Kharavela - Revision history

MerryGrubb79668: Refined content and updated sections

2026-03-06T17:21:50Z

Refined content and updated sections

Bharatwiki Socrates: /* Succession */Adding map of Kharvela of Chedi Dynasty.

2023-12-02T02:23:56Z

Succession: Adding map of Kharvela of Chedi Dynasty.

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:53, 2 December 2023
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	=== Succession ===		=== Succession ===
			[[File:Map of the Maha-Meghavahanas-min.png\|thumb\| Kharvela Empire at it's peak]]
	Kulke and Rothermund state Kharavela's empire state that the history of ancient India is unclear including the times after Ashoka and Kharavela. Given the lack of major inscriptions by his successors, they surmise that the Kharavela empire likely disintegrated soon after his death.<ref name="Hermann_2004">{{cite book \|author1=Hermann Kulke \|author2=Dietmar Rothermund \|title=A History of India \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA101 \|year=2004 \|publisher=Psychology Press \|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 \|page=101 }}</ref> A little is known about the next two generations of kings - Vakradeva (a.k.a. [[Kudepasiri]] or Vakadepa) and Vadukha - but through the minor inscriptions at Udayagiri.<ref name="Hermann_2004"/>		Kulke and Rothermund state Kharavela's empire state that the history of ancient India is unclear including the times after Ashoka and Kharavela. Given the lack of major inscriptions by his successors, they surmise that the Kharavela empire likely disintegrated soon after his death.<ref name="Hermann_2004">{{cite book \|author1=Hermann Kulke \|author2=Dietmar Rothermund \|title=A History of India \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA101 \|year=2004 \|publisher=Psychology Press \|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 \|page=101 }}</ref> A little is known about the next two generations of kings - Vakradeva (a.k.a. [[Kudepasiri]] or Vakadepa) and Vadukha - but through the minor inscriptions at Udayagiri.<ref name="Hermann_2004"/>

2401:4900:B08:845C:0:2A:68AF:701: Brief history

2023-09-20T18:12:20Z

Brief history

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:42, 20 September 2023
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			{{Short description\|Emperor of India}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=December 2015}}
	{{Use Indian English\|date=December 2015}}		{{Use Indian English\|date=December 2015}}
	{{Infobox royalty		{{Infobox royalty
	\| title = Kalingadhipati		\| title = ''Chakravartin Samrat''<ref name="MajumdarBhavan1951">{{cite book \|author=[[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] \|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial unity; 2d ed. 1953 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dDAAAAYAAJ \|year=1951 \|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}</ref><br>'''Kalingadhipati'''
	\| titletext = Lord of Kalinga		\| titletext = '''(Lord of Kalinga)'''
	\| succession = ~~King~~ of [[Kalinga (historical region)\|Kalinga]]		\| succession = Emperor of [[Kalinga (historical region)\|Kalinga]]
	\| reign = ~~1st or 2nd century BCE~~		\| reign = 103-95 B.C.<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=RQc_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA150&dq=kharavela+wife&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipgOPcrK6BAxWIUGwGHU0qDYQQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=Bhikshuraj&f=false \|title=Proceedings \|date=1885 \|language=fr}}</ref>
	\| predecessor = possibly Vriddharaja (~~a.k.a.~~ Vudharaja)		\| predecessor = possibly Vriddharaja (aka Vudharaja)
	\| successor = possibly [[Kudepasiri\|Vakradeva]] (a.k.a. ~~Vakadepa~~)		\| successor = possibly [[Kudepasiri\|Vakradeva]] (aka Vakadepa)
			\|spouse= Agramahishi<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ayBuAAAAMAAJ&q=kharavela+Vajiraghara&dq=kharavela+Vajiraghara&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0aT4ta6BAxVTBogKHWsED_IQ6AF6BAgOEAM#%20Agramahishi \|title=The Orissa Historical Research Journal \|date=1975 \|publisher=Superintendent of Research and Museum \|language=en}}</ref>
			\|spouses-type=Queen (Samragyi)
			\|issue = Vakradeva
			\| issue-type = Son
			\|religion = [[Jainism]]
			\|house = [[Chandel (Rajput clan)\|Chedi-Chandel]]
			\|dynasty = [[Mahameghavahana dynasty\|Mahameghavahana]]
			\|father = Vridhhraja
			}}

			'''Kharavela''' ({{Lang-sa\|खारवेल}}) also referred to as '''Bhikshuraj''', ''the protector of Kings''<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=RQc_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA148&dq=Bhikshuraj+Kharvela&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU38TUi6-BAxUCbt4KHQ-yCdoQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=Bhikshuraj%20Kharvela&f=false \|title=Proceedings \|date=1885 \|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Leiden) \|first=International Congress of Orientalists (6, 1883 \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=uyQVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA148&dq=Bhikshuraj+Kharvela&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU38TUi6-BAxUCbt4KHQ-yCdoQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q=Bhikshuraj%20Kharvela&f=false \|title=Actes Du Sixieme Congres International Des Orientalistes \|date=1972 \|publisher=Brill Archive \|language=fr}}</ref> (reign. 103-95 B.C.<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=RQc_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA150&dq=kharavela+wife&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipgOPcrK6BAxWIUGwGHU0qDYQQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=Bhikshuraj&f=false \|title=Proceedings \|date=1885 \|language=fr}}</ref>) was the [[Chakravartin]] emperor from [[Mahameghavahana dynasty\|Mahameghavahana dynasty]] of [[Chandel (Rajput clan)\|Chedi-Chandel clan]].<ref name="MajumdarBhavan1951">{{cite book \|author=[[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] \|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial unity; 2d ed. 1953 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dDAAAAYAAJ \|year=1951 \|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Society \|first=Bihar and Orissa Research \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=IahEAQAAMAAJ&q=kharavela+chakravarti&dq=kharavela+chakravarti&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjgorSBt66BAxWSPXAKHWHvDBAQ6AF6BAgNEAM#kharavela%20chakravarti \|title=Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society \|date=1917 \|publisher=The Society \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=M2Pr0PCTYV4C&q=kharavela+Agramahishi&dq=kharavela+Agramahishi&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjY4Ze-tq6BAxXYO3AKHaXqBHwQ6AF6BAgOEAM#kharavela%20Agramahishi \|title=Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society \|date=1946 \|publisher=Andhra Historical Research Society \|language=en}}</ref> He ruled from his capital [[Kalinga (historical region)\|Kalinga]] (present-day in [[Odisha]], [[India]]). In early ruling years, he defeated the Indo-Greek ruler [[Demetrius I of Bactria\|Demetrius I]] around Mathura and drove them out from [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book \|last=C.S.Natarajan \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=H91LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT234&dq=Kharavela+defeated+Greek&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwy-uvhLSBAxWZb94KHUBcAVk4ChDoAXoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=Kharavela%20defeated%20Greek&f=false \|title=National Words: A Solution to the National Language Problem of India \|date=2018-02-13 \|publisher=Notion Press \|isbn=978-1-948147-14-9 \|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Sanyal \|first=Sanjeev \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0SD5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT56&dq=Kharavela+defeated+Greek&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij1LuChLSBAxV8dPUHHSmQCrEQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=Kharavela%20defeated%20Greek&f=false \|title=Incredible History of the Indian Ocean \|date=2020-09-14 \|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited \|isbn=978-93-5305-962-0 \|language=en}}</ref> In his first Invasion on the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryans]], he humiliated the last Maurya king [[Brihadratha Maurya\|Brihdratha]] and in the second Invasion on [[Magadha]], he defeated King [[Pushyamitra Shunga]] and made him his vassal.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Das \|first=Manmatha Nath \|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32999 \|title=Glimpses Of Kalinga History \|date=1949}}</ref> He also conquered the [[Satavahanas]], Musikas, Bhojakas, Rastrikas and Pandyas. His empire had extensive trade with Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Das \|first=Manmatha Nath \|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32999 \|title=Glimpses Of Kalinga History \|date=1949}}</ref>


	~~\|religion=~~[[Jainism]]~~\| dynasty =~~ [[~~Mahameghavahana dynasty\|Mahameghavahana~~]]		He was a follower of [[Jainism]], through he has lineage from the Chedi-Chandel clan, he has no hate toward with the [[Hinduism]], so he performed Rajasuya Yagya as per tradition. Moreover, whenever he returned home after victory, he always celebrated his victory by giving generous gifts of money, precious gems, elephants and horses to the Brahmins. He always built houses for them.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Mahajan \|first=Vidya Dhar \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=CGs8AAAAMAAJ&q=Kharavela+rajsuya&dq=Kharavela+rajsuya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwietYv7oa-BAxWO_GEKHd13Dfc4FBDoAXoECAYQAw#Kharavela%20rajsuya \|title=Ancient India \|date=1962 \|publisher=S. Chand \|language=en}}</ref>
	}}

	~~'''Kharavela''' (also transliterated '''Khārabēḷa''')~~ was ~~a Jain king of~~ [[~~Kalinga (historical region)~~\|~~Kalinga~~]] ~~in present-day~~ [[~~Odisha~~]], [[~~India~~]], ~~who ruled during the second~~ or first ~~century BCE~~. ~~The primary~~ source ~~for Kharavela is his rock~~-~~cut [[Hathigumpha inscription]]~~. The ~~inscription is undated, only four~~ of ~~its 17 lines are completely legible, others unclear, variously interpreted and disputed~~ by ~~scholars~~. ~~The inscription written with [[Jainism]]~~-~~related phrases recites a year by year record of~~ his ~~reign~~ and ~~panegyrically credits him with public infrastructure projects~~, ~~welfare activities, patronage~~ of the ~~arts, and many military victories~~. ~~Historians agree that it is best~~ and ~~most complete biography~~ of Kharavela ~~available~~. ~~He was a follower~~ of ~~[[Jainism]].~~		==Personal life==
			According to the inscriptions of Hathigumpha, he was born in 127 B.C..<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=RQc_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA150&dq=Kharvela+born+in&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjcgrTnl6-BAxUKQ94KHXwGCMgQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=Kharvela%20born%20in&f=false \|title=Proceedings \|date=1885 \|language=fr}}</ref> His family was [[Mahameghavahana dynasty\|Mahameghavahana dynasty]] and clan was [[Chandel (Rajput clan)\|Chedi/Chandel]] who were elder branch of [[Lunar dynasty\|Chandravanshi]] Kshatriyas.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Singh \|first=Upinder \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155&dq=genealogy+of+Mahameghavahana&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixm4WCsq6BAxW2SGwGHRhJA0YQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=genealogy%20of%20Mahameghavahana&f=false \|title=Political Violence in Ancient India \|date=2017-09-25 \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|isbn=978-0-674-97527-9 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=5pvpAAAAMAAJ&q=Chandel+Kshatriya+Gidhaur&dq=Chandel+Kshatriya+Gidhaur&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjs8N6llK-BAxVNSGwGHddHBWoQ6AF6BAgGEAM#Kshatriya \|title=Art, Archaeology, and Cultural History of India: U. N. Roy Felicitation Volume \|date=2006 \|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation \|isbn=978-81-7646-492-5 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Jain \|first=Kailash Chand \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA484&dq=Chandelas+were+Kshatriya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjiyrz9la-BAxWQS2wGHekTDOEQ6AF6BAgNEAM#v=onepage&q=Chandelas%20were%20Kshatriya&f=false \|title=Malwa Through The Ages \|date=1972-12-31 \|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. \|isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Tripāṭhī \|first=Kāśī Prasāda \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=G3puAAAAMAAJ&q=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2+%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80+%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF&dq=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2+%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80+%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiE8JvBlq-BAxUFbGwGHf7LAL8Q6AF6BAgNEAM#%20%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF \|title=Bundelakhaṇḍa kā br̥had itihāsa: rājatantra se janatantra \|date=1991 \|publisher=Lalita Nārāyaṇa Tripāṭhī \|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Raj \|first=Sudha Chauhan \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ak1PEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69&dq=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2+%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80+%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiE8JvBlq-BAxUFbGwGHf7LAL8Q6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%20%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%20%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4 \|title=Madhya Kalin Mahoba \|date=2021-11-15 \|publisher=Anjuman Prakashan \|isbn=978-93-88556-71-2 \|language=hi}}</ref> Chedi and Vrishni clan or Kula are synonyms of Chandel clan.<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Taṇḍana \|first=Premanārāyaṇa \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=a0shAAAAMAAJ&q=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF+%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE+%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2&dq=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF+%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE+%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwieq52v2LaBAxWG1GEKHX_kClE4ChDoAXoECAQQAw#%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%20%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%20%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2 \|title=ब्रजभाषा सूर-कोश: Nirdeśaka Dīnadayālu Gupta \|date=1962 \|publisher=Lakhanaū Viśvavidyālaya \|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Dikshit \|first=R. K. \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=V%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%ABs&f=false \|title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti \|date=1976 \|publisher=Abhinav Publications \|isbn=978-81-7017-046-4 \|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Verma \|first=Dr Shyam Bahadur \|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Prabhat_Brihat_Hindi_Shabdakosh_Vol_1.html?id=hr9Zl_7g8HAC \|title=Prabhat Brihat Hindi Shabdakosh (Vol-1): Bestseller Book by Dr Shyam Bahadur Verma: Prabhat Brihat Hindi Shabdakosh) \|date=2010-01-01 \|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan \|isbn=978-81-7315-769-1 \|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Kapoor \|first=Badrinath \|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Brihat_Pramanik_Hindi_Kosh.html?id=hkmDkkI5JYYC \|title=Brihat Pramanik Hindi Kosh \|date=2006-09-01 \|publisher=Lokbharti Prakashan \|isbn=978-81-8031-057-7 \|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last=Thakur ‘Bipin’ \|first=Dr Bindeshwari Prasad \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2Ht3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502&dq=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2+%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiikYfu2baBAxUddfUHHTlyCisQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%20%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2&f=false \|title=BHARTIYA SANSKRITI KE GAKAAR PRATEEK \|publisher=Sarv Bhasha Trust \|isbn=978-93-93605-21-4 \|language=hi}}</ref> Inscriptions state that his ancestors were from Chedi Kingdom and he was the son of Vriddharaja.<ref name="NKSahu_1984"/><ref name="Bhagwan_1883"/> His Queen's name was Agramahishi, the daughter of Hastisimha who became the queen of Vajiraghara. Kharavala had a son from Agramahishi who was named Vakradeva and he became the successor of Kharavela.<ref>{{Cite book \|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ayBuAAAAMAAJ&q=kharavela+Vajiraghara&dq=kharavela+Vajiraghara&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0aT4ta6BAxVTBogKHWsED_IQ6AF6BAgOEAM#%20Agramahishi \|title=The Orissa Historical Research Journal \|date=1975 \|publisher=Superintendent of Research and Museum \|language=en}}</ref>

	== Background ==		== Background ==

UpdateBot: robot: Update article (please report if you notice any mistake or error in this edit)

2022-06-30T09:34:42Z

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	{{defn\|The record is partially damaged. It mentions a Yavana king running away in fear and retreating to Mathura. Alain Daniélou writes that Kharavela sacked Gorathagiri (near the [[Barabar Caves\|Barabar Hills]]) with a large army and subdued the town of Rajagriha (identified with present-day [[Rajgir]]).<ref name="Alan_2003"/> According to Ananta Prasad Banerji-Sastri, Kharavela expelled members of the [[Ajivika]] sect (a rival of the Jains) from the Barabari caves and mutilated their inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book \|author=[[Radha Kumud Mukherjee\|Radhakumud Mookerji]] \|title=Asoka \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC&pg=PA206 \|year=1995 \|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn=978-81-208-0582-8 \|pages=206–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author=[[Arthur Llewellyn Basham]] \|title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, a Vanished Indian Religion \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA158 \|year=1951 \|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn=978-81-208-1204-8 \|pages=158–159 }}</ref>}}		{{defn\|The record is partially damaged. It mentions a Yavana king running away in fear and retreating to Mathura. Alain Daniélou writes that Kharavela sacked Gorathagiri (near the [[Barabar Caves\|Barabar Hills]]) with a large army and subdued the town of Rajagriha (identified with present-day [[Rajgir]]).<ref name="Alan_2003"/> According to Ananta Prasad Banerji-Sastri, Kharavela expelled members of the [[Ajivika]] sect (a rival of the Jains) from the Barabari caves and mutilated their inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book \|author=[[Radha Kumud Mukherjee\|Radhakumud Mookerji]] \|title=Asoka \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC&pg=PA206 \|year=1995 \|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn=978-81-208-0582-8 \|pages=206–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author=[[Arthur Llewellyn Basham]] \|title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, a Vanished Indian Religion \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA158 \|year=1951 \|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn=978-81-208-1204-8 \|pages=158–159 }}</ref>}}
	{{term\|Year 10}}		{{term\|Year 10}}
	{{defn\|Much of the record is lost. The inscription mentions ''Bharatavasa'' and a series of military campaigns with victories. Kharavela defeats the Ava king and broke up the ~~1,300~~-year confederacy of the "T[r]amira" countries which had endangered Kalinga.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/> Sen and [[Alain Daniélou]] interpret "Tramira" as "Dramira" ("Dravidian") confederacy.<ref name="Romila2003"/>}}		{{defn\|Much of the record is lost. The inscription mentions ''Bharatavasa'' and a series of military campaigns with victories. Kharavela defeats the Ava king and broke up the 113-year confederacy of the "T[r]amira" countries which had endangered Kalinga.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/> Sen and [[Alain Daniélou]] interpret "Tramira" as "Dramira" ("Dravidian") confederacy.<ref name="Romila2003"/>}}
	{{term\|Year 12}}		{{term\|Year 12}}
	{{defn\|Parts of this record are lost. Kharavela sends his troops to Uttarpatha (the north), and subdues the king of Magadha. K. P. Jayaswal identified Bahasmita with Pushyamitra Shunga, but [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] discredits this theory. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya believes that Bahasatimita may have been a king of [[Kosambi\|Kaushambi]], and his rule might have extended to Magadha as well.<ref name="Sudhakar_1974"/> This section of the inscription mentions a "Ka[li]ngajinam" taken by Nanda king in the past and he brought it back to Kalinga. Kharavela built a settlement of a hundred masons with a tax exemption.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/>}}		{{defn\|Parts of this record are lost. Kharavela sends his troops to Uttarpatha (the north), and subdues the king of Magadha. K. P. Jayaswal identified Bahasmita with Pushyamitra Shunga, but [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] discredits this theory. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya believes that Bahasatimita may have been a king of [[Kosambi\|Kaushambi]], and his rule might have extended to Magadha as well.<ref name="Sudhakar_1974"/> This section of the inscription mentions a "Ka[li]ngajinam" taken by Nanda king in the past and he brought it back to Kalinga. Kharavela built a settlement of a hundred masons with a tax exemption.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/>}}

ImportMaster at 10:00, 26 April 2022

2022-04-26T10:00:38Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| title = Kalingadhipati
| titletext = Lord of Kalinga
| succession = King of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]
| reign = 1st or 2nd century BCE
| predecessor = possibly Vriddharaja (a.k.a. Vudharaja)
| successor = possibly [[Kudepasiri|Vakradeva]] (a.k.a. Vakadepa)

|religion=[[Jainism]]| dynasty = [[Mahameghavahana dynasty|Mahameghavahana]]
}}

'''Kharavela''' (also transliterated '''Khārabēḷa''') was a Jain king of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] in present-day [[Odisha]], [[India]], who ruled during the second or first century BCE. The primary source for Kharavela is his rock-cut [[Hathigumpha inscription]]. The inscription is undated, only four of its 17 lines are completely legible, others unclear, variously interpreted and disputed by scholars. The inscription written with [[Jainism]]-related phrases recites a year by year record of his reign and panegyrically credits him with public infrastructure projects, welfare activities, patronage of the arts, and many military victories. Historians agree that it is best and most complete biography of Kharavela available. He was a follower of [[Jainism]].

== Background ==
=== {{anchor|Sources of information}}Sources ===
[[File:Hathigumpha.JPG|thumb|alt=Rock-cut cave with pillars|The Hathigumpha cave, one of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]]
Much of the available information about Kharavela comes from the undated, much damaged [[Hathigumpha inscription]] and several [[Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela|minor inscriptions]] found in the [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] in present-day Odisha. The Hathigumpha inscription records Kharavela's life until his 38th year, including 13 years of his reign. The inscription is badly damaged; of its 17 lines, only four are completely legible, the rest partly lost and eroded by natural processes.<ref name="Sailendra_1999">{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA176 |year=1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |pages=176–177 }}</ref> It is open to "widely different" interpretations, giving rise to disputes and speculation by various scholars.<ref name="Romila2003">{{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC&pg=PA211 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302989-2 |pages=211–213}}</ref><ref name="NKSahu_1964">{{cite book |author=N. K. Sahu |title=History of Orissa from the Earliest Time Up to 500 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8MBAAAAMAAJ |year=1964 |publisher=Utkal University |page=303 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Salomon | first=R. | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-19-535666-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC | pages=142, 165 with footnote 12, Section 5.5.1.17 on p. 195}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = <poem>Composed as it is in a very obscure Prakrit,
and its characters badly weathered
by centuries of exposure to the elements
and in places quite illegible,
the Hathigumpha inscription has long
been the subject of a great controversy
among historians and paleographers.</poem>
|source = — [[Arthur Llewellyn Basham]]<ref>{{cite book | last=Kant | first=Shashi | title=The Hāthīgumphā Inscription of Khāravela and the Bhabru Edict of Aśoka: A Critical Study (2nd Edition, published in 2000) | publisher=Prints India | year=1971 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEo_AAAAMAAJ | pages=vii}}</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFD0AA
|align = left
}}
=== Date ===
The kingdom of Kalinga was annexed by [[Ashoka]] c. 262-261 BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from the [[Maurya Empire]] sometime after Ashoka's death, and Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.<ref name="Sailendra_1999"/>

In 1885, the colonial era eipgraphist [[Bhagwan Lal Indraji]] read the 16th line of the Hathigumpha inscription as a reference to ''Maurya kala'' and 165th year after this new timeline, which he called the Mauryan era. Indraji concluded that Kharavela was born in 127 BCE and became king in 103 BCE.<ref name="Bhagwan_1883"/> Indraji's interpretations were questioned by scholars and has been largely rejected.<ref>J.F. Fleet (1910), The Hathigumpha Inscription, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pp. 824-828, {{JSTOR|25189732}}</ref><ref name="Rama_1942">{{cite book |author=Rama Shankar Tripathi |title=History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC&pg=PA199 |year=1942 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0018-2 |pages=199–201 }}</ref><ref name="Spinkp95">{{cite journal | last=Spink | first=Walter | title=On the Development of Early Buddhist Art in India | journal=The Art Bulletin | volume=40 | issue=2 | year=1958 | doi=10.2307/3047760 | pages=99, context: 95–120| jstor=3047760 }}</ref>

According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, the 16th line does not mention ''Maurya kala'' ("Maurya era") but reads ''Mukhya kala'' ("the main era"). Chattopadhyaya relies on the description of Kharavela's fifth regnal year in the Hathigumpha inscription, which he says implies that Kharavela flourished ''ti-vasa-sata'' years after the Nandaraja. [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] identifies Nandaraja with [[Mahapadma Nanda]] or one of his sons. The expression ''ti-vasa-sata'' can mean 103 or 300 years; Chattopadhyaya does not consider 103 plausible, since it would contradict Ashoka's records. Based on this, he places Kharavela in the second half of the first century BCE or the first half of the first century CE.<ref name="Sudhakar_1974"/>

Depending on the variant readings, different dates continue to be published in post-colonial era texts. [[Alain Daniélou]], for example, places Kharavela between 180 BCE and 130 BCE, identifying him as a contemporary of [[Satakarni]] and [[Pushyamitra Shunga]].<ref name="Alan_2003">{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kwnv3I6qIosC&pg=PA139 |year=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=139–141}}</ref> According to Rama Shankar Tripathi, Kharavela reigned during the third quarter of the first century BCE.<ref name="Rama_1942"/> Many other scholars, such as D.C. Sircar and Walter Spink, date Kharavela and the Hathigumpha inscription in the 1st-century BCE to early 1st-century CE.<ref>D. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 213–214 footnote 1</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Spink | first=Walter | title=On the Development of Early Buddhist Art in India | journal=The Art Bulletin | volume=40 | issue=2 | year=1958 | doi=10.2307/3047760 | pages=98–100, context: 95–120| jstor=3047760 }}</ref>

[[File:Hathigumpha inscription.JPG|thumb|alt=Faint rock-cut inscription|Kharavela's Hathigumpha inscription]]
=== Dynasty ===
The first line of the Hathigumpha inscription calls Kharavela "''Chetaraja-vasa-vadhanena''" (चेतराज वस वधनेन, "the one who extended the family of the Cheta King").<ref>{{cite book |author1=Martin Brandtner |author2=Shishir Kumar Panda |title=Interrogating History: Essays for Hermann Kulke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ChuAAAAMAAJ |year= 2006 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-679-7 |page=96 }}</ref> [[R. D. Banerji]] and [[Dineshchandra Sircar|D. C. Sircar]] interpreted "Cheti" (चेति) to be referring to a dynasty from which Kharavela descended, namely [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]] [[Mahajanapadas|mahajanapada]]. According to Sahu, this is incorrect and an artifact of a crack in the stone. The "Chetaraja", states Sahu, probably refers to Kharavela's father and his immediate predecessor.<ref name="NKSahu_1984"/>{{rp|18}}

The Hathigumpha inscription also contains a word that has been interpreted as ''Aira'' or ''Aila''. According to a small inscription found in the Mancapuri Cave, Kharavela's successor [[Kudepasiri]] also styled himself as ''Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana'' ([[Devanagari]]: ऐर महाराजा कलिंगाधिपतिना महामेघवाहन). Early readings of that inscription by scholars such as [[James Prinsep]] and R. L. Mitra interpreted ''Aira'' as the name of the king in the Hathigumpha inscription. Indraji's work corrected this error, and established that the king mentioned in the Hathugumpha inscription was Kharavela and that he was a descendant of [[Mahameghavahana]]. <ref name="Bhagwan_1883">{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=womFcFAtU7MC&pg=PA144 |year=1885 |author=[[Bhagwanlal Indraji]] |chapter=The Hâtigumphâ and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack |pages=144–180 }}</ref> It does not directly mention the relationship between Mahameghavahana and Kharavela, or the number of kings between them.<ref name="Sailendra_1999"/> Indraji interpreted the inscription to create a hypothetical family tree in 1885,<ref name="Bhagwan_1883"/> but this is largely discredited.

The word ''Aira'' or ''Aila'' was then re-interpreted, by [[Benimadhab Barua|Barua]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcgBAAAAMAAJ |title=The early history of Kaliṅga |author=Dharmanarayan Das |publisher=Punthi Pustak |year=1977|page=155 }}</ref> and Sahu<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72luAAAAMAAJ |title=Political And Cultural History Of Orissa |author=Shishir Kumar Panda |publisher=New Age |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411973 |page=58 }}</ref> to be the [[Prakrit]] form of the Sanskrit word [[Arya]] ("noble"). Jayaswal and Banerji interpret the same word to be referring to the [[Aila dynasty]], the mythical [[Pururavas]] dynasty mentioned in Hindu and Jain texts; Kharavela's Mahameghavahana family might have claimed descent from this Pururavas dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Epigraphia Indica Volume 20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2m1DAAAAYAAJ |year=1920 |author1 = Jayaswal | author2 = Banerji |page=80 }}</ref> Scholars such as Sircar and Sharma, based on later discovered Guntupalli inscriptions, state that Kharavela was one of the ancient Mahameghavahana dynasty king from Kalinga.<ref>Vyas, R. T., & Shah, U. P. (Eds.). (1995). Studies in Jaina art and iconography and allied subjects in honour of Dr. U.P. Shah. Oriental Studies, Abhinav Publications, pp. 31–32</ref>

=== Name ===
[[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] interpreted "Kharavela" as a name of [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] origin, possibly derived from the words ''kar'' ("black and terrible") and ''vel'' ("[[lance]]").<ref>{{cite book |author=Suniti Kumar Chatterji |title=The People, Language, and Culture of Orissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJHf37IjSBwC |year=1966 |publisher=Orissa Sahitya Akademi}}</ref> [[Richard N. Frye]], however, did not find Chatterji's etymology satisfactory.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[K. D. Sethna]] |title=Ancient India in a new light |url=http://motherandsriaurobindo.in/_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-03%20Disciples/K%20D%20Sethna/-01%20English/Ancient%20India%20in%20a%20New%20Light/-009_%20A%20Reconstruction%20of%20Ancient%20Indian%20History%20Asoka%20and%20Before%20and%20After.htm |year=1989 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85179-12-4 |page=279 |quote=S.K. Chatterji and Pzryluski have written on the etymology of the name Khāravela. Their views are not satisfactory. |access-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923091204/http://motherandsriaurobindo.in/_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-03%20Disciples/K%20D%20Sethna/-01%20English/Ancient%20India%20in%20a%20New%20Light/-009_%20A%20Reconstruction%20of%20Ancient%20Indian%20History%20Asoka%20and%20Before%20and%20After.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to Braj Nath Puri, it is difficult to suggest a Dravidian cultural origin for Kharavela's dynasty or connect it to South India with certainty.<ref name="Braj_2003"/> N. K. Sahu also doubts this theory, where he interprets "Aira" or "Aila" word in the Hathigumpha inscription as Kharavela must be self identifying himself as an [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]].<ref name="NKSahu_1984"/>

== Religion ==
The Hathigumpha inscription begins with a variation of the salute to [[Arihant (Jainism)|arihants]] and [[siddha]]s. This is similar to the Jain [[Namokar Mantra|Pancha-Namaskara Mantra]], in which three more entities are invoked in addition to the arihants and siddhas.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C&pg=PA163 |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |author=[[Padmanabh S. Jaini|Padmanabh Jaini]] |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1998 |isbn=9788120815780 |page=163 }}</ref> Other parts of the Hathigumpha inscription, as well as the minor inscriptions found at Udayagiri from around 1st-century BCE use Jain phrases. He is therefore generally called a Jain king.<ref>Upinder Singh (2017), Political violence in ancient India, Harvard University Press, pp 252–253</ref>

Some scholars such as [[Paul Dundas]] question whether he was a Jain, or another ancient king who supported Jainism and is valorized in an inscription written at a Jain site. On reason for doubts is that Hathigumpha inscription explicitly states he was a devotee of all religious sects (''sava-pāsanḍa pūjako'') and repaired temples dedicated to a variety of gods (''sava-de[vāya]tana-sakāra-kārako'').<ref>{{cite book |author=Hampa Nāgrājayya |title=A History of the Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JuAAAAMAAJ |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=Ankita Pustaka |isbn=978-81-87321-16-3 |page=10 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Haripada Chakraborti |title=Early Brāhmī Records in India (c. 300 B.C.-c. 300 A.D.): An Analytical Study: Social, Economic, Religious, and Administrative |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Kc5AQAAIAAJ |year=1974 |publisher=Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar}}</ref>

Other reasons to doubt Kharavela was a devout Jain is also found in many lines of the Hathigumpha inscription.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Paul Dundas]] |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 |date=2 September 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-134-50165-X |page=113 }}</ref> The repeated mention of violence and wars in the inscription, says Dundas, raises questions whether Kharavela was merely partial to Jainism given the central doctrine of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) in Jainism.<ref>{{cite book | editor= Patrick Olivelle | author= Paul Dundas | title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-977507-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC | page=392 with footnotes}}</ref>

According to [[Helmuth von Glasenapp]], he was probably a free-thinker who patronized all his subjects (including Jains).<ref>{{citation |last=Glasenapp |first=Helmuth Von |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp |title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |date=1999 |location = [[Delhi]] |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA45 |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |trans-title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |page=45 }}</ref>

== Biography ==
{{main|Hathigumpha inscription}}
According to the Hathigumpha inscription, Kharavela spent his first 24 years on education and sports, a period when he mastered the fields of writing, coinage, accounting, administration and procedures of law.<ref name=ei20p80>{{cite book |author1= K P Jayaswal| author2 = R D Banerji|title= Epigraphia Indica Volume XX |year=1920 |url= https://archive.org/details/epigrahiaindicav014769mbp |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages= 80–89 with footnotes}}, {{PD-notice}}</ref> He was the prince to the throne (''yuvaraja'') at 16, and crowned King of Kalinga at age 24. The [[Hathigumpha inscription]] details his first 13 years of his reign. Some notable aspects of this reign includes:
{{glossary}}
{{term|Year 1}}
{{defn|Many public infrastructure projects: Kharavela repaired gates and buildings that had been damaged by storms, built reservoirs and tanks, and restored the gardens.<ref name=ei20p80/>}}
{{term|Year 2}}
{{defn|Dispatch of an army with cavalry, elephants, chariots, and men towards a kingdom led by "Satakani" or "Satakamini" (identified with [[Satakarni]], near Krishna river valley). It also mentions Kharavela's threat to a city variously interpreted as "Masika" (Masikanagara), "Musika" (Musikanagara), "Asika" (Asikanagara, capital of [[Assaka]]).<ref name="NKSahu_1984">{{cite book |author1=N. K. Sahu |author2=Kharavela (King of Kalinga) |title=Khâravela |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlMhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Orissa State Museum}}</ref>{{rp|127}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia |author2=Bhaskar Chatterjee |author3=Rabin Dev Choudhury |author4=Mandira Bhattacharyya |author5=Shri Bhagwan Singh |title=History and archaeology: Prof. H.D. Sankalia felicitation volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFg8AAAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Ramanand Vidya Bhawan |page=332 |isbn=9788185205465 }}</ref>

Scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently. Jayaswal, Banerji and Sen say that Kharavela threatened Satakarni.<ref name="Sailendra_1999"/> According to Bhagwal Lal, King Satakarni of the western region wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela and sent him horses, elephants, chariots and men in tribute. That year, Kharavela captured the city of Masika with the aid of the Kusumba Kshatriyas.<ref name="Bhagwan_1883"/> According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni.<ref name="Alan_2003"/> Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya writes that Kharavela's army failed to advance against Satakarni and diverged to threaten the city of Asika (Asikanagara).<ref name="Sudhakar_1974">{{cite book |author=Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya |title=Some Early Dynasties of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78I5lDHU2jQC&pg=PA20 |year=1974 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2941-1 |pages=44–50 }}</ref>}}
{{term|Year 3}}
{{defn|Well-versed in [[Gandharva]]n music, Kharavela entertained the city with festive gatherings which included singing, dancing and instrumental music.<ref name="Bhagwan_1883"/><ref name="sdstate_inscription">{{cite news|url=http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |title=Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga |publisher=South Dakota State University |work=Project South Asia |access-date=2015-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232906/http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>}}
{{term|Year 4}}
{{defn|Rathikas and Bhojakas bow to him, he built monuments to Vidyadharas}}
{{term|Year 5}}
{{defn|Kharavela commissioned extended a canal originally built by the Nandas ''ti-vasa-sata'' ago, thus brought it into the capital of Kalinga.<ref name="Rama_1942"/> ''Ti-vasa-sata'' can mean 103 or 300 years.<ref name="Sudhakar_1974"/> Most scholars, such as Barua and Sircar interpret this to be 300 years. This implies that Kharavela came to power about 300 years when this region was under the Nanda dynasty rule.{{sfn|B Barua|1929|pp=42–43 with footnotes}}}}
{{term|Years 6–7}}
{{defn|His wife, who is stated to be from Vajiragraha family, gives birth to their child. Kharavela exempts taxes and performs charitable works that help hundreds of thousands of people. According to K. P. Jayaswal and R. D. Banerji, the king also performed the [[Rajasuya]] sacrifice – a Vedic ritual for the king, then gives gifts to Jain monks and Brahmins.{{sfn|B Barua|1929|pp=43–44 with footnotes}} According to Sircar, this ink impression and reading is doubtful. Similarly the alleged achievements of Kharavela here are problematic and doubtfu<ref>D. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 216 footnotes 1 and 3</ref> Sircar also adds that this should not be read as "sacrifice ritual", but a different similar word with the meaning "royal fortune" he used to give away gifts.<ref>D. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 215 footnotes 8 and 9</ref>}}
{{term|Years 8–9}}
{{defn|The record is partially damaged. It mentions a Yavana king running away in fear and retreating to Mathura. Alain Daniélou writes that Kharavela sacked Gorathagiri (near the [[Barabar Caves|Barabar Hills]]) with a large army and subdued the town of Rajagriha (identified with present-day [[Rajgir]]).<ref name="Alan_2003"/> According to Ananta Prasad Banerji-Sastri, Kharavela expelled members of the [[Ajivika]] sect (a rival of the Jains) from the Barabari caves and mutilated their inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Radha Kumud Mukherjee|Radhakumud Mookerji]] |title=Asoka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC&pg=PA206 |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0582-8 |pages=206–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Arthur Llewellyn Basham]] |title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, a Vanished Indian Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA158 |year=1951 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1204-8 |pages=158–159 }}</ref>}}
{{term|Year 10}}
{{defn|Much of the record is lost. The inscription mentions ''Bharatavasa'' and a series of military campaigns with victories. Kharavela defeats the Ava king and broke up the 1,300-year confederacy of the "T[r]amira" countries which had endangered Kalinga.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/> Sen and [[Alain Daniélou]] interpret "Tramira" as "Dramira" ("Dravidian") confederacy.<ref name="Romila2003"/>}}
{{term|Year 12}}
{{defn|Parts of this record are lost. Kharavela sends his troops to Uttarpatha (the north), and subdues the king of Magadha. K. P. Jayaswal identified Bahasmita with Pushyamitra Shunga, but [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] discredits this theory. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya believes that Bahasatimita may have been a king of [[Kosambi|Kaushambi]], and his rule might have extended to Magadha as well.<ref name="Sudhakar_1974"/> This section of the inscription mentions a "Ka[li]ngajinam" taken by Nanda king in the past and he brought it back to Kalinga. Kharavela built a settlement of a hundred masons with a tax exemption.<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/>}}
{{term|Year 13}}
{{defn|This is the last part of the inscription and praises Kharavela. It also states that he organized a council of ascetics and sages, and constructed a shelter, commissioned the compilation of the text of the seven-fold Angas in the sixty-four letters (scripts). The inscription also claims that Kharavela was a descendant of the royal sage [[Vasu#Ramayana and Mahabharata|Vasu]].<ref name="sdstate_inscription"/>}}
{{glossary end}}

=== Succession ===
Kulke and Rothermund state Kharavela's empire state that the history of ancient India is unclear including the times after Ashoka and Kharavela. Given the lack of major inscriptions by his successors, they surmise that the Kharavela empire likely disintegrated soon after his death.<ref name="Hermann_2004">{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA101 |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |page=101 }}</ref> A little is known about the next two generations of kings - Vakradeva (a.k.a. [[Kudepasiri]] or Vakadepa) and Vadukha - but through the minor inscriptions at Udayagiri.<ref name="Hermann_2004"/>

== Legacy ==
Kharavela's inscriptions call him a [[Chakravartin]] or an emperor.<ref name="MajumdarBhavan1951">{{cite book |author=[[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial unity; 2d ed. 1953 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dDAAAAYAAJ |year=1951 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}</ref> He was one of Kalinga's strongest rulers.<ref name="Sailendra_1999"/><ref name="Braj_2003">{{cite book |title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA107 |year=2003 |publisher=Sterling |authors=[[Baij Nath Puri]], Pran Nath Chopra, Manmath Nath Das and AC Pradhan |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |pages=107–108}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book|author=B Barua| title= Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves| year=1929| publisher=University of Calcutta|oclc = 6055302}}; For his updated analysis: B Barua (1938), ''Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela'', Indian Historical Quarterly XIV, pp. 459-85
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Pearson PLC]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2016}} }}

[[Category:1st-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:2nd-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:History of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:History of Odisha]]
[[Category:Mahameghavahana dynasty]]