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	'''Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom''' (also called '''[[Kushanshas]]''' KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''Koshano Shao'' in [[Bactrian language\|Bactrian]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Rezakhani \|first1=Khodadad \|title=From the Kushans to the Western Turks \|page=204 \|url=https://www.academia.edu/32671225\|url-access=registration \|language=en}}</ref> or '''Indo-Sassanians''') is a historiographic term used by modern scholars{{sfn\|Rezakhani\|2017b\|p=72}} to refer to a branch of the [[Sasanian]] Persians who established their rule in [[Bactria~~]] and in northwestern [[Indian subcontinent]] (present day [[Pakistan~~]]) during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE at the expense of the declining [[Kushans]]. They captured the provinces of [[Sogdiana]], [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]] from the [[Kushans]] in 225 CE.<ref name="CHI"/> The Sasanians established governors for the [[Sasanian Empire]], who minted their own coinage and took the title of Kushanshas, i.e. "Kings of the Kushans".<ref name="CHI"/> They are sometimes considered as forming a "sub-kingdom" inside the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="Maas">The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila, Michael Maas, Cambridge University Press, 2014 [https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 p.284 ff]</ref> This administration continued until 360-370 CE,<ref name="CHI"/> when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of its domains to the invading [[Kidarites\|Kidarite]] Huns, whilst the rest was incorporated into the imperial Sasanian Empire.{{sfn\|Rezakhani\|2017b\|p=83}} Later, the Kidarites were in turn displaced by the [[Hephthalites]].<ref name="SSS">Sasanian Seals and Sealings, Rika Gyselen, Peeters Publishers, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RjWAXVYNIzkC&pg=PA1 p.1]</ref> The Sasanians were able to re-establish some authority after they destroyed the [[Hephthalites]] with the help of the [[Turkic peoples\|Turks]] in 565, but their rule collapsed under [[Muslim conquest of Persia\|Arab attacks in the mid 7th century]].		'''Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom''' (also called '''[[Kushanshas]]''' KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''Koshano Shao'' in [[Bactrian language\|Bactrian]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Rezakhani \|first1=Khodadad \|title=From the Kushans to the Western Turks \|page=204 \|url=https://www.academia.edu/32671225\|url-access=registration \|language=en}}</ref> or '''Indo-Sassanians''') is a historiographic term used by modern scholars{{sfn\|Rezakhani\|2017b\|p=72}} to refer to a branch of the [[Sasanian]] Persians who established their rule in [[Bactria]]) during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE at the expense of the declining [[Kushans]]. They captured the provinces of [[Sogdiana]], [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]] from the [[Kushans]] in 225 CE.<ref name="CHI"/> The Sasanians established governors for the [[Sasanian Empire]], who minted their own coinage and took the title of Kushanshas, i.e. "Kings of the Kushans".<ref name="CHI"/> They are sometimes considered as forming a "sub-kingdom" inside the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="Maas">The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila, Michael Maas, Cambridge University Press, 2014 [https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 p.284 ff]</ref> This administration continued until 360-370 CE,<ref name="CHI"/> when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of its domains to the invading [[Kidarites\|Kidarite]] Huns, whilst the rest was incorporated into the imperial Sasanian Empire.{{sfn\|Rezakhani\|2017b\|p=83}} Later, the Kidarites were in turn displaced by the [[Hephthalites]].<ref name="SSS">Sasanian Seals and Sealings, Rika Gyselen, Peeters Publishers, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RjWAXVYNIzkC&pg=PA1 p.1]</ref> The Sasanians were able to re-establish some authority after they destroyed the [[Hephthalites]] with the help of the [[Turkic peoples\|Turks]] in 565, but their rule collapsed under [[Muslim conquest of Persia\|Arab attacks in the mid 7th century]].

	The Kushanshas are mainly known through their coins. Their coins were minted at [[Kabul]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]], and [[Merv]], attesting the extent of their realm.<ref name="EI"/>		The Kushanshas are mainly known through their coins. Their coins were minted at [[Kabul]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]], and [[Merv]], attesting the extent of their realm.<ref name="EI"/>

>TabahiKaBhagwan at 13:58, 28 June 2021

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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = ''Kushanshahr''
|conventional_long_name = Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
|common_name = Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
|era = [[Late Antiquity]]
|government_type = [[Feudal monarchy]]
|year_start = c.230 CE
|year_end = c.365 CE
|event_start =
|date_start =
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|event_end =
|date_end =
|p1 = Kushan Empire
|s1 = Kidarites
|flag_s1 = Kidarite_Tamga.png
|image_flag =
|flag_type =
|image_coat =
|symbol_type =
|image_map =
{{Location map+
|West Asia
|float = center
|width = 250
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{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=31|N |long=66|E |label=|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=Map of the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (cropped).png|marksize=67}}
{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=38|N |long=67|E |label=[[:Commons:File:Map_of_the_Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom.svg|KUSHANO- SASANIANS]]|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=42|N |long=68|E |label=[[Kidarites|KIDARITES]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=38|N |long=66|E |label=|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=37|N |long=50|E |label=[[Sasanian Empire|SASANIAN]] [[Sasanian Empire|EMPIRE]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=32|N |long=72|E |label=[[Kushan Empire|KUSHANS]]|position=bottom|label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |West Asia |lat=28|N |long=77|E |label=[[Gupta Empire|GUPTA]] [[Gupta Empire|EMPIRE]]|position=bottom|label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
}}
|image_map_caption =
|image_map2 = Map of the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom.svg
|map_caption2 = Map of the domains governed by the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
|capital = [[Balkh]]
|common_languages = [[Middle Persian]] [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]
|religion = [[Zoroastrianism]] [[Hinduism]] [[Buddhism]]
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'''Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom''' (also called '''[[Kushanshas]]''' KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''Koshano Shao'' in [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |title=From the Kushans to the Western Turks |page=204 |url=https://www.academia.edu/32671225|url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> or '''Indo-Sassanians''') is a historiographic term used by modern scholars{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017b|p=72}} to refer to a branch of the [[Sasanian]] Persians who established their rule in [[Bactria]] and in northwestern [[Indian subcontinent]] (present day [[Pakistan]]) during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE at the expense of the declining [[Kushans]]. They captured the provinces of [[Sogdiana]], [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]] from the [[Kushans]] in 225 CE.<ref name="CHI"/> The Sasanians established governors for the [[Sasanian Empire]], who minted their own coinage and took the title of Kushanshas, i.e. "Kings of the Kushans".<ref name="CHI"/> They are sometimes considered as forming a "sub-kingdom" inside the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="Maas">The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila, Michael Maas, Cambridge University Press, 2014 [https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 p.284 ff]</ref> This administration continued until 360-370 CE,<ref name="CHI"/> when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of its domains to the invading [[Kidarites|Kidarite]] Huns, whilst the rest was incorporated into the imperial Sasanian Empire.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017b|p=83}} Later, the Kidarites were in turn displaced by the [[Hephthalites]].<ref name="SSS">Sasanian Seals and Sealings, Rika Gyselen, Peeters Publishers, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RjWAXVYNIzkC&pg=PA1 p.1]</ref> The Sasanians were able to re-establish some authority after they destroyed the [[Hephthalites]] with the help of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in 565, but their rule collapsed under [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab attacks in the mid 7th century]].

The Kushanshas are mainly known through their coins. Their coins were minted at [[Kabul]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]], and [[Merv]], attesting the extent of their realm.<ref name="EI"/>

A rebellion of [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] (277-286 CE), who issued coins with the title ''Kushanshahanshah'' ("King of kings of the Kushans"), seems to have occurred against contemporary emperor [[Bahram II]] (276-293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire, but failed.<ref name="CHI"/>

==History==
[[File:Hormizd I Kushanshah portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Kushano-Sasanian ruler [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] (c. 277-286 CE) in [[Kushan]] style.]]

===First Kushano-Sassanid period (230-365 CE)===
The Sassanids, shortly after victory over the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], extended their dominion into [[Bactria]] during the reign of [[Ardashir I]] around 230 CE, then further to the eastern parts of their empire in western [[Pakistan]] during the reign of his son [[Shapur I]] (240–270). Thus the Kushans lost their western territory (including [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]]) to the rule of Sassanid nobles named [[Kushanshahs]] or "Kings of the Kushans". The farthest extent of the Kushano-Sasanians to the east appears to have been Gandhara, and they apparently did not cross the [[Indus river]], since almost none of their coinage has been found in the city of [[Taxila]] just beyond the Indus.<ref name="AG">{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Amalananda |title=Taxila |date=1965 |publisher=CUP Archive |pages=790–791 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA787 |language=en}}</ref>

The Kushano-Sasanians under [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] seem to have led a rebellion against contemporary emperor [[Bahram II]] (276-293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire, but failed.<ref name="CHI">The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3, E. Yarshater [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA209 p.209 ff]</ref> According to the ''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'' (3rd-4th century CE), there was a rebellion of a certain Ormis (Ormisdas) against his brother [[Bahram II]], and Ormis was supported the people of Saccis ([[Sakastan]]).<ref name="EI">[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hormozd-kusansah Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref> Hormizd I Kushanshah issued coins with the title ''Kushanshahanshah'' ("King of kings of the Kushans"),<ref name="CNG Coins">[https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=76467 CNG Coins]</ref> probably in defiance of imperial Sasanian rule.<ref name="CHI"/>

[[File:Hormizd I Kushanshah on the Naqsh-e Rustam Bahram II panel.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] on the [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] [[Bahram II]] panel.]]
Around 325, [[Shapur II]] was directly in charge of the southern part of the territory, while in the north the Kushanshahs maintained their rule. Important finds of Sasanian coinage beyond the Indus in the city of [[Taxila]] only start with the reigns of [[Shapur II]] (r.309-379) and [[Shapur III]] (r.383-388), suggesting that the expansion of Sasanian control beyond the Indus was the result of the wars of Shapur II "with the Chionites and Kushans" in 350-358 as described by [[Ammianus Marcellinus]].<ref name="AG"/> They probably maintained control until the rise of the [[Kidarites]] under their ruler [[Kidara]].<ref name="AG"/>

The decline of the Kushans and their defeat by the Kushano-Sasanians and the Sasanians, was followed by the rise of the [[Kidarites]] and then the [[Hephthalites]] ([[Alchon Huns]]) who in turn conquered Bactria and Gandhara and went as far as central India. They were later followed by [[Turk Shahi]] and then the [[Hindu Shahi]], until the arrival of Muslims to north-western parts of India.

===Second Sassanid period (565-651 CE)===
The [[Hephthalites]] dominated the area until they were defeated in 565 CE by an alliance between the [[First Turkic Khaganate]] and the [[Sasanian Empire]], and some Sassanid authority was re-established in eastern lands. According to [[al-Tabari]], [[Khosrow I]] managed, through his expansionsit policy, to take control of "[[Sind]], Bust, Al-Rukkhaj, [[Zabulistan]], [[Tukharistan]], [[Dardistan]], and [[Kabulistan]]".<ref name="KR125">{{cite book |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |title=ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity |date=2017 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474400312 |pages=125–156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjVYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT213 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Hephthalites]] were able to set up rival states in [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa]], [[Bamiyan]], and [[Kabul]], before being overrun by the [[Tokhara Yabghus]] and the [[Turk Shahi]]. The Sasanians may also have expelled by the [[Nezak-Alchons]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=ALRAM |first1=MICHAEL |title=From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle |date=2014 |volume=174 |page=282 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198 |issn=0078-2696}}</ref> The 2nd Indo-Sassanid period ended with the collapse of Sassanids to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in the mid 7th century. [[History of Sindh|Sind]] remained independent until the Arab invasions of India in the early 8th century.{{fact|date=May 2021}}

==Religious influences==
[[File:BahramITheIndoSasanian.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of the last Kushano-Sasanian ruler [[Bahram Kushanshah]] (circa 350-365 CE) in [[Kushan]] style. 
''Obv:'' King Varhran I with characteristic head-dress. 
''Rev:'' [[Shiva]] with bull [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]], in [[Kushan]] style.]]
Coins depicting [[Shiva]] and the [[Nandi bull]] have been discovered, indicating a strong influence of [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] [[Hinduism]].

The prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] (210–276 CE), founder of [[Manichaeism]], followed the Sassanids' expansion to the east, which exposed him to the thriving [[Buddhist]] culture of [[Gandhara]]. He is said to have visited [[Bamyan City|Bamiyan]], where several religious paintings are attributed to him, and is believed to have lived and taught for some time. He is also related to have sailed to the [[Indus valley]] area now in modern-day Pakistan in 240 or 241 AD, and to have converted a Buddhist King, the [[Turan]] Shah of India.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010</ref>

On that occasion, various Buddhist influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism: "Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the 'elect') and lay follower (the 'hearers') who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]"<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Coinage==
The Kushano-Sassanids created an extensive coinage with legend in [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]], [[Pahlavi script|Pahlavi]] or [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]], sometimes inspired from Kushan coinage, and sometimes more clearly Sassanid.

The obverse of the coin usually depicts the ruler with elaborate headdress and on the reverse either a [[Zoroastrian]] fire altar, or [[Shiva]] with the bull [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]].

<gallery widths="150px" heights="75px" perrow="6">
File:KUSHANO-SASANIANS Ardashir I Kushanshah Circa AD 230-250.jpg|Kushano-Sasanian ruler [[Ardashir I Kushanshah]], circa 230-250 CE. [[Merv]] mint.
File:Ardashir I Kushanshah in the name of Vasudeva circa 230-245 CE.jpg|[[Ardashir I Kushanshah]] in the name of [[Kushan]] ruler [[Vasudeva I]], circa 230-245 CE.<ref>[https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=17299# CNG Coins]</ref>
File:Hormizd I Kushanshah Merv mint.jpg|[[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] with mention of [[Ahura Mazda|Mazda]] and [[Anahita]]. [[Merv]] mint.<ref name="CNG Coins"/>
Image:Indo-SassanianCoinage.jpg|Indo-Sassanid coin.
Image:Indo-SassanianCoin.jpg|A gold Indo-Sassanid coin.
</gallery>

==Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers==
The following Kushanshahs were:{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017b|p=78}}

* [[Ardashir I Kushanshah]] (230–245)
* [[Peroz I Kushanshah]] (245–275)
* [[Hormizd I Kushanshah]] (275–300)
* [[Hormizd II Kushanshah]] (300–303)
* [[Peroz II Kushanshah]] (303–330)
* [[Varahran Kushanshah]] (330-365)

==Kushano-Sasanian art==
The Indo-Sassanids traded goods such as [[silver]]ware and [[textile]]s depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Kushano-Sasanian footed cup with medallion 3rd-4th century CE Bactria Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|Kushano-Sasanian footed cup with medallion, 3rd-4th century CE, Bactria, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/328670|website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>
File:Silverplate with investiture scene. Sasanian 4th century CE, possibly Afghanistan. Middle East, 52 Ancient Iran - 28174064678.jpg|Possible Kushano-Sasanian plate, excavated in [[Rawalpindi]], [[Pakistan]], 350-400 CE.<ref>For the precise date: {{cite book |last1=Sundermann |first1=Werner |last2=Hintze |first2=Almut |last3=Blois |first3=François de |title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05937-4 |page=284, note 14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&pg=PA218 |language=en}}</ref> [[British Museum]] 124093.<ref>{{cite web|title=Plate British Museum|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1897-1231-188|website=The British Museum|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sims|first1=Vice-President Eleanor G.|last2=Sims|first2=Eleanor|last3=Marshak|first3=Boris Ilʹich|last4=Grube|first4=Ernst J.|last5=I|first5=Boris Marshak|title=Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-09038-3|page=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUyajzkDJ50C&pg=PA13|language=en}}</ref>
File:Head of a Male Figure Kushano-Sasanian period Gandhara region 4th-5th century CE Terracotta (823151389).jpg|Terracotta head of a male figure, Kushano-Sasanian period, Gandhara region, 4th-5th century CE
File:British Museum stamp-seal (Registration number 1870,1210.3).jpg|Seal with two facing busts and [[Sogdian language|Sogdian inscription]], Kushano-Sasanian period, 300-350 CE. British Museum 119999.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stamp-seal; bezel British Museum|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1870-1210-3|website=The British Museum|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Artistic influences===
The example of Sassanid art was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in the northwest South Asia.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:VishnuGandhara.JPG|thumb|''[[Vishnu Nicolo Seal]]'': Kushano-Sasanian or [[Kidarite]] prince worshipping [[Vishnu]] or [[Vāsudeva]], with Bactrian inscription. Found in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]]. 4th century CE. [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Seal British Museum|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1892-1103-98|website=The British Museum|language=en}}</ref><ref>"a Sasanian prince is represented adoring before the Indian god Vishnu" in {{cite book|last1=Herzfeld|first1=Ernst|title=Kushano-Sasanian Coins|publisher=Government of India central publication branch|page=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2FBAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA16|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[South Asia Bulletin]]|title=South Asia Bulletin: Volume 27, Issue 2 |date=2007|quote-page=478|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BuMUAQAAIAAJ|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles|quote=A seal inscribed in Bactrian , fourth to fifth century AD , shows a Kushano - Sasanian or Kidarite official worshipping Vishnu : Pierfrancesco Callieri , Seals and Sealings from the North - West of the Indian Subcontinent and Afghanistan.}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners.jpg|Sasanian dignitary drinking wine, on ceiling of Cave 1, at [[Ajanta Caves]], [[India]], end of the 5th century.<ref>The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, BRILL, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA82 p.82]</ref>
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Commons category|Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom}}
{{History of Afghanistan}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
* [[Indo-Parthian]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last1=Cribb |first1=Joe |author-link=Joe Cribb| editor-last1 = Rienjang | editor-first1 = Wannaporn | editor-last2 = Stewart| editor-first2 = Peter |title=Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017 |isbn=978-1-78491-855-2 |date=2018 |publisher=University of Oxford The Classical Art Research Centre Archaeopress |url=https://archive.org/details/ProblemsOfChronologyInGandharanArt/page/n27}} {{free access}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cribb|first1=Joe|editor-last = Alram | editor-first = M. | title=The Kidarites, the numismatic evidence.pdf |journal= Coins, Art and Chronology Ii, Edited by M. Alram et al|date=2010 |pages=91–146|publisher= Coins, Art and Chronology II|url=https://www.academia.edu/38112559}} {{free access}}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee|first2=Khodadad|last2=Rezakhani|editor1-last=Daryaee |editor1-first=Touraj |title=King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE) |date=2017a |publisher=UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies |chapter=The Sasanian Empire|pages=1–236|isbn=978-0-692-86440-1
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unTjswEACAAJ}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Payne|first1=Richard|title=The Making of Turan: The Fall and Transformation of the Iranian East in Late Antiquity |journal=Journal of Late Antiquity |date=2016 |volume=9 |pages=4–41 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press| location = Baltimore|url=https://www.academia.edu/27438947|doi=10.1353/jla.2016.0011|s2cid=156673274}} {{free access}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rapp|first1=Stephen H.|title=The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.| location = London|isbn=978-1-4724-2552-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T8VIBQAAQBAJ&q=rapp+inscription+kartir}}
* {{cite book | title = ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity | year = 2017b | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | last = Rezakhani | first = Khodadad | chapter = East Iran in Late Antiquity| pages = 1–256 | isbn = 978-1-4744-0030-5 | jstor = 10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8 }} {{registration required}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rypka |first1=Jan |last2=Jahn |first2=Karl |title=History of Iranian literature |date=1968 |publisher=D. Reidel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_9jAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Sastri|first=Nilakanta|title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Mauryas & Satavahanas |date=1957 |publisher=Orient Longmans |page=246 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRmDAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = Kushanshahs i. History | last = Vaissière | first = Étienne de La |author-link=Étienne de la Vaissière | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kushanshahs-01 | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | year = 2016 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = Ardašīr I i. History | last = Wiesehöfer | first = Joseph | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ardasir-i | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4 | pages = 371–376 | year = 1986 }}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050828050211/http://grifterrec.com/coins/kushanshah/kushanshah.html Coins of the Kushano-Sassanids]
{{Central Asian history}}
{{Rulers of Ancient Central Asia}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{Sassanid Provinces}}
{{Sasanian Empire}}
{{coord missing|Asia}}

[[Category:Ancient history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ancient history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Sasanian Empire]]

Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom - Revision history

Lucie45F0227: page fix

2A00:20:D046:8FB8:5181:8EFA:440A:1D83 at 15:44, 19 July 2021

>TabahiKaBhagwan at 13:58, 28 June 2021