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{{Short description|Species of conifer}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = European black pine
| image = Forest in Bulgaria near Dundukovo dam.jpg
| image_caption = ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. '' nigra'', Bulgaria
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2013 |title=''Pinus nigra'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T42386A2976817 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42386A2976817.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Pinus
| display_parents = 3
| parent = Pinus subsect. Pinus
| species = nigra
| authority = J.F.Arnold
| range_map = Pinus nigra map.png
| range_map_caption = 1: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' (1a: var. ''nigra'', 1b: var. ''pallasiana'', 1c: var. ''caramanica'').<br />2: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (2a: var. ''salzmannii'', 2b: var. ''corsicana'', 2c: var. ''mauretanica'')
}}

'''''Pinus nigra''''', the '''Austrian pine'''<ref>{{PLANTS|id=PINI|taxon=Pinus nigra|access-date=4 October 2015}}</ref> or '''black pine''', is a moderately variable species of [[pine]], occurring across [[Southern Europe]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jb.utad.pt/especie/Pinus_nigra|title = Jardim Botânico UTAD | Espécie Pinus nigra|website=Jb.utad.pt}}</ref> to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey, Corsica and Cyprus, as well as Crimea and in the high mountains of Northwest Africa.

==Description==
''Pinus nigra'' is a large [[conifer]]ous [[evergreen]] [[tree]], growing to {{convert|20|-|55|m|abbr=off}} high at maturity and spreading to {{Convert|6 to 12|m|abbr=on}} wide. The [[Bark (botany)|bark]] is gray to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The [[leaves]] ('needles') are thinner and more flexible in western populations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are {{Convert|5–10|cm|abbr=off|frac=4}} (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale gray-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark gray, {{Convert|6–8|mm|frac=16}} long, with a yellow-buff wing {{Convert|20–25|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

''Pinus nigra'' is moderately fast growing, at about {{convert|30|-|70|cm|abbr=on}} per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long-lived, with some trees over 500 years old.

{{Gallery
|File:Borovicová šiška.jpg|Foliage and cone of subsp. ''nigra''
|File:Austrian Pine Pinus nigra Bark Closeup 2000px.jpg|Bark of subsp. ''laricio''
|File:Pinus nigra MHNT.2022.4.3.jpg|''Pinus nigra''
}}

==Taxonomy==
The species is divided into two subspecies, each further subdivided into three varieties.<ref name=Gymnosperm>Gymnosperm Database: [http://www.conifers.org/pi/Pinus_nigra.php ''Pinus nigra'']</ref><ref>Christensen, K. I. (1993). Comments on the earliest validly published varietal name for the Corsican Pine. ''Taxon'' 42: 649-653.</ref> Some authorities (e.g. ''[[Flora Europaea]]'') treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.<ref name=farjon>Farjon, A. (2005). ''Pines Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus'' 2nd ed. Brill {{ISBN|90-04-13916-8}}.</ref>
;Subspecies
*''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' in the east of the range, from Austria, northeast and central Italy, east to the Crimea and Turkey. Needles stout, rigid, 1.5–2 mm diameter, with 3–6 layers of thick-walled hypodermal cells.
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''nigra'' (syn. ''Pinus nigra'' var. ''austriaca'', ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''dalmatica'') (Austrian pine): Austria, Balkans (except southern Greece).
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''caramanica'' (Turkish black pine): Turkey, Cyprus, southern Greece.
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''italica'' (Italian black pine): central Italy (Villetta Barrea, in Abruzzo National Park)
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''pallasiana'' (syn. ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''pallasiana'') (Crimean pine): Crimea, Cyprus.
* ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' in the west of the range, from southern Italy to southern France, Spain and North Africa. Needles slender, more flexible, 0.8–1.5 mm diameter, with 1–2 layers of thin-walled hypodermal cells.
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' var. ''salzmannii'' (Pyrenean pine): Pyrenees, Southern France, Northern Spain.
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' var. ''corsicana'' (syn. ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''laricio'', ''Pinus nigra'' var. ''maritima'') (Corsican pine): Corsica, Sicily, Southern Italy.
*** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''laricio'' Koekelare <ref name="Belgische Dendrologie Belge">Belgische Dendrologie Belge [http://dendrologie.be/nl/content/2390 ''Pinus Nigra Laricio Koekelare'']</ref>
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' var. ''mauretanica'' (Atlas Mountains black pine): Morocco, Algeria.

== Distribution and habitat ==
''Pinus nigra'' is a tree of the [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] [[biome]].
The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the [[South Apennine mixed montane forests]] [[ecoregion]] in southern Italy and the [[Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests]] ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the [[Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests]] ecoregion, and in the higher [[Atlas Mountains]] in Morocco and Algeria.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}}, most commonly from {{convert|250|-|1600|m|abbr=on}}. Several of the varieties have distinct English names.<ref name="rushforth">Rushforth, K. (1987). ''Conifers''. Helm {{ISBN|0-7470-2801-X}}.</ref>
It needs full sun to grow well, is [[Shade tolerance|intolerant of shade]], and is resistant to snow and ice damage.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

It has naturalized in parts of the midwestern states of the United States, normally south of the normal native ranges of native pines.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Pin_laricio_Corse.jpg|thumb|upright|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine, in [[Corsica]].]]
[[File:Crepuscular rays in the woods of Kasterlee, Belgium.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine plantation, in [[Belgium]].]]
In Mediterranean Europe and the [[Anatolian Peninsula]] ([[Asia Minor]]), trees usually associated with this species include [[Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris''), [[Serbian spruce]] (''Picea omorika''), [[Bosnian pine]] (''Pinus heldreichii''), [[Norway spruce]] (''Picea abies''), Taurus cedar (''[[Cedrus libani]]''), [[European silver fir]] (''Abies alba'') and related [[fir]]s. Several species of [[juniper]] (''Juniperus'' spp.), and various [[broadleaf tree]]s are associates.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

=== Climate and provenance ===
''Pinus nigra'' is a light-demanding species, intolerant of shade but resistant to wind and drought.<ref>{{citation |author1=Isajev, V. |author2=Fady, B. |author3=Semerci, H. |author4=Andonovski, V. |title=European Black pine - ''Pinus nigra'': Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use|date=2004|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1035_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_European_black_pine__Pinus_nigra_.pdf |publisher=[[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]]}}</ref>
The eastern ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30 °C) than the western ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (hardy to about −25 °C).<ref name="Gymnosperm" />

Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on [[limestone]], while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on [[podzol]]ic soils.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

=== As an invasive species ===
''Pinus nigra'' has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] in a few areas of the US. In [[New Zealand]] it is considered an [[invasive species]] and [[noxious weed]], along with [[lodgepole pine]] (''P. contorta'') and Scots pine (''P. sylvestris''), due to their habitat conversion nature in [[bunch grass|tussock]] [[grassland]] plant communities, shading out the native bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==Uses==

===Lumber===
The timber of European black pine is similar to that of Scots pine (''P. sylvestris'') and [[red pine]] (''P. resinosa''), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

In the United Kingdom, ''Pinus nigra'' is important both as a timber tree and in [[plantation]]s (primarily Corsican pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the [[fungus]] ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'', resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there.<ref>Forestry Commission: [http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/forestry.nsf/byunique/infd-74jjfk Red band needle blight]</ref> In the United States it is of low importance as a [[timber]] species.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

In regard to Austrian pine, the fungus ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'' is widespread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

=== Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal use ===
In Turkey, this pine (subsp. pallasiana) was and is used in various ways, both topically and internally, as well as for construction and for livestock. Among its uses are curing [[acne]], [[common cold]], [[osteomyelitis]], and [[Viral disease|viral infections]]; acting as an [[Mouthwash|oral antiseptic]]; treating cracked hands and feet in the winter; and sealing wooden roofs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Ornamental use===
In the US and Canada, the European black pine is planted as a street tree, and as an [[ornamental tree]] in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including [[ozone]]), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the UK the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It is planted with great success as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/showimage/386874/|title=PlantFiles Pictures: Pinus Species, Austrian Pine, Black Pine, Corsican Pine, European Black Pine (Pinus nigra)|website=Davesgarden.com|access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref>

In both the US and UK most of the specimens planted are from Austrian sources, the ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' and ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''nigra'' seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for natural trees was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the US for that purpose.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

''P. nigra'' is planted for [[windbreak]]s and [[shelterbelt]]s in the US, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep moist or upland soils.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.euforgen.org/species/pinus-nigra/ EUFORGEN species page: ''Pinus nigra''. Information, distribution and related resources.]

{{Commons category|Pinus nigra|position=left}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q145954}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Pinus|nigra]]
[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of North Africa]]
[[Category:Flora of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Least concern plants]]
[[Category:Trees of Mediterranean climate]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Africa]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Europe]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]

Pinus nigra - Revision history

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