LaRoseDermaAgeDefying: improve section also and improved wording

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improve section also and improved wording

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article

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{{short description|Austroasiatic languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent}}
{{redirect|Munda language|the Kili language, also known as the Munda or Mundari language|Mundari language}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Munda
| altname = होड़ो
| region = [[Indian subcontinent]]
|ethnicity = [[Munda peoples]]
| familycolor = Austroasiatic
| child1 = North Munda
| child2 = [[Sora language|Sora]]–[[Gorum language|Gorum]]
| child3 = [[Juang language|Juang]]
| child4 = [[Kharia language|Kharia]]
| child5 = [[Gutob language|Gutob]]–[[Bonda language|Remo]]
| child6 = [[Gtaʼ language|Gtaʼ]]
| protoname = [[Proto-Munda]]
| iso2 = mun
| iso5 = mun
| glotto = mund1335
| glottorefname = Mundaic
| map = Munda languages map.svg
| mapcaption = Map of areas with significant concentration of Munda speakers
| ancestor =
| glottoname =
| notes =
|
}}

The '''Munda languages''' are a group of closely related languages spoken by about nine million people in [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="auto">{{Citation |last=Anderson |first=Gregory D. S. |title=Munda Languages |date=29 March 2017 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.37 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |date=23 January 2016 |editor1-last=Hock |editor1-first=Hans Henrich |editor1-link=Hans Henrich Hock |editor2-last=Bashir |editor2-first=Elena |editor2-link=Elena Bashir |title=The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia|doi=10.1515/9783110423303 |isbn=9783110423303}}</ref> Historically, they have been called the '''Kolarian''' languages. They constitute a branch of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic language family]], which means they are more distantly related to languages such as the [[Mon language|Mon]] and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] languages, to [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], as well as to minority languages in [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]] and the minority [[Mangic languages]] of [[South China]].<ref>Bradley (2012) notes, MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic</ref> [[Bhumij language|Bhumij]], [[Ho language|Ho]], [[Mundari language|Mundari]], and [[Santali language|Santali]] are notable Munda languages.<ref name=Sealang>{{cite web|last1=Pinnow|first1=Heinz-Jurgen|title=A comparative study of the verb in Munda language|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/pinnow1966comparative.pdf|website=Sealang.com|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=elanguage>{{cite web|last1=Daladier|first1=Anne|title=Kinship and Spirit Terms Renewed as Classifiers of "Animate" Nouns and Their Reduced Combining Forms in Austroasiatic|url=http://elanguage.net/journals/bls/article/viewFile/752/645|publisher=Elanguage|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>

The family is generally divided into two branches: North Munda, spoken in the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] of [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Bihar]], [[Odisha]] and [[West Bengal]], as well as in parts of [[Bangladesh]], and South Munda, spoken in central Odisha and along the border between [[Andhra Pradesh]] and Odisha.<ref name=Bhattacharya>{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya |first1=S. |title=Munda studies: A new classification of Munda |date=1975 |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=17 |issue=1 |issn=1572-8536 |pages=97–101 |doi=10.1163/000000075794742852|s2cid=162284988 }}</ref><ref name=Languagesgulper>{{cite web|url= http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Munda.html |title=Munda languages |website=The Language Gulper |access-date=14 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>

North Munda, of which Santali is the most widely spoken and [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|recognized as an official language in India]], has twice as many speakers as South Munda. After Santali, the Mundari and Ho languages rank next in number of speakers, followed by [[Korku language|Korku]] and [[Sora language|Sora]]. The remaining Munda languages are spoken by small, isolated groups, and are poorly described.<ref name="auto"/>

Characteristics of the Munda languages include three [[grammatical number]]s (singular, dual and plural), two [[grammatical gender|gender]]s (animate and inanimate), a distinction between [[clusivity|inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns]], the use of suffixes or auxiliaries to indicate [[grammatical tense|tense]],<ref name="Mouton de Gruyter">{{Citation|title=Gregory D. S. Anderson The Munda Verb: Typological Perspectives|work=Annual Review of South Asian Languages and Linguistics|series=Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs [TiLSM]|year=2008|place=Berlin, New York|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110211504.4.265|isbn=978-3-11-021150-4 |last1=Kidwai |first1=Ayesha |pages=265–272 }}</ref> and partial, total, and complex reduplication, as well as [[switch-reference]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|title=Reduplication in the Munda languages|date=7 May 2018|work=Non-Prototypical Reduplication|pages=35–70|editor-last=Urdze|editor-first=Aina|place=Berlin, Boston|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110599329-002|isbn=978-3-11-059932-9}}</ref><ref name="Mouton de Gruyter"/> The Munda languages are also [[Polysynthetic language|polysynthetic]] and [[Agglutinative language|agglutinating]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Donegan|first1=Patricia Jane|last2=Stampe|first2=David|title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages|url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/download/1041/825|journal=Berkley Linguistics Society}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|title=5 Overview of the Munda Languages|date=1 January 2014|work=The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages (2 vols)|pages=364–414|publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/9789004283572_006|isbn=978-90-04-28357-2}}</ref> In Munda sound systems, consonant sequences are infrequent except in the middle of a word.

==Origin==
[[File:Austroasiatic-en.svg|thumb|Present-day distribution of Austroasiatic languages]]
Most linguists, including [[Paul Sidwell]] (2018), suggest that the [[Proto-Munda language]] probably split from [[proto-Austroasiatic]] somewhere in [[Indochina]] and arrived on the coast of modern-day [[Odisha]] about 4000–3500 years ago and spread after the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] to the region.<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2018. [https://www.academia.edu/36689736/Austroasiatic_Studies_state_of_the_art_in_2018 Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018]. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, 22 May 2018.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sidwell AA studies state of the art 2018.pdf |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1O3SkrYNq20ZmUgcK-MFPN7QAvByEMfVA/view?usp=embed_facebook |access-date=12 May 2023 |website=Google Docs}}</ref>

Rau and Sidwell (2019),<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rau, Felix|author2=Sidwell, Paul|author-link2=Paul Sidwell|title=The Munda Maritime Hypothesis|date=2019|issn=1836-6821|journal=Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (JSEALS)|volume=12|issue=2|hdl=10524/52454}}</ref><ref>Rau, Felix and Paul Sidwell 2019. "The Maritime Munda Hypothesis." ICAAL 8, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 29–31 August 2019. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.3365316}}</ref> along with Blench (2019),<ref>Blench, Roger. 2019. [http://rogerblench.info/Language/Austroasiatic/Munda%20hypothesis%202019.pdf The Munda maritime dispersal: when, where and what is the evidence?]</ref> suggest that pre-Proto-Munda had arrived in the [[Mahanadi River Delta]] around 1,500 BCE from Southeast Asia via a maritime route, rather than overland. The Munda languages then subsequently spread up the [[Mahanadi]] watershed. 2021 studies suggest that Munda languages spread as far as Eastern Uttar Pradesh and impacted [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]].<ref>Ivani, Jessica K; Paudyal, Netra; Peterson, John (2021). Indo-Aryan – a house divided? Evidence for the east–west Indo-Aryan divide and its significance for the study of northern South Asia. Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics, 7(2):287-326. {{doi|10.1515/jsall-2021-2029}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355078227|title=The spread of Munda in prehistoric South Asia -the view from areal typology To appear in: Volume in Celebration of the Bicentenary of Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed University)|author=John Peterson|date=October 2021|access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>

==Classification==
Munda consists of five uncontroversial branches (Korku as an isolate, Remo, Savara, Kherwar, and Kharia-Juang). However, their interrelationship is debated.

===Diffloth (1974)===
The bipartite [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] (1974) classification is widely cited:

*North Munda
** [[Korku language|Korku]]
**Kherwarian
***Kherwari branch: [[Birjia language|Birjia]], [[Koraku language|Koraku]]
***Mundari branch: [[Mundari language|Mundari]], [[Bhumij language|Bhumij]], [[Asur language|Asuri]], [[Koda language|Koda]], [[Ho language|Ho]], [[Birhor language|Birhor]], [[Kol language (Bangladesh)|Kol]], [[Turi language|Turi]]
***Santal branch: [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Mahali language|Mahali]]
*South Munda
**Kharia–Juang: [[Kharia language|Kharia]], [[Juang language|Juang]]
**Koraput Munda
*** Remo branch: [[Gata language|Gata]] (Gta), [[Bondo language|Bondo]] (Remo), [[Bodo Gadaba language|Bodo Gadaba]] (Gutob)
***Savara branch [Sora–Juray–Gorum] : [[Parengi language|Parengi]] (Gorum), [[Sora language|Sora]] (Savara), [[Juray language|Juray]], [[Lodhi language|Lodhi]]

===Diffloth (2005)===
Diffloth (2005) retains Koraput (rejected by Anderson, below) but abandons South Munda and places Kharia–Juang with the northern languages:

{{clade
|label1=Munda 
|1={{clade
|label1= Koraput 
|1={{clade
|1=[[Bonda language|Remo]]
|2=[[Sora language|Savara]]
}}
|label2= Core   Munda 
|2={{clade
|1=[[Kharia language|Kharia]]–[[Juang language|Juang]]
|label2= North   Munda 
|2={{clade
|1=[[Korku language|Korku]]
|2=Kherwarian
}}
}}
}}
}}

===Anderson (1999)===
[[Gregory Anderson (linguist)|Gregory Anderson]]'s 1999 proposal is as follows.<ref name="Anderson1999">Anderson, Gregory D.S. (1999). "A new classification of the Munda languages: Evidence from comparative verb morphology." Paper presented at 209th meeting of the American Oriental Society, Baltimore, MD.</ref>

*North Munda
**[[Korku language|Korku]]
**Kherwarian: [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Mundari language|Mundari]]
*South Munda (3 branches)
**Kharia–Juang: [[Juang language|Juang]], [[Kharia language|Kharia]]
**Sora–Gorum: [[Sora language|Sora]], [[Gorum language|Gorum]]
**Gutob–Remo–Gtaʔ
***Gutob–Remo: [[Gutob language|Gutob]], [[Bonda language|Remo]]
***[[Gtaʼ language|Gtaʼ]]:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=G.D.S.|date=2008|title="Gtaʔ" The Munda Languages. Routledge Language Family Series. London: Routledge. pp. 682-763|journal=Routledge Language Family Series|issue=3|pages=682–763}}</ref> Plains Gtaʔ, Hill Gtaʔ

However, in 2001, Anderson split Juang and Kharia apart from the Juang-Kharia branch and also excluded Gtaʔ from his former Gutob–Remo–Gtaʔ branch. Thus, his 2001 proposal includes 5 branches for South Munda.

===Anderson (2001)===
[[Gregory Anderson (linguist)|Anderson]] (2001) follows Diffloth (1974) apart from rejecting the validity of Koraput. He proposes instead, on the basis of morphological comparisons, that Proto-South Munda split directly into Diffloth's three daughter groups, Kharia–Juang, Sora–Gorum (Savara), and Gutob–Remo–Gtaʼ (Remo).<ref>{{cite book
|last=Anderson
|first=Gregory D S
|title=A New Classification of South Munda: Evidence from Comparative Verb Morphology
|series=Indian Linguistics
|volume=62
|year=2001
|publisher=Linguistic Society of India
|location=Poona
|pages=21–36
}}</ref>

His South Munda branch contains the following five branches, while the North Munda branch is the same as those of Diffloth (1974) and Anderson (1999).

{{blockquote|'''[[Sora language|Sora]]–[[Gorum language|Gorum]]'''   '''[[Juang language|Juang]]''' ↔ '''[[Kharia language|Kharia]]''' ↔ '''[[Gutob language|Gutob]]–[[Bonda language|Remo]]''' ↔ '''[[Gta language|Gtaʔ]]'''}}

*''Note'': "↔" = shares certain innovative isoglosses (structural, lexical). In Austronesian and Papuan linguistics, this has been called a "[[Linkage (linguistics)|linkage]]" by [[Malcolm Ross (linguist)|Malcolm Ross]].

===Sidwell (2015)===
[[Paul Sidwell]] (2015:197)<ref>Sidwell, Paul. 2015. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). ''The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages''. Leiden: Brill.</ref> considers Munda to consist of 6 coordinate branches, and does not accept South Munda as a unified subgroup.
*North Munda
**[[Korku language|Korku]]
**[[Santali language|Santali]], [[Mundari language|Munda]]
*[[Sora language|Sora]]–[[Gorum language|Gorum]]
*[[Juang language|Juang]]
*[[Kharia language|Kharia]]
*[[Gutob language|Gutob]]–[[Bonda language|Remo]]
*[[Gtaʼ language|Gtaʼ]]

==Distribution==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Language name !! Number of speakers (2011) !! Location
|-
| [[Korwa language|Korwa]]|| 28,400 ||[[Chhattisgarh]], [[Jharkhand]]
|-
|[[Birjia language|Birjia]]|| 25,000 || [[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
| [[Mundari language|Mundari]] (inc. [[Bhumij language|Bhumij]]) || 1,600,000 ||[[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[Bihar]]
|-
|[[Asur language|Asur]]|| 7,000 ||[[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Odisha]]
|-
| [[Ho language|Ho]]|| 1,400,000 ||[[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
| [[Birhor language|Birhor]]|| 2,000 ||[[Jharkhand]]
|-
| [[Santali language|Santali]]|| 7,400,000 ||[[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Bihar]], [[Assam]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]]
|-
| [[Turi language|Turi]] || 2,000 || [[Jharkhand]]
|-
|[[Korku language|Korku]]
|727,000
|[[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]]
|-
| [[Kharia language|Kharia]] || 298,000 ||[[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]]
|-
| [[Juang language|Juang]] || 30,400 ||[[Odisha]]
|-
|[[Gtaʼ language|Gtaʼ]]|| 4,500 || [[Odisha]]
|-
|[[Bonda language|Bonda]]|| 9,000 || [[Odisha]]
|-
|[[Gutob language|Gutob]]|| 10,000 || [[Odisha]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
|[[Gorum language|Gorum]]|| 20 ||[[Odisha]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| [[Sora language|Sora]] || 410,000 ||[[Odisha]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| [[Juray language|Juray]] || 25,000 || [[Odisha]]
|-
| [[Lodhi language|Lodhi]] || 25,000 || [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
|[[Koda language|Koda]]
|47,300
|[[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Bangladesh]]
|-
|[[Kol language (Bangladesh)|Kol]]
|1,600
|[[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bangladesh]]
|}

==Reconstruction==
{{main|Proto-Munda language}}
The proto-forms have been reconstructed by Sidwell & Rau (2015: 319, 340–363).<ref name="SidwellRau2015">Sidwell, Paul and Felix Rau (2015). "Austroasiatic Comparative-Historical Reconstruction: An Overview." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). ''The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages''. Leiden: Brill.</ref> Proto-Munda reconstruction has since been revised and improved by Rau (2019).<ref>Rau, Felix. (2019). ''Advances in Munda historical phonology''. Zenodo. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.3380908}}</ref><ref>Rau, Felix. (2019). ''Munda cognate set with proto-Munda reconstructions'' (Version 0.1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.3380874}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nihali language]]
* [[Munda peoples]]

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===General references===
* Diffloth, Gérard. 1974. "Austro-Asiatic Languages". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. pp 480–484.
* Diffloth, Gérard. 2005. "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology to the homeland of Austro-Asiatic". In: Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas (eds.). ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics''. RoutledgeCurzon. pp 79–82.

==Further reading==
*{{cite book
|editor=Gregory D S Anderson
|title=Munda Languages
|series=Routledge Language Family Series
|volume=3
|year=2008
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-32890-6
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Anderson
|first=Gregory D S
|title=The Munda verb: typological perspectives
|series=Trends in linguistics
|volume=174
|year=2007
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|location=Berlin
|isbn=978-3-11-018965-0
}}
*{{Cite journal
|last=Anderson
|first=Gregory D. S.
|date=2015
|title=Prosody, phonological domains and the structure of roots, stems and words in the Munda languages in a comparative/historical light.
|journal=Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics 2
|volume=2
|issue=2
|pages=163–183|doi=10.1515/jsall-2015-0009
|s2cid=63980668
|doi-access=free
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Donegan
|first=Patricia
|author2=David Stampe
|title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages: Evidence for the Analytic-to-Synthetic Drift of Munda
|year=2002
|publisher=Berkeley Linguistics Society
|location=In Patrick Chew, ed., Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics, in honour of Prof. James A. Matisoff. 111-129. Berkeley, CA
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Śarmā
|first=Devīdatta
|title=Munda: sub-stratum of Tibeto-Himalayan languages
|series=Studies in Tibeto-Himalayan languages
|volume=7
|year=2003
|publisher=Mittal Publications
|location=New Delhi
|isbn=81-7099-860-3
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Newberry
|first=J
|title=North Munda hieroglyphics
|year=2000
|publisher=J Newberry
|location=Victoria BC CA
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Varma
|first=Siddheshwar
|title=Munda and Dravidian languages: a linguistic analysis
|year=1978
|publisher=Vishveshvaranand Vishva Bandhu Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies, Panjab University
|location=Hoshiarpur
|oclc=25852225
}}
* 2006-a. Munda Languages. In E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.
* Zide, Norman H. and G. D. S. Anderson. 1999. The Proto-Munda Verb and Some Connections with Mon-Khmer. In P. Bhaskararao (ed.) Working Papers International Symposium on South Asian Languages Contact and Convergence, and Typology. Tokyo. pp. 401–21.
* Zide, Norman H. and Gregory D. S. Anderson. 2001. The Proto-Munda Verb: Some Connections with Mon-Khmer. In K. V. Subbarao and P. Bhaskararao (eds.) Yearbook of South-Asian Languages and Linguistics-2001. Delhi: Sage Publications. pp. 517–40.
* Gregory D. S. Anderson and John P. Boyle. 2002. Switch-Reference in South Munda. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series Press. pp. 39–54.
* Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2001. Recent Advances in the Reconstruction of the Proto-Munda Verb. In L. Brinton (ed.) Historical Linguistics 1999. Amsterdam: Benjamins. pp. 13–30.

;Historical migrations
*Blench, Roger. 2019. [http://rogerblench.info/Language/Austroasiatic/Munda%20hypothesis%202019.pdf The Munda maritime dispersal: when, where and what is the evidence?]
*Rau, Felix and Paul Sidwell 2019. "[https://zenodo.org/record/3365316 The Maritime Munda Hypothesis]." ICAAL 8, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 29–31 August 2019. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.3365316}}
*Rau, Felix and Paul Sidwell 2019. "[http://hdl.handle.net/10524/52454 The Maritime Munda Hypothesis]." Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 12.2 (2019): 31-53

==External links==
{{Commons category|Munda languages}}
*[http://sealang.net/munda/ SEAlang Munda Languages Project]
**[http://sealang.net/munda/dictionary/ SEAlang Munda Etymological Dictionary]
*[http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/ Donegan & Stampe Munda site]
*[https://livingtongues.org/projects/asia/india/munda-languages/ Munda languages at Living Tongues]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061001210916/http://www.southasiabibliography.de/Bibliography/Austroasiatic/Munda/Munda_-_General/munda_-_general.html bibliography]
*[http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/langhotspots/Ho/ The Ho language webpage by K. David Harrison, Swarthmore College]
*[http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)]
*[[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EE-3@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EE-3@view]] Munda languages in RWAAI Digital Archive

{{Authority control}}
{{Austro-Asiatic languages}}

[[Category:Munda languages| ]]

Munda languages - Revision history

LaRoseDermaAgeDefying: improve section also and improved wording

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article