Khortha language - Revision history

194.15.138.11: fix page based on references per sources

2026-04-07T05:30:08Z

fix page based on references per sources

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:00, 7 April 2026
Line 30:		Line 30:
	}}		}}

	'''Khortha''' is an Indo-Aryan language<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570_Khortha_a_Dying_Language_and_Urgency_to_Retain_its_Pure_Variety\|title=(PDF) Khortha, a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety\|website=ResearchGate}}</ref> spoken primarily in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]], mainly in 13 districts of two [[Administrative divisions of Jharkhand\|divisions]]: [[North Chotanagpur division\|North Chotanagpur]], and [[Santhal Pargana division\|Santhal Pargana]].<ref name="avenuemail.in"/> Khortha is one of the native languages of the [[Sadan people\|Sadaans]] and is used by tribal populations as a link language.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite web\|author=Atul Aman, Niladri Sekhar Dash, Jayashree Chakraborty\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343035416\|title=DESIGNING A LINGUISTIC PROFILE OF KHORTHA: A LESS RESOURCED LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE STATE OF JHARKHAND, INDIA.\|website=ResearchGate\|date=January 2020\|access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="dsal">{{cite web \|title=LSI Vol-5 part-2 \|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/161/mode/1up \|publisher=dsal \|page=145 \|quote="Eastern Magahi"}}</ref> It is the most spoken language variety of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Pattanayak\|first=Binay\|url=https://www.academia.edu/4227936\|title=Language Diversity in Jharkhand\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2014-01-17 \|title=Magahi \|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language-of-the-day/2014-03-16 \|access-date=2022-08-14 \|website=Ethnologue \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Khortha a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570 \|website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>		'''Khortha''' is an [[Indo-Aryan language]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570_Khortha_a_Dying_Language_and_Urgency_to_Retain_its_Pure_Variety\|title=(PDF) Khortha, a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety\|website=ResearchGate}}</ref> spoken primarily in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]], mainly in 13 districts of two [[Administrative divisions of Jharkhand\|divisions]]: [[North Chotanagpur division\|North Chotanagpur]], and [[Santhal Pargana division\|Santhal Pargana]].<ref name="avenuemail.in"/> Khortha is one of the native languages of the [[Sadan people\|Sadaans]] and is used by tribal populations as a link language.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite web\|author=Atul Aman, Niladri Sekhar Dash, Jayashree Chakraborty\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343035416\|title=DESIGNING A LINGUISTIC PROFILE OF KHORTHA: A LESS RESOURCED LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE STATE OF JHARKHAND, INDIA.\|website=ResearchGate\|date=January 2020\|access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="dsal">{{cite web \|title=LSI Vol-5 part-2 \|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/161/mode/1up \|publisher=dsal \|page=145 \|quote="Eastern Magahi"}}</ref> It is the most spoken language variety of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Pattanayak\|first=Binay\|url=https://www.academia.edu/4227936\|title=Language Diversity in Jharkhand\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2014-01-17 \|title=Magahi \|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language-of-the-day/2014-03-16 \|access-date=2022-08-14 \|website=Ethnologue \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Khortha a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570 \|website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>

	==Geographical distribution==		==Geographical distribution==
Line 141:		Line 141:
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \|[[~~Rhotic~~ consonant\|~~Rhotic~~]]		! rowspan="2" \|[[Flap consonant\|Flap]]/[[Trill consonant\|Trill]]
	!{{small\|[[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}}		!{{small\|[[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}}
	\|		\|
Line 160:		Line 160:
	* Aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /dʱ/, /ɖʱ/, and /kʰ/ rarely appear in word-final position.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=20}} /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ never stay on the same word with their allophones /ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=22}}		* Aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /dʱ/, /ɖʱ/, and /kʰ/ rarely appear in word-final position.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=20}} /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ never stay on the same word with their allophones /ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=22}}
	* Four affricates /t͡ʃ/, /t͡ʃʰ/, /d͡ʒ/, /d͡ʒʱ/ can be found in initial, medial, and final positions. When articulating these phonemes, the blade of the tongue touches the back of the teeth-ridge. When a stop consonant is articulated, the touch continues longer, and the separation of the tongue is slower than it is for the affricates.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=23}}		* Four affricates /t͡ʃ/, /t͡ʃʰ/, /d͡ʒ/, /d͡ʒʱ/ can be found in initial, medial, and final positions. When articulating these phonemes, the blade of the tongue touches the back of the teeth-ridge. When a stop consonant is articulated, the touch continues longer, and the separation of the tongue is slower than it is for the affricates.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=23}}
	* /s/ occurs with all positions, while /h/ is mostly found in word-initial. In rapid conversation, there seems to be a case for h-elision between vowels. Eg. /d͡ʒohɛk/ 'to wait' is realized as [d͡ʒoɛk], and /mohor/ 'old coin' as /moːr/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=24}}		* /s/ occurs with all positions, while /h/ is mostly found in word-initial. In rapid conversation, there seems to be a case for h-elision between vowels. Eg. /d͡ʒohɛk/ 'to wait' is realized as [d͡ʒoɛk], and /mohor/ 'old coin' as [moːr].{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=24}}
	* /ŋ/ is restricted to the word-final position. Breathy nasals [mʱ~~] [~~nʱ~~] [~~ŋʱ], lateral [lʱ], and flap [ɾʱ] are only attested in word-medial and word-final positions.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=25}}		* /ŋ/ is restricted to the word-final position. Breathy nasals /mʱ nʱ ŋʱ/, lateral /lʱ/, and flap /ɾʱ/ are only attested in word-medial and word-final positions.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=25}}
	* Glides mostly occur in intervocalic positions; however, they are also found in word-final position in a few lexical items.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=26}} Inserting glides in intervocalic positions, which is common in Indo-Aryan, is not favored in Khortha.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=27}}		* Glides mostly occur in intervocalic positions; however, they are also found in word-final position in a few lexical items.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=26}} Inserting glides in intervocalic positions, which is common in Indo-Aryan, is not favored in Khortha.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=27}}
	* Aspirated consonants cannot be geminated.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=37}} Gemination of /ɾ/ will yield the first consonant as /r/, and the second as /ɾ/. Eg. ''barɾa'' 'banyan tree'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=36}}		* Aspirated consonants cannot be geminated.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=37}} Gemination of /ɾ/ will yield the first consonant as [r], and the second as [ɾ]. Eg. [''barɾa''] 'banyan tree'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=36}}

	===Vowels===		===Vowels===
Line 230:		Line 230:
	When a word root is bound with an affix that contains a vowel, the internal open central vowel /a/ of the first syllable is replaced by the mid-close central vowel. Eg. ''gʱaɾ'' ('house') + ''wʌin'' (plural) → ''gʱʌɾwʌin'' 'houses'. This process is pretty common, but it is not related to [[vowel harmony]] and is more likely due to intonation. It also does not apply to compounds and reduplicated nouns. Eg. ''gatʃʰ-palha'' 'greenery' (lit. "tree-leave").{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=38}}		When a word root is bound with an affix that contains a vowel, the internal open central vowel /a/ of the first syllable is replaced by the mid-close central vowel. Eg. ''gʱaɾ'' ('house') + ''wʌin'' (plural) → ''gʱʌɾwʌin'' 'houses'. This process is pretty common, but it is not related to [[vowel harmony]] and is more likely due to intonation. It also does not apply to compounds and reduplicated nouns. Eg. ''gatʃʰ-palha'' 'greenery' (lit. "tree-leave").{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=38}}

	Final-vowel stem, when is marked with plural suffix -wʌin, the final vowel is dropped. Eg. kaɽa + wʌin → kʌɽwʌin 'buffalos'. Root with /a/ final merges with the initial /a/ of the following element. Eg. kʰa-a (eat-2PL.IMP.HON) → kʰa 'you eat!' (plural and honorific).{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}		Final-vowel stem, when is marked with plural suffix -wʌin, the final vowel is dropped. Eg. ''kaɽa'' + ''wʌin'' → ''kʌɽwʌin'' 'buffalos'. Root with /a/ final merges with the initial /a/ of the following element. Eg. ''kʰa-a'' (eat-2PL.IMP.HON) → ''kʰa'' 'you eat!' (plural and honorific).{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}

	The long open vowel is dropped when it is followed by the mid-close central vowel. In some verbs, the open central vowel is dropped in imperative constructions due to the addition of the suffix ''-o''. Eg. kʰa-o (eat-2SG.IMP) → kʰo 'you eat!'{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}		The long open vowel is dropped when it is followed by the mid-close central vowel. In some verbs, the open central vowel is dropped in imperative constructions due to the addition of the suffix ''-o''. Eg. ''kʰa-o'' (eat-2SG.IMP) → ''kʰo'' 'you eat!'{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}

	The nominalizing suffix -bɛ assimilates with additive clitic ''=o'', producing the contracted version -bo 'NMLZ.ADD'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=40}}		The nominalizing suffix ''-bɛ'' assimilates with additive clitic ''=o'', producing the contracted version ''-bo'' 'NMLZ.ADD'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=40}}

	==Morphology==		==Morphology==

Garrydum at 15:09, 20 March 2026

2026-03-20T15:09:40Z

Show changes

Ajay Kumar: Created a new article

2023-08-22T14:04:00Z

Created a new article

New page

{{Short description|Indo-Aryan dialect spoken in India}}
{{distinguish| Khotta Bhasha}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Khortha
| nativename = खोरठा
| image = Khortha language.svg
| imagecaption = The word "Khortha" written in Devanagari script
| states = [[India]]
| region = [[North Chotanagpur division|North Chotanagpur]] and [[Santhal Pargana division|Santhal Pargana]], [[Jharkhand]]
| speakers = 8.04 million
| date = 2011 census
| ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref><ref name="ethnologue.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mag|title=Magahi |website=ethnologue}}</ref>(additional speakers counted under Hindi)
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]]
| fam5 = [[Bihari languages|Bihari]]
| script = [[Devanagari]]
| nation = {{IND}}
* [[Jharkhand]] (additional)<ref name="avenuemail.in">{{Cite web|title=Jharkhand gives second language status to Magahi, Angika, Bhojpuri and Maithili|url=https://www.avenuemail.in/ranchi/jharkhand-gives-second-language-status-to-magahi-angika-bhojpuri-and-maithili/118291/|date=2018-03-21|website=Avenue Mail|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-27|archive-date=2019-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328090028/https://www.avenuemail.in/ranchi/jharkhand-gives-second-language-status-to-magahi-angika-bhojpuri-and-maithili/118291/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| iso2 =
| iso3 =
| glotto =
| glottorefname =
}}

'''Khortha''' (also [[romanized]] as Kortha or Khotta) or alternatively classified as '''Eastern Magahi'''<ref name="dsal">{{cite web |title=LSI Vol-5 part-2 |publisher=dsal |page=145 |url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/161/mode/1up |quote="Eastern Magahi" }}</ref> is a language (which is considered a dialect of the [[Magahi language]]) spoken primarily in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]], mainly in 16 districts of three [[Administrative divisions of Jharkhand|divisions]]: [[North Chotanagpur division|North Chotanagpur]], Palamu division and [[Santhal Pargana division|Santhal Pargana]].<ref name="avenuemail.in"/> Khortha is spoken by the [[Sadan people|Sadaans]] as native language and used by the tribal as a link language.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite web|author=Atul Aman, Niladri Sekhar Dash, Jayashree Chakraborty|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343035416|title=DESIGNING A LINGUISTIC PROFILE OF KHORTHA: A LESS RESOURCED LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE STATE OF JHARKHAND, INDIA.|website=ResearchGate|date=January 2020|access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="dsal" /> It is most spoken language of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pattanayak|first=Binay|url=https://www.academia.edu/4227936|title=Language Diversity in Jharkhand|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-01-17 |title=Magahi |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language-of-the-day/2014-03-16 |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Khortha a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570 |url-status=live |website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>

==Geographical Distribution==
Khortha is spoken in North Chota Nagpur division and Santal Pargana division of Jharkhand. The 7 districts are [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]], [[Koderma district|Koderma]], [[Giridih district|Giridih]], [[Bokaro district|Bokaro]], [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]], [[Chatra district|Chatra]], [[Ramgarh district|Ramgarh]].<ref name="ethnologue.com"/>

In Bihar, districts where Khortha is spoken include Aurangabad, Gaya and Nawada.<ref>Shekhar Dash, Niladri. "Language Attitude of Khortha Speakers in Giridih: A Survey Report". Linguistic Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.</ref>

==Classification==
George Grierson classified Khortha as a dialect of the [[Magahi language]] in his linguistic survey.<ref name="researchgate"/> However, recent study demonstrate that Khortha is more similar to other Bihari languages of [[Jharkhand]] called [[Sadanic languages|Sadani]] than the Magahi language.<ref name="Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics">{{Cite journal|last1=Paudyal|first1=Netra P.|last2=Peterson|first2=John|date=2020-09-01|title=How one language became four: the impact of different contact-scenarios between "Sadani" and the tribal languages of Jharkhand|journal=Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=275–306|doi=10.1515/jsall-2021-2028|issn=2196-078X|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Literature==
In 1950, Sriniwas Panuri translated Kali Das's Meghadutam in Khortha. In 1956, he composed two works ''Balkiran'' and ''Divyajyoti''. Bhubaneswar Dutta Sharma, Sriniwas Panuri, Viswanath Dasaundhi and Viswanath Nagar were among first people who started literature in Khortha. Some prominent writers in Khortha language are A.K Jha, Shivnath Pramanik, B.N Ohdar.<ref name="researchgate"/>For the first time, efforts were made to reach Khortha language and literature to the People of Jharkhand through the Internet by the '''founder of the Sarkari Library, Mr Mananjay Mahato'''. Khortha literature became available on the Internet for the first time due to the efforts of Mr. Mananjay Mahato.

==Sample phrases==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English !! Khortha !! Khortha ([[Devanagari]])
|-
| Ramu felt shy.|| Ramuke laj lagi gele.||रामुके लाज लगि गेले।
|-
| Amit has courage.|| Amit-ke sãhas he.|| अमित के साहस हे।
|-
| I feel shy|| Hammar laj laga|| हम्मर लाज लगा।
|-
| Give the horse the feed. || Ghora-ke khabe-ke de.||घोड़ा के खाबेके दे।
|-
| The child did not hit his sister.|| Baccha-ta appan bahin-ke nai mar-k-o.||बच्चाटा अप्पन बहिनके नइ मारको।
|-
| Ram’s sister wedding is tomorrow.|| Kalkhin ram-ke bahin-ke biha hau. ||कलखिन रामके बहिनके बिहा हउ।
|-
| The boy ate a banana.||Chhourata ekta kela khalelko.||छौड़ाटा एकटा केला खालेलको।
|-
| Buy twenty five rupees’ sugar.||Pacchis taka-ke chini kini-an||पच्चीस टाकाके चीनी किनिअन।
|-
| Ajay wrote a letter to his mother yesterday.|| Ajay kalkhin appan ma-ke chitthi likk-o.|| अजय कलखिन अप्पन माके चिट्ठी लिक्को।
|}

==See also==
*[[Khortha cinema]]
* [[2021–2022 Language Movement in Jharkhand]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Bihari languages}}
{{Languages of India}}

[[Category:Bihari languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]

{{IndoAryan-lang-stub}}

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:00, 7 April 2026
Line 30:		Line 30:
	}}		}}

	'''Khortha''' is an Indo-Aryan language<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570_Khortha_a_Dying_Language_and_Urgency_to_Retain_its_Pure_Variety\|title=(PDF) Khortha, a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety\|website=ResearchGate}}</ref> spoken primarily in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]], mainly in 13 districts of two [[Administrative divisions of Jharkhand\|divisions]]: [[North Chotanagpur division\|North Chotanagpur]], and [[Santhal Pargana division\|Santhal Pargana]].<ref name="avenuemail.in"/> Khortha is one of the native languages of the [[Sadan people\|Sadaans]] and is used by tribal populations as a link language.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite web\|author=Atul Aman, Niladri Sekhar Dash, Jayashree Chakraborty\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343035416\|title=DESIGNING A LINGUISTIC PROFILE OF KHORTHA: A LESS RESOURCED LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE STATE OF JHARKHAND, INDIA.\|website=ResearchGate\|date=January 2020\|access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="dsal">{{cite web \|title=LSI Vol-5 part-2 \|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/161/mode/1up \|publisher=dsal \|page=145 \|quote="Eastern Magahi"}}</ref> It is the most spoken language variety of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Pattanayak\|first=Binay\|url=https://www.academia.edu/4227936\|title=Language Diversity in Jharkhand\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2014-01-17 \|title=Magahi \|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language-of-the-day/2014-03-16 \|access-date=2022-08-14 \|website=Ethnologue \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Khortha a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570 \|website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>		'''Khortha''' is an [[Indo-Aryan language]]<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570_Khortha_a_Dying_Language_and_Urgency_to_Retain_its_Pure_Variety\|title=(PDF) Khortha, a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety\|website=ResearchGate}}</ref> spoken primarily in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]], mainly in 13 districts of two [[Administrative divisions of Jharkhand\|divisions]]: [[North Chotanagpur division\|North Chotanagpur]], and [[Santhal Pargana division\|Santhal Pargana]].<ref name="avenuemail.in"/> Khortha is one of the native languages of the [[Sadan people\|Sadaans]] and is used by tribal populations as a link language.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite web\|author=Atul Aman, Niladri Sekhar Dash, Jayashree Chakraborty\|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343035416\|title=DESIGNING A LINGUISTIC PROFILE OF KHORTHA: A LESS RESOURCED LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN THE STATE OF JHARKHAND, INDIA.\|website=ResearchGate\|date=January 2020\|access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="dsal">{{cite web \|title=LSI Vol-5 part-2 \|url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/161/mode/1up \|publisher=dsal \|page=145 \|quote="Eastern Magahi"}}</ref> It is the most spoken language variety of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite book\|last=Pattanayak\|first=Binay\|url=https://www.academia.edu/4227936\|title=Language Diversity in Jharkhand\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date=2014-01-17 \|title=Magahi \|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language-of-the-day/2014-03-16 \|access-date=2022-08-14 \|website=Ethnologue \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title=Khortha a Dying Language and Urgency to Retain its Pure Variety \|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326895570 \|website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>

	==Geographical distribution==		==Geographical distribution==
Line 141:		Line 141:
	\|		\|
	\|-		\|-
	! rowspan="2" \|[[~~Rhotic~~ consonant\|~~Rhotic~~]]		! rowspan="2" \|[[Flap consonant\|Flap]]/[[Trill consonant\|Trill]]
	!{{small\|[[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}}		!{{small\|[[Voice (phonetics)\|voiced]]}}
	\|		\|
Line 160:		Line 160:
	* Aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /dʱ/, /ɖʱ/, and /kʰ/ rarely appear in word-final position.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=20}} /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ never stay on the same word with their allophones /ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=22}}		* Aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /dʱ/, /ɖʱ/, and /kʰ/ rarely appear in word-final position.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=20}} /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ never stay on the same word with their allophones /ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=22}}
	* Four affricates /t͡ʃ/, /t͡ʃʰ/, /d͡ʒ/, /d͡ʒʱ/ can be found in initial, medial, and final positions. When articulating these phonemes, the blade of the tongue touches the back of the teeth-ridge. When a stop consonant is articulated, the touch continues longer, and the separation of the tongue is slower than it is for the affricates.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=23}}		* Four affricates /t͡ʃ/, /t͡ʃʰ/, /d͡ʒ/, /d͡ʒʱ/ can be found in initial, medial, and final positions. When articulating these phonemes, the blade of the tongue touches the back of the teeth-ridge. When a stop consonant is articulated, the touch continues longer, and the separation of the tongue is slower than it is for the affricates.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=23}}
	* /s/ occurs with all positions, while /h/ is mostly found in word-initial. In rapid conversation, there seems to be a case for h-elision between vowels. Eg. /d͡ʒohɛk/ 'to wait' is realized as [d͡ʒoɛk], and /mohor/ 'old coin' as /moːr/.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=24}}		* /s/ occurs with all positions, while /h/ is mostly found in word-initial. In rapid conversation, there seems to be a case for h-elision between vowels. Eg. /d͡ʒohɛk/ 'to wait' is realized as [d͡ʒoɛk], and /mohor/ 'old coin' as [moːr].{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=24}}
	* /ŋ/ is restricted to the word-final position. Breathy nasals [mʱ~~] [~~nʱ~~] [~~ŋʱ], lateral [lʱ], and flap [ɾʱ] are only attested in word-medial and word-final positions.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=25}}		* /ŋ/ is restricted to the word-final position. Breathy nasals /mʱ nʱ ŋʱ/, lateral /lʱ/, and flap /ɾʱ/ are only attested in word-medial and word-final positions.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=25}}
	* Glides mostly occur in intervocalic positions; however, they are also found in word-final position in a few lexical items.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=26}} Inserting glides in intervocalic positions, which is common in Indo-Aryan, is not favored in Khortha.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=27}}		* Glides mostly occur in intervocalic positions; however, they are also found in word-final position in a few lexical items.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=26}} Inserting glides in intervocalic positions, which is common in Indo-Aryan, is not favored in Khortha.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=27}}
	* Aspirated consonants cannot be geminated.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=37}} Gemination of /ɾ/ will yield the first consonant as /r/, and the second as /ɾ/. Eg. ''barɾa'' 'banyan tree'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=36}}		* Aspirated consonants cannot be geminated.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=37}} Gemination of /ɾ/ will yield the first consonant as [r], and the second as [ɾ]. Eg. [''barɾa''] 'banyan tree'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=36}}

	===Vowels===		===Vowels===
Line 230:		Line 230:
	When a word root is bound with an affix that contains a vowel, the internal open central vowel /a/ of the first syllable is replaced by the mid-close central vowel. Eg. ''gʱaɾ'' ('house') + ''wʌin'' (plural) → ''gʱʌɾwʌin'' 'houses'. This process is pretty common, but it is not related to [[vowel harmony]] and is more likely due to intonation. It also does not apply to compounds and reduplicated nouns. Eg. ''gatʃʰ-palha'' 'greenery' (lit. "tree-leave").{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=38}}		When a word root is bound with an affix that contains a vowel, the internal open central vowel /a/ of the first syllable is replaced by the mid-close central vowel. Eg. ''gʱaɾ'' ('house') + ''wʌin'' (plural) → ''gʱʌɾwʌin'' 'houses'. This process is pretty common, but it is not related to [[vowel harmony]] and is more likely due to intonation. It also does not apply to compounds and reduplicated nouns. Eg. ''gatʃʰ-palha'' 'greenery' (lit. "tree-leave").{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=38}}

	Final-vowel stem, when is marked with plural suffix -wʌin, the final vowel is dropped. Eg. kaɽa + wʌin → kʌɽwʌin 'buffalos'. Root with /a/ final merges with the initial /a/ of the following element. Eg. kʰa-a (eat-2PL.IMP.HON) → kʰa 'you eat!' (plural and honorific).{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}		Final-vowel stem, when is marked with plural suffix -wʌin, the final vowel is dropped. Eg. ''kaɽa'' + ''wʌin'' → ''kʌɽwʌin'' 'buffalos'. Root with /a/ final merges with the initial /a/ of the following element. Eg. ''kʰa-a'' (eat-2PL.IMP.HON) → ''kʰa'' 'you eat!' (plural and honorific).{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}

	The long open vowel is dropped when it is followed by the mid-close central vowel. In some verbs, the open central vowel is dropped in imperative constructions due to the addition of the suffix ''-o''. Eg. kʰa-o (eat-2SG.IMP) → kʰo 'you eat!'{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}		The long open vowel is dropped when it is followed by the mid-close central vowel. In some verbs, the open central vowel is dropped in imperative constructions due to the addition of the suffix ''-o''. Eg. ''kʰa-o'' (eat-2SG.IMP) → ''kʰo'' 'you eat!'{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=39}}

	The nominalizing suffix -bɛ assimilates with additive clitic ''=o'', producing the contracted version -bo 'NMLZ.ADD'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=40}}		The nominalizing suffix ''-bɛ'' assimilates with additive clitic ''=o'', producing the contracted version ''-bo'' 'NMLZ.ADD'.{{sfn\|Paudyal\|2025\|p=40}}

	==Morphology==		==Morphology==