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	==Conditions==		==Conditions==
	For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus that shared values are at least worth pursuing. The most important baseline value is thus that of mutual [[respect]] or [[Toleration\|tolerance]]. If no such dialogue is possible, [[extremism]] and physical coercion are likely inevitable.		For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus that shared values are at least worth pursuing. The most important baseline value is thus that of mutual [[respect]], [[understanding]] or [[Toleration\|tolerance]]. If no such dialogue is possible, [[extremism]] and physical coercion are likely inevitable.

	==Notable pluralists==		==Notable pluralists==
	* [[Aristotle]]		* [[Aristotle]]
			* [[Plato]]
			* [[Socrates]]
			* [[Augustine of Hippo]]
			* [[Thomas Aquinas]]
			* [[Erasmus]]
			* [[Niccolo Machiavelli]]
			* [[Thomas Hobbes]]
			* [[John Locke]]
			* [[Rene Descartes]]
			* [[Spinoza]]
	* [[Montaigne]]		* [[Montaigne]]
	* [[James Madison]]		* [[James Madison]]
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	* [[Voltaire]]		* [[Voltaire]]
	* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]		* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
			* [[Thomas Jefferson]]
			* [[Thomas Paine]]
			* [[Mark Twain]]
			* [[John Stuart Mill]]
			* [[Charles Darwin]]
			* [[Sigmund Freud]]
			* [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
			* [[John Henry Newman]]
	* [[James Fitzjames Stephen]]		* [[James Fitzjames Stephen]]
	* [[Charles Sanders Peirce]]		* [[Charles Sanders Peirce]]
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	* [[John Kekes]]		* [[John Kekes]]
	* later [[Paul Feyerabend]]		* later [[Paul Feyerabend]]
			* [[CH Douglas]]
			* [[John Maynard Keynes]]
			* [[Karl Popper]]
	* [[John N. Gray]]		* [[John N. Gray]]
	* [[Hannah Arendt]]		* [[Hannah Arendt]]
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	[[Category:Pluralism (philosophy)]]		[[Category:Pluralism (philosophy)]]
	[[Category:Political theories]]		[[Category:Political theories]]
			[[Category:Liberalism]]
			[[Category:Left-wing politics]]
	[[Category:Power sharing]]		[[Category:Power sharing]]

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{{short description|Recognition and affirmation of diversity and coexistence within a political body}}
{{about|pluralism as a political philosophy|the theory that political power in society does not lie with the electorate but is distributed between a wide number of groups|Pluralism (political theory)|other uses|Pluralism (disambiguation)}}

'''Pluralism''' as a political philosophy is the recognition and affirmation of diversity within a political body, which is seen to permit the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions, and lifestyles.<ref>[http://www.mathwizurd.com/government/2015/10/12/three-theories-of-american-democracy "Theories of American Democracy"]</ref> While not all political pluralists advocate for a [[pluralist democracy]], this is most common as [[democracy]] is often viewed as the most fair and effective way to moderate between the discrete values.<ref>''Pluralism Liberal Democracy'' {{ISBN|080188215X}}</ref> As put by arch-pluralist [[Isaiah Berlin]], "let us have the courage of our admitted ignorance, of our doubts and uncertainties. At least we can try to discover what others ... require, by ... making it possible for ourselves to know men as they truly are, by listening to them carefully and sympathetically, and understanding them and their lives and their needs... ."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/berlin/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first1=Joshua|last1=Cherniss|first2=Henry |last2=Hardy|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|date=1 January 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Pluralism thus tries to encourage members of society to accommodate their differences by avoiding [[extremism]] (adhering solely to one value, or at the very least refusing to recognize others as legitimate) and engaging in [[good faith]] dialogue. Pluralists also seek the construction or reform of social institutions in order to reflect and balance competing principles.

One of the more famous arguments for institutional pluralism came from [[James Madison]] in [[Federalist No. 10|''The Federalist'' paper number 10]]. Madison feared that factionalism would lead to in-fighting in the new American republic and devotes this paper to questioning how best to avoid such an occurrence. He posits that to avoid factionalism, it is best to allow many competing factions (advocating different primary principles) to prevent any one from dominating the [[political system]]. This relies, to a degree, on a series of disturbances changing the influences of groups so as to avoid institutional dominance and ensure competition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/10751/Pluralism-Political-Pluralism.html|title=Pluralism - Political Pluralism}}</ref> Like [[Edmund Burke]], this view concerns itself with balance, and subordinating any single abstract principle to a plurality or realistic harmony of interests. Pluralism recognizes that certain conditions may make good-faith negotiation impossible, and therefore also focuses on what institutional structures can best modify or prevent such a situation. Pluralism advocates institutional design in keeping with a form of pragmatic [[Realism (international relations)|realism]] here, with the preliminary adoption of suitable existing socio-historical structures where necessary. One of the problems plaguing any discussion of pluralism is that it is a multi-faceted concept. There are at least four distinct ways in which the term pluralism has been used.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/43891966|title= Hamed Kazemzadeh: Democratic platform in Social Pluralism
|journal= Internal Journal of Acpcs, Winter No.10
|date= January 2020
|last1= Kazemzadeh
|first1= Hamed
}}</ref>

[[William E. Connolly]] challenges older theories of pluralism by arguing for pluralization as a goal rather than as a state of affairs. Connolly's argument for the "multiplication of factions" follows [[James Madison]]'s logic in engaging groups, constituencies, and voters at both the micro and macro level. Essentially, he has shifted the theory from a conservative theory of order, to a progressive theory of democratic contestation and engagement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Democracy, pluralism and political theory|first1=William E.|last1=Connolly|authorlink1=William E. Connolly|date=2007|publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|location=London, England|first2=Samuel Allen|last2=Chambers|first3=Terrell|last3=Carver|isbn=9780415431224|oclc=133465498}}</ref> Connolly introduces the distinction between pluralism and ''pluralization''. Pluralism, whether the interest-group pluralism of [[Robert A. Dahl]] or political liberalism's "reasonable" pluralism, is oriented towards existing diversity of groups, values, and identities competing for political representation. Pluralization, by contrast, names the emergence of new interests, identities, values, and differences raising claims to representation not currently legible within the existing pluralist imaginary.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pluralism|first=William E.|last=Connolly|authorlink=William E. Connolly|date=2005 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|isbn=0822335549|location=Durham, North Carolina|oclc=57319610}}</ref>

==The common good==
Pluralism is connected with the hope that this process of conflict and [[dialogue]] will result in a quasi-[[common good]]. This common good is not an abstract value or set in stone, however, but an attempt at balancing competing social interests and will thus constantly shift given present social conditions. Proponents in the contemporary political philosophy of such a view include [[Isaiah Berlin]], [[Stuart Hampshire]] and [[Bernard Williams]]. An earlier version of political pluralism was a strong current in the formation of modern [[social democracy]] (to balance socialist and capitalist ideals), with theorists such as the early [[Harold Laski]] and [[G. D. H. Cole]], as well as other leading members of the British [[Fabian Society]]. In the United States, President [[Dwight Eisenhower]]'s "middle way" was arguably motivated by a belief in political pluralism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI9952203/|title=Pursuing the "middle way": Eisenhower Republicanism, 1952–1964|first=Wagner, Steven|last=Thomas|date=1 January 1999|pages=1–282}}</ref>

While advocated by many pluralists, pluralism need not embrace social democracy given it does not [[A priori knowledge|a priori]] assume a desirable political system. Rather, pluralists advocate one based on the pre-existing traditions and cognizable interests of a given society, and the political structure most likely to harmonize these factors. Thus, pluralists have also included [[Michael Oakeshott]] and [[John Kekes]], proponents of something close to [[liberal conservatism]] (although will often reject such political labels). What pluralists certainly do have in common is the notion that a single vision or ideological schema, whether [[Marxism]] or unbridled [[neoliberalism]], is likely too simplistic and rigid to advocate human beings' natural plurality of values. Pluralists likewise reject [[historicism]] and [[utopian]] thinking. While some, like [[John Gray (philosopher)|John N. Gray]], repudiate historical progress altogether, others, like [[Edmund Burke]], indicate that human progress has occurred, as a function of improved social harmony.

==Conditions==
For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus that shared values are at least worth pursuing. The most important baseline value is thus that of mutual [[respect]] or [[Toleration|tolerance]]. If no such dialogue is possible, [[extremism]] and physical coercion are likely inevitable.

==Notable pluralists==
* [[Aristotle]]
* [[Montaigne]]
* [[James Madison]]
* [[Alexis de Tocqueville]]
* early [[Harold Laski]]
* [[Stuart Hampshire]]
* [[Edmund Burke]]
* [[Isaiah Berlin]]
* [[Adam Smith]]
* [[David Hume]]
* [[Edward Gibbon]]
* [[Voltaire]]
* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
* [[James Fitzjames Stephen]]
* [[Charles Sanders Peirce]]
* [[William James]]
* [[Bernard Williams]]
* [[William McKinley]]
* [[Learned Hand]]
* later [[Michael Oakeshott]]
* [[Joseph Raz]]
* [[John Kekes]]
* later [[Paul Feyerabend]]
* [[John N. Gray]]
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
* [[Robert A. Dahl]]
* [[William E. Connolly]]
* [[Montesquieu]]

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Anekantavada]]
* [[Liberal democracy]]
* [[Moderation]]
* [[Value pluralism]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Rajiv Krishnan Kozhikode and Jiatao Li, "Political pluralism, public policies, and organizational choices: banking branch expansion in India, 1948–2003," ''Academy of Management Journal'', 55(2), 339–359.
* ''Pluralism and Liberal Democracy'', Richard E. Flatham (2005).
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berlin/#4.4 "Isaiah Berlin"]
* ''Morality and Conflict'', [[Stuart Hampshire|Hampshire, Stuart]] (1983).
* ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics'', [[Charles Blattberg|Blattberg, Charles]] (2000).
* ''Democratic platform in Social Pluralism'', [[Hamed Kazemzadeh|Kazemzadeh, Hamed]] (2020).
* ''Liberty'', [[Isaiah Berlin|Berlin, Isaiah]] (2002).
* ''In the Beginning Was the Deed'', [[Bernard Williams|Williams, Bernard]] (2005).
* [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2013/11/05/michael-oakeshott-and-modern-conservatism/ "Michael Oakeshott and Modern Conservatism"]
* On legal pluralism and communities, see: [[Gad Barzilai]], Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.

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[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Power sharing]]

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