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{{Short description|Hindu temple in Jammu and Kashmir, India}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Shiva Temple, Pandrethan
| image = Pandrethan Shiva Temple, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India (1981).jpg
| alt = Pandrethan temple
| caption = Shiva Temple at Pandrethan in 1981
| map_type = India Jammu and Kashmir#India
| map_caption = Location in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]], India
| coordinates = {{coord|34|3|23|N|74|51|39|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| country = India
| state = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]]
| location = Pandrethan, [[Srinagar district|Srinagar]]
| elevation_m = 1614
| deity = [[Shiva]]
|map_size=
|image_upright=1.15
}}
The '''Pandrethan Shiva temple''' is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to [[Shiva]] at Pandrethan, in the city of [[Srinagar]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. The current structure of the temple dates to {{circa|8th–9th century CE}}, and stands at the centre of a [[Irrigation tank|tank]] fed by a natural spring close to the [[Jhelum River]]. The temple, though smaller than others, is one of the best preserved of ancient Kashmiri Hindu stone temples.

==History==
===Pandrethan===
Pandrethan has been identified as the original site of the capital city of Srinagar, founded by [[Ashoka (Gonandiya)|Ashoka]].{{efn|Identified by scholars with the [[Mauryan empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]].{{sfn|Wani|Wani|2023|p=75}}{{sfn|Kaul|2018|p=110}}}} During the 6th century CE, the capital was shifted a few kilometres northwest, resulting in the area being called ''puranadhisthana'', meaning 'old capital' in [[Sanskrit]], with Srinagar being used as a name for the new capital. The present name, Pandrethan, is a corruption of the Sankrit name.{{sfn|Wani|Wani|2023|p=75}} By the 19th century, the area was littered with ancient ruins.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=15}}{{sfn|Siudmak|2013|page=197}} Excavations at Pandrethan on the site of ruins of two Buddhist [[stupa]]s and a monastery in 1915 resulted in the discovery of several Budhhist sculptures and fragments.{{sfn|Siudmak|2013|page=197}} During the 1920s, the area was appropriated for military use and cleared of most ruins,{{sfn|Siudmak|2013|page=197}} and by 1930s military barracks had been built close to the Shiva temple.{{sfn|Kak|1933|page=112}} While digging for building the foundations of these barracks, twenty Hindu sculptures were accidentally discovered, including eight sculptures of Shiva, seated as well as standing, five of [[Matrika]] goddesses, and one each of [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] and [[Ganesha]].{{sfn|Kak|1933|page=116}}{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pages=17–18}} These artefacts date variously to the 2nd and 8th century, and later.{{sfn|Kak|1933|pages=115–116}}<ref name=IE2022>{{citation |date=11 March 2022 |last=A |first=Divya |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/govt-felicitates-army-chinar-corps-in-kashmir-for-preserving-ancient-site-7815802 |title=Govt felicitates Army's Chinar Corps in Kashmir for preserving ancient site |work=[[Indian Express]]}}</ref>{{efn|Many of these are housed at the [[Shri Pratap Singh Museum]] and on site near the temple, while many others have been lost.{{sfn|Siudmak|2013|page=197}}{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=17}}<ref name=IE2022/>}}
[[File:Ruins of a 10th century Hindu temple at Pandrethan near Srinagar Kashmir, 1868 photo.jpg|thumb|left|1868 photograph of the Shiva temple at Pandrethan]]

===Shiva Temple===
The present building of the Shiva temple, the only ancient remnant from Pandrethan to survive, was built sometime in the 8th–9th century CE.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pages=13, 20}}{{sfn|Fisher|1989|page=38}}{{sfn|Huntington|Huntington|2013|pages=362–363}} The temple was originally part of a much larger complex. In 1665, the temple, then in a ruined state, was likely visited by [[François Bernier]] during his visit to the Kashmir Valley. During the 19th century, the temple was visited, sketched and photographed by several British and other European visitors, many of whom noted its exceptionally well-preserved stone ceiling.{{sfn|Bilham|Bali|Bhat|Hough|2010|pages=108–110}}<ref>{{citation |last1=Lovell-Hoare |first1=Max |last2=Lovell-Hoare |first2=Sophie |title=Kashmir:Jammu, Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, Zanskar |page=207 |year=2014 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841623962}}</ref> Its smaller size and partially submerged condition may have prevented demolition by later Muslim rulers.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}}{{sfn|Fisher|1989|page=38}} The temple's roof had likely sustained some damage from an [[earthquake]] in 1828, and possibly from two late 18th century earthquakes earlier.{{sfn|Bilham|Bali|Bhat|Hough|2010|pages=114}}

The temple was earlier wrongly identified by 19th-century colonial visitors as the Meruvardhanaswami temple described in the [[Rajatarangini]] of [[Kalhana]], which was built in the 10th century by Meruvardhana, a minister during the rule of the [[Utpala dynasty]]. However, the Meruvardhanaswami temple was dedicated to [[Vishnu]], while the temple at Pandrethan is a Shiva temple.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}}{{sfn|Kak|1933|page=114}} Identification of the temple with another, early 12th century Shiva temple mentioned in the Rajatarangini was proposed, but has been rejected by scholars.{{efn|[[Ram Chandra Kak]] proposed that the temple may be the Rilhaneshwara temple, built in 1135 CE by Rilhan, a minister of [[Lohara dynasty#Second Lohara dynasty|Jayasimha]].{{sfn|Kak|1933|page=114}} [[Debala Mitra]] rejects this saying that the temple does not correspond to any mentioned in the Rajatarangini and dates it to the 10th century or earlier.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}} Susan L. Huntington also disagrees with the 10th or 12th century dating for the temple, instead suggesting an earlier date,{{sfn|Huntington|Huntington|2013|pages=362–363}} as does Robert Fisher.{{sfn|Fisher|1989|page=38}}}} Based on architectural and stylistic features of the structure and sculptures, scholars date the temple to {{circa|8th–9th century CE}}.{{efn|Mitra dates it to the 10th century or earlier based on stylistic features of the sculptures;{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}} Huntington suggests a probable date of {{circa|8th–9th century CE}} based on the style of sculpture in the temple;{{sfn|Huntington|Huntington|2013|page=364}} and Fisher states that the structural style of the temple indicates it dating to the [[Karkota dynasty]], possibly within the rule of [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitaditya]] ({{circa|724 CE–760 CE}}).{{sfn|Fisher|1989|page=38}} John Siudmak dates the temple to 'not earlier than' 8th or 9th century CE based on architectural features of the building.{{sfn|Siudmak|2013|page=250}}}} The temple is currently situated inside an army cantonment called [[Badami Bagh]].{{sfn|Bilham|Bali|Bhat|Hough|2010|pages=108}} In 2021, the temple underwent further restoration and a park was constructed around it to exhibit artefacts excavated from its surrounding area.<ref name=IE2022/>

==Architecture==
[[File:Pandrethan temple ceiling, 1866.jpg|thumb|1866 drawing of the temple's ceiling]]
The temple is made of ashlar stone masonry, and stands atop a high platform in the middle of a tank. The temple is [[Ratha (architecture)|tri-ratha]] on the outside, and square on the inside. The top consists of a two-storeyed pyramidal roof.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|pages=21–22}} The roof of the temple is unique in being one of the few of such temples to majorly survive, providing an idea of what the now-demolished roofs of Hindu temples at [[Martand Sun Temple|Martand]], [[Avantiswami Temple|Awantipora]] and elsewhere in Kashmir may have looked like.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}} The pyramidal summit at the top has been lost, and the roof is now topped with a modern dome and [[Kalasha (finial)|three-orbed finial]].{{sfn|Bilham|Bali|Bhat|Hough|2010|page=111}} There are four doors in four directions, with lintels supporting triangular pediments containing [[trefoil arch]]es. The front facing trefoil arch contains a relief of Shiva in his [[Lakulisha]] form, while the remaining three are empty but may have had similar reliefs.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=24}}

The ceiling of the temple is noted for being the best preserved of ancient Kashmiri Hindu stone temples.{{sfn|Fisher|1989|page=38}} It is intricately carved, consisting of three overlapping squares, formed of nine stone slabs.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=24}} Four triangular slabs each are arranged to form the bottom and middle squares, while the top square consists of a single square slab with a full-blown lotus relief.{{sfn|Kak|1933|page=113}}
{{multiple image |total_width=400 |perrow=2 |align=right |image1=Lakulish at Payar Temple.JPG |caption1=Architecturally similar, but smaller, Shiva temple at Payar with a [[Lakulisha]] relief in a [[trefoil arch]]|image2=Mirkula Devi Temple. HP.jpg |caption2=Mrikula Devi temple in [[Lahaul|Udaipur, Himachal Pradesh]], contains a wooden replica of the Pandrethan temple's stone ceiling.{{sfn|Hamdani|2021|pages=38–39}}}}
The sanctum likely housed a shiva lingam or image of a three- or four-headed [[Mahadeva (Shiva)|Mahadeva]] originally.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=20}} The current shiva-lingam was installed in the temple at a later, modern date.{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=26}} The temple has great resemblance to a smaller Shiva temple at Payar, near [[Pulwama]].{{sfn|Mitra|1977|page=23}} The Pandrethan temple may have served as inspiration for the ceiling of the Mrikula Devi temple at [[Lahaul|Udaipur, Himachal Pradesh]], which is a replica of the former's stone ceiling but made using wood.{{sfn|Hamdani|2021|pages=38–39}} The Pandrethan temple's ceiling style can also be seen replicated in wood, but without any motifs, at the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]] in Srinagar.{{sfn|Hamdani|2021|page=85}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last1=Bilham |first1=Roger |last2=Bali |first2=Bikram |last3=Bhat |first3=M. I. |last4=Hough |first4=S. E. |title=Historical earthquakes in Srinagar, Kashmir: Clues from the Shiva Temple at Pandrethan |journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers |year=2010 |volume=471 |pages=107–117 |doi=10.1130/2010.2471(10)|isbn=978-0-8137-2471-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Fisher |first=Robert E. |year=1989 |chapter=Stone Temples |pages=29–40 |editor-last=Pal |editor-first=Pratapaditya |editor-link=Pratapaditya Pal |title=Art and architecture of ancient Kashmir |publisher=[[Marg (magazine)|Marg publications]] |isbn=81-85026-06-8}}
* {{citation |last=Hamdani |first=Hakim Sameer |year=2021 |title=The Syncretic Traditions of Islamic Religious Architecture of Kashmir (Early 14th–18th Century) |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn= 978-0-367-55009-7 }}
* {{citation |last1=Huntington |first1=Susan L. |last2=Huntington |first2=John C. |year=2013 |orig-year=1985 |title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-8-120-83617-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Kaul |first=Shonaleeka |title=The Making of Early Kashmir: Landscape and Identity in the Rajatarangini |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-948292-4 |year=2018 |url=https://india.oup.com/product/the-making-of-early-kashmir-9780199482924 }}
* {{citation |last=Kak |first=Ram Chandra |author-link=Ram Chandra Kak |title=Ancient Monuments of Kashmir |publisher=The India Society |location=London |year=1933}}
* {{citation |last=Mitra |first=Debala |author-link=Debala Mitra |title=Pandrethan, Avantipur and Martand |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |location=New Delhi |year=1977}}
* {{citation |last=Siudmak |first=John |title=The Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Ancient Kashmir and its Influences |year=2013 |publisher=[[BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-24315-6}}
* {{citation |first1=Muhammad Ashraf |last1=Wani |first2=Aman Ashraf |last2=Wani |year=2023 |title=The Making of Early Kashmir: Intercultural Networks and Identity Formation |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-15830-3 }}

[[Category:8th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:9th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Shiva temples]]
[[Category:Srinagar district]]
[[Category:Karkota dynasty]]
[[Category:Utpala dynasty]]

Pandrethan Shiva Temple - Revision history

MyrnaAcuna04: creating