brihaspati Sutra - Politics and Government] Sanskrit Original with English translation by FW Thomas (1921)</ref> and Sukra Niti.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/Sacred_Books_of_the_Hindus/SBH%2013%20-%20Sukra%20Niti%20Sara%20English%20Translation%20-%20Benoy%20Kumar%20Sarkar%201914#page/n1/mode/2up Sukra Niti] Bk Sarkar (Translator); Chapter 1 verse 43 onwards - Rules of State and Duties of Rulers; Chapter 1 verse 424 onwards - Guidelines on infrastructure for economy; Chapter 1 verse 550 onwards - Guidelines on treasury management, law and military; Chapter 2 - Functions of state officials, etc</ref> [[Patrick Olivelle|Olivelle]] states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2011), Language, Texts, and Society: Explorations in Ancient Indian Culture and Religion, Anthem Press, {{ISBN|978-0-85728-431-0}}, page 174</ref> The [[Book of Porul|Book II]] of the Tirukkural primarily focuses on ''porul'', the Tamil term for artha.<ref name="Lal1992"/>
* On Kama
:These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The [[Kamasutra]] of [[Vātsyāyana]] is most well known. Others texts include [[Ratirahasya]], Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, [[Ananga Ranga]] among others.<ref>Alan Soble (2005), Sex from Plato to Paglia, {{ISBN|978-0-313-33424-5}}, page 493</ref> While the [[Book of Inbam|Book III]] of the Tirukkural primarily focuses on ''inbam'', the Tamil term for kama, it remains unique in the sense that, unlike the Kamasutra, the Tirukkural's Book of Inbam remains a poetic appreciation of flowering human love as explicated by the [[Sangam period]]'s concept of intimacy, known as ''agam'' in the Tamil literary tradition.<ref name="Lal1992"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Kamil Zvelebil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155 |year=1973 |publisher=E. J. Brill |pages=166|location=Leiden|access-date=7 March 2018|isbn=90-04-03591-5 }}</ref>
* On Moksha
:These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the [[Upanishad]]s, [[Vivekachudamani]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], and the sastras on [[Yoga]].

The [[Indian epic poetry|Sanskrit Epics]] devote major sections on ''purusarthas'',<ref>J. L. Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10260-6}}, page 2 and Introduction chapter</ref> in particular debating dharma.<ref>Daniel H. H. Ingalls (1957), Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2, pages 41–48</ref><ref>J Ganeri (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pages 119–135</ref> The ancient [[Tamil literature|Tamil moral literature]] of the [[Tirukkural]] focuses on the first three of the purusarthas (Dharma, Artha, and Kama) without discussing Moksha, suggesting that "the proper pursuit of the other three will inevitably lead to the fourth."<ref name="PSSundaram_Kural">{{cite book
| last = Sundaram
| first = P. S.
| title = Tiruvalluvar: The Kural
| publisher = Penguin Books
| edition = First
| date = 1990
| location = Gurgaon
| pages = 9
| isbn = 978-01-44000-09-8
}}</ref> The [[Nalatiyar]], another work of the [[Sangam literature]], too, follows similar philosophy as the Tirukkural.<ref name="SangaIlakkiyam_5">{{cite book
| last = Kowmareeshwari (Ed.)
| first = S.
| title = Pathinen Keezhkanakku Noolgal
| publisher = Saradha Pathippagam
| series = Sanga Ilakkiyam
| volume = 5
| edition = 1
| date = August 2012
| location = Chennai
| pages = vi–viii
| language = ta
}}</ref>

==Ashrama==
The four puruṣārthas are often discussed in the context of four [[Ashrama (stage)|ashramas]] or stages of life (''[[Brahmacharya]]'' – student, ''[[Grihastha]]'' – householder, ''[[Vanaprastha]]'' – retirement and ''[[Sannyasa]]'' – renunciation). Scholars have attempted to connect the four stages to the four puruṣārthas, however Olivelle dismisses this, as neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three ashramas must devote itself predominantly to one specific goal of life.<ref name=paol>Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, {{oclc|466428084}}, pages 216–219</ref>

The fourth stage of ''Sannyasa'' is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval Indian texts is that anyone accepting ''Sannyasa'' must entirely devote to ''Moksha'' aided by ''Dharma'', with a complete renunciation of ''Artha'' and ''Kama''.<ref name=paol/>

With the known exception of [[Kamasutra]], most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasize in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,<ref name=paol/>

{{Quote|
The life span of a man is one hundred years. Dividing that time, he should attend to three aims of life in such a way that they support, rather than hinder each other. In his youth he should attend to profitable aims (artha) such as learning, in his prime to pleasure (kama), and in his old age to dharma and moksha.|Kamasutra 1.2.1–1.2.4|Translated by Patrick Olivelle <ref name=paol/>}}

This text does not mention the ashramas, however.

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
The four proper goals of a human in Hindu traditions:
* [[Dharma]]
* [[Artha]]
* [[Kama]]
* [[Moksha]]
*[[Arishadvargas]]

Other elements of ethical theories in Hindu traditions:
* [[Ashrama (stage)]]
* [[Yamas]]
* [[Niyama]]
* [[Karma]]

{{Col-2}}
Other theories on human needs:
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]
* [[Need theory]]
* [[Metamotivation]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

'''Cited books:'''
*{{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
*{{cite book |last= Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |title="Hinduism" in: Kitagawa, J. M. (Ed.) ''The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History and Culture'' |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn= 0-7007-1762-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Thomas J. |title=The Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindureligioustr00hopk |url-access=registration |year=1971 |publisher=Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc. |location=Cambridge }}
*{{cite book |last= Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution|year=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-508327-X }}
*{{cite book |last=Prasad |first= Rajendra |title=A Conceptual-Analytical Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals|year=2008 |publisher=Centre for Studies in Civilizations |isbn=978-81-8069-544-5 }}

==Further reading==
* Gavin Flood (1997), "The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas", In The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times (Editor: Julius J. Lipner), Oxford University Press, pages 11–27, {{ISBN|978-0-19-565039-6}}
* Arvind Sharma (1982), "The Puruṣārthas: A Study in Hindu Axiology", Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University, {{oclc|234144281}}
* Karl Potter (1963), "Presuppositions of India's Philosophies", Prentice Hall, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0779-2}}

==External links==
* Donald David (2004), "Being Hindu or being human: A reappraisal of the puruṣārthas", ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'', 8(1–3): 1–27, {{doi|10.1007/s11407-004-0001-3}}
* John Koller (1968), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398408 ''Puruṣārthas as Human Aims''], Philosophy East and West, 18(4): 315–319

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[[Category:Puruṣārthas| ]]
[[Category:Hindu ethics]]

Puruṣārtha - Revision history

ImportMaster: robot: Add missing article in Category:Mahabharata