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{{Short description|Inscriptional language found in Kerala from c. 9th to c. 12th century CE}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Old Malayalam
| nativename = പഴയ മലയാളം
| pronunciation = Paḻaya Malayāḷam
| region = [[Kerala]]
| era = Developed into [[Middle Malayalam]] by c. 13th century
| familycolor = Dravidian
| fam2 = [[Southern Dravidian languages|Southern]]
| fam3 = [[Tamil–Kannada languages|Tamil–Kannada]]
| fam4 = [[Old Tamil language|Old Tamil]]
| fam5 = [[Middle Tamil]]
| script = [[Vatteluttu|Vatteluttu script]] (with [[Grantha script|Pallava/Southern Grantha]] characters)
| isoexception = historical
| glotto = none
| image = Jewish copper plates of Cochin - (plate I, side I) (early 11th century AD).jpg
| imagecaption = Old Malayalam (Vattezhuthu script)
}}

'''Old Malayalam''', inscriptional language found in [[Kerala]] from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century CE,<ref name="Narayanan2017"/> is the earliest attested form of [[Malayalam]].<ref name=":830">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|title=Perumals of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur|pages=380–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ayyar|first=L. V. Ramaswami|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheEvolutionOfMalayalamMorphology/The-Evolution-of-Malayalam-Morphology|title=The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology|publisher=Rama Varma Research Institute|year=1936|isbn=|edition=1st|location=Trichur|pages=3}}</ref> The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] kings as well as the [[Caste|upper-caste]] village temples).<ref name=":830" /> Old Malayalam was mostly written in [[Vatteluttu|Vatteluttu script]] (with [[Grantha script|Pallava/Southern Grantha]] characters).<ref name=":830" /> Most of the inscriptions were found from the [[List of districts of Kerala|northern districts of Kerala]], those lie adjacent to [[Tulu Nadu]].<ref name=":830"/> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |publisher=Indian Journal History of Science |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Time measurement and calendar construction|author=Broughton Richmond|year=1956|pages=218|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Kerala|author=R. Leela Devi|publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot|year=1986|pages=408|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>

The existence of Old Malayalam is sometimes disputed by scholars.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Freeman|first=Rich|url=https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520228214/literary-cultures-in-history|title=Literary Cultures in History|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003|isbn=9780520228214|editor-last=Sheldon|editor-first=Pollock|location=|pages=445–46|chapter=The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala}}</ref> They regard the [[Chera/Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] inscriptional language as a diverging dialect or variety of contemporary [[Tamil language|Tamil]].<ref name=":43" />

== History ==
The start of the development of Old Malayalam from a western dialect of [[Middle Tamil]] can be dated to c. 7th–8th century CE.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-concise-history-of-south-india-9780198099772|title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-809977-2|editor-last=Karashima|editor-first=Noburu|location=New Delhi|pages=152–53}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|date=|title=Malayalam language|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Malayalam-language|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> It remained a west coast dialect until c. 9th century CE or a little later.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|date=|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages/Literary-languages#ref279622|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

The formation of the language is mainly attributed to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country<ref name=":1" /> and the influence of immigrant [[Nambudiri|Namboodiri]] [[Brahmin]]s in Kerala (who also knew [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]]).<ref name=":830" />

The later evolution of Old Malayalam is visible in the inscriptions dated to c. 9th to c. 12th century CE.<ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Menon|first=T. K. Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9GbBVfrm4gC&q=%22middle+malayalam%22&pg=PA14|title=A Primer of Malayalam Literature|date=1939|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120606036|location=|pages=|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Baby|first=Saumya|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/135994/12/12_chapter%205.pdf|title=L. V. Ramaswami Aiyar's Contributions to Malayalam Linguistics: A Critical Analysis|publisher=Department of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit|year=2007|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

== Differences from contemporary Tamil ==
Although Old Malayalam closely resembles contemporary Tamil it also shows characteristic new features.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|title=Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala|publisher=Kerala Historical Society|year=1972|isbn=|location=Kerala|pages=18}}</ref> Major differences between Old Malayalam (the Chera Perumal inscriptional language) and contemporary inscriptional/literary Tamil of the [[Tamil Nadu|eastern country]] are:<ref name=":830" />

* Nasalisation of adjoining sounds
* Retention of palatal sounds instead of merger with dental sounds
* Nasal+plosive clusters becoming nasal+nasals
* Contraction of vowels
* Rejection of gender verbs
Old Malayalam was still described by scholars as "Tamil", also "mala-nattu Tamil" (a "desya-bhasa").<ref name=":830" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=2018|title=History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2348448918759852|journal=Studies in People's History|language=|volume=5|issue=1|pages=13–31|doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|s2cid=166060066|issn=2348-4489|via=}}</ref>

== Literary compositions ==
There is no Old Malayalam literature preserved from this period (c. 9th to c. 12th century CE).<ref name=":43" /> Some of the earliest Malayalam literary compositions appear after this period.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

These include the ''Bhasa Kautiliya'', the [[Malayalam literature|Ramacaritam]], and the ''[[Thirunizhalmala]]''.<ref name=":5" /> The ''Bhasa Kautiliya'' is generally dated to a period after 11th century CE.<ref name=":830" /> [[Malayalam literature|''Ramacaritam'']], which was written by certain ''Ciramakavi'' who, according to poet [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer|Ulloor S. P. Iyer]], was Sri Virarama Varman.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Aiyer|first=Ulloor S. Parameshwara|title=Kerala Sahitya Caritram|publisher=University of Kerala|year=1990|isbn=|location=Trivandrum|pages=}}</ref> However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of modern discoveries.<ref name="kasaragod">http://sdeuoc.ac.in/sites/default/files/sde_videos/SLM-MA-Mal-Aadyakala%20Malayala%20kavitha%20%281%29.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> Other experts, like Chirakkal T. Balakrishnan Nair, K. M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P. V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in [[Kasaragod district]] in [[North Malabar]] region.<ref name="kasaragod"/> They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from [[Nileshwaram]] in [[North Malabar]].<ref>{{Citation| last=Leelavathi| first=Dr. M.| title=Malayala Kavitha Sahithya Chrithram (History of Malayalam poetry)}}</ref> The influence of ''[[Ramacharitam]]'' is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala.<ref name="kasaragod"/> The words used in ''Ramacharitam'' such as ''Nade'' (''Mumbe''), ''Innum'' (''Iniyum''), ''Ninna'' (''Ninne''), Chaaduka (''Eriyuka'') are special features of the dialect spoken in [[North Malabar]] ([[Kasaragod]]-[[Kannur]] region).<ref name="kasaragod"/> Furthermore, the [[Thiruvananthapuram]] mentioned in ''Ramacharitham'' is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala.<ref name="kasaragod"/> But it is [[Ananthapura Lake Temple]] of [[Kumbla]] in the northernmost [[Kasaragod district]] of Kerala.<ref name="kasaragod"/> The word ''Thiru'' is used just by the meaning ''Honoured''.<ref name="kasaragod"/> Today it is widely accepted that ''Ramacharitham'' was written somewhere in [[North Malabar]] (most likely near [[Kasaragod]]).<ref name="kasaragod"/> ''Ramacaritam'' is regarded as "the first literary work in Malayalam".<ref name=":1" /> According to [[Hermann Gundert]], who compiled the first dictionary of the Malayalam language, ''Ramacaritam'' shows the 'ancient style' of the Malayalam language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gundert|first=Hermann|title=Malayalabhasha Vyakaranam|publisher=|year=1865|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

==Folk Songs==
For the first 600 years of the [[Malayalam calendar]], Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs (''Pattu'').<ref name="mlm">{{cite book |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |author=Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker |url=https://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala}}</ref> Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam.<ref name="clt">{{Cite book|title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019|publisher=P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode|year=2018|location=Kozhikode|page=453|id={{ASIN|8182676444|country=in}} |edition=Malayalam }}</ref> They were just oral songs.<ref name="clt"/> Many of them were related to agricultural activities, including ''Pulayar Pattu'', ''Pulluvan Pattu'', ''Njattu Pattu'', ''Koythu Pattu'', etc.<ref name="clt"/> Other [[Ballad]]s of Folk Song period include the ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern songs) in [[North Malabar]] region and the ''Thekkan Pattukal'' (Southern songs) in [[Southern Division (Travancore)|Southern Travancore]].<ref name="clt"/> Some of the earliest [[Mappila song]]s (Muslim songs) were also folk songs.<ref name="clt"/>

== Old Malayalam inscriptions ==
Old Malayalam was an inscriptional language.<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/> No literary works in Old Malayalam have been found so far with the possible exceptions such as ''[[Ramacharitam]]'' and ''[[Thirunizhalmala]]''.<ref name=":43" /> Some of the discovered inscriptions in Old Malayalam are listed below on the basis of their expected chronological order, also including their locations and key contents.<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/> Most of them are written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script|Grantha]] scripts.<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/>
{| class="wikitable"
!Inscription
!Location
!Notes
|-
|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]]- near [[Kollam]] (849/850 CE)<ref name="adagadagudugudu">{{cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|title=Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy|publisher=CosmoBooks|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=|orig-year=1972}}</ref>
|
* [[Kollam Port]]
|
* A royal grant issued by the chieftain of [[Venad|Kollam]] (Ayyan Adikal) to a [[Syriac Christianity|Syrian Christian]] merchant magnate ([[Mar Sapir Iso]]) in [[Kerala]].<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/>
* The sixth plate contains a number of signatures of the witnesses to the grant in [[Arabic]] (Kufic script), [[Middle Persian]] (cursive Pahlavi script) and [[Judeo-Persian]] (standard square [[Hebrew]] script).<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=9783447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref>
* Also mentions about the [[Jew]]s and [[Muslim]]s of Kerala in the signatures in [[Arabic]] (Kufic script), [[Middle Persian]] (cursive Pahlavi script) and [[Judeo-Persian]] (standard square [[Hebrew]] script) scripts.<ref name="cereti"/>
|-
|[[Vazhappally copper plate]] Inscription - near [[Vazhappally]] (882/883 CE)<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=128|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref>
|
* The inscription was discovered by V. Srinivasa Sastri from Talamana Illam near [[Changanassery]].<ref name=":23">Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. ''Travancore Archaeological Series'' (Volume II, Part II). 8-14.</ref>
* The plate is owned by Muvidathu Madham, [[Thiruvalla]].<ref name="ambada">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 435.</ref>
|
* King Rajasekhara is described as "Sri, Raja Rajadhiraja, Parameswara Bhattaraka, Rajashekhara Deva" and "the Perumal Atikal".<ref name="ambada" />
* The fines for those who obstruct the daily worship in the temple are also prescribed.<ref name="ambada" />
* Also mentions a coin called "dinara".<ref name="ambada" />
|-
|[[Sukapuram]] inscription - near [[Ponnani]] (9th/10th century CE)<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/>
|
*Sukapuram Dakshinamoorthy Temple<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/>
|
*Recently discovered from [[Sukapuram]].<ref name="adagadagudugudu"/>
|-
|Chokkur inscription (Chokoor, Puthur village) - near [[Koduvally]] (920 CE)
|
* Single granite slab in courtyard of the Chokkur Temple.
|
* A person known as Karkottupurathu Kadamba Kumara establishes "Kumara-Narayana-Pura Temple" by a land grant.<ref name=":0">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy Perumāḷs of Kerala].'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 438-42.</ref>
* Earliest record to refer the 'Agreement of Muzhikkulam'.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Nedumpuram Thali inscription, Thichoor [[Wadakkanchery]] (922 CE)
|
* Thali inscriptions of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin State]] - two granite slabs fixed into the half wall in the entrance corridor on the left side of Nedumpuram Thali.
|
* Dated in Kali Year 4030 (=929/30 CE)<ref name=":33">'Changes in Land Relations during the Decline of the Cera State,' In Kesavan Veluthat and Donald R. Davis Jr. (eds), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Uz0oQEACAAJ&q=Irreverent+History:-+Essays+for+M.G.S.+Narayanan Irreverent History: Essays for M.G.S. Narayanan],'' Primus Books, New Delhi, 2014. 74-75.</ref>
* Two halves of the record on two separate slabs (one with the regnal year and the other one with the date in Kali Era) were initially registered separately.<ref name=":0" />
* Council is the chieftain of Vembanadu ([[Alappuzha]]) called [[Goda Ravi]].<ref name=":0" />
* Mentions the ''Nangaimar'' (dancing girls) of the Nedumpuram Thali.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Avittathur]] inscription (925 CE)
|
* Single granite slab paved in the courtyard of the Avittathur Temple near the sopana.
|
* Mentions the Cheraman Maha Devi (the Chera queen) - only record mentioning a Chera queen from Kerala.<ref name=":0" />
* Council is attended by the chieftain of [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]] (the Rayira Ravar).<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Ramanthali inscriptions|Ramanthali/Ezhimala-Narayankannur inscription]] (Plate I - 929 CE and Plate II - 1075 CE)
|
*[[Ramanthali]], near [[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala.]]<ref name=":17">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 475-76.</ref>
* A single granite slab in the courtyard of the Narayankannur Temple.<ref name=":17"/>
|
* Mentions Mushika Validhara Vikrama Rama.<ref name=":17"/>
* The so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam is quoted in the record.<ref name=":12">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.</ref>
* Merchant guild [[manigramam]] is appointed as the guardian of the Narayankannur Temple.<ref name=":17"/>
* Mentions the King Kunda Alupa, the ruler of [[Alupa dynasty]] of [[Mangalore]].<ref name=":17"/>
|-
|[[Triprangode]] inscription (932 CE)
|
* Originally in Sri Krishna shrine, [[Triprangode]] Shiva Temple - [[Triprangode]]- now in Archeological Museum, [[Trichur]].
|
* Mentions the Agreement of [[Thavanur]].<ref name=":0" />
* Council is attended by the Ala-koyil (a Chera prince).
|-
|Poranghattiri inscription ([[Chaliyar]]) (932 CE)
|
* Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Poranghattiri Temple.
|
* Cites the Agreement of Muzhikkulam.<ref name=":0" />
* Council is attended by the Koyil and the Ala-koyil (members of the Chera royal family).<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Indianur inscription ([[Kottakkal]]) (932 CE)
|
* Originally at Indianur Temple - now in Department of History, [[Calicut University]].
|
* A slab with inscriptions two separate Chera-Perumals on either side.<ref name=":0" />
* Council is attended by the Koyil (a Chera prince).<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Thrippunithura]] inscription (935 CE)
|
* Originally from Santhana Gopalakrishna Temple, Thrippunithura - now in Archeological Museum, [[Trichur]].
|
* Latest regnal year Kota Ravi mentioned in the inscriptions.<ref name=":0" />
* Council is attended by Ravi Aditya, a minister and a Chera prince.<ref name=":0" />
* Kota Ravi was initially identified as the brother-in-law of Jatavarman Kulasekhara Deva.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Koyilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]] inscription (973 CE)
|
* Single stone slab in the upper frame of the srikoyil (central shrine) entrance in Tali temple.<ref name=":21">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 448-49.</ref>
|
* Name of the king – probably Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE) – is built over by the present structure.<ref name=":21" />
|-
|[[Mampalli copper plate]] inscription (974 CE)
|
* Originally owned by Mampalli Madhom, near [[Thiruvananthapuram]] (now at [[Padmanabhapuram]] Museum).<ref name=":974"/>
|
* Contains two royal deeds by the chiefly family of [[Venad]].<ref name=":974"/>
* Records a donation from the chiefly family of [[Venad]] to the [[Chengannur|Chengannur Temple]].<ref name=":974">Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in ''Perumāḷs of Kerala,'' M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 218 and 478–79. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.</ref>
* The inscription is the earliest found epigraphical record to mention the [[Kollam Era]].<ref name="gopi">Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. 1907-08 (1981 reprint). Mamballi Plates of Srivallavangodai', in ''Epigraphica Indica,'' Vol IX. pp. 234–39. Calcutta. Govt of India.</ref>
|-
|Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque inscription (10th century CE)
|
* On the granite blocks built into the steps of the ablution tank of the Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque<ref name="Malabar">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref>
|
* A rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) (961-1021 CE) to the [[Mappila]] [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Malabar"/> It also mentions about a merchant guild.<ref name="Malabar"/>
|-
|[[Eramam]] inscription (1020 CE)
|
* [[Eramam]], near [[Payyanur]].<ref name=":16">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 455.</ref>
*A single slab in the site of the ruined Chalappuram Temple.<ref name=":16" />
|-
|[[Pullur Kodavalam inscription]] (1020 CE)
|
* Pullur, near [[Kanhangad]].<ref>''Annual Reports of Indian Epigraphy'' (1963-64), No. 125.</ref>
|
* Engraved on a single stone slab in the courtyard of the Pullur Kodavalam Vishnu Temple<ref name=":03">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 68-70, 84 and 454.</ref><ref name=":14">Narayanan, M.G.S. THE IDENTITY AND DATE OF KING MANUKULĀDITYA. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', Vol. 31, 1969, 73–78.</ref>
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE).<ref name=":03"/><ref name=":14"/>
* Identified king Manukuladitya with king Bhaskara Ravi.<ref name=":14" />
|-
|Tiruvadur inscription (c. 1020 CE)
|
* Partly in the courtyard of the temple on either side of the sopana.<ref name=":18">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 480-81.</ref>
* Partly in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.<ref name=":18" />
|
* Creation and endowment of a grama (Brahmin settlement) with members chosen from some old grama settlements from central Kerala ([[Vaikom]], [[North Paravur|Paravur]], Avittathoor, [[Irinjalakuda]] and Peruvanam).<ref name=":18" />
* The engraver is mentioned as Rama Jayamani, the "royal goldsmith of the Mushika king [Jayamani]".<ref name=":18" />
|-
|[[Taliparamba|Trichambaram]] inscription
(c. 1040 CE)
|
* Three blocks of granite on the base of the central shrine of the temple.<ref name=":19">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 465.</ref>
|
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Raja Raja (c. 1036–1089 CE).<ref name=":19" />
* Mentions Chera/Perumal king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 CE) and Iramakuta Muvar Kantan Karivarman (Srikantha Kartha) (c.1020 CE).<ref name=":16" />
* Mentions the merchants guilds of Valanchiyar and Nanadeyar.<ref name=":16" />
* Mentions [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola]] Samaya Senapati from Katappa Palli.<ref name=":16" />
|-
|[[Maniyur (gram panchayat)|Maniyur]] inscription
(c. 11th century)
|
* Single stone slab outside the prakara (outer wall) of the temple.<ref name=":22">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 486.</ref>
|
* Confirms the extension of the so-called Agreement of Muzhikkulam to Mushika country.<ref name=":22" />
|-
|[[Kinalur inscription]]
(c. 1083 CE)
|
* Both sides of a single granite slab in site of the ruined (now lost) Kinalur Jain Temple near [[Kozhikode]].<ref name=":1083">Narayanan, M. G. S. 2013. 'Index to Chera Inscriptions', in ''Perumāḷs of Kerala,'' M. G. S Narayanan, pp. 484–85. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.</ref>
* The estampage can be found in Government Epigraphist's Office, [[Mysore]].<ref name=":1083"/>
|
* Mentions Arappan Kunchi, the chief of [[Kurumbranad]].<ref name=":1083"/>
* Arappan Kunchi, the chief of [[Kurumbranad]], donated lands to Kunavaynallur ([[Jain]] temple) and leased them out to Chathan Arukkadi of [[Tiruvanchikkalam]], and Kuntan Chirunankai and Chathan Chirukanthan.<ref name=":1083"/>
* Manukulai-chekara-nallur ([[Jain]] temple) is mentioned.<ref name=":1083"/>
* Munnutruvar, the Three Hundred (probably the second Hundred of [[Kurumbranad]]), and Muvayiravar (the Three Thousand) are mentioned.<ref name=":1083" />
|-
|Panthalayani Kollam inscription
(c. 1089 CE)
|
* Single granite slab in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavati temple.<ref name=":20">Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 470.</ref>
* The record was destroyed.<ref name=":20" />
|
* Mentions [[Chera dynasty|Chera/Perumal]] king Rama Kulasekhara (1089–1122 CE).<ref name=":20" />
* The location given as "Kollathu Panthalayani".<ref name=":20" />
|-
|[[Tiruvalla copper plates|Tiruvalla Copper Plates]]
[[Tiruvalla copper plates|(Huzur Treasury Plates)]]
(10th-11th centuries CE)
|
*[[Thiruvalla|Tiruvalla]]
|
* Presence of a Ramakuta Muvar (as a donor to the [[Sreevallabha Temple|Tiruvalla temple]]).<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 197.</ref>
|-
|[[Kannapuram]] inscription
(beginning of the 12th century)
|
* Single stone slab fixed on a platform outside the prakara (outer wall) of the Kannapuram temple.<ref name=":12"/>
|
* Ramakuta Muvar Udaya Varma is mentioned.<ref name=":12" />
|-
|[[Muchundi Mosque]] inscription ([[Kozhikode]])
(beginning of the 13th century)
|
* The highly damaged, worn and fragmentary donative inscription is engraved on a granite stone slab (slab is seen as fixed on the wall at Mosque Muchundi).<ref name="Narayanan2017">M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) {{ISBN|978-81-8267-114-0}}</ref>
|
* Written in a mixture of Old Malayalam (''Vattezhuthu'' and ''Grantha'' scripts) and [[Arabic language]].<ref name="Narayanan2017"/>
* The Old Malayalam portion of the inscription describes the assignment of revenues accruing from certain lands for the expenditure of Muchundi Mosque.<ref name="Narayanan2017"/>
* Mentions two local place names, "[[Kunnamangalam]] and "Pulikkizhu".<ref name="Narayanan2017"/>
* The second half, which is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] portion, starts with the opening prayer from [[Qur'an]].<ref name="Narayanan2017"/>
* The inscription says that certain Shahab al-din Raihan purchased the piece of land and constructed thereon the mosque, and made provision for its ''imam'' and ''mua'dhdhin''.<ref name="Narayanan2017"/>
|-
|[[Viraraghava copper plates]] inscription
(1225 CE)<ref>Veluthat, Kesavan. ''The Early Medieval in South India.'' Delhi: Oxford University Press. 2009. 152, and 154.</ref>
|
* Near [[Kodungallur]].
|
* Describe the concession made by the local king Viraraghava to a merchant Iravikorttan ([[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christian]] merchant<ref name="Epigraphica Indica pp. 290-7">''Epigraphica Indica'', Volume IV. [V. Venkayya, 1896-97] pp. 290-7.</ref>) the chief of [[Manikkiramam|Manigramam]], a prominent merchant guild, in Makotaiyar Pattinam (modern [[Kodungallur]]).<ref name="Epigraphica Indica pp. 290-7"/>
* Mentions about the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of [[Kumbidi|Panniyur]] and [[Sukapuram|Chovvara]].<ref name=":1225">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 222, 279, and 299.</ref> The small states of [[Eranad]], [[Odanad]], [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], and [[Venad]], are also mentioned.<ref name=":1225"/>
* Viraraghava is described as the descendant of certain ''Virakerala'' and Iravikorttan is described as "the Great Merchant (Chetti) of the [[Kerala|Chera/Kerala]] Land".<ref name=":1225"/>
|}

== Gallery ==
{{center|
{{Gallery|width=200|height=200
|File:Maniyur_inscription_(c._11th_century_AD),_Kerala.png|[[Maniyur]] inscription
|File:Muccunti Mosque Iscription (cropped).JPG|[[Muchundi Mosque]] inscription ([[Kozhikode]])
|File:Vazhappally copper plate (9th century AD).jpg|[[Vazhappally copper plate]] ([[Rama Rajasekhara]])
|File:Quilon Syrian copper plates (849 AD).jpg|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] ([[Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara]])
|File:Quilon Syrian copper plates (849 CE) plates 1 and 4.jpg|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] (plates 1 and 4)
|File:Quilon Syrian copper plates - plate 6 (9th century AD)..jpg|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] (plate 6)
|File:Thiruvalla copper plates (India).jpg| [[Tiruvalla copper plates]]
|File:Perunna inscription of Rama Kulasekhara (1099 AD).jpg| Perunna inscription ([[Rama Kulasekhara]])
|File:Viraraghava copper plates (1225 CE).jpg|[[Viraraghava copper plates]] (Viraraghava)
|File:Mampalli copper plate (10th century AD).jpg|[[Mampalli copper plate]] (Srivallabhan Kotha)
|title=}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |author=Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker |url=https://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala}}
* {{cite book|author=Menon, A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=9788126415786}}
* {{Cite book|title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019|publisher=P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode|year=2018|location=Kozhikode|edition=Malayalam }}
{{Malayalam Literature|state=collapsed}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of South Asia}}
{{Dravidian languages}}
{{Languages spoken in Kerala}}
{{Kerala topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Malayalam language]]
[[Category:Dravidian languages]]

Old Malayalam - Revision history

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article