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{{Short description|Islamic form of government}}
{{Redirect|Caliph|other uses|Caliph (disambiguation)|and|Caliphate (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
{{Caliphate}}
{{Islam|history}}

A '''caliphate'''{{efn|{{langx|ar|خلافة|translit=khilāfah}} {{IPA|ar|xɪˈlæːfæ|}}}} is an institution or public office under the leadership of an [[Islam]]ic steward with [[Khalifa|the title]] of '''caliph'''<ref>{{cite book |last=Hassan |first=Mona |title=Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History |chapter=CONCEPTUALIZING THE CALIPHATE, 632–1517 CE |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2016 |jstor=j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 |pages=98–141 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 |isbn=978-0-691-16678-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=March |first=Andrew F. |year=2019 |title=The Caliphate of Man: Popular Sovereignty in Modern Islamic Thought |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvp2n3ms |jstor=j.ctvp2n3ms |isbn=978-0-674-98783-8 |s2cid=204443322}}</ref><ref>{{The Abbasid Caliphate: A History|pages=284–285}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|l|ɪ|f|,_|ˈ|k|eɪ|-}}),{{efn|{{lang|ar|خليفة}} {{tlit|ar|khalīfah}} {{IPA|ar|xæˈliːfæ|}}, {{Audio|Ar-khalifa.ogg|pronunciation}}}} a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] and a leader of the entire [[Muslim world]] (''[[ummah]]'').<ref name="Bowering2013" /> Historically, the caliphates were [[polities]] based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAMqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts |last1=Al-Rasheed |first1=Madawi |last2=Kersten |first2=Carool |last3=Shterin |first3=Marat |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-932795-9 |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=History of International Relations |chapter=4. The Muslim Caliphates |chapter-url=http://books.openedition.org/obp/9091 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |year=2020 |access-date=7 April 2022 |isbn=978-1-78374-024-6 |pages=73–100 |series=OBP collection |first1=Erik |last1=Ringmar |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407164823/https://books.openedition.org/obp/9091 |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] (632–661), the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750), and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the [[Ottoman Caliphate]], the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman Caliphate was [[Abolition of the Caliphate|formally abolished]] as part of the [[Atatürk's reforms|1924 secularisation of Turkey]]. The [[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Sharif of Mecca]] then claimed the title, but [[Sharifian Caliphate|this caliphate]] fell quickly after its conquest by the [[Sultanate of Nejd]] (the predecessor of modern-day [[Saudi Arabia]]), leaving the claim in dormancy. Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were [[hereditary monarchies]], have claimed to be caliphates.

Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |date=13 December 2017 |title=Al-Khilaafah (the Caliphate) remains within the Quraysh – Sharh as-Sunnah {{!}} Dawud Burbank [Audio{{!}}En] |url=https://abdurrahman.org/2017/12/13/al-khilaafah-the-caliphate-remains-within-the-quraysh/ |access-date=18 July 2026 |publisher=AbdurRahman.Org |archive-date= |archive-url= |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2026|certain=y}} [[Shia Muslims]] believe a caliph should be an [[imam]] chosen by God from the ''[[Ahl al-Bayt]]'' (the 'Household of the Prophet'). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the [[Soviet–Afghan War|invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR]], the [[war on terror]] and the [[Arab Spring]], various [[Islamist]] groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims; the most notable example of this being the [[Islamic State]] led by [[Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi]] which declared a caliphate in its [[Territory of the Islamic State|territory in Iraq and Syria]] in 2014.

== Etymology ==
Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title {{tlit|ar|ALA|[[malik]]}} 'king', or another from the same [[Semitic root]].<ref name="Bowering2013">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2013 |title=caliph, caliphate |encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |publisher=Princeton University Press |last1=Bowering |first1=Gerhard |page=87 |isbn=978-0-691-13484-0 |last2=Crone |first2=Patricia |last3=Mirza |first3=Mahan}}</ref> The term ''caliph'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|eɪ|l|ɪ|f|,_|ˈ|k|æ|l|ɪ|f}}<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|caliph|access-date=2024-10-26}}</ref>) derives from the [[Arabic]] word {{tlit|ar|ALA|[[khalīfah]]}} ({{lang|ar|خليفة}}, {{Audio|Ar-khalifa.ogg|pronunciation}}), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy', and has traditionally been considered a shortening of {{tlit|ar|ALA|Khalīfah rasūl Allāh}} 'successor of the messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'.<ref name="Bowering2013" />

== History ==
=== Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) ===
{{Main|Rashidun|Rashidun Caliphate|Caliphate of Abu bakr}}

==== Succession to Muhammad ====
{{Main|Succession to Muhammad}}

{{See also|Saqifa}}
In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] (natives of [[Medina]]) took place in the ''saqifa'' (courtyard) of the [[Banu Sa'ida]] clan.{{sfn|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=3}} The meeting was thought to have convened so the Ansar could decide on a new leader of the [[Muslim community]] among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the [[Muhajirun]] (migrants from [[Mecca]]), though this later became the subject of debate.<ref>{{cite book |first=Wilferd |last=Madelung |title=The Succession to Muhammad |year=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung/page/n50 31] |url=https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung}}</ref>

Nevertheless, [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar]], both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the [[Quraysh]], would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.<ref>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|page=32}}</ref>

[[File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg|thumb|230px|right| [[File:Rashidun coin Pseudo-Byzantine types.jpg|thumb|230px|right]]First picture; [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid style]] coins during Rashidun, ([[Pahlavi scripts]], [[Crescent and star (symbol)|crescent-star]], [[fire altar]], depictions of [[Khosrow II]], ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' in margin). Unlike known historical figures such as [[Ibn Zubayr]] and [[Mu'awiya I]], there are no coins minted in the names of caliphs titled rashidun as evidence of political dominancy.<ref>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</ref> Second picture; A [[Byzantine coinage|Byzantine style]] coin with depictions of the [[Constans II]] holding the [[Christian cross|cross-tipped staff]] and ''[[globus cruciger]]'' pointing out there was no specific Islamic-religious identity with sharp boundaries in the early Islamic period.<ref>Under the [[Umayyad caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān]], the [[Dome of the Rock]] was built in [[Jerusalem]] (691–692). There the word ''[[Islam|Islām]]'' appears for the first time. Until this moment the Muslims called themselves simply "[[Mumin|believers]]", and coins were minted in the Arabic empire showing Christian symbols. Ibn Marwān also plays a major role in the [[History of the Quran|reworking of the Quranic text]]. See: Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: ''Hagarism'' (1977) p. 29; Yehuda D. Nevo: ''Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State'' (2003) pp. 410–413; Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Hrsg.): ''Der frühe Islam. Eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen'' (2007) pp. 336 ff.</ref>]]

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of ''Saqifah'', though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], initially refused to acknowledge his authority.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=3}}</ref> Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.<ref>Valerie J. Hoffman, ''The Essentials of Ibadi Islam'' (2012), p. 6</ref> The theologian [[Ibrahim al-Nakha'i]] stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.<ref>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|pages=32–33}}</ref> Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in [[Attack on Fatima's house|an altercation]] which may have involved violence.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=186}}</ref> However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|p=4}}</ref>

==== Rashidun caliphs ====
{{See also|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|left|Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent under Uthman]]
Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian slave called [[Abu Lu'lu'a|Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]]. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors ([[majlis]]). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. [[Ali]] then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated following a tumultuous rule that lasted only five years. This period is known as the [[First Fitna|Fitna]], or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali.<ref name="The Economist-2013">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19 |newspaper=The Economist |title=What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims? |date=28 May 2013 |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725153328/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19 |url-status=live}}</ref>) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. Those who accepted all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect.

Under the Rāshidun, each region ([[Sultan]]ate, [[Wilayah]], or [[Emirate]]) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, [[Wāli]] or [[Emir]]). [[Mu'awiya I|Muāwiyah]], a relative of Uthman and governor (''wali'') of [[Syria]], succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a [[Inheritance|hereditary]] office, thus founding the Umayyad [[dynasty]].

In areas which were previously under [[Sasanian Empire]] or [[Byzantine]] rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that had resulted from the decades of [[Roman–Persian Wars|Byzantine–Persian warfare]].<ref>[[John Esposito]] (1992)</ref>

=== Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyads ===
Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife, culminating in the [[Battle of Siffin]]. The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiyah]]. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the [[Kharijites]], to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the [[Battle of Nahrawan]], Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam|Ibn Muljam]]. Ali's son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] was proclaimed the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the [[Umayyad dynasty]].<ref>''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam''. Cyril Glasse. pp. 39–41, 318–319, 353–354, {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>Uthman was the son of [[Affan ibn Abi al-'As|`Affan]], the son of [[Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah|Abu-l`As]], the son of [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams]]. Mu'awiyah was the son of [[Abu Sufyan]], the son of [[Harb ibn Umayya|Harb]], the son of Umayya ibn Abd Shams.</ref>

=== Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) ===
{{Main|Umayyad Caliphate}}

[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The caliphate, 622–750 {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]
Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_m14NlQQMYC&pg=PA129 |last=Cavendish |first=Marshall |title=Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures |chapter=6 |page=129 |year=2010 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7926-0}}</ref> Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the [[Caucasus]], [[Transoxiana]], [[Sindh]], the [[Maghreb]] and most of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]) into the Muslim world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |page=244 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref> At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered approximately 5 million square miles (approximately 13 million square kilometres), making it larger than the earlier [[Roman Empire]] or contemporary [[Tang China]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA37 |title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7 |page=37}}</ref>

Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed a number of times during the Umayyad reign.{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}} Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by [[Shura]] and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community.<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Religions |url=https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/front-matter/world-religions/ |chapter=History of Muhammad |chapter-url=https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/chapter/history-4/ |publisher=Florida State College |location=Jacksonville |year=2017 |access-date=22 October 2023 |archive-date=22 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222190741/https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/front-matter/world-religions/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Some supported prominent early Muslims like [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]]; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the [[Banu Hashim]], or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-umayyad-caliphate-661-750-ce |access-date=2023-10-11 |website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org |archive-date=27 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027180017/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-umayyad-caliphate-661-750-ce |url-status=live}}</ref>

There were multiple rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the [[Qays–Yaman rivalry]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qays/Mudar and Yaman |url=https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/islamiccivilizations/8025.html |access-date=2023-10-11 |website=www.brown.edu |archive-date=27 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027175520/https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/islamiccivilizations/8025.html |url-status=live}}</ref> At the command of [[Yazid I]], an army led by [[Umar ibn Sa'd]] and [[Shimr|Shimr ibn Dhi 'l-Jawshan]] killed Ali's son [[Husayn ibn Ali]] and his family at the [[Battle of Karbala]] in 680, solidifying the [[Shia-Sunni split]].<ref name="The Economist-2013" /> Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the ''Shi‘at ‘Alī'', "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when the [[Abbasid dynasty]] took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, [[‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib]] and not from Ali.<ref name="BritannicaAbbasids">{{Cite encyclopedia |date=2023-10-09 |title=Abbasid caliphate|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abbasid-caliphate |access-date=2023-10-11 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815061941/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abbasid-caliphate |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517) ===
{{Main|Abbasid Caliphate}}

==== Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad ====
[[File:Mustansiriya University CPT.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Mustansiriya Madrasah]] in [[Baghdad]]]]
In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of [[Mecca]]n origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HIST 210 – Lecture 16 – The Splendor of the Abbasid Period |url=https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16 |access-date=2023-10-11 |publisher=Open Yale Courses |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028163238/https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |last2=Komaroff |first2=Linda |title=The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258) |date=Oc

Islamic Caliphate - Revision history