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{{Short description|Species of tree}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Prunus_sappling.jpg
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN2.3
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=World Conservation Monitoring Centre |date=1998 |title=''Prunus africana'' |volume=1998 |page=e.T33631A9799059 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T33631A9799059.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
| display_parents = 2
| parent = Prunus sect. Laurocerasus
| taxon = Prunus africana
| authority = ([[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hook.f.]]) [[Cornelis Kalkman|Kalkman]]
| synonyms = ''Pygeum africanum'' Hook.f. ''Pygeum crassifolium'' Hauman ''Prunus crassifolia''
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="mmpnd">{{Cite web | url = https://www.ars-grin.gov/misc/mmpnd/Prunus_Pt1.html | title = Sorting ''Prunus'' Names | work = Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database | access-date = November 3, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Secondary Source Hall" />
}}

'''''Prunus africana''''', the '''African cherry''', has a wide distribution in Africa, occurring in montane regions of central and southern Africa and on the islands of Bioko, São-Tomé, Grande Comore, and Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kalkman, C.|date=1965|title= The Old World species of Prunus subg. Laurocerasus including those formerly referred to Pygeum|journal=Blumea|volume=13|pages= 1–174|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/566657 }}</ref> It can be found at {{convert|900–3400|m|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} above sea level. It is a canopy tree 30–40 m in height, and is the tallest member of ''Prunus''.<ref name = "Secondary Source Hall">{{cite book | first=J.B. |last=Hall |author2=Sinclair, Fergus L |author3=O'Brien, Eileen M. | title=Prunus Africana – A Monograph | year=2000 | publisher=University of Wales | location=Bangor | isbn=1-84220-048-8}}</ref> Large-diameter trees have impressive, spreading crowns. It requires a moist climate, {{convert|900–3400|mm|in|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} annual rainfall, and is moderately frost-tolerant.<ref name=prunafr>{{GRIN | ''Prunus africana'' | 29828 | accessdate = 21 December 2017}}</ref><ref name=pygafr>{{GRIN | ''Pygeum africanum'' | 30392 | accessdate = 21 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Najma | last=Dharani | title=Field Guide to Common Trees and Shrubs of East Africa | publisher=New Holland | year=2002 |page=150 | isbn=1-86872-640-1}} Previewable Google Books.</ref><ref name=sustain>{{cite web | last=Cunningham | first=A.B. | author2=Mbenkum, F.T. | title=Sustainability of harvesting Prunus africana bark in Cameroon: A medicinal plant in international trade | work=People and Plants working papers | publisher=Division of Ecological Sciences, UNESCO | date=May 1993 | url=http://peopleandplants.org/whatweproduce/Workingpapers/pdf/wp2.pdf | access-date=2007-02-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928100401/http://peopleandplants.org/whatweproduce/Workingpapers/pdf/wp2.pdf | archive-date=2007-09-28 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=who>{{cite book |author1=World Health Organization |author2=Inc. NetLibrary | title=WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants: Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/whomonographsons02who |url-access=limited | publisher=World Health Organization | year=2002 | location=Geneva | isbn=92-4-154537-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whomonographsons02who/page/n252 246] }} Previewable Google Books.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Nonjinge | first=Siyabulela | title=Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman | work=PlantZAfrica.com | publisher=South African National Biodiversity Institute | date=October 2006 | url=http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantnop/prunusafri.htm | access-date=2007-09-15 | archive-date=2012-09-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910100409/http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantnop/prunusafri.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> ''P. africana'' appears to be a light-demanding, secondary-forest species.

The bark is black to brown, corrugated or fissured, and scaly, fissuring in a characteristic rectangular pattern. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, simple, {{convert|8-20|cm|abbr=on}} long, elliptical, bluntly or acutely pointed, [[glabrousness (botany)|glabrous]], and dark green above, pale green below, with mildly serrated margins. A central vein is depressed on top, prominent on the bottom. The {{convert|2|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]] is pink or red. The [[flower]]s are androgynous, 10-20 [[stamen]]s, insect-pollinated, {{convert|3–8|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, greenish white or buff, and are distributed in {{convert|70|mm|abbr=on}} [[Axillary bud|axillary]] [[raceme]]s. The plant flowers October through May. The [[fruit]] is a drupe, red to brown, {{convert|7–13|mm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, wider than long, two-lobed, with a seed in each lobe. It grows in bunches ripening September through November, several months after pollination.

==Ecology==
[[File:Prunus africana nectaries.jpg|thumb|left|Extrafloral nectaries along the leaf margin]]
As with other members of the genus ''[[Prunus]]'', ''Prunus africana'' possesses [[extrafloral nectaries]] that provide antiherbivore insects with a nutrient source in return for protecting the foliage.

In addition to its value for its timber and its medicinal uses, ''Prunus africana'' is an important food source for frugivorous birds and mammals. [[Dian Fossey]] reports of the [[mountain gorilla]]:<ref>{{cite book | first=Dian | last=Fossey | author-link=Dian Fossey | title=Gorillas in the Mist | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books | year=2000 |page=146 | isbn=0-618-08360-X }}</ref> "The northwestern slopes of [[Visoke]] offered several ridges of ''Pygeum africanum'' .... The fruits of this tree are highly favored by gorillas." ''East African Mammals'' reports that stands of ''Pygeum'' are the habitat of the rare [[Carruther's mountain squirrel]] and asserts, "This forest type tends to have a rather broken canopy with many trees smothered in climbers and dense tangles of undergrowth."<ref>{{cite book | first=Jonathan | last=Kingdon | title=East African Mammals: an Atlas of Evolution in Africa: Volume IIB | publisher=University of Chicago Press | place=Chicago | year=1984 |page=389 | isbn=0-226-43718-3 }}</ref>
It is currently protected under appendix II of [[CITES]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/e-appendices.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-10-24 |archive-date=2008-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510072543/http://www.cites.org/eng/app/e-appendices.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cites.org/eng/prog/african_cherry.php|title=African cherry Prunus africana|website=Cites.org|access-date=20 January 2022}}</ref> since 16 February 1995 and in South Africa under the National Forest Act (Act 84) of 1998.<ref name="dwaf">{{cite web
|url = http://www2.dwaf.gov.za/dwaf/cmsdocs/4116___poster%20protected%20trees.pdf
|title = Protected Trees
|date = 30 June 2013
|publisher = Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Republic of South Africa
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705085122/http://www2.dwaf.gov.za/dwaf/cmsdocs/4116___poster%20protected%20trees.pdf
|archive-date = 5 July 2010
}}</ref>

Large numbers of trees are harvested for its bark to meet the international demand for its medicinal qualities. Early studies on the effects of bark harvest showed that the harvest affected population structure, increased mortality and decreased fecundity (Parrott and Parrott, 1989;<ref>Parrott J., Parrott, H., 1989. Report on the conservation of ''Prunus'' (''Pygeum africanum'') in Cameroon. Unpublished report prepared for the International Council for Bird Preservation (now Birdlife International).</ref> Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993;<ref name="sustain" /> Ewusi et al., 1992;<ref>Ewusi, B.N., Eben-Ebai, S., Asanga, C.A., Nkongo, J.B.N., 1992. An evaluation of the quantity and distribution of ''Pygeum africanum'' on the slopes of Mount Cameroon. Unpublished report prepared for Plantecam-Medicam.</ref> Walter and Rakotonirina, 1995<ref>Walter, S., Rakotonorina, J.C.R., 1995. L’exploitation of ''Prunus africana'' à Madagascar. Rapportt à P. Zahemena et au Département de l’Eau and des Forêts, Antannarivo, Madagascar.</ref>). However, quantitative studies to examine specific life history parameters and possible sustainable harvesting practices were begun only recently (Stewart, 2001<ref>Stewart, K.M., 2001. The commercial bark harvest of ''Prunus africana'' on Mount Oku, Cameroon: effects on traditional uses and population dynamics. Ph.D. Dissertation, Florida International University.</ref> and 2009<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first= K. M. |year= 2009 |title= Effects of bark harvest and other human activity on populations of the African cherry (Prunus africana) on Mount Oku, Cameroon.|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=258|issue= 7 | pages = 1121–1128 | doi = 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.05.039}}</ref>). In these later studies, the combined factors of mortalities of a large percentage of reproductive trees (especially the largest ones), highly reduced fruit production and poor seedling survival seem to suggest a bleak prognosis for future regeneration and long-term persistence of the species in harvested populations.

==Uses==

===Traditional and alternative medicine===
[[File:Prunus africana MS 3588.jpg|thumb|right|''P. africana'' with stripped bark]]
The species has a long history of traditional uses. The bark is used in numerous ways: as a wound dressing, as a purgative, as an appetite stimulant; and to treat fevers, malaria, arrow poisoning, stomach pain, kidney disease, gonorrhoea, and insanity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stewart | first1 = KM | year = 2003 | title = The African cherry (Prunus africana): can lessons be learned from an over-exploited medicinal tree? [Review] | journal = [[Journal of Ethnopharmacology]] | volume = 89 | issue = 1| pages = 3–13 | doi=10.1016/j.jep.2003.08.002| pmid = 14522426 }}</ref> The pharmacology and traditional uses of the species are reviewed in Stewart (2003a and 2003 b) <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Stewart K.M. |year= 2003|title= The African cherry (Prunus africana): can lessons be learned from an over-exploited medicinal tree?|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=89|issue= 1| pages = 3–13|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2003.08.002|pmid= 14522426}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first= K. M.|year= 2003|title= The African cherry (Prunus africana): from hoe handles to the international herb trade.|journal=Economic Botany|volume=57| pages = 559–569 | doi = 10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0559:tacpaf]2.0.co;2|s2cid= 24796322}}</ref>

The extract Pygeum is an herbal remedy prepared from the bark of ''P. africana'' and is promoted as an [[alternative medicine]] for [[benign prostatic hyperplasia]] (BPH).<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 17397059 | year = 2007 | last1 = Edgar | first1 = AD | last2 = Levin | first2 = R | last3 = Constantinou | first3 = CE | last4 = Denis | first4 = L | title = A critical review of the pharmacology of the plant extract of Pygeum africanum in the treatment of LUTS | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 458–63; discussion 464 | doi = 10.1002/nau.20136 | journal = Neurourology and Urodynamics| s2cid = 24774409 }}</ref> A 2016 literature review found that Pygeum offered no benefit.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Keehn A, Taylor J, Lowe FC |title=Phytotherapy for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia |journal=Curr Urol Rep |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=53 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27180172 |doi=10.1007/s11934-016-0609-z |s2cid=25609876 }}</ref> A 2019 review said there was some evidence of BPH symptom relief.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Das K, Buchholz N|title=Benign prostate hyperplasia and nutrition|journal=Clin Nutr ESPEN|volume=33 |pages=5–11 |quote=Moderate exercise and the type and amount of protein intake have a considerable influence on BPH symptoms. The intake of zinc and vitamin D also positively influence BPH symptoms, and so do certain supplements, such as saw palmetto, cemilton and pygeum extracts.|date=October 2019 |pmid=31451276 |doi=10.1016/j.clnesp.2019.07.015 |s2cid=201784942 }}</ref>{{qn|date=September 2019}}

=== Other uses===
The timber is a hardwood employed in the manufacture of axe and hoe handles, utensils, wagons, floors, chopping blocks, carving, bridge decks, and furniture. The wood is tough, heavy, straight-grained, and pink, with a pungent bitter-almond smell when first cut, turning mahogany and odorless later.<ref name=who/><ref name=":1" />

==Conservation status==
The collection of mature bark for its use in traditional medicine and other uses has resulted in the species becoming endangered.<ref name="iucn status 11 November 2021" /><ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-22-voa24.html | newspaper = VOANews | date = 22 May 2006 | access-date = 20 January 2011 | title = Africa's Medicine Tree Facing Extinction From Greed, Corruption}}</ref> ''P. africana'' continues to be taken from the wild. However, quotas have been awarded by the South African Forestry Department without adequate forest inventories due to some harvesters, spurred on by the high prices, removing too much of the bark in an unsustainable manner.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peopleandplants.org/storage/working-papers/wp2.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-01-20 |archive-date=2011-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727171530/http://www.peopleandplants.org/storage/working-papers/wp2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 1990s, an estimated 35,000 debarked trees were being processed annually. The growing demand for the bark has led to the cultivation of the tree for its medicinal uses.<ref name=sustain/> The species is listed in Appendix II of [[CITES]] in order to regulate its international trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |publisher=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna |date=2010-10-14 |access-date=2019-12-20}}</ref>

==Discovery and classification==
The name of the remedy, pygeum, comes from the name of the plant, which was discovered to botany by [[Gustav Mann]] during his now-famous first European exploration of the [[Cameroon line|Cameroon Range]], with [[Richard Francis Burton]] and [[Alfred Saker]], in 1861. A letter from Mann to the [[Linnean Society of London]], read by [[William Jackson Hooker]], then Director of the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]], on June 5, 1862, describes the naming of the peaks of the Cameroon Range (such as Mount Victoria, later Mount Cameroon<ref>The British names did not survive the transfer of Cameroon to Germany in 1884 and now are nearly unknown.</ref>) and the collection of specimens there.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hooker | first=Sir W.J. | author-link=William Jackson Hooker | title=Letter from Mr. G. Mann, Government Botanist, describing his Expedition to the Cameroon Mountains | journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society | volume=VII | pages=1–13 | year=1864 | issue=25 | url=http://www.botanicus.org/page/166680 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1863.tb01054.x }}</ref> The latter were shipped back to Kew for classification, which was duly performed by Hooker and his son, [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], who had the responsibility of publishing them, as William died in 1865.

When the publication came out<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hooker | first=J.D. | author-link=Joseph Dalton Hooker | title=On the Plants of the Temperate Regions of the Cameroons Mountains and Islands in the Bight of Benin; collected by Mr. Gustav Mann, Government Botanist | journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society | volume=VII | pages=191–192 | year=1864 | issue=28 | url=http://www.botanicus.org/page/166680 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1864.tb01067c.x}} The article occupies pages 171–240. The botanical abbreviation for this publication is J. Proc. Linn. Soc., Bot.</ref> the Hookers had named the plant ''Pygeum africanum'', followed by the designation "n. sp.", an abbreviation for ''nova species''. The habitat is listed as "Cameroons Mountains, alt. 7000-7500 feet", which was above the tropical forest and in the alpine grasslands. Hooker notes that another specimen had been "gathered in tropical Eastern Africa" at 3000 feet by Dr. Kirk on an expedition of [[David Livingstone]].

The first publication of the synonym in 1864 had been preceded by publication of the bare name in 1863 in a book by [[Richard Francis Burton]].<ref>{{Cite book | first=J.D. | last=Hooker | author-link=Joseph Dalton Hooker | contribution=Enumeration of the Mountain Flowering Plants and Ferns Collected by M. Gustav Mann, Government Botanist, during his various ascents of the Cameroons Mountains, of Clarence Peak, Fernando Po, and of the Peak of San thomé | title=Abeokuta and the Camaroons Mountains: An Exploration: Appendix III | year=1863 | pages=270–277 | place=London | publisher=Tonsley Brothers }}</ref> Evidently Hooker had already made the contents of J. Proc. Linn. Soc., Bot. 7 for 1864 available to some, as Burton mentions the volume and Mann's letter in 1863.<ref>Page 47, first note.</ref>

Hooker gives scant hint of why he chose "pygeum"; however, what he does say indicates it was common knowledge among botanists. Kirk's specimen fruit was "a much depressed sphere". By this, he undoubtedly meant to reference [[Joseph Gaertner]]'s genus, ''Pygeum'' Gaertn.,<ref>{{cite web | title=Pygeum Gaertn. | work=Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) Taxonomy for Plants | author=U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) | url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?16198 | access-date=2007-09-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010011020/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?16198 | archive-date=2012-10-10 | url-status=dead }}</ref> which innovates pygeum<ref>See under [[De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum]]. The edition is the 1788.</ref> from a Greek word, πυγή, "rump, buttock", because the two lobes of the fruit resemble the human [[gluteus maximus]] muscles.<ref>{{cite book | first=Umberto | last=Quattrocchi | title=CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms: Volume III M-Q | publisher=CRC Press | year=2000 | isbn=0-8493-2673-7}} Previewable Google Books.</ref>

In 1965, [[Cornelis Kalkman]] moved ''Pygeum'' to ''Prunus'', and this classification has the authority for now.<ref>{{cite journal | first=Cornelis | last=Kalkman | author-link=Cornelis Kalkman | title=The Old World Species of ''Prunus'' subg. Laurocerasus including those formerly referred to as Pygeum | journal=Blumea | volume=13 | pages=1–115 }} The specification is Blumea 13:33.</ref> However, a recent cladistic study notes of ''Pygeum'': "its relationships to ''Prunus'' remain to be tested by molecular cladistics."<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bortiri | first=Esteban |author2=Oh, Sang-Hun |author3=Gao, Fang-You |author4= Potter, Dan | title=The Phylogenetic Utility Of Nucleotide Sequences Of SORBITOL 6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE In Prunus (Rosaceae) | journal=American Journal of Botany | volume=89 | issue=11 | pages=1697–1708 | year=2002 | url=http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/reprint/89/10/1697.pdf | doi=10.3732/ajb.89.10.1697 | pmid=21665596}}</ref>

==Names==
''Prunus africana'' is known by the common names African cherry, pygeum (from its former scientific name, ''Pygeum africanum''), iron wood, red stinkwood, African plum, African prune, and bitter almond. In other languages spoken where it grows, it is known as {{transl|am|tikur inchet}} in [[Amharic]], {{transl|mis|mkonde-konde}} in [[Chaga language|Chagga]], {{transl|ki|[[wikt:mũiri|muiri]]}} in [[Gikuyu language|Kikuyu]], {{transl|lg|entasesa}} or {{transl|lg|ngwabuzito}} in [[Luganda|Ganda]], {{transl|xh|uMkakase}} in [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], {{transl|zu|inyazangoma-elimnyama}} or {{transl|zu|umdumezulu}} in [[Zulu language|Zulu]], {{transl|niq|tendwet}} in [[Naandi language|Nandi (Kalenjin)]] and {{lang|af|rooi-stinkhout}} in [[Afrikaans]].<ref name="dwaf"/>

==Palaeobotanic evidence==
A 1994/1995 study published in 1997 by Marchant and Taylor did a pollen analysis on and [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon-dated]] two core samples from montane Mubindi Swamp in [[Uganda]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=Robert | last=Marchant | author2=Taylor, David | title=Late Pleistocene and Holocene History at Mubwindi Swamp, Southwest Uganda | journal=Quaternary Research | volume=47 | pages=316–328 | year=1997 | url=http://www.york.ac.uk/res/kite/people/marchant/RAM%20PDFs/QR%201997.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221194407/http://www.york.ac.uk/res/kite/people/marchant/RAM%20PDFs/QR%201997.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=2008-02-21 | doi=10.1006/qres.1997.1887 | issue=3 | bibcode=1997QuRes..47..316M | s2cid=140567377 }}</ref> The swamp is a catchment at {{cvt|2100|m}} altitude between mountain ridges. It is a "moist lower montane forest" in [[Bwindi Impenetrable National Park|Bwindi Forest National Park]]. The investigators found montane ''Prunus'', represented by currently growing ''P. africana'', has been in the catchment continuously since their Pollen Zone MB6.1, dated about 43,000–33,000 years ago.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | first=J.B. |last=Hall |author2=Sinclair, Fergus L |author3=O'Brien, Eileen M. | title=Prunus Africana – A Monograph | year=2000 | publisher=University of Wales | location=Bangor | isbn=1-84220-048-8}}

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Prunus africana}}
{{Commons|Prunus africana}}
* {{cite web | author=Dailey, Bryan W. |author2=Fernandes, Erick C.M. | title=The Effect of Ecological Conditions on Density and Growth of Prunus africana Seedlings in Madagascar | publisher=Cornell University | url= http://www.css.cornell.edu/research/prunus/ }}
* {{cite web | title=Prunus africana | url=http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/pafricana.pdf | author=WWF | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925173554/http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/pafricana.pdf | archive-date=2006-09-25 }}
{{WestAfricanPlants|Prunus africana}}
* {{PFAF|Prunus africana}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q959738}}

[[Category:Afromontane flora]]
[[Category:Prunus|africana]]
[[Category:Flora of Madagascar]]
[[Category:Protected trees of South Africa]]
[[Category:Trees of Africa]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional African medicine]]
[[Category:Vulnerable plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Uganda]]
[[Category:Flora of the Madagascar subhumid forests]]

Prunus africana - Revision history

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