imported>Arjayay: Undid revision 1038526697 by Buttkicker33 (talk) Rv-V

2021-08-13T08:23:04Z

Undid revision 1038526697 by Buttkicker33 (talk) Rv-V

New page

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
The '''origin of Vijayanagara empire''' is a controversial topic in [[South India]]n history, with regard to the linguistic affiliation of the founding dynasty, the [[Sangama dynasty|Sangama family]]. The [[Vijayanagara Empire]] rose to power in southern [[India]] in the 14th century CE. Over the past decades historians have expressed differing opinions on whether the empire's founders, [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka I]] (two of four sons of Sangama), were of [[Kannadigas|Kannada]] or [[Telugu people|Telugu]] origin. There are various opinions about role of the [[Vidyaranya]], the Hindu saint and guru of [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka I]] in the founding of the Vijayanagara empire.

==Kannadiga origin theory==
Scholars such as Rothermund, [[B. Lewis Rice|B.L Rice]], [[P.B. Desai]], [[B A Saletore|Saletore]], [[Henry Heras]], Suryanatha Kamath, Karmakar and S.K. Aiyangar claim that the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire were [[Kannadigas]] and related to the [[Hoysala]] dynasty.<ref name="org">[[P.B. Desai]], [[B.A. Saletore]], [[Henry Heras]] and Kamath in Kamath (2001), p158</ref><ref name="org1">Karmarkar (1947), p30</ref><ref name="service">Kulke and Rothermund (2004), p188</ref><ref name="durga">G.S.Gai and S.K. Aiyangar in Durga Prasad, p191</ref><ref name="rice">Rice (1897), p345</ref> [[Edward William West|E. W. West]] opines the founders were officers in the army of Veera Ballala III, the last Hoysala king.<ref name="west10">West (1877), p. 637</ref> Though controversies over the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the empire exist, it is well accepted that he was an important individual at the powerful [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Shringeri]] monastic order, though he became the head of the order around 1380, a few decades after the founding of the empire.<ref name="peetha">Several grants were made by the founders Harihara I and Bukka I to the Shringeri monastery in 1346 and Vidyaranya did use his influence to secure critical financial support for the brothers of the Sangama dynasty (Kamat 2001, p160-161)</ref><ref name="peetha1">Vidyaranya's blessings and proximity, and the influence of monastic order of Shringeri helped in providing legitimacy to the founding kings of a new empire (Kulke and Rothermund 2004, p188)</ref>

According to these historians, modern epigraphic research and interpretation of these inscriptions (not available to earlier historians) support the theory that the founders of the empire were local princes under the service of the last of the Hoysala king. According to them, inscriptions prove that Harihara I and [[Bukka Raya I]] were in the Hoysala service a decade before their arrival at [[Kampili]] (in modern [[Bellary district]]).<ref name="service"/><ref name="west">Quote:"The founding king was an officer under King Ballala" (West 1877, p637)</ref><ref name="gutti1">Quote: "native [[Kannadiga]]s by origin" (Karmarkar 1947, p30)</ref> Not only did the widow of Hoysala Veera Ballala III participate in the coronation of Harihara I in 1346, her name appears before that of the founding King Harihara I in a 1349 inscription, indicating he gained legitimacy for being a devoted heir of the Hoysala legacy. Further, according to William Coelho and Heras, it is known that the original founding of the capital Vijayanagara was in 1320 by Veera Ballala III, the city then being known as Vijayavirupaksha Hosapattana.<ref name="service"/><ref name="found">Quote:"According to William Coelho and Henry Heras" (Kamath 2001, p129)</ref> According to Eaton, By 1344, the transfer of power from the Hoysala Empire to the emerging Vijayanagara Empire seems to have been gradual and without bloodshed, as ex-Hoysala officers melted away from a crumbling Hoysala power to support the Sangama cause.<ref name="cause">Eaton (2006), p42</ref> Historian Kamath argues that in 1346, Harihara I made a grant to [[Bharati Tirtha]], the Shringeri pontiff in the presence of Krishnayitayi, queen of the slain [[Hoysala]] king [[Veera Ballala III]] (who herself made a grant on the same day). Harihara I was a commander in the [[Hoysala]] Kingdom and had been appointed by [[Veera Ballala III]] with autonomous powers after the fall of the [[Seuna]] ([[Yadava dynasty]]) and [[Kampili]] kingdoms, to administer the northern territories. Also, the very first fortification that Harihara I built was at Barakuru in coastal Karnataka in 1336. He was a Hoysala commander in charge of its northern territories from his seat in Gutti (modern Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh), at that time a Hoysala territory.<ref name="gutti">Kamath (2001), p160-161</ref> He assumed the Kannada titles ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishvara'' (''lit'', "Master of eastern and western and oceans"), ''Arirayavibhada'' (''lit'', "fire to the enemy kings") and ''Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda'' (''lit'', "punisher of the ruler who failed to keep a promise"). According to Kamath, when Veera Ballala III died fighting the Sultan of [[Madurai]], Harihara I seems to have gained sovereign powers over the entire Hoysala territory.<ref name="died">Ibn Batuta gave a graphic description of his end of Veera Ballala III. The greatest hero in the dark political atmosphere of South India (Kamath 2001, p130).</ref>

The historian Saletore pointed out that even famous Telugu scholars such as Vallabharaya and [[Srinatha]] called the Sangama brothers ''Karnata Kshitinatha'' in their writings, indicating they were a Kannada family. An early inscription of [[Harihara II]] called him "Lion to the scent elephant of the Andhra king", demonstrating their anti-Telugu propensity.<ref name="lion">Saletore in Kamath (2001), p159. Saletore wrote ''Social and political life in Vijayanagar Empire'', 1934</ref> According to the epigraphist and historian [[P.B. Desai]], the Persian author Ferishta of the Vijayanagara days wrote of the emperors "Roies of Karnataka".<ref name="row">Desai in Kamath (2001), p159</ref> According to Kamath, the Kannada writings of that time such as ''Chikkadevaraya Vamshavali'' and ''Keladinripa Vijayam'' claim that the Sangama brothers were [[Kannadiga]]s by linguistic affinity, making them people of Karnataka<ref name="numismatic">Kamath (2001), p159</ref> Regarding the earliest modern work written on the history of the Vijayanagara Empire by [[Robert Sewell (historian)|Robert Sewell]] (''A Forgotten Empire'', 1901) Kamath claims that Sewell had not used all sources but had copiously used travelogues and other works written by only European travelers to forward his theories.<ref name="hosa">Kamath (2001), p158</ref>

Kamath points out that almost half of the Vijayanagar Empire inscriptions, out of a total of 7,000 available to us, are in Kannada. The Kings used titles such as ''Bhashegetappuva rayara ganda'', ''Moorurayaraganda'' and ''Arirayadatta'' which are pure Kannada language titles. Their remaining inscriptions are in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Tamil.<ref name="ins">Kamath (2001), p157</ref><ref name="gai">G.S. Gai in {{cite web|title=The Vijayanagara Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm|author=Arthikaje|publisher=outKarnataka.com|work=History of Karnataka|access-date=2007-07-17}}</ref> According to Appadurai, The "Karnataka Empire" or Vijayanagar Empire was originally of the Karnataka region and it drew its inspirations from the Hoysala Empire and the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] of the Karnataka and the [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] of the Tamil country.<ref name="karnata">Appadurai in ''The Place of Kannada and Tamil in Indias National culture'' (INTAMM 1997).</ref> According to Henry Heras, inscriptional evidence shows that Ballappa Dandanayaka, a nephew of Hoysala [[Veera Ballala III]] was married to a daughter of [[Harihara I]], the founding king of the empire. This is claimed proof enough of the association Sangama brothers had with the Hoysala family.<ref name="heras">[[Fr. Henry Heras|Heras]] in Kamath (2001), p159. Heras wrote ''Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagar Empire'', 1927</ref>

According to the historians Saletore, P.B. Desai and Henry Heras, the theory of capture of Harihara I and Bukka Raya I by the Sultan of Delhi and conversion to Islam is false and that the testimony of epigraphs proves that the area around [[Hampi]] constituted their homeland. The empire never had a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] origin. The patron saint of the early kings was saint [[Vidyaranya]], the 12th [[Shankaracharya]] of Sringeri in Karnataka, and this is proof enough of their unquestionable identity with the Kannada country.<ref name="convert"/> About the Muslim records that claim a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] origin of Harihara I and Bukka Raya, these historians feel, the records are neither unanimous nor reliable in their claims. In those days of religious rigidity, it is too far-fetched to accept a theory of conversion to Islam and re-conversion to Hinduism while still managing to win the trust and loyalty of Hindu subjects in an hour of impending invasions.<ref name="convert">Desai, Saletore and Henry Heras in Kamath 2001, p158</ref> According to Kamath, the great devotion the founders of the empire had in Lord Chennakeshava of [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]] and Lord Virupaksha of [[Hampi]] testifies to their origin from Kannada country, though in political and administrative matters, the Vijayanagar kings followed the Hoysala, Kakatiya, Chola framework in the various provincial regions of the empire. The Sangama brothers even signed their Sanskrit records in Kannada (as ''Srivirupaksha'') and used their Kannada titles even in their Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit records. No Telugu titles were used by them.<ref name="numismatic">Kamath (2001), p159</ref> A popular chieftain and patriot of those times, prince [[Kumara Rama]] of [[Kummata Durga]] or simply [[Kummata| Kummata Durga]] (capital of the tiny [[Kampili|Kampli]] kingdom in [[Bellary District]]) may have been related to Sangama, father of Harihar I. This evidence exists in a literary piece by poet Nanjunda (''Kumara Rama Charita''). According to Kamath, the early Vijayanagar kings raised memorials at Sandur, [[Chitradurga]] and [[Dharwad]] to sing the glory of Kumara Rama's valor and show their continued efforts to build an empire in his legacy. All this proves the matrimonial relations the Sangama family had with the Kummata family.<ref name="numismatic">Kamath (2001), p159</ref>

According to [[Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere|R. C. Dhere]], founders of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] were from present-day [[Karnataka]]. They claimed Yadava lineage and were of [[Kuruba]] origin.<ref name="Dhere"/> Their family deity ([[Kuladevata]]) was Virupaksha, who is a form of [[Shiva]], and became the principal deity of the state during their reign.<ref>{{citation|last=Eaton|first = Richard M | title = A social history of the Deccan, 1300–1761: eight Indian lives|volume=8|isbn=978-0-521-25484-7|series=[[The New Cambridge History of India]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|issue=v. 1|page=82}}</ref> Virupaksha is derived from ''Virupa'' which means strange looking or ugly (indicating three eyes of Shiva) and ''aksha'' in [[Sanskrit]] means eyes. Virappa, also known as [[Birappa]], is a honorific version of ''Virupa'' where the suffix "''-appa''" indicates fatherhood in [[Kannada]] and Virappa is an exclusive deity of Kurubas. [[Sangama dynasty|Sangamas]] worshiped Virupaksha together with other pastoralist god [[Vitthal]] and worship of Vitthal is consistent with other pastoralist [[Deccan plateau|Deccan]] dynasties, of [[Kannadiga]] origin,<ref>{{cite book|first=Christian Lee|last=Novetzke |author-link=Christian Lee Novetzke |title=The Quotidian Revolution: Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9kbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |year=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press|pages=51–54|isbn=978-0-231-54241-8}}</ref> that claimed Yadava lineage ([[Hoysala]]s and [[Yadavas of Devagiri|Seunas]]). Inscriptions on the temples constructed by Vijayanagara Emperors in [[Lepakshi]] indicate that Vitthal and Virupaksha were originally worshiped as Vitthal and Birappa. Kurubas consider Vitthal and Birappa as brothers and worship them as inseparable companions. Dhere further looks at the sculptures on the various temples constructed by the Sangamas, where all the sculptures of human beings are dressed as Kurubas, indicating the family that built those temples.<ref name="Dhere">{{cite book|author-link=Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere|pages=241–245|first=Ramchandra |last=Dhere |title=Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur South Asia Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, 2011 |isbn=9780199777648}}</ref>

Aiyangar opines that since the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] collapsed about 20 years before the demise of [[Veera Ballala III]] of Hoysala Empire in 1342 CE, and [[Hampi|Hosapattana]] was established as a second capital by Veera Ballala III (which eventually became the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire) it would be impossible for Harihara, the founder of fledgling empire to attain such a high position in a short time without having close ties to Hoysala Empire.<ref name="swami_aiyengar">{{Cite book|title=South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders|last=Aiyangar|first=S. Krishnaswami|publisher=HardPress Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1313440158|pages=171}}</ref>

==Telugu origin theory==

Historians such as Robert Sewell, Dallapiccola, M.H. Ramasarma, Y. Subbarayalu, N. Venkataramanayya and B. Suryanarain Rao have attested the [[Telugu people|Telugu]] origin of [[Vijayanagar empire]].<ref name="Sewell 23">{{cite book |last=Sewell|first=Robert |date=1900-12-29 |title= A Forgotten Empire: (Vijayanagar) a Contribution to the History of India|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Forgotten_Empire/TDOZ6A4HRz0C |publisher= S. Sonnenschein & Company, Limited|page=23 |ASIN= B004TPATTY}}</ref><ref name="Row 1993 25–27">{{cite book |last=Row |first= Suryanarain |year=1993 |title=A History of Vijayanagar: The Never to be Forgotten Empire, Part 1|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_Vijayanagar/DUl1PFJAOoAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=vijayanagara+kuruba&pg=RA1-PA25&printsec=frontcover |publisher=Asian Educational Services |pages=25–27 |isbn=9788120608603}}</ref><ref>Rubies, J. P., Travel and Ethnology in Renaissance: South India Through European Eyes (1250–1625), 2000, Cambridge University Press, p. 15, {{ISBN|0-521-77055-6}}</ref><ref>H. Kulke, "Reflections on the historiography of early Vijayanagara and Sringeri", in: ''Vijayanagara: City and Empire, Vol I'', 1985, by A. Dallapiccola and S. Z. Ave, Stuttgart,pp. 120–143</ref> According to British traveler Francis Buchanan (1801), while on a visit to Beidur in Mysore ([[Karnataka]]), he was shown a [[Sanskrit]] book called ''Vidyaranya Sikka'' by a person called Ramappa Varmika. The book mentioned that the founders of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar]] were Harihara and Bukka, and that they were guards of the treasury of the [[Kakatiya Empire|Kakatiya]] King Prataparudra of [[Warangal]].<ref>Francis Buchanan, Travels in Southern India, Mysore, vol. III, East India Company, London, 1807, Buchanan, p. 110</ref> The brothers met a spiritual teacher called Vidyaranya, the sage of Sringeri monastery, who guided them to establish the Kingdom of Vijayanagar to safeguard the [[Hindu]] religion. This was in 1336 and Harihara was made first king of the fledgling empire.<ref>J. R. Pantulu, "Krishna Raya or The Story of the Karnatak Kingdom", ''The Quarterly Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society'', Vol. II, Pts. 3 and 4, Rajamundry, 1927, pp. 204–219</ref> [[Robert Sewell (historian)|Robert Sewell]] considered various such theories and concluded that Harihara and Bukka were treasury officers of [[Kuruba]] caste, in the court of [[Warangal]], the capital of the ([[Kakatiya dynasty]]).<ref name="Sewell 23"/><ref name="Row 1993 25–27"/> [[Mansel Longworth Dames]], a scholar of [[Portuguese language]], in the translation of the ''[[Duarte Barbosa#Book of Duarte Barbosa|Book of Duarte Barbosa]]'' attests that [[Sangama dynasty]] was of [[Kuruba]] origin.<ref>{{cite book|title = Book of Duarte Barbosa| first=Mansel Longworth| last=Dames| year=1918| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189298/page/n293/mode/2up?q=kuruba| page=204}}</ref> The Delhi Sultan who captured and converted the brothers to Islam, sent them back to put down the rebellion of [[Hoysala]] king.<ref>Durga Prasad, [http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf "History of the Andhras"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313210732/http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf |date=13 March 2007 }}</ref> They succeeded in suppressing the rebellion but laid foundation of an independent kingdom at the behest of Vidyaranya.<ref>B. Stein, Vijayanagara, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 141, {{ISBN|0-521-26693-9}}</ref>

Historians Venkataramanayya and Ramasarma supported the conclusions of Sewell based on his research and the information provided by the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Kannada]] treatises such as ''Vidyaranya Kalajnana'' (in Sanskrit), ''Vidyaranya Vrittanta'', ''Rajakalanirnaya'', ''Piramahasamhiti'' and ''Sivatatva Ratnakara'' (all in [[Kannada]]).<ref name="ReferenceA">N. Venkataramanayya, The Early Muslim expansion in south India, University of Madras Press, Madras, 1942</ref><ref>M. H. Ramasarma, ''The History of the Vijayanagar Empire, Vol. I'', Bombay</ref> According to the scholar Suryanarain Rao, who described seven traditional accounts of the origin of Harihara and Bukka, five were inclined towards a Telugu origin of the founding kings.<ref>History of Vijayanagar: The Never to be Forgotten Empire, Bangalore Suryanarain Row, 1993, Asian Educational Services, p. 23; {{ISBN|81-206-0860-7}}</ref> According to Sreenivasa Rao, the Telugu identity of Hakka and Bukka and their devotion to the goddess Bhuvaneswari is also established.<ref>B. V. Sreenivasa Rao, Notes on Vijayanagara, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=ZQDjAAAAMAAJ&dq=Sreenivasa+Rao%2C+Notes+on+Vijayanagara&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=bhuvaneswari Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society], Vol. 25, 1958–60, pp. 155–177</ref> According to Subbarayalu, indirect evidences such as the employment of predominantly [[Telugu Nayaks]] ([[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]], [[Balija]], [[Velama]] and [[Reddy]] people) for revenue collection throughout the empire also supported their Telugu affinity.<ref>Y. Subbarayalu, "The Revenue System of the Vijayanagara State", ''The Vijayanagara Heritage'', Ed. Ramamurthy J.R, Sri Vidya Vijayanagara Hampi Heritage Trust, Anegondi, Hospet, 1996, pp. 75–80</ref>

According to Gribble, Muslim scholars of the time, such as [[Ziauddin Barani]], Isarni and [[Ferishta]] and foreign visitors such as [[Ibn Batuta]] and Nuniz also recorded that the Sangama brothers were serving King Prataparudra and were taken captive after the fall of [[Warangal]].<ref>J. D. B. Gribble, History of the Deccan, 1896, Luzac and Co., London</ref> According to B.R. Gopal, who based his research on evidence gleaned from inscriptions such as the Gozalavidu record, the founders of Vijayanagara were at first in the service of the last [[Kakatiya Empire|Kakatiya]] king Prataparudra of [[Warangal]]. When that monarch was defeated by [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] and taken prisoner, they fled to Kampili and took refuge in the court of [[Kampilideva]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>B. R. Gopal, "The Gozalavidu Inscription of Bukkaraya", ''Journal of the Karnataka University'', Vol. 7, Dharwad, 1971, pp. 174–183</ref> Venkataramanayya states that on the outbreak of a rebellion in Kampili the brothers were sent by Tughlaq with an army to Kampili to reconquer it from the rebels and rule the province as his deputies.<ref>N. Venkataramanayya, "Vijayanagara: Origin of the City and the Empire", ''Bulletin of the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology'', Madras University, Madras, 1931</ref><ref>N. Venkararamanayya, "The Founders of Vijayanagara Before the Foundation of the City", ''Journal of the Oriental Research'', Vol. 12, Pt. 2, Madras, 1938, pp. 221–223</ref><ref>Telugu Vignana Sarvaswamu, Volume 2, History, Telugu University, Hyderabad</ref> According to M. Somesekhara Sarma, they successfully suppressed the rebellion, but under the influence of [[Vidyaranya]] renounced Islam and threw in their lot with the [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] nationalists led by [[Musunuri Nayaks]] who had just then succeeded under the leadership of Kaapaya Nayaka in expelling the Muslims and re-establish the national independence.<ref>M. Somasekhara Sarma, ''A Forgotten Chapter of Andhra History'', 1945, Andhra University, Waltair</ref> Professor Nilakanta Shastri claims that [[Harihara]] and [[Bukka]] then reverted to their ancient faith and having declared independence, assumed the leadership of the Hindus of Kampili in their fight against the Muslims.<ref>K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and N. Venkataramanayya; ''Further Sources of Vijayanagara History, 1946, Vol. II'', University of Madras, Madras</ref>

According to Venkataramanaya, Kaapaya and Bukka had actively collaborated with each other to ward off the Muslim threat, probably because of their close association in the court of [[Warangal]]. He surmised that the establishment of [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar]] kingdom drew inspiration from the successful exploits of [[Musunuri Kapaya Nayak]].<ref>N. Venkataramanayya, ''The Early Muslim Expansion in South India'', 1942, University of Madras Press, Madras</ref>

==Other theories of origin==
A popular account says that the Hampi region was part of a [[Kampili]] kingdom in the 14th century when large parts of north India was under Muslim rule. In 1326 AD [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] defeated and killed the king of Kampili. Among those taken prisoner were sons of Sangama, Hakka (Harihara I) and Bukka (Bukka Raya), both treasury officers of Kampili who were forced to convert to Islam. Some years later the brothers were sent back to govern Kampili. In 1336, The brothers laid the foundation of an independent kingdom, denying any subordination to the Tughluqs and became Hindu again.<ref name="Hindu">''Hampi – A Travel Guide'', 2003, p27</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Suryanath U. Kamat, ''A Concise History of Karnataka from Pre-historic Times to the Present'', Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
* K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, ''History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar'', 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), {{ISBN|0-19-560686-8}}
* N. Venkataramanayya, ''The Early Muslim expansion in south India''.
* Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras Till 1565 A.D., P. G. Publishers, Guntur
* Hampi, A Travel Guide, Department of Tourism, India, Good Earth publication, New Delhi 2003 {{ISBN|81-87780-17-7}}
* Karmarkar, A.P. (1947), ''Cultural History of Karnataka: Ancient and Medieval'', Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad OCLC 8221605
* {{cite web|author=Arthikaje|title=The Vijayanagara empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm|publisher=OurKarnataka.Com|work=History of karnataka|access-date=2006-12-31}}
* Richard M. Eaton, [[The New Cambridge History of India]] – A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761, Cambridge University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-521-25484-1}}
* Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, ''A History of India'', fourth edition, Routledge, 2004, {{ISBN|0-415-32919-1}}
*{{cite book |last= Rice|first= B.L.|title= Mysore Gazetteer Compiled for Government-vol 1|orig-year=1897|year=2001|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi, Madras|isbn= 81-206-0977-8}}
* West, E.W. (1877), History of Bombay Karnataka, Musalman and Maratha A.D. 1300–1818, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras (Reprinted 1989), {{ISBN|978-81-206-0468-1}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100731103941/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm History of Karnataka, Mr. Arthikaje]
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3310 A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): a contribution to the history of India] (Translation of the "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga" written by Domingos Paes and Fernão Nunes about 1520 and 1535, respectively, with a historical introduction by Robert Sewell).''Free Download from Project Gutenberg

[[Category:Vijayanagara Empire]]
[[Category:14th century in India]]

Origin of Vijayanagara Empire - Revision history

imported>Arjayay: Undid revision 1038526697 by Buttkicker33 (talk) Rv-V