223.184.60.59 at 11:48, 3 June 2021

2021-06-03T11:48:33Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}

{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = Kalabhra kingdom
|common_name = Kalabhra kingdom
| year_start = 3rd century
| year_end = 6th century
|p1 = Three Crowned Kings
|p2 = Ancient Tamil country
|s1 = Pallava dynasty
|s2 = Pandyan dynasty
|image_map = Ancient tamilakam ports.png
|image_map_caption = Kalabhra conquered parts or all of ancient [[Tamilakam]]
|capital = [[Kaveripumpattinam]], [[Madurai]]
|common_languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Prakrit]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]]{{sfn|Indira Peterson|1998|pp=166-167}}
|religion = [[Jainism]]<br>[[Buddhism]]<br />[[Hinduism]]
|government_type = [[Monarchy]]
}}
{{TNhistory}}
The '''Kalabhra dynasty''', also called ''Kaḷabrar'', ''Kaḷappirar'', ''Kallupura'' or Kalvar,<ref name="Bhandarkar1927">{{cite book|author=Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar|title=Early History of the Deccan and Miscellaneous Historical Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aGNxvgAACAAJ|year=1927|publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|page=206}}</ref> were rulers of all or parts of [[Tamilagam|Tamil region]] sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century CE, after the ancient dynasties of the [[early Cholas]], the [[Early Pandyan Kingdom|early Pandya]]s and [[Chera Dynasty#Sangam Cheras|Chera]]. Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is uncertain and scarce.<ref name="Singh2008p485">{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Calabrians from Rome, might have lived, invaded or were part of Choke peoples (Seljuks).Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|page=485}}</ref> Their proposed roots vary from southeast region of modern [[Karnataka]], Kalappalars of [[Vellalar]] community, to Kalavar chieftains.<ref name="Singh2008p485"/>This age is generally called "The Augustan age of Tamil Literature", in a 1922 book by the name "Studies in South Indian Jainism" written by M.S Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao. The Kalabhra era is sometimes referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.<ref>{{cite book|author=T.V. Mahalingam|title= Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference|year=1981| publisher= South Indian History Congress|url = https://archive.org/details/SIHC1981PROVOLII|pages=[https://archive.org/details/SIHC1981PROVOLII/page/n28 32]–34}}</ref>

According to ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'', the Kalabhras were largely overthrown in the 5th century, as new power centers led by Chalukyas and Pallavas arose.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870 Southern Indian kingdoms], Encyclopaedia Britannica (2017)</ref> In contrast, Upinder Singh states that Shivaskandavarman rise in the 4th century, as evidenced by inscriptions, show Kalabhras were not in power at that time near rivers [[Penna River|Penner]] and [[Vellar River|Vellar]] (close to [[Kaveri]]). The Kalabhras (Calabrians of ancient Rome) dynasty had ended for certain by the last quarter of 6th century when Simhavishnu consolidated his rule up to the Kaveri river, south of which the Pandyas by then were already in power.<ref>{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|pages=557–558}}</ref>

== Identification ==
The origin and identity of the Kalabhras is uncertain. One theory states that they were probably hill tribes that rose out of obscurity to become a power in [[South India]].<ref name="thapar">{{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|author-link1=Romila Thapar|title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|date=2003|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9780141937427|page=327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqmyEbLScZ4C|access-date=7 September 2016|language=en}}</ref> Other theories state that they were probably from north of Tamil-speaking region (modern southeast Karnataka), or on etymological grounds may have been the Kalappalars of [[Kongu Vellalar |Vellala]] community or the Kalavar chieftains.<ref name="Singh2008p485"/>

According to Kulke and Rothermund, "nothing is known about the origins or tribal affiliations" of the Kalabhras, and their rule is called the "Kalabhra Interregnum".<ref name="kulke"/> They are reviled in texts written centuries later, particularly by Tamil Hindu scholars.<ref name="thapar"/> This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] during their rule.<ref name="thapar"/><ref name="kulke">{{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann |author-link1=Hermann Kulke|last2= Rothermund|first2= Dietmar|author-link2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|date=2007|publisher= Routledge|location= London| isbn=9780415329200|page=105 |edition=4th|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref> However, the textual support for these conjectures is unclear. In support of their possible Jaina patronage, is the 10th-century Jain text on grammar which quotes a poem that some scholars attribute to Acchuta Vikkanta, a Kalabhra king.<ref name="kulke"/> A non-Tamil language Buddhist text ''Vinayaviniccaya'' by [[Buddhadatta]] was composed in the 5th-century Tamil region. According to Shu Hikosaka, Buddhadatta in this Pali language text mentions "Putamarikalam in the Chola country".<ref name="Hikosaka1989p24">{{cite book|author=Shu Hikosaka|title=Buddhism in Tamilnadu: A New Perspective|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XmQEAAAAYAAJ|year=1989 |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|page=24}}</ref> According to Karl Potter in ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Buddhist philosophy from 360 to 650 AD'', multiple scholars place the 5th-century Buddhadatta in the Chola kingdom near Kaveri river.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl H. Potter|title=Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LajWAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-208-1968-9|pages=216–217}}</ref> According to Arunachalam, the Pali manuscripts of this text includes the name Acutavikkante Kalambakulanandane and therefore he states Acutavikkante must have been a Kalabhra king.{{sfn|Arunachalam|1979|pp=52-55}} However, the oldest surviving ''Vinayaviniccaya'' manuscript in Pali does not have that name, it has Kalabbha. This could be Kalabhra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Oskar von Hinüber|title=A Handbook of Pali Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3ldDwAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081498-9|page=156}}</ref>

According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism).<ref name="Stein1994p76"/> This may have led to persecution of the peasants and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.<ref name="Stein1994p76">{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4SsKAQAAIAAJ|year= 1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=76–84|isbn=9780195635072}}</ref> In contrast, R.S. Sharma states the opposite theory and considers "Kalabhras as an example for peasant revolt to the state" – with tribal elements, albeit around the 6th century.<ref name="Ray2019">{{cite book|author=Rebecca Darley|editor=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgXgCgAAQBAJ |year=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-34130-7|page=68}};<br>{{cite book|author=Rebecca Darley|editor=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|year=2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-00-022793-2|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=R.S. Sharma| title=Problems of Peasant Protest in Early Medieval India| journal= Social Scientist| year=1988| volume=16|issue=19| pages=3–16| doi=10.2307/3517169| jstor=3517169}}</ref> All these theories are hampered by the fact that there is a "profound lack of evidence for the events or nature of Kalabhra rule", states Rebecca Darley.<ref name="Ray2019"/>

===8th-century Velvikudi grant inscription===
A much-cited and discussed epigraphical evidence for the existence of Kalabhras is the 155-lines-long 8th-century Velvikudi grant copper plate inscription of Nedunjadaiyan.<ref name="sastri306"/> It was created at least 200 years after the end of the Kalabhras. It opens with an invocation to [[Shiva]] and many lines in Sanskrit written in [[Grantha script]], followed by Tamil written in [[Vatteluttu script]]. Loaded with myth and exaggerated legends, the inscription has the following few lines about a Kalabhra king and his relatively quick end by Pandya king [[Kadungon]] (lines 39–40, translated by H. Krishna Sastri):<ref name="sastri306">{{cite book|author=Rao Bahadur H. Krishna Sastri|title=Epigraphia Indica, Volume XVII|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VwmsGA7ZuoC|year=1923|publisher=Archaeological Society of India|pages=293–294, 306, 308; context: 291–309}}</ref>

[[File:8th Century Grantha and Vatteluttu Scripts Velvikudi Grant in Sanskrit and Tamil, with labels.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|8th Century Velvikudi grant that mentions Kalabhras.]]
{{Quote|
L 39: Then a Kali king named Kalabhran took possession of the extensive earth driving away numberless great kings (adhiraja) and resumed the (village mentioned Velvikudi) above.<br>
L 40: After that, like the sun rising from the expansive ocean, the Pandyadhiraja named Kadungon, the lord of the South of sharp javelin who wore (the cloak of) dignity and was the leader of an army, sprang forth, occupied (the throne), spreading around him the brilliant splendour of (his) expanding rays (prowess), destroyed the kings of the extensive earth surrounded by the sea together with (their) strongholds and (their) fame, wielded the sceptre of justice and removed by his strength the evil destiny of the goddess of the earth whose splendour deserved to be under the shade of (his) white umbrella, by terminating by his strength the possession of her under others and establishing her in his own possession in the approved manner and destroyed the shining cities of kings who would not submit to him.
|[[Velvikudi inscription|Velvikudi grant inscription]]<ref name="sastri306"/>}}

The inscription then recites the generations of Pandya and Chola kings who followed the victorious Kadungon, and finally to king Nedunjadaiyan who ruled in the year of the inscription (c. 770 CE). The copper plate records that a Brahmin complainant said that the land grant which was given to his ancestors before Kalabhras "ignobly seized it" has not been returned so far after numerous generations (lines 103–118).<ref name="sastri306"/> The king sought evidence of past ownership, which he was provided, and thereafter the king restored the grant to the complainant.<ref name="sastri306"/> The inscription ends in Sanskrit with verses from Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism, followed by the engraver's colophon.<ref name="sastri306"/> This inscription has been assumed to be an accurate historical record by some scholars, interpreted to affirm that Kalabhras existed for some period, they conquered some or all parts of the Pandyan kingdom, they seized lands belonging to Brahmin(s) and were defeated by the Pandyas (Pāṇṭiya).<ref name=sharma53>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=The World's Religions After September 11|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XOM5D-pj7kIC&pg=PA53|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-275-99621-5|page=53}}</ref> Some scholars dismiss the Kalabhra interregnum as for all practical purposes "a myth".<ref name=sharma53/>

The passing mention of Kalabhras in some records have led to a number of theories for the identity of the Kalabhras. T. A. Gopinath Rao equates them with the [[Muthuraja|Mutharaiyar]]s and an inscription in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at [[Kanchi]] mentions a Mutharaiyar named as ''Kalavara-Kalvan''. M. Raghava Iyengar, on the other hand, identifies the Kalabhras with the Vellala Kalappalars.<ref name="gupta" /> Based on the Velvikudi plates inscription above, R. Narasimhacharya and [[V. Venkayya]] believe them to have been ''[[Karnatas]]''.<ref name="narasimhacharya">{{cite book|last1=Narasimhacharya|first1=R.|title=History of Kannada language: readership lectures|date=1990|orig-year=1934|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788120605596|page=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yhXRDSgBuL0C|access-date=8 September 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Epigraphia Indica vol.17|last=Sastri|first=Rao Bahadur H. Krishna|publisher=Government of India|year=1924|pages=295}}</ref> K. R. Venkatarama Iyer suggests that the Kalabhras might have emerged from the [[Bangalore]]-[[Chittoor]] region early in the 5th century.<ref name="gupta" />

===Numismatics===
A study of unearthed coins of that era show on the two sides of each coin, a range of Brahmi inscriptions in Prakrit language and images. Typically the coins show tiger, elephant, horse and fish icons. In "rare specimens", states Gupta, one finds an image of a seated Jain muni (monk) or the Buddhist [[Manjushri]], or a short sword or the [[Swastika]] symbol. Other coins of this era have images of Hindu gods and goddesses with inscriptions in Tamil or Prakrit. According to Gupta, these use of Prakrit language on the coins may reflect the non-Tamil origins of Kalabhra.<ref name="gupta">{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Parmanand|title=Geography from ancient Indian coins & seals|date=1989|publisher=Concept Pub. Co.|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788170222484|pages=23–24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC|access-date=7 September 2016}}</ref> Other scholars are skeptical of the coin's dating and interpretation, the origins of the coins and the impact of trade, and the rareness of Jain and Buddhist iconography.<ref>{{cite book|author1=A. V. Narsimhamurthy|author2=PN Singh |display-authors=etal|title=The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X05mAAAAMAAJ|year=1996 |publisher=Numismatic Society of India|pages=10–12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=N. Subrahmanian|title=Original sources for the history of Tamilnad: from the beginning to c. A.D. 600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zOBHAAAAMAAJ| year=1994|publisher=Ennes |pages=329–331}}</ref>

According to Timothy Power – a scholar of Middle East and Mediterranean archaeology and history, coins and texts attest to an on-going trade between the Mediterranean, Middle East and South Indian ports such as [[Muziris]] until the 5th century, but then suddenly there is no mention of Indian ports in the Mediterranean texts around mid-6th century.<ref name="Power2012p179"/> This "dark age" may be related to the conquest of Kalabhras over Tamilakam in the 6th century. This period of violence and the closure of trading ports probably lasted about 75 years, around the first half of the 6th century.<ref name="Power2012p179">{{cite book|author=Timothy Power|title=The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate: AD 500-1000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Md2OBAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-1-61797-350-5|pages=179–181}}</ref>

== Religion and literature ==
The religious affiliation of Kalabhras is unknown. According to Peterson theory, the Kalabhras likely patronised the ''Sramana'' religions ([[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Ajivikas]]). More particularly, states Peterson, the Kalabhras may have supported the Digambara sect of [[Jainism]] and that they "supposedly" suppressed the Vedic-Brahmanical traditions that were well established in the Tamil regions by the 3rd century CE.{{sfn|Indira Peterson|1998|pp=166-167}} During their patronage, states Peterson, Jain scholars formed an academy in Madurai and wrote texts in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil. These include classics such as the ''[[Tirukkuṟaḷ|Tirukkural]]'', the Tamil epics, long and short devotional poems.{{sfn|Indira Peterson|1998|pp=166-167}} Some of these texts "paint a picture of dialogue and mutual tolerance" between the various Indian religions in the Tamil country, according to Peterson.{{sfn|Indira Peterson|1998|pp=166-167}} Other scholars disagree that these are Jain texts, or that the authors of these texts that praise the Vedas, the Brahmins, Hindu gods and goddesses were Jains.{{sfn|Stuart Blackburn|2000|pp=464-465}}{{sfn|P. R. Natarajan|2008|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Norman Cutler|1992|pp=555-558}}

According to F. E. Hardy, the palace ceremony of Kalabhras was dedicated to a Vishnu or [[Thirumal|Mayon]] (Krishna) temple. This supports the theory that they may have been [[Shaivite]] and [[Vaishnavite]].<ref>Veermani Pd. Upadhyaya Felicitation Volume by Veermani Prasad Upadhyaya</ref>{{full|date=October 2019}} Their inscriptions include the Hindu god [[Kartikeya|Murugan]]. King Achyuta worshipped Vaishnava Tirumal.<ref>''Buddhism in Tamil Nadu: collected papers'' By G. John Samuel, Ār. Es Śivagaṇēśamūrti, M. S. Nagarajan, Institute of Asian Studies (Madras, India)</ref>{{full|date=November 2019}}

== End of the dynasty ==
It is unknown as to how the Kalabhras rule ended. However, a multitude of evidence affirms that [[Simhavishnu]] – the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] king had united the Tamil regions, removed Kalabhras and others, consolidated his kingdom from south of the [[Krishna River|Krishna]] river and up to the Kaveri river by c. 575 CE. To the south of Kaveri, the Pandyas were already in power at that time.<ref>{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|pages=557–558}}</ref> This is attested by the numerous inscriptions dated from the 6th century and thereafter, as well as the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] language memoirs of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] who visited the Tamil region about 640 CE along with other parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth Pletcher|title=The History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&pg=PA97|year=2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-122-5|page=97}}</ref> Xuanzang describes a peaceful cosmopolitan region where some 100 monasteries with 10,000 monks were studying [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, [[Kanchipuram]] was hosting learned debates with hundreds of heretic Deva (Hindu) temples but no Buddhist institutions. Xuangzang makes no mention of the Kalabhras.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-15482-6|pages=114–115}}</ref><ref name="SchalkVeluppillai2002">{{cite book|author1=Peter Schalk|author2=A. Veluppillai|author3=Irāmaccantiran̲ Nākacāmi|title=Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial Tamilakam and Īlam: Prologue. The Pre-Pallava and the Pallava period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2QEAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell|isbn=978-91-554-5357-2|pages=287–290, 400–403}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book|last=Arunachalam|first=M.|title=The Kalabhras in the Pandiya Country and Their Impact on the Life and Letters There|publisher=University of Madras|year=1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvq1AAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite journal |author=Stuart Blackburn |title =Corruption and Redemption: The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=34 |issue =2 |pages=449–482 |year=2000 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00003632 }}
* {{cite journal| title= Interpreting Tirukkuṟaḷ: The Role of Commentary in the Creation of a Text| author= Norman Cutler| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society| volume=112| pages= 549–566| number= 4| year= 1992|jstor=604470| doi= 10.2307/604470}}
* {{cite book |author=P. R. Natarajan |title=Thirukkural: Aratthuppaal |edition=First |publisher = Uma Padhippagam |location=Chennai |year=2008 |language=ta }}
* {{citation |author=Indira Peterson| editor-last=Cort |editor-first=John E. |editor-link=John E. Cort |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3785-X }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kalabhra dynasty}}
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd century]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 6th century]]
[[Category:600 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Ancient Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Jain empires and kingdoms]]

Kalabhra dynasty - Revision history

Kawoosahamad: expand details additionally and added references

223.184.60.59 at 11:48, 3 June 2021