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	{{Further\|Antimony#Etymology}}		{{Further\|Antimony#Etymology}}
	[[File:Kohl Tube LACMA M.76.97.81.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|Ancient kohl cosmetic tube from western [[Iran]], dated 800-500 BCE]]		[[File:Kohl Tube LACMA M.76.97.81.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|Ancient kohl cosmetic tube from western [[Iran]], dated 800-500 BCE]]
	The Arabic name {{lang\|ar\|كحل\|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration\|ar\|DIN\|''kuḥl''}} ~~from a Semitic~~ root ''k-ḥ-l''. Transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include ''kohl'' or ''kuhl''.		The Arabic name {{lang\|ar\|كحل\|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration\|ar\|DIN\|''kuḥl''}} formed the Arabic root ''k-ḥ-l, “to apply kohl”''. Transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include ''kohl'' or ''kuhl''. The Arabic word itself is borrowed from the corresponding [[Syriac language\|Syriac-Aramaic]] word ܟܘܚܠܐ/כוחלא ''kuḥla'', itself borrowed from [[Akkadian language\|Akkadian]] 𒎎𒋆𒁉𒍣𒁕 ''guẖlu(m)''.

	The English word ''[[:wikt:alcohol\|alcohol]]'' is a loan of the Arabic word (via [[Middle Latin]] and French; originally in the sense "powder of [[antimony]]", the modern meaning is from the 18th century).		The English word ''[[:wikt:alcohol\|alcohol]]'' is a loan of the Arabic word (via [[Middle Latin]] and French; originally in the sense "powder of [[antimony]]", the modern meaning is from the 18th century).
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	{{Commons category\|Kohl\|lcfirst=yes}}		{{Commons category\|Kohl\|lcfirst=yes}}
	{{Wiktionary\|kohl}}		{{Wiktionary\|kohl}}
	* [https://www.speakbindas.com/kohl-the-dark-world/ Kohl – The Dark World]
	* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3633 Egyptian: Kohl pot], Black [[steatite]]. Click on picture.		* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3633 Egyptian: Kohl pot], Black [[steatite]]. Click on picture.
	* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3634 Egyptian: Bone kohl pot]. Figurine design. Click on picture.		* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3634 Egyptian: Bone kohl pot]. Figurine design. Click on picture.

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{{Short description|Ancient eye cosmetic used as mascara}}
{{Redirect|Kajal|other uses|Kajal (disambiguation)}}
{{Lead too short|date=January 2021}}
[[File:كحل الاثمد (1).jpg|thumb|Kohl powder]]
[[File:Double cosmetic tube Louvre MNC1825.jpg|thumb|right|125px|A fourth-century AD double cosmetic tube for kohl from [[Egypt]], in the [[Musée du Louvre|Louvre Museum]] in [[Paris]]]]
'''Kohl''' ({{lang-ar|كُحْل|kuḥl}}), '''kajal''' or '''kajol''' is an ancient eye [[cosmetics|cosmetic]], traditionally made by grinding [[stibnite]] (Sb2S3) for use similar to that of charcoal in mascara. It is widely used in the [[Middle East]], [[Caucasus]] and [[North Africa]], [[South Asia]], [[West Africa]], and the [[Horn of Africa]] as [[eyeliner]] to contour and/or darken the eyelids and as [[mascara]] for the eyelashes. It is worn mostly by women, but also by some men and children. The content of kohl and various ways to prepare it differ based on tradition and country. Several studies have questioned the safety of kohl due to the dangers of lead poisoning.

==Name==
{{Further|Antimony#Etymology}}
[[File:Kohl Tube LACMA M.76.97.81.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Ancient kohl cosmetic tube from western [[Iran]], dated 800-500 BCE]]
The Arabic name {{lang|ar|كحل|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration|ar|DIN|''kuḥl''}} from a Semitic root ''k-ḥ-l''. Transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include ''kohl'' or ''kuhl''.

The English word ''[[:wikt:alcohol|alcohol]]'' is a loan of the Arabic word (via [[Middle Latin]] and French; originally in the sense "powder of [[antimony]]", the modern meaning is from the 18th century).

The Persian word for kohl is سرمه ''sormeh'', from Azerbaijani ''sürmə'' "drawing along", which has led to Bengali and Urdu ''surma'' ( সুর্মা, سرمہ) as well as Russian {{lang|ru|[[:wikt:сурьма|сурьма]]}}. In some [[South Asia]]n languages, the term ''kājal'' or ''kajol'' is used.

The Greek and Latin terms for antimony, ''stibium'', στίβι, στίμμι, were borrowed from the Egyptian name {{lang|egy|sdm}}.

In Hausa, it is also known as ''tozali'' and ''kwalli''.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lazar |first=Kay |title=Boston Children's Hospital lead-poisoning mystery prompts federal warning about folk remedies |newspaper=Boston Globe |date=2 August 2012 |url=https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2012/08/02/boston-childrens-hospital-lead-poisoning-mystery-prompts-federal-warning-about-folk-remedies/}}</ref>

==Middle East and North Africa==
[[File:Kohl Container Inscribed for Queen Tiye LACMA M.80.198.89.jpg|thumb|upright|An [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]] [[Ancient Egypt]]ian kohl container inscribed for Queen [[Tiye]] (1410–1372 BCE)]]
Kohl has been worn traditionally since the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt]] (ca. 3100 BCE) by Egyptian queens and noble women, who used [[stibnite]] (the sulfide of [[antimony]] rather than of lead). The [[cosmetic palette]]s used for its preparation assumed a prominent role in the late [[Predynastic Egypt]]ian culture.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Kohl was originally used as protection against eye ailments.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Ophthalmology of the Pharaohs: Antimicrobial Kohl Eyeliner in Ancient Egypt|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/ophthalmology-of-the-pharaohs-antimicrobial-kohl-eyeliner-in-ancient-egypt|access-date=2021-12-05|magazine=Discover |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohta|first=Anup|date=2010|title=Kajal (Kohl) – A dangerous cosmetic|journal=Oman Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=3|issue=2|pages=100–101|doi=10.4103/0974-620X.64242|issn=0974-620X|pmc=3003848|pmid=21217909}}</ref> There was also a belief that darkening around the eyes would protect one from the harsh rays of the sun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Andrew D.|last2=Walton|first2=Richard I.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathryn A.|last4=Vaishnav|first4=Ragini|date=March 2006|title=Availability and chemical composition of traditional eye cosmetics ("kohls") used in the United Arab Emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quwain, Ras Al-Khaimah, and Fujairah|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16688375/|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Science|volume=57|issue=2|pages=107–125|issn=1525-7886|pmid=16688375}}</ref>

[[File:Musicians and dancers on fresco at Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ancient Egypt]]ian women wearing kohl, from a tomb mural in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] (1420–1375 BCE).]]
[[Galena]] eye paint (later termed ''Kohl'' in Arabic from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word for the cosmetic) was widely applied in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Upper eyelids were painted black and lower ones were colored green, as depicted in ancient texts that describe the use of both black galena and green [[malachite]]. Ancient graves from the pre-historic [[Tasian culture]] point to the early application of galena in Egypt, a custom stretching from as old as the [[Badari culture|Badarian]] period through to Greco-Roman era. Although found locally, both black galena and green malachite were also imported from nearby regions in [[Western Asia]], [[Coptos]], and the [[Land of Punt]].<ref name="Stiant">''Studies in Ancient Technology'', Volume III, (Brill Archive), p.18.</ref>

The [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]] Ancient Egyptian Queen [[Hatshepsut]] would also grind charred [[frankincense]] into kohl eyeliner. This is the first recorded use of the resin.<ref name="Isaac14">{{cite book |last1=Isaac |first1=Michael |title=A Historical Atlas of Oman |date=2004 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0823945009 |page=14 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=gTgdRuWa9xMC |access-date=5 September 2014}}</ref> The frankincense itself had originally been obtained during an expedition to the ancient Land of Punt in this [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] dynasty ({{circa}} 1500 BC).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin Watt, Wanda Sellar |title=Frankincense & Myrrh: Through the Ages, and a complete guide to their use in herbalism and aromatherapy today |date=2012 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1446490778 |page=24 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=fxTgyhyMTLwC&pg=PT24#v=onepage&q&f=false |access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> Cosmetic ingredients such as cinnamon bark and other spice components – used for fragrances – alongside copper kohl sticks were exported from [[Tamraparni]] (ancient Sri Lanka) towns Pomparippu and [[Kandarodai|Kadiramalai-Kandarodai]] to ancient Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uragoda |first1=C. G. |title=A history of medicine in Sri Lanka from the earliest times to 1948 |date=1987 |publisher=Sri Lanka Medical Association |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gj9rAAAAMAAJ&q=kohl |access-date=22 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkFuAAAAMAAJ |title=The evolution of an ethnic identity: the Tamils in Sri Lanka c. 300 BCE to c. 1200 CE |last=Intirapālā |first=Kārttikēcu |date=2005 |publisher=M.V. Publications for the South Asian Studies Centre, Sydney |isbn=9780646425467 |pages=63 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cItyybhNOLoC |title=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |date=2009 |publisher=Department of Linguistics, University of Kerala. |pages=62 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brand |first1=Chad |last2=Mitchell |first2=Eric |last3=Staff |first3=Holman Reference Editorial |title=Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=9780805499353 |page=351 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgxCDwAAQBAJ&q=ancient+sri+lanka+makeup&pg=PA351 |access-date=22 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Additionally, the pioneering Muslim scholar [[Ibn Abi Shaybah]] described in a legal compilation how to apply kohl to the eye, as narrated by earlier authorities.<ref name="Swain">{{cite book |editor-last=Swain |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Swain |title=Seeing the Face, Seeing the Soul: Polemon's ''Physiognomy'' from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199291533 |page=277 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-I79HM8aKWIC}}</ref>

[[Berber people|Berber]] and [[Semitic people|Semitic]] women in [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], respectively, also apply kohl to their faces. A vertical line is drawn from the bottom lip to the chin and along the bridge of the nose. Originally the line from the bottom lip to the chin showed whether a woman was married or not. This form of using kohl on the face originated from the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and was introduced in the seventh century in North Africa.<ref>''Many Mirrors: Body Image and Social Relations''. Nicole Landry Sault.</ref>

Kohl has also been used in [[Yemen]] as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants' eyes soon after birth. Some did this to "strengthen the child's eyes", and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the [[evil eye]].<ref name="hardy cairo">Hardy A, Walton R, Vaishnav R., Int J Environ Health Res. 2004 Feb;14(1):83–91. ''Composition of eye cosmetics (kohls) used in Cairo.''</ref>

Eye paint was worn in ancient Israel as well; one of Job's daughters had the name Keren-Happuch ("horn of eye paint") (Job42:14). Among the Israelites, the eye paint was frequently associated with [[prostitution|women of ill repute]] or evil intent: "When Jehu came to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it; she painted her eyes with kohl ("''wattāśem bappûk''"), and adorned her head, and looked out of the window" (2 Kings 9:30). For Jeremiah, Jerusalem can be personified as a prostitute: "And you, O desolate one, what do you mean that you dress in crimson, that you deck yourself with ornaments of gold, that you enlarge your eyes with kohl ("''tiqrĕ'ĭ bappûk''") ?" (Jer. 4:30). Similarly, Ezekiel portrays unfaithful Jerusalem as the prostitute Oholobah: "They even sent for men to come from far away, to whom a messenger was sent, and they came. For them you bathed yourself, painted ("''kaḥal''") your eyes, and decked yourself with ornaments" (Ezek. 23:40).<ref>King, P. J., & Stager, L. E. (2001). ''Life in biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OtOhypZz_pEC&pg=PA281&lpg=PA281&dq=kohl+hebrew+puk]</ref>

==Horn of Africa==
[[File:Ucidlhd29.png|thumb|right|A [[Somali people|Somali]] woman with ''indha kuul'' ("kohl eyes")]]
Usage of kohl eye paint in the [[Horn of Africa]] dates to the ancient Kingdom of Punt.<ref name="Stiant"/> [[Somali people|Somali]], [[Djibouti]]an, [[people of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]], and [[Eritrea]]n women have long applied kohl (''kuul'') for cosmetic purposes, as well as to cleanse the eyes, lengthen eyelashes, and to protect the eyes from the sun's rays.<ref name="Loughran">Katheryne S. Loughran, ''Somalia in word and image'', (Foundation for Cross Cultural Understanding: 1986), p.166.</ref><ref name="Selassie">Sergew Hable Selassie, ''Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270'', (Printed by United Printers: 1972), p.26.</ref>

==West Africa==
Kohl is also applied in parts of [[West Africa]] by the [[Fulani people|Fulani]], the [[Hausa people]], and the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]].<ref name="Donovan">Alan Donovan, ''My journey through African Heritage'', (Kenway Publications: 2004), p.62.</ref> In addition, it is used by the [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]], [[Soninke people|Soninke]], [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]], [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]], and other predominantly [[Muslim]] inhabitants of the [[Sahel]] and [[Sahara]] regions. Kohl is used by both sexes, and by people of all ages, mainly during weddings, Islamic festivals (such as [[Eid ul Fitr]] and [[Eid ul Adha]]), and trips to the mosque for the weekly [[Jumuah]] congregational prayer.

For women, kohl or black-[[henna]] is applied to the face as well in a similar manner as that practiced by communities in North Africa.

==South Asia==
[[File:India - Varanasi old food seller and granddaughter - 0604.jpg|thumb|A [[Varanasi]] food seller with his granddaughter wearing kohl]]
Kohl is known by various names in South Asian languages, like ''surma'' in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]] and [[Urdu]], ''kajal'' in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], ''kajol'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], ''kajalh'' in [[Marathi language|Marathi]], ''kanmashi'' in [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], ''kaadige'' in [[Kannada language|Kannada]], ''kaatuka'' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and ''kan mai'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. In India, it is used by women as a type of eyeliner that is put around the edge of the eyes. In many parts of India, especially in Southern India, [[Karnataka]] in particular, women of the household prepare the kajal. This homemade kajal is used even for infants. Local tradition considers it to be a very good coolant for the eyes and believes that it protects the eyesight and vision from the sun.

[[File:It's a boy - Khol Kajal kanmashi kan mai eyeliner infants evil eye Buri nazar drishti bommai काजल கண் மை surma Tamil Nadu village India Documentary Featur story jpg photo IMG 3192 signed.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil]] woman applying kohl on her son in India]]
[[File:Kohl (Kaajal) container in silver. AIMG 20210811 172626 (1).jpg|thumb|left|Traditional kohl (kaajal) container in silver in South India]]

Some Indian [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] or ancient Indian herbal medicine manufacturing companies add camphor and other medicinal herbs that are beneficial for eyes in their kajal. It can serve not only as a cosmetic but also as medicine for the eyes.

In [[Punjabi culture]], surma is a traditional ceremonial dye, which predominantly men of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] wear around their eyes on special social or religious occasions. It is usually applied by the wife or the mother of the person.

Some women also add a dot of kajal on the left side of the foreheads or on the waterline of the eye of women and children to ward off ''buri nazar'', also known as ''buri nozor''. ''Buri nazar'' literally means 'bad glance' and is comparable to the '[[evil eye]]', although it can be interpreted as ill-wishes of people or even lustful eyes, in the sense of men ogling women. It signifies that the person is not perfect, with them having 'black mark', and hence, people wouldn't be jealous of their beauty.

[[File:Gotipua make-up (INDIA).jpg|thumb|[[Make-up artist]] at work before an [[Odissi]] dance performance]]
In the centuries-old Indian [[Bharatanatyam]] and [[Odissi]] dances, the dancers apply heavy kohl to their eyes so as to draw attention to their eye gestures and movement. The kohl is then applied to eyebrows and eyelids to add further enhancement to the dancers.

==Kohl and Islam==
[[File:Colored Beard (4268537596).jpg|thumb|right|A [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] man with kohl applied under eyes and beard dyed with [[henna]] following the [[Sunnah]] of [[Muhammad]]]]
In Islam, [[Muhammad]] used kohl and it is used by many Muslim men today during [[Ramadan]] as a sign of devotion.<ref>[http://www.merdeka.com/ramadan/foto/005/tradisi-unik-muslim-yaman-rias-mata-dengan-kohl-saat-ramadan.html Merdeka: "Tradisi unik muslim Yaman rias mata dengan kohl saat Ramadan"]</ref><ref>[http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/32/98/134432/Folk/Folk-Arts/Proverb-of-the-day-Instead-of-applying-kohl-to-her.aspx "Proverb of the day: Instead of applying kohl to her eyes, he blinded her"] ''Ahram Online''. Friday 3 July 2015</ref><ref>[https://blogs.wsj.com/photojournal/2013/07/27/photos-of-the-week-july-21-27/ Wall Street Journal: "KOHL IN HIS EYE: A man winced as kohl was applied to his eyelids at the Grand Mosque during the Muslim holy fasting month of Ramadan in San'a, Yemen] July 27, 2013</ref>

==Preparation==
Preparation of homemade kajal begins with dipping a clean, white, thin muslin cloth, about ten by ten centimetres square, in [[sandalwood]] paste or the juice of [[Alstonia scholaris]] (Manjal karisilanganni), which is then dried in the shade. This dip and dry process is done all day long. After sunset, a wick is made out of the cloth, which is then used to light a mud lamp filled with [[castor oil]]. A brass vessel is kept over the lamp, leaving a little gap, just enough for the oxygen to aid the burning of the lamp. This is left burning overnight. In the morning, one or two drops of pure [[ghee]] (clarified cow's butter) or castor oil are added to the soot which now lines the brass vessel. It is then stored in a clean dry box.

All the ingredients used in this preparation (sandalwood/Manjal karsilanganni, castor oil, ghee) are believed to have medicinal properties. They are still used in Indian therapies like [[ayurveda]] and [[Siddha]] medicines.

In rural Bengal, kajol or surma is made from the "Monosha" plant, a type of succulent spurge (''Euphorbia neriifolia''). The leaf of Monosha is covered with oil and is kept above a burning diya (mud lamp). Within minutes the leaf is covered with creamy soft black soot which is so safe and sterile that it is even applied to infants.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Padmanabhan|first=Geeta|date=2010-12-14|title=Eye-catching!|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/fashion/Eye-catching/article15592985.ece|access-date=2021-12-05|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Health concerns==
The content of kohl and the recipes to prepare it vary greatly. In North Africa and Middle East, homemade kohl is often made by grinding [[galena]] ([[Lead(II) sulfide|lead sulfide]]). Western manufacturers use [[amorphous carbon]] or organic [[charcoal]] instead of lead. Plant oils and the soot from various nuts, seeds, and gum [[resin]]s are often added to the carbon powder. The non-lead products are considered to be of inferior quality to the older, traditional varieties and therefore there has been an increase in the use of handmade, lead-based kohl.

[[File:Killedan.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] kohl (''kil'') set.]]
For decades, various conflicting reports in the literature have been published relating to kohl application to eyes being responsible for causing higher blood lead concentration, which may cause lead poisoning. At the same time, a number of research studies and reports have also been published refuting any such links with increased blood lead level upon kohl (surma) application.<ref name="mahmood">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mahmood ZA, Zoha SM, Usmanghani K, Hasan MM, Ali O, Jahan S, Saeed A, Zaihd R, Zubair M, Pak |journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences |volume=22 |number=1 |date=January 2009 |pages=107–122 |title=Kohl (surma): retrospect and prospect}}</ref>

A group of researchers in China tried to find some scientific basis of this claimed property of lead sulfide (galena) relating to absorption of sun rays when applied into the eyes in the form of kohl.<ref name="li yun">Li-Yun C, Wen H, Jian-Feng H and Jian-Peng W (2008). "Influence of deposition voltage on properties of lead sulfide thin film". ''American Ceramic Society Bulletin'', 87(6): 9101–9104</ref> The authors reported the ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectra of a thin film of lead sulfide prepared on "indium tin oxide" (ITO) substrate. The spectra showed that lead sulfide thin films had higher absorption and lower transmittance in the UV light band, which further increases with the increased deposition voltage.

The drive to eliminate lead from kohl was sparked by studies in the early 1990s of preparations of kohl that found high levels of contaminants, including lead.<ref name="hardy oman"/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=al-Hazzaa SA, Krahn PM |journal=International Ophthalmology |year=1995 |volume=19 |number=2 |pages=83–88 |title=Kohl: a hazardous eyeliner}}</ref><ref name="parry">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parry C, Eaton J |journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives]] |date=August 1991 |number=94 |pages=121–123 |title=Kohl: a lead-hazardous eye makeup from the Third World to the First World}}</ref> Lead levels in commercial kohl preparations were as high as 84%. Kohl samples from [[Oman]] and Cairo, analyzed using [[powder diffraction|X-ray powder diffraction]] and [[scanning electron microscope|scanning electron microscopy]], were found to contain [[galena]].<ref name="hardy cairo"/><ref name="hardy oman">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hardy AD, Vaishnav R, Al-Kharusi SS, Sutherland HH, Worthing MA |journal=[[Journal of Ethnopharmacology]] |date=April 1998 |volume=60 |number=3 |pages=223–34 |title=Composition of eye cosmetics (kohls) used in Oman}}</ref> One decade later, a study of kohl manufactured in Egypt and India found that a third of the samples studied contained lead, while the remaining two-thirds contained amorphous carbon,<ref name="hardy cairo"/> [[zincite]],<ref name="hardy cairo"/><ref name="hardy oman"/> [[cuprite]],<ref name="hardy cairo"/> [[goethite]],<ref name="hardy cairo"/> elemental [[silicon]]<ref name="hardy cairo"/> or [[talc]],<ref name="hardy cairo"/> [[hematite]], [[minium]],<ref name="hardy oman"/> and organic compounds.<ref name="hardy cairo"/>

Lead-contaminated kohl use has been linked to increased levels of lead in the bloodstream,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Alkhawajah AM |title=Alkohl use in Saudi Arabia: Extent of use and possible lead toxicity |journal=Tropical Geographical Medicine |date=October 1992 |volume=44 |number=4 |pages=373–377}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Al-Saleh I, Nester M, DeVol E, Shinwari N, Al-Shahria S |title=Determinants of blood lead levels in Saudi Arabian schoolgirls |journal=International Journal of Environmental Health |date=April–June 1999 |volume=5 |number=2 |pages=107–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nir A, Tamir A, Nelnik N, Iancu TC |title=Is eye cosmetic a source of lead poisoning? |journal=Israel Journal of Medical Science |date=July 1992 |volume=28 |number=7 |pages=417–421}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rahbar MH, White F, Agboatwalla M, Hozhbari S, Luby S |title=Factors associated with elevated blood lead concentrations in children in Karachi, Pakistan |journal=[[Bulletin of the World Health Organization]] |year=2002|volume=80 |number=10 |pages=769–775}}</ref> putting its users at risk of [[lead poisoning]] (also called lead intoxication). Complications of lead poisoning include [[anemia]], [[growth retardation]], low [[intelligence quotient|IQ]], [[convulsions]], and, in severe cases, death. Anemia from lead poisoning is of special concern in Middle Eastern and South Asian countries where other forms of anemia are prevalent, including [[iron deficiency anemia]] (from malnutrition) and [[hemoglobinopathy]] ([[sickle cell anemia]], [[thalassemia]]).

These banned products are different from lead-free cosmetics that use the term "kohl" only to describe its shade or color, rather than its actual ingredients. Some modern eye cosmetics are marketed as "kohl", but are prepared differently and in accordance with relevant health standards.

Eye cosmetics such as surma are recognized as one of the important sources of lead exposure in Pakistan. As adverse health effects of [[heavy metals]] are a [[public health]] concern, where especially lead may cause negative health impacts to human fetal and infantile development, a study in Pakistan of pregnant women's nails in 2016, showed thirteen nail samples out of 84 nails analyzed, contained lead higher than the concentration (13.6 μg/g) of the fatal lead poisoning case, with the possibility of an external contamination. The observations showed that lead-containing surma consists of fine particle of [[galena]] (ore of [[Lead(II) sulfide|lead sulfide]]) in [[respiratory system|respirable]] dust range (less than 10 μm) and relative [[in vitro]] [[bioavailability]] of lead in the surma was determined as 5.2%. Thus, lead-containing surma consists of inhalable and bioavailable particles, and it contributes an increased risk of lead exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ikegami |first1=Akihiko |last2=Takagi |first2=Mai |last3=Fatmi |first3=Zafar |last4=Kobayashi |first4=Yayoi |last5=Ohtsu |first5=Mayumi |last6=Cui |first6=Xiaoyi |last7=Mise |first7=Nathan |last8=Mizuno |first8=Atsuko |last9=Sahito |first9=Ambreen |date=2016-11-01 |title=External lead contamination of women's nails by surma in Pakistan: Is the biomarker reliable? |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=218 |issue=Supplement C |pages=723–727 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2016.07.068 |pmid=27554978}}</ref>

"Blue" kohl is a dark-bluish black pigment composed of both lead-based compounds as well as a compound of antimony. The lead-based compounds in kohl are [[galena]] (PbS) – dark grey and gloss [[laurionite]] (PbCl(OH)) – white [[phosgenite]] ((PbCl)2CO3); [[cerussite]] (PbCO3) – blue. The antimony-based compound in kohl is [[stibnite]] (Sb2S3) – blue.

In January 2010, French researchers reported that the particular heavy eye makeup that ancient Egyptians wore may have had medical benefits. At submicromolar concentrations, the specially made lead compounds can elicit overproduction of [[nitric oxide#Biological functions|nitric oxide]] (NO), which in turn can trigger [[biological functions of nitric oxide#Immune response|an enhancement of the immune response]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Finding Out Egyptian Gods' Secret Using Analytical Chemistry: Biomedical Properties of Egyptian Black Makeup Revealed by Amperometry at Single Cells |vauthors=Tapsoba I, Arbault S, Walter P, Amatore C |journal=Letters to Analytic Chemistry |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=457–460 |date=January 2010 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ac902348g}}</ref><ref>National Geographic [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/100114-cleopatra-eye-makeup-ancient-egyptians "Cleopatra's eye makeup Warded Off Infections?"]</ref>

The ancient Egyptians, documented in the [[Ebers Papyrus]] ({{circa}} 1550 BCE), discuss these compounds within kohl as protective for the eyes. Indeed, kohl was used an eyeliner and cosmetic. There are a number of endemic ocular diseases in the Nile region including [[trachoma]] – which is caused by a chlamydial bacterium and can cause corneal scarring — and conjunctival cicatricial disease, with visual loss. Kohl was used not only as a cosmetic but also as a medicinal [[collyrium]] (from Gr. kollurion). Two of kohl's lead compounds – the lead chlorides laurionite and phosgenite – were not natural to the Nile valley. It is believed they were intentionally synthesized by the ancient Egyptians for this purpose. The widespread use of kohl across the Mediterranean and the Middle East attests to its ability to protect the eye from infectious disease and be used as a cosmetic.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Kreston |first=Rebecca |title=Ophthalmology of the Pharaohs: Antimicrobial Kohl Eyeliner in Ancient Egypt |department=Body Horrors |magazine=Discover |date=April 20, 2012 |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/ophthalmology-of-the-pharaohs-antimicrobial-kohl-eyeliner-in-ancient-egypt}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Finding Out Egyptian Gods' Secret Using Analytical Chemistry: Biomedical Properties of Egyptian Black Makeup Revealed by Amperometry at Single Cells |journal=Analytical Chemistry |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=457–460 |year=2010 |last1=i |first1=Tapsoba |last2=s |first2=Arbault |last3=p |first3=Walter |last4=c |first4=Amatore |pmid=20030333 |doi=10.1021/ac902348g}}</ref>

===Legal status===
In the United States, kohl is not on the list of color additives approved by the [[Food and Drug Administration]], which considers kohl unsafe for use due to its potential lead content. It is illegal to import into, or sell in, the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-products/kohl-kajal-al-kahal-surma-tiro-tozali-or-kwalli-any-name-beware-lead-poisoning |access-date=2017-10-26 |title=Kohl, Kajal, Al-Kahal, Surma, Tiro, Tozali, or Kwalli: By Any Name, Beware of Lead Poisoning |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Henna]]

==References==

===References===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* Al-Ashban RM, Aslam M, Shah AH., ''[[Public health|Public Health]]''. 2004 Jun;118(4):292–8. "Kohl (surma): a toxic traditional eye cosmetic study in Saudi Arabia."
* Abdullah MA., ''J Trop Med Hyg''. 1984 Apr;87(2):67–70. "Lead poisoning among children in Saudi Arabia."
* Hardy AD, Walton RI, Myers KA, Vaishnav R., ''J Cosmet Sci''. 2006 Mar–Apr;57(2):107–25. "Availability and chemical composition of traditional eye cosmetics ('kohls') used in the United Arab Emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quwain, Ras Al-Khaimah, and Fujairah."
* Shaltout A, Yaish SA, Fernando N., ''[[Ann Trop Paediatr]]''. 1981 Dec;1(4):209–15. "Lead encephalopathy in infants in Kuwait. A study of 20 infants with particular reference to clinical presentation and source of lead poisoning."
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kohl|lcfirst=yes}}
{{Wiktionary|kohl}}
* [https://www.speakbindas.com/kohl-the-dark-world/ Kohl – The Dark World]
* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3633 Egyptian: Kohl pot], Black [[steatite]]. Click on picture.
* [http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=3634 Egyptian: Bone kohl pot]. Figurine design. Click on picture.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205811/http://www.copperwiki.org/index.php/Kohl Kohl (CopperWiki)]

{{Cosmetics}}

[[Category:Cosmetics]]
[[Category:History of cosmetics]]
[[Category:Badarian culture]]

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Kohl (cosmetics) - Revision history

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