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{{Short description|Indian literature genre}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2023}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}{{Use Indian English|date=June 2023}}

'''Indian prison literature''' is the [[prison literature]] mainly written by Indians who were [[Prisons in India|incarcerated]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It provides a unique entry-point into the nature of punishments, and crime, and holds a mirror to the conditions of prisoners, reflecting on the intricacies of the functioning of jails and prison houses, features of law and legal systems in a particular time and place. Indian prison writing often traces the creative growth of the individuals, their personal moments of immense vulnerability, and sometimes even records their political views and ideas. In the subcontinent's literary history, this genre shows a diversity of form and content; it interrogates, in particular, the power structures of the given time period, and shows the human side of the prison experience. The narratives reveal the intersection between the personal and the political, and it is perhaps because of its inherent subversive potential, that the genre has regularly suffered from a distinct neglect of scholarship, and brutal censorship.<ref name=":2" />

Prison narratives provided the prisoners a way of relating their trauma of confinement, enabling them to come to terms with the punishment, and consequent social ostracisation that they had to endure. The diverse prison writings from various epochs and regions of the subcontinent acts as an archive that provides an active commentary on legal systems, power relations, and the nature of authority that regulate such structures. They showcase how power relations have changed in the nation{{Dash}}from monarchy to a democratic republic through a phase of colonialism, and how with this change the legal systems, the understanding of crime and punishments have also undergone significant changes from the ancient to the modern era. Moreover, whilst looking at this genre from a gendered perspective, there is a distinct lacuna in the voices and records left by women prisoners, which discuss the nature of the female subject's relationships with power, crime and punishment in a society.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Women, incarcerated: narratives from India |date=2022 |publisher=Orient BlackSwan |isbn=978-93-5442-188-4 |editor-last=Bandyopadhyay |editor-first=Mahuya |location=Hyderabad |editor-last2=Mehta |editor-first2=Rimple}}</ref>

== Ancient period ==
The earliest instance of prison literature in India can be traced back to the [[Sangam period]]. [[Purananuru|''Puranānūru'']] is a collection of poems about war and politics that was written in the praise of ancient kings who ruled over the [[Tamilakam]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The four hundred songs of war and wisdom: an anthology of poems from classical Tamil, the Puṟanāṉūṟu |date=1999 |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-231-11562-9 |editor-last=Hart |editor-first=George L. |series=Translations from the Asian classics |location=New York Chichester |editor-last2=Heifetz |editor-first2=Hank}}</ref> The 74th poem from this collection was composed by King Chēramān Kanaikkāl Irumporai who recounts his experience after he was defeated and imprisoned by King Chōlan Chenkanān at Kazhumalam. The poem reads:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vaidehi |date=2012-05-05 |title=Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi |url=https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/ |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi |language=en}}</ref> <blockquote>I'm sitting here suffering like a dog in chains, not cut up like a hero, without any mental strength, and having to plead for water to enemies without generosity.</blockquote>[[File:Meister_des_Chaurapañchâsikâ-Manuskripts_001.jpg|thumb|Chaurapañchâsikâ-Manuscripts]]While in the domain of [[Sanskrit literature]], a love poem by the Kashmiri poet [[Bilhana]], entitled [[Caurapañcāśikā|''Chaura Panchashika'']] has been cited as the earliest form of prison writing. Composed by Bilhana during the days of his imprisonment, he sung these verses as he was hanged to death. Bilhana was punished by King Madanabhirama for having a secret tryst with her daughter Princess Yaminipurnatilaka. The poem traces his tale of anguish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kavaṭhekara |first=Prabhākara Nārāyaṇa |title=Bilhana |date=1995 |publisher=Sahitya Akad |isbn=978-81-7201-779-8 |edition=1. publ |series=Makers of Indian literature |location=New Delhi}}</ref>

== Medieval period ==
[[File:Bhadrachala_Ramadas.jpg|left|thumb|Bhadrachala Ramadas]]
During the medieval phase of Indian history, there are two sets of narratives about prison houses and life inside them, namely, the ''bandikhana bhajanagalu'' and travel accounts left by [[Sebastien Manrique|Fray Sebastian Manrique]]. The former is a set of prison [[Bhajan|''bhajans'']] composed by [[Bhadrachala Ramadasu|Bhadrachala Ramadas]], who was arrested by the angry Sultan of Golconda for attempting to consecrate a temple for [[Rama|Lord Ram]] at [[Bhadrachalam]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Prison writing in India |date=2014 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-4137-4 |editor-last=Srinath |editor-first=C. N. |location=New Delhi}}</ref> whereas the latter narrates how Manrique, a Portuguese missionary and traveller, who was suspected of piracy, was jailed in [[Midnapore]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Manrique |first1=Sebastião |title=China, India, etc |last2=Luard |first2=Charles Eckford |last3=Hosten |first3=Henri |last4=Manrique |first4=Sebastião |date=2010 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-1-4094-1428-5 |edition=Reprint d. Ausg. London, Hakluyt Soc., 1927 |series=Travels of Fray Sebastien Manrique 1629 - 1643 : a translation of the Itinerario de las missiones orientales / ed. by C. Eckford Luard with H. Hosten |location=Farnham}}</ref>

The ancient and the medieval phases of prison literature in India, suggests a degree of mythical antiquity as suggested by C. D. Narasimhaiah.<ref name=":0" /> Mostly written in the form of verse, works like that of Ramdas describe the inner experiences and turmoil of the prisoners, the harsh conditions they had to endure, the brutal nature of punishments, and the supremacy of the sovereign who delivered that punishment, and held them captive. On the other hand, Manrique's account gives a fair idea of the prison system{{Dash}}how there were loopholes which he exploited and managed to live a lavish life inside the prison cell. Other accounts incline towards the spiritual and lack the objective glance that Manrique's travelogue provides.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Venkitachalam |first=Ajay Ramakrishnan |date=2021 |title=Indian Prison Narratives and the Politics of Life Writing |url=https://dialog.puchd.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/18.-Indian-Prison-Narratives-and-the-Politics-of-Life-Writing.pdf |journal=Dialog |issue=28 |pages=309–377 |via=Panjab University}}</ref>

== Colonial period ==
The following colonial phase was marked by an increased "preference for improved veracity",<ref name=":1" /> and there was also a shift in terms of the form. While earlier narratives were usually in the style of poetic compositions, there was now a proliferation of the [[Writing style|prose-style]] with narratives being produced in the forms of diaries and journals. This was the result of the interaction with western ideas. The preference of veracity furthermore resulted in the fictitious element, present in earlier narratives, becoming less pronounced in this age.

In the initial years, most narratives were composed by westerners who had been imprisoned by the native monarchs, and follow a similar tone as that of Manrique. Examples include{{Dash}}Henry Oakes's ''An Authentic Narrative of the Treatment of the English, Who Were Taken Prisoners on the Reduction of Bednore, by Tippoo Saib'' (1785),<ref>{{Cite web |title=An Authentic Narrative of the Treatment of the English Who Were Taken Prisoners on the Reduction of Bednore |url=http://www.indianculture.gov.in/rarebooks/authentic-narrative-treatment-english-who-were-taken-prisoners-reduction-bednore |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=INDIAN CULTURE |language=en}}</ref> James Scurry's ''The Captivity, Sufferings, and Escape of James Scurry'' (1824),<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Captivity, Sufferings and Escape of James Scurry, by James Scurry |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/51176/51176-h/51176-h.htm |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref> etc. Several such writings have been compiled by Pramod K. Nayar in the ''English Siege and Prison Writings: From the 'Black Hole' to the 'Mutiny{{'}}''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=English siege and prison writings: from the 'Black Hole' to the 'Mutiny' |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-1-138-23268-6 |editor-last=Nayar |editor-first=Pramod K. |location=London New York}}</ref> G. B. Chevigny's theorisation, on the other hand, that a "prisoner values nature because of its absence inside the space of confinement"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chevigny |first=Bell Gale |title=Doing Time: 25 Years of Prison Writing |publisher=Arcade |year=2011 |isbn=978-1611451443 |pages=12–34 |language=English}}</ref> could be found in ''Mayurasandesam'' written by the [[Malayalam]] poet and translator, [[Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran|Kerala Varma]], popularly known as [[Kalidasa]] of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rājarāja Varmā |first1=A. R. |title=Kēraḷa Pāṇinīya pāṭhaṅṅaḷ: E. Ār. Rājarājavarmmayuṭe Kēraḷapāṇinīyattinṟe mūlavuṃ vyākhyānavuṃ |last2=Vāsudēvabhaṭṭatiri |first2=Si Vi |last3=Rājarāja Varmā |first3=A. R. |date=1995 |publisher=Ḍi. Si. Buks |isbn=978-81-7130-464-6 |location=Kottayam}}</ref> ''Mayurasandesam'' bears the distinct mark of influence of Kalidasa's ''[[Meghadūta]]'', and uses the imagery of nature to portray the prisoner's desire to transcend the confined space.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr.Ayyappapanikkar Sir |url=http://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |date=2006-04-01}}</ref>
[[File:Gandhi_reading_his_correspondence_whilst_living_in_seclusion_after_being_released_from_prison.jpg|left|thumb|Gandhi reading his correspondence whilst living in seclusion after being released from prison.]]
In the years which followed, the incarceration of freedom fighters by the [[British Raj]] produced a diverse range of prison narratives. The form varied from newspaper articles, jail diaries, autobiographies, etc. While diaries were not meant for publication, articles and pamphlets were often political and meant for public circulation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=Telling lives in India: biography, autobiography, and life history; [workshop ... held in London on May 15 - 17, 2000] |date=2004 |publisher=Indiana Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-253-21727-1 |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |location=Bloomington}}</ref> [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru's]] ''[[An Autobiography (Nehru)|An Autobiography]]'', [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi's]] ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', [[Sri Aurobindo|Aurobindo Ghose's]] ''Tales from Prison Life,''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tales of Prison Life - Sri Aurobindo (1906-1910) |url=http://www.sriaurobindoinstitute.org/saioc/Sri_Aurobindo/alipore_bomb_case/tales_of_prison_life_v2 |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=Sri Aurobindo Institute of Culture |language=en}}</ref> etc., are certain examples of the autobiographical form of prison literature that gained prominence during this period, and recounted the carceral experiences of the freedom fighters and nationalists under the ruthless colonial rule. [[File:Aurobindo_jail_picture.JPG|thumb|Police photograph of Aurobindo taken while he was a prisoner in Alipore Jail in India.]]This phase also saw prison poetry, including those written by the Ghadarites such as Sant Visakha Singh, who participated in the 1913-20 [[Ghadar Movement|Ghadar movement.]] The poems had an intertextuality with [[Guru Gobind Singh]]'s lyrics, and the movement inspired [[Bhagat Singh]] who also wrote his ''Jail Diary'' in 1929. In the oeuvre of [[Hindi]] prison literature, the contribution of S. H. Vatsyayan ([[Agyeya]]), who was imprisoned for assisting Bhagat Singh, is particularly noted. Whereas writings in the vernacular/regional languages such as Upendranath Bandyopadhyay's ''Nirbaster Atmakatha''<ref>Nirbasiter Atmakatha / নির্বাসিতের আত্মকথা, Bengali Edition: by Upendranath Bandyopadhyay, ASIN: B097RRDJ1M, Publisher: Parul Prakashani Pvt. Ltd. (1 January 2020), Language: Bengali, Country of Origin: India.</ref> reached the regional public.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />

The prison literature of this period communicates the anguish of the political prisoners, records their resistance against the colonial administration, and bears testimonies to the inhuman atrocities that colonial rule inflicted upon the people. Several ideas that shall afterwards create the fabric of the nation find their genesis in the prison writings of this time. In many narratives one finds the "Gandhian idea of prison as ''swarajashrama''"<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> where prison, instead of being viewed as a horrible space of confinement and punishment, was seen as a holy site providing opportunities for introspection, ''[[satyagraha]]'' and from where larger masses of people could be inspired to move into action against the British oppression.<ref name=":2" />

== Modern period ==
The modern phase of prison writing begins roughly from the emergence of [[communism]], [[trade union]]ism in the 1950s, progressing through the [[The Emergency (India)|1975-77 Emergency]] years, followed by the rise of [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency|Naxalism and Maoism]] in 1970s, to the present day when again the state apparatus, post-2014, has turned excessively ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]'' and has begun clamping down upon its citizens.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Evidence Is In: Freedom of Expression Is Dead in India |url=https://thewire.in/rights/the-evidence-is-in-freedom-of-expression-is-dead-in-india |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=The Wire}}</ref> [[Faiz Ahmad Faiz|Faiz's]] collection ''Dast-e-Saba''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed 'Faiz' |first=Faiz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwAeEAAAQBAJ |title=Daste-Saba |date=2021-02-01 |publisher=Rajkamal Prakashan |isbn=978-93-89598-43-8 |language=en}}</ref> and ''Zindan'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed 'Faiz' |first=Faiz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQAeEAAAQBAJ |title=Zindan-Nama |date=2021-02-01 |publisher=Rajkamal Prakashan |isbn=978-93-89598-44-5 |language=en}}</ref> Mahadev Desai's ''Day to Day with Gandhi'' (1953),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Desai |first=Mahadev Haribhai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDQKAQAAIAAJ |title=Day-to-day with Gandhi: Secretary's Diary |date=1968 |publisher=Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan |isbn=978-81-906237-2-8 |language=en}}</ref> [[Jaya Prakash Narayana|Jayaprakash Narayan's]] ''Prison Diary'' (1977)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayan |first=Jayaprakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9pYBAAAAMAAJ |title=Prison Diary, 1975 |date=1977 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |language=en}}</ref> to Umar Khalid's ''For In Your Tongue, I Cannot Fit: Encounters With Prison'' (2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-26 |title='Crycrycrycry...' |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/crycrycrycry-book-review-for-in-your-tongue-i-cannot-fit-encounters-with-prison-edited-by-shilpa-gupta-salil-tripathi/article66368374.ece |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=frontline.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref> are some prominent examples.

These modern pieces of writing are stretched across a diversity of genres including memoir, testimony, diary, journal and collaborative narratives. Narrators often include multimodal elements such as photographs, letters, caricatures and legal texts to establish the veracity and autobiographical footing of their works, as seen in [[Arun Ferreira|Arun Ferreira's]] ''Colours of the Cage: A Prison Memoir'' (2014).<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |date=2015-10-13 |title=Colours of the Cage: A Prison Memoir |publisher=Aleph Book Company |url=https://www.alephbookcompany.com/book/colours-of-the-cage-a-prison-memoir/ |access-date=2023-06-17}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Penal system in India]]

Indian prison literature - Revision history

Yaxisdelhi: made article