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	== Sanskrit epics ==		== Sanskrit epics ==
	The ancient Sanskrit epics the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' comprise together the [[Itihāsa]] ("Writer has himself witnessed the story") or [[Mahākāvya]] ("Great Compositions"), a [[wiktionary:canon\|canon]] of [[Hindu scripture]]. Indeed, the epic form prevailed and verse remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary works. ~~[[Hero]]-worship is a central aspect of~~ [[Indian culture]]~~, and thus~~ readily lent itself to a literary tradition that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The [[Puranas]], a massive collection of verse-form histories of India's many Hindu gods and goddesses, followed in this tradition. [[Itihāsa]] and [[Puranas]] are mentioned in the [[Atharva Veda]]<ref>Atharva Veda 11.7.24, 15.6.4</ref> and referred to as the ''fourth Veda''.<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.1.2,4</ref>		The ancient Sanskrit epics the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' comprise together the [[Itihāsa]] ("Writer has himself witnessed the story") or [[Mahākāvya]] ("Great Compositions"), a [[wiktionary:canon\|canon]] of [[Hindu scripture]]. Indeed, the epic form prevailed and verse remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary works. [[Indian culture]] readily lent itself to a literary tradition that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The [[Puranas]], a massive collection of verse-form histories of India's many Hindu gods and goddesses, followed in this tradition. [[Itihāsa]] and [[Puranas]] are mentioned in the [[Atharva Veda]]<ref>Atharva Veda 11.7.24, 15.6.4</ref> and referred to as the ''fourth Veda''.<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.1.2,4</ref>

	The language of these texts, termed ''Epic Sanskrit'', constitutes the earliest phase of [[Classical Sanskrit]], following the latest stage of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] found in the [[Shrauta Sutras]]. The ''[[Suparṇākhyāna]]'', a late Vedic poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of [[Garuda]] that is included within the ''Mahābhārata''.<ref name="Winternitz1996">{{cite book\|author=Moriz Winternitz\|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA292\|year=1996\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-0264-3\|pages=291–292}}</ref><ref name="Vogel1995">{{cite book\|author=Jean Philippe Vogel\|title=Indian Serpent-lore: Or, The Nāgas in Hindu Legend and Art\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caskYEbIQDoC&pg=PA53\|year=1995\|publisher=Asian Educational Services\|isbn=978-81-206-1071-2\|pages=53–54}}</ref>		The language of these texts, termed ''Epic Sanskrit'', constitutes the earliest phase of [[Classical Sanskrit]], following the latest stage of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] found in the [[Shrauta Sutras]]. The ''[[Suparṇākhyāna]]'', a late Vedic poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of [[Garuda]] that is included within the ''Mahābhārata''.<ref name="Winternitz1996">{{cite book\|author=Moriz Winternitz\|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA292\|year=1996\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-0264-3\|pages=291–292}}</ref><ref name="Vogel1995">{{cite book\|author=Jean Philippe Vogel\|title=Indian Serpent-lore: Or, The Nāgas in Hindu Legend and Art\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caskYEbIQDoC&pg=PA53\|year=1995\|publisher=Asian Educational Services\|isbn=978-81-206-1071-2\|pages=53–54}}</ref>
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	== Tamil epics ==		== Tamil epics ==
	{{main\|~~The~~ Five Great Epics ~~of Tamil Literature~~}}		{{main\|Five Great Epics}}
	The post-[[sangam period]] (2nd century-6th century) saw many great [[Tamil literature\|Tamil]] epics being written, including ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' (or ''[[Silappadhikaram]]''), ''[[Manimegalai]]'', ''[[Civaka Cintamani]]'', ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]''. Out of the five, ''Manimegalai'' and ''Kundalakesi'' are Buddhist religious works, ''Civaka Cintamani'' and ''Valayapathi'' are [[Tamil Jain]] works and ''Silappatikaram'' has a neutral religious view. They were written over a period of 1st century CE to 10th century CE and act as the historical evidence of social, religious, cultural and academic life of people during the era they were created. ''Civaka Cintamani'' introduced long verses called ''virutha pa'' in Tamil literature,<ref name="Dat">Datta 2004, p. 720</ref> while ''Silappatikaram'' used ''akaval'' meter (monologue), a style adopted from Sangam literature.		The post-[[sangam period]] (2nd century-6th century) saw many great [[Tamil literature\|Tamil]] epics being written, including ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' (or ''[[Silappadhikaram]]''), ''[[Manimegalai]]'', ''[[Civaka Cintamani]]'', ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]''. Out of the five, ''Manimegalai'' and ''Kundalakesi'' are Buddhist religious works, ''Civaka Cintamani'' and ''Valayapathi'' are [[Tamil Jain]] works and ''Silappatikaram'' has a neutral religious view. They were written over a period of 1st century CE to 10th century CE and act as the historical evidence of social, religious, cultural and academic life of people during the era they were created. ''Civaka Cintamani'' introduced long verses called ''virutha pa'' in Tamil literature,<ref name="Dat">Datta 2004, p. 720</ref> while ''Silappatikaram'' used ''akaval'' meter (monologue), a style adopted from Sangam literature.

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	==External links==		==External links==
	{{Wikiquote}}		{{Wikiquote}}
	*[http://mahabharata.manipal.edu/ MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance] by ~~[https://manipal.edu/philosophy.html/~~ Department of Philosophy - Manipal]		*[http://mahabharata.manipal.edu/ MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance] by i Department of Philosophy - Manipal]

	{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}		{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}

>Anastacio21 at 01:00, 26 May 2021

2021-05-26T01:00:35Z

New page

{{Short description|Epic poetry of the Indian subcontinent}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}

'''Indian epic poetry''' is the [[epic poetry]] written in the [[Indian subcontinent]], traditionally called '''''Kavya''''' (or ''Kāvya''; [[Sanskrit]]: काव्य, IAST: ''kāvyá''). The ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which were originally composed in [[Sanskrit]] and later translated into many other Indian languages, and the [[Five Great Epics]] of [[Tamil literature]] and [[Sangam literature]] are some of the oldest surviving epic poems ever written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1755 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti - Amaresh Datta - Google Books |access-date=2012-05-10|isbn=9788126011940 |last1=Datta |first1=Amaresh |year=1988 }}</ref>

== Sanskrit epics ==
The ancient Sanskrit epics the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' comprise together the [[Itihāsa]] ("Writer has himself witnessed the story") or [[Mahākāvya]] ("Great Compositions"), a [[wiktionary:canon|canon]] of [[Hindu scripture]]. Indeed, the epic form prevailed and verse remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary works. [[Hero]]-worship is a central aspect of [[Indian culture]], and thus readily lent itself to a literary tradition that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The [[Puranas]], a massive collection of verse-form histories of India's many Hindu gods and goddesses, followed in this tradition. [[Itihāsa]] and [[Puranas]] are mentioned in the [[Atharva Veda]]<ref>Atharva Veda 11.7.24, 15.6.4</ref> and referred to as the ''fourth Veda''.<ref>Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.1.2,4</ref>

The language of these texts, termed ''Epic Sanskrit'', constitutes the earliest phase of [[Classical Sanskrit]], following the latest stage of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] found in the [[Shrauta Sutras]]. The ''[[Suparṇākhyāna]]'', a late Vedic poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of [[Garuda]] that is included within the ''Mahābhārata''.<ref name="Winternitz1996">{{cite book|author=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA292|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0264-3|pages=291–292}}</ref><ref name="Vogel1995">{{cite book|author=Jean Philippe Vogel|title=Indian Serpent-lore: Or, The Nāgas in Hindu Legend and Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caskYEbIQDoC&pg=PA53|year=1995|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1071-2|pages=53–54}}</ref>

The Buddhist kavi [[Aśvaghoṣa]] wrote two epics and one drama. He lived in the 1st-2nd century. He wrote a biography of the Buddha, titled Buddhacarita. His second epic is called Saundarananda and tells the story of the conversion of Nanda, the younger brother of the Buddha. The play he wrote is called Śariputraprakaraṇa, but of this play only a few fragments remained.

The famous poet and playwright [[Kālidāsa]] also wrote two epics: ''[[Raghuvamsha]]'' (''The Dynasty of Raghu'') and ''[[Kumarasambhava]]'' (''The Birth of Kumar Kartikeya''). Other Classical Sanskrit epics are the ''Slaying of Śiśupāla'' ''[[Śiśupālavadha]]'' of [[Māgha]], ''Arjuna and the Mountain Man'' ''[[Kirātārjunīya]]'' of [[Bhāravi]], the ''Adventures of the Prince of Nishadha'' ''[[Naiṣadhacarita]]'' of [[Śrīharṣa]] and ''Bhaṭṭi's Poem'' ''[[Bhaṭṭikāvya]]'' of [[Bhaṭṭi]].

== Hindi epics ==
The first epic to appear in [[Hindi]] was [[Tulsidas]]' (1543–1623) ''[[Ramacharitamanas]]'', also based on the ''Ramayana''. It is considered a great classic of Hindi epic poetry and literature and shows the author Tulsidas in complete command over all the important styles of composition — narrative, epic, lyrical and dialectic. He has given a divine character to [[Rama]], the Hindu [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], portraying him as an ideal son, husband, brother and king.

In modern Hindi literature, ''[[Kamayani]]'' by [[Jaishankar Prasad]] has attained the status of an epic. The narrative of Kamayani is based on a popular mythological story, first mentioned in [[Satapatha Brahmana]]. It is a story of the [[Deluge mythology#India|great flood]] and the central characters of the epic poem are [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] (a male) and [[Śraddhā|Shraddha]] (a female). Manu is representative of the human psyche and Shradha represents love. Another female character is [[Ida (goddess)|Ida]], who represents rationality. Some critics surmise that the three lead characters of Kamayani symbolize a synthesis of knowledge, action and desires in human life. It inspires humans to live a life based on "karm" and not on fortunes.

Apart from Kamayani, ''[[Kurukshetra|Kurukshetra (Epic Poetry)]]'' (1946), ''[[Rashmirathi]]'' (1952) and ''[[Urvashi]]'' (1961) by [[Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar']] have attained the status of [[epic poetry]].

Likewise ''Lalita Ke Aansoo''<ref>* [http://www.worldcat.org/title/lalita-ke-amsu-sri-lalabahadura-sastri-ke-jivana-para-adharita-eka-karuna-kavya-krti/oclc/60419441&referer=brief_results Book:Lalita Ke Ansoo on worldcat]</ref> by Krant M. L. Verma (1978)<ref>''Hindustan'' ([[Hindi]] daily) [[New Delhi]] 12 January 1978 (ललिता के आँसू का विमोचन)</ref> narrates the tragic story about the death of [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] through his wife [[Lalita Shastri]].<ref>[[Panchjanya (newspaper)]] A literary review 24 February 1980</ref>

== Tamil epics ==
{{main|The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature}}
The post-[[sangam period]] (2nd century-6th century) saw many great [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] epics being written, including ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'' (or ''[[Silappadhikaram]]''), ''[[Manimegalai]]'', ''[[Civaka Cintamani]]'', ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]''. Out of the five, ''Manimegalai'' and ''Kundalakesi'' are Buddhist religious works, ''Civaka Cintamani'' and ''Valayapathi'' are [[Tamil Jain]] works and ''Silappatikaram'' has a neutral religious view. They were written over a period of 1st century CE to 10th century CE and act as the historical evidence of social, religious, cultural and academic life of people during the era they were created. ''Civaka Cintamani'' introduced long verses called ''virutha pa'' in Tamil literature,<ref name="Dat">Datta 2004, p. 720</ref> while ''Silappatikaram'' used ''akaval'' meter (monologue), a style adopted from Sangam literature.

Later, during the [[Chola]] period, [[Kambar (poet)|Kamban]] (12th century) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics — the [[Kambaramayanam|''Kamba Ramayanam'']] of [[Kambar (poet)|Kamban]], based on the Valmiki Ramayana. The Thiruthondat Puranam (or [[Periya Puranam]]) of Chekkizhar is the great Tamil epic of the Shaiva Bhakti saints and is part of the religious scripture of Tamil Nadu's majority Shaivites.

==Kannada epic poetry==
{{main|Kannada literature}}
[[Kannada language|Kannada]] epic poetry mainly consists of [[Jainism|Jain]] religious literature and [[Lingayatism|Lingayat]] literature. [[Asaga]] wrote ''Vardhaman Charitra'', an epic which runs in 18 [[canto]]s, in 853 CE,<ref>{{cite book |title=Lord Mahāvīra and his times, Lala S. L. Jain Research Series |last= Jain |first=Kailash Chand |year=1991 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=81-208-0805-3 |page= 25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC&q=asaga+9th+century&pg=PA25 }}</ref> the first [[Sanskrit]] biography of the 24th and last [[tirthankara]] of Jainism, [[Mahavira]], though his Kannada-language version of Kalidasa's epic poem, ''Kumārasambhava'', ''Karnataka Kumarasambhava Kavya'' is lost.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lord Mahāvīra and his times, Lala S. L. Jain Research Series |last= Jain |first=Kailash Chand |year=1991 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|isbn=81-208-0805-3 |page= 59|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UCh7r2TjQIC&q=asaga+9th+century+poet&pg=PA341 }}</ref> The most famous poet from this period is [[Pampa (Jain poet)|Pampa]] (902-975 CE), one of the most famous writers in the [[Kannada language]]. His ''[[Vikramarjuna Vijaya]]'' (also called the ''Pampabharatha'') is hailed as a classic even to this day. With this and his other important work [[Ādi purāṇa]] he set a trend of poetic excellence for the Kannada poets of the future. The former work is an adaptation of the celebrated [[Mahabharata]], and is the first such adaptation in Kannada. Noted for the strong human bent and the dignified style in his writing, Pampa has been one of the most influential writers in Kannada. He is identified as ''Adikavi'' "first poet". It is only in Kannada that we have a [[Ramayana]] and a Mahabharata based on the Jain tradition in addition to those based on Brahmanical tradition.

[[Shivakotiacharya]] was the first writer in prose style. His work [[Vaddaradhane]] is dated to 900 CE. [[Sri Ponna]] (939-966 CE) is also an important writer from the same period, with ''[[Shanti Purana]]'' as his magnum opus. Another major writer of the period is ''[[Ranna (Kannada poet)|Ranna]]'' (949-? CE). His most famous works are the [[Jainism|Jain]] religious work ''[[Ajita Tirthankara Purana]]'' and the [[Gada Yuddha]], a birds' eye view of the ''Mahabharata'' set in the last day of the battle of [[Kurukshetra]] and relating the story of the Mahabharata through a series of flashbacks. Structurally, the poetry in this period is in the ''Champu'' style, essentially poetry interspersed with lyrical prose.

The ''[[Siribhoovalaya]]'' is a unique work of multilingual [[Kannada literature]] written by [[Kumudendu Muni]], a [[Jain monasticism|Jain monk]]. The work is unique in that it does not employ letters, but is composed entirely in [[Kannada alphabet#Numbers|Kannada numerals]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pustakshakti.com/siribhoovalaya_news_item_-_17.htm|title=Introduction to ''Siribhoovalaya'', from Deccan Herald|access-date=2007-03-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928065505/http://www.pustakshakti.com/siribhoovalaya_news_item_-_17.htm|archive-date=28 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ''Saangathya'' [[metre (poetry)|metre]] of [[Kannada poetry]] is employed in the work. It uses numerals 1 through 64 and employs various patterns or ''bandhas'' in a frame of 729 (27×27) squares to represent letters in nearly 18 scripts and over 700 languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pustakshakti.com/siribhoovalaya_news_item_-_6.htm|title=Usage of ''Saangathya'' and frame of 729, from The Hindu newspaper|access-date=2007-03-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928065432/http://www.pustakshakti.com/siribhoovalaya_news_item_-_6.htm|archive-date=28 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some of the patterns used include the ''Chakrabandha'', ''Hamsabandha'', ''Varapadmabandha'', ''Sagarabandha'', ''Sarasabandha'', ''Kruanchabandha'', ''Mayurabandha'', ''Ramapadabandha'', and ''Nakhabandha''. As each of these patterns are identified and decoded, the contents can be read. The work is said to have around 600,000 verses, nearly six times as big as the ancient Indian epic ''Mahabharata''.

The ''[[Prabhulingaleele]]'', ''[[Basava purana]]'', ''[[Channabasavapurana]]'' and ''[[Basavarajavijaya]]'' are a few of the Lingayat epics.

== Assamese epics ==
{{Main|Assamese literature}}
In 14th century Madhav Kandali dubbed the epic Ramayana as [[Saptakanda Ramayana]]. In chronology, among vernacular translations of the original Sanskrit, Kandali's Ramayana comes after [[Kambar (poet)|Kamban]]'s ([[Ramavataram|Tamil]], 12th century), and ahead of [[Krittibas Ojha|Kirttivas]]' ([[Krittivasi Ramayan|Bengali]], 15th century), [[Tulsidas]]' ([[Ramacharitamanasa|Awadhi]], 16th century), Balaram Das' (Oriya) etc. Thus it becomes the first rendition of the [[Ramayana]] into an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goswāmī, Māmaṇi Raẏachama, 1942-2011.|title=Rāmāyaṇa from Gangā to Brahmaputra|publisher=B.R. Pub. Corp|year=1996|isbn=817018858X|location=Delhi|pages=47208217}}</ref>

== Manipuri epics ==
{{Main|List of epics in Meitei language|Meitei literature}}
[[Meitei language]], a 3500 years old Sino-Tibetan language of [[North East India]] is a language with a rich granary of epic poetries, mostly written in [[Meitei script]] in [[PuYa]], the Manipuri manuscripts.

''[[Khamba Thoibi]]'' is regarded as the greatest of all the Meitei epics. It consists of approximately 34,000 [[Verse (poetry)|verses]], even longer than the [[Ramayana]]. The epic poetry has fifteen chapters (Pandups) and ninety two sections (Taangkaks). It is based on the legendary love story of [[Khamba Thoibi|Khamba]], a hero in [[Kanglei mythology]] and [[Khamba Thoibi|Thoibi]], the then princess of [[Moirang]]. The work is composed by Hijam Anganghal, a legendary bard, born in [[Samurou]].

Another epic is ''[[Numit Kappa]]'', literally meaning "Shooting at the Sun". This 1st century BC Meitei epic is based on the story of the hero Khwai Nungjeng Piba, who shoots one of the two shining [[Sun|suns]] from the sky, to create the [[night]].{{cn|date=January 2020}}

There is ''Ougri'', which are the collection of epic poetries, associated with religious themes. Other epics include ''Shingel Indu'' by Hijam Anganghal, ''Khongjom Tirtha'' by Nilabir Sharma, ''Chingoi Baruni'' by Gokul Shastri, ''Kansa Vadha'' by A. Dorendrajit, and ''Vasudeva Mahakavya'' by Chingangbam Kalachand.

However, Great [[Sanskrit]] epics such as [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]] were translated into [[Meitei language]] in the Medieval times.

Other translated epics include ''[[Meghnad Badh Kavya]]'', ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', and ''[[Ashtakam]]''.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 10|The epics]]|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell }}
* {{cite book| title=Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya) |author=Oliver Fallon |year=2009 |location=New York |publisher=New York University Press, Clay Sanskrit Library |chapter=Introduction|author-link=Oliver Fallon }}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://mahabharata.manipal.edu/ MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance] by [https://manipal.edu/philosophy.html/ Department of Philosophy - Manipal]

{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Epic Poetry}}
[[Category:Indian poetics]]
[[Category:History of literature in India]]
[[Category:Sanskrit literature]]
[[Category:Epic poetry]]
[[Category:Indian poetry|E]]