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{{Short description|Set of attitudes and beliefs that give order and meaning to a political process}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Inglehart Values Map.svg|thumb|Inglehart-Weltzel values map.]]
'''Political culture''' describes how [[culture]] impacts [[politics]]. Every [[political system]] is embedded in a particular political culture.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Morlino, Leonardo|title=Political science : a global perspective|others=Berg-Schlosser, Dirk., Badie, Bertrand.|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5264-1303-1|location=London, England|pages=64–74|oclc=1124515503}}</ref>

== Definition ==
[[Gabriel Almond]] defines it as "the particular pattern of orientations toward political actions in which every political system is embedded".<ref name=":1" />

[[Lucian Pye|Lucian Pye's]] definition is that "Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system".<ref name=":1" />

María Eugenia Vázquez Semadeni defines political culture as "the set of discourses and symbolic practices by means of which both individuals and groups articulate their relationship to power, elaborate their political demands and put them at stake."<ref>[Vázquez Semadeni, M. E. (2010). ''La formación de una cultura política republicana: El debate público sobre la masonería. México, 1821-1830.'' Serie Historia Moderna y Contemporánea/Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas; núm. 54. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México/El Colegio de Michoacán. {{ISBN|978-607-02-1694-7}}]</ref>

== Analysis ==
The limits of a particular political culture are based on subjective [[Identity (social science)|identity]].<ref name=":1" /> The most common form of such identity today is the [[national identity]], and hence [[nation state]]s set the typical limits of political cultures.<ref name=":1" /> The socio-cultural system, in turn, gives meaning to a political culture through shared symbols and rituals (such as a national [[List of national independence days|independence day]]) which reflect common values.<ref name=":1" /> This may develop into a [[civil religion]]. The values themselves can be more [[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] or [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]], and will set the limits to [[Public participation (decision making)|political participation]], thereby creating a basis for [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimacy]].<ref name=":1" /> They are transmitted through [[socialization]], and shaped by shared historical experiences which form the [[Collective memory|collective]] or [[national memory]].<ref name=":1" /> [[Intellectual]]s will continue to interpret the political culture through political [[discourse]] in the [[public sphere]].<ref name=":1" /> Indeed, elite political culture is more consequential than mass-level.<ref name=":2" />

=== Elements ===
[[Trust (social science)|Trust]] is a major factor in political culture, as its level determines the capacity of the state to function.<ref name=":2" />

[[Postmaterialism]] is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as [[human rights]] and [[environmentalism]].<ref name=":1" />

[[Religion]] has also an impact on political culture.<ref name=":2" />

==Classifications==
Different typologies of political culture have been proposed.

=== Almond & Verba ===
[[Gabriel Almond]] and [[Sidney Verba]] in ''[[The Civic Culture]]'' outlined three pure types of political culture based on level and type of [[political participation]] and the nature of people's attitudes toward politics:
* [[Parochial political culture|Parochial]] – Where citizens are only remotely aware of the presence of central government, and live their lives near enough regardless of the decisions taken by the state, distant and unaware of political phenomena. They have neither knowledge nor interest in politics. This type of political culture is in general congruent with a traditional political structure.
* Subject – Where citizens are aware of central government, and are heavily subjected to its decisions with little scope for dissent. The individual is aware of politics, its actors and institutions. It is affectively oriented towards politics, yet it is on the "downward flow" side of the politics. In general congruent with a centralized authoritarian structure.
* Participant – Citizens are able to influence the government in various ways and they are affected by it. The individual is oriented toward the system as a whole, to both the political and administrative structures and processes (to both the input and output aspects). In general congruent with a democratic political structure.

Almond and Verba wrote that these types of political culture can combine to create the [[civic culture]], which mixes the best elements of each.

=== Elazar ===
[[Daniel J. Elazar]] identified three kinds of political culture:<ref name=":2" />

* Individualistic culture – In which politics is a marketplace between individuals seeking to maximize their [[self-interest]], with minimal community involvement and opposition to the government, as well as a high degree of [[patronage]]. See also: [[Neopatrimonialism]].
* Moralistic culture – Whereby government is seen as important and as a way to improve peoples' lives.
* Traditionalistic culture – One which seeks to preserve the status quo under which elites have all the power and citizen participation is not expected.

=== Huntington ===
[[Samuel P. Huntington]] classified political cultures according to civilizations on the basis of geography and history:<ref name=":2" />

* [[Western world|Western]] civilization
* [[Japan]]ese civilization
* [[Islam]]ic civilization
* [[Hinduism|Hindu]] civilization
* [[Slavs|Slavic]]-[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] civilization
* [[Latin America]]n civilization
* [[China|Chinese]] civilization
* [[Africa]]n civilization

=== Inglehart ===
Ronald Inglehart proposes that political culture can dictate political systems, and points out a correlation between Protestantism (or more generally societies with high Secular-Rational values and high Self Expression values on the Inglehart-Weltzel values map) and stable democratization.<ref>{{cite web |last=Inglehart |first=Ronald |date=2 September 2013 |title=The Renaissance of Political Culture |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/renaissance-of-political-culture/89B401CFFFC6DBE7CB5BDB0A95B05DE9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/renaissance-of-political-culture/89B401CFFFC6DBE7CB5BDB0A95B05DE9 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=9 April 2022 |website=Cambridge.org}}</ref>

== National political cultures ==

=== Russia ===
[[Russia]] is a low-trust society, with even the highest trusted institutions of [[Russian Orthodox Church|church]] and the [[Russian Armed Forces|military]] having more distrustful than trusting citizens, and with low participation in [[civil society]].<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Hague, Rod.|title=Political science : a comparative introduction|date=14 October 2017|isbn=978-1-137-60123-0|pages=200–214|oclc=970345358}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Schmidt-Pfister|first=Diana|chapter=What Kind of Civil Society in Russia?|date=2008|title=Media, Culture and Society in Putin's Russia|pages=37–71|editor-last=White|editor-first=Stephen|series=Studies in Central and Eastern Europe|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1057/9780230583078_3|isbn=978-0-230-58307-8}}</ref> This means that Russia has a weak [[civic political culture]]. Furthermore, the authoritarian traditions of Russia mean that there is little support for democratic norms such as tolerance of dissent and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=White, Stephen |editor2=Gitelman, Zvi Y. |editor3=Sakwa, Richard |title=Developments in Russian politics 6|date=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-3668-4|oclc=57638942}}</ref> Russia has a history of authoritarian rulers from [[Ivan the Terrible]] to [[Joseph Stalin]], who have engaged in massive repression of all potential political competitors, from the [[oprichnina]] to the [[Great Purge]]. The resulting political systems of [[Tsarist autocracy]] and Soviet communism had no space for independent institutions.

=== United States ===
{{main|Political culture of the United States}}
The political culture of the [[United States]] was heavily influenced by the background of its early immigrants, as it is a [[settler society]]. [[Samuel P. Huntington]] identified American politics as having a "[[Tudor period|Tudor]]" character, with elements of English political culture of that period, such as [[common law]], strong [[court]]s, local [[Self-governance|self-rule]], decentralized [[sovereignty]] across institutions, and reliance on popular [[Militia (United States)|militias]] instead of a [[standing army]], having been imported by early settlers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huntington, Samuel P.|title=Political order in changing societies|date=2006|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-11620-5|oclc=301491120}}</ref> Another source of political culture was the arrival of [[Scotch-Irish Americans]], who came from a violent region of Britain, and brought with them a strong sense of [[individualism]] and support for the [[Right to keep and bear arms|right to bear arms]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Fukuyama, Francis.|title=Political order and political decay : from the industrial revolution to the globalization of democracy|others=Continuation of: Fukuyama, Francis.|date=30 September 2014|isbn=978-0-374-22735-7|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=869263734}}</ref> These settlers provided the support for [[Jacksonian democracy]], which was a revolution of its time against the established elites, and remnants of which can still be seen in modern American [[populism]].<ref name=":0" />

=== China ===
The political culture of China is tied closely to political socialization, as children are indoctrinated into the collectivist perspective of the Chinese Communist Party. This inculcation is theorized to explain the delayed growth of secularism in Chinese culture, especially during the Cultural Revolution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wasserstrom |first=Jeffrey |title=Popular Protest & Political Culture in Modern China |publisher=Westview Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8133-2043-4 |location=New York, New York |pages=2}}</ref> Chinese political culture perceives the relationship between government and individuals to be a hierarchy. Because of this, there is little pushback from individuals during policy and regulation change. The political culture also shows a trend against confrontationality, which decreases the quantity and frequency of social conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shi |first=Tianjian |date=2001 |title=Cultural Values and Political Trust: A Comparison of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/422441 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=401–419 |doi=10.2307/422441 |issn=0010-4159}}</ref> Both of these qualities stem from traditional Chinese values imbedded during the age of Confucianism. When the Chinese Communist Party took power in 1948, Mao Zedong unsuccessfully attempted to remove these traits from the culture, instead opting for revolutionary values and priorities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Solomon |first=Richard H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XPb_KyRqVDwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=political+culture+china&ots=n3KzkY1qBI&sig=UPbNkJtZNnchmJd9ARzw8-yobX8#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture |date=1971 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02250-8 |language=en}}</ref>

=== India ===
Due to India's colonization by the British Empire, the contemporary political culture has been influenced by western ideas that were not present before. These influences include democracy and parliamentary systems, two institutions that stood ideologically opposite of the caste system that dictated society before.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chiriyankandath |first=James |date=March 1996 |title=Hindu nationalism and regional political culture in India: A study of Kerala |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537119608428458 |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=44–66 |doi=10.1080/13537119608428458 |issn=1353-7113}}</ref> Because of India's multicultural demography, the political culture varies by group and region. India's successful democratization lead to power being given to both the urbanized and well educated class who focused on national appeal, as well as more traditional, rural, and lower class political actors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weiner |first=Myron |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400875320-007/html?lang=de |title=6. India: Two Political Cultures |date=2015-12-08 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-7532-0 |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781400875320-007/html}}</ref> In the modern era, the class system of India has begun to break down, and members of lower classes are now entering higher political and economic positions. This is especially true for lower class women, who historically have been excluded from such activities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ciotti |first=Manuela |date=February 2012 |title=Resurrecting Seva (Social Service): Dalit and Low-caste Women Party Activists as Producers and Consumers of Political Culture and Practice in Urban North India |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/resurrecting-seva-social-service-dalit-and-lowcaste-women-party-activists-as-producers-and-consumers-of-political-culture-and-practice-in-urban-north-india/F95255C1AB50C97835A5724919A748BA |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=149–170 |doi=10.1017/S002191181100297X |issn=1752-0401}}</ref> {{More|Albion's Seed}}

==See also==
{{portal|Politics}}
* [[Political culture of Canada]]
* [[Political culture of Germany]]
* [[Political culture of the United Kingdom]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
<references />
{{refbegin}}
* Almond, Gabriel A., Verba, Sidney ''The Civic Culture''. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1965.
* Aronoff, Myron J. “Political Culture,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, [[Neil J. Smelser]] and Paul B. Baltes, eds., (Oxford: Elsevier, 2002), 11640.
* Axelrod, Robert. 1997. “The Dissemination of Culture: A Model with Local Convergence and Global Polarization.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 41:203-26.
* Barzilai, Gad. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
* Bednar, Jenna and Scott Page. 2007. “Can Game(s) Theory Explain Culture? The Emergence of Cultural Behavior within Multiple Games” Rationality and Society 19(1):65-97.
* Clark, William, Matt Golder, and Sona Golder. 2009. Principles of Comparative Government. CQ Press. Ch. 7
* Diamond, Larry (ed.) ''Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries.''
* Greif, Avner. 1994. “Cultural Beliefs and the Organization of Society: A Historical and Theoretical Reflection on Collectivist and Individualist Societies.” The Journal of Political Economy 102(5): 912-950.
* Kertzer, David I. ''Politics and Symbols''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996.
* Kertzer, David I. ''Ritual, Politics, and Power''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988.
* Kubik, Jan. ''The Power of Symbols Against The Symbols of Power''. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.
* Inglehart, Ronald and [[Christian Welzel]], ''Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Ch. 2
* Laitin, David D. ''Hegemony and Culture''. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1986.
* [[Igor Lukšič]], ''Politična kultura''. Ljubljana: The University of Ljubljana, 2006.
* Wilson, Richard "The Many Voices of Political Culture: Assessing Different Approaches," in ''World Politics'' 52 (January 2000), 246-73
*Gielen, Pascal (ed.), 'No Culture, No Europe. On the Foundation of Politics'. Valiz: Amsterdam, 2015.
{{refend}}

{{Political culture}}

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[[Category:Comparative politics]]
[[Category:Political culture| ]]
[[Category:Subfields of political science|Culture]]

Political culture - Revision history

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