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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Alexander the Great series}}
There are numerous surviving ancient Greek and Latin sources on '''[[Alexander the Great]]''', king of [[Macedon]], as well as some Asian texts. The five main surviving accounts are by [[Arrian]], [[Plutarch]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]].<ref name = grxxii>Green, 2007, pp xxii–xxviii</ref> In addition to these five main sources, there is the ''[[Metz Epitome]]'', an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from [[Hyrcania]] to [[India]]. Much is also recounted incidentally by other authors, including [[Strabo]], [[Athenaeus]], [[Polyaenus]], [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], and others. Strabo, who gives a summary of [[Callisthenes]], is an important source for Alexander's journey
to [[Siwa Oasis|Siwah]].<ref>Cartledge, P., ''Alexander the Great'' (Vintage Books, 2004), p. 290.</ref>

==Contemporary sources==
Most primary sources written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander are lost, but a few inscriptions and fragments survive.<ref name = grxxii/> Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian [[Callisthenes]]; Alexander's generals [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Nearchus]]; [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], a junior officer on the campaigns; and [[Onesicritus]], Alexander's chief helmsman.<ref name = grxxii/> Finally, there is the very influential account of [[Cleitarchus]] who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published.<ref name = grxxii/> His work was to be the backbone of that of [[Timagenes]], who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of his works survived, but we do have later works based on these primary sources.<ref name = grxxii/>

==The five main sources==

===Arrian===
*''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' (''The Campaigns of Alexander'' in Greek) by the Greek historian [[Arrian]] of [[Nicomedia]], writing in the 2nd century AD, and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is generally considered one of the best sources on the campaigns of Alexander as well as one of the founders of a primarily military-based focus on history. Arrian cites his source by name and he often criticizes them. He is not interested in the King's private life, overlooking his errors. ''That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part if it was not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence 888''. (Arrian 7b 29)
*'' Indike'' Which according to Artisan made more sense.

===Plutarch===
*''Life of Alexander'' (see ''[[Parallel Lives]]'') and two orations ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great'' (see ''[[Moralia]]''), by the Greek historian and biographer [[Plutarch]] of [[Chaeronea]] in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of [[Lysippus]], Alexander's favorite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance.

===Diodorus===
*''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' (''Library of world history''), written in Greek by the [[Sicily|Sicilian]] historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Cleitarchus and Hieronymus of Cardia. It is the oldest surviving Greek source (1st century BC). Diodorus regarded Alexander like Caesar as a key historical figure and chronological marker.

===Curtius===
*''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy. His work is fluidly written, but reveals ignorance of geography, chronology, and technical military knowledge, focusing instead on the character. According to [[Jona Lendering]]: ''..the real subject was not Alexander, but the tyranny of [[Tiberius]] and [[Caligula]]. (It can be shown that Curtius Rufus' description of the trial of [[Philotas]] is based on an incident during the reign of Tiberius)...Curtius copies Cleitarchus' mistakes, although he is not an uncritical imitator.''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/ct-cz/curtius/qcr.html|title=Curtius – livius.org|publisher=}}</ref>

===Justin===
*The ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' by [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], is highly compressed version of an earlier history by [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Trogus]], with the selections governed by Justin's desire to make moralistic points, rather than with an eye for the history itself.<ref name = grxxii/>

==Lost works==
*Life of Alexander by [[Aesopus (historian)|Aesopus]]
*Works of [[Anaximenes of Lampsacus]]
*Works of [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia]]
*Geographical work of [[Androsthenes of Thasos]]
*Deeds of Alexander by [[Callisthenes]] (the official historian)
*Personal Notebooks, or ''Hypomnemata'', by Alexander himself (possibly inauthentic)<ref>Cartledge 2007, p. 278.</ref>
*History of Alexander by [[Cleitarchus]]
*On the empire of the Macedonians by [[Criton of Pieria]]
*Histories (also listed as Macedonica and Hellenica) by [[Duris of Samos]]
*''Ephemerides'' (royal journal) of the royal secretary [[Eumenes]] (existence or authenticity disputed)
*Work of [[Ephippus of Olynthus]]
*Work of [[Hagnothemis]] upon which Plutarch rested the belief that Antipater poisoned Alexander.
*Work of [[Hieronymus of Cardia]]
*On the education of Alexander and Macedonian history by [[Marsyas of Pella]]
*Work of [[Medius of Larissa]]
*Work of [[Nearchus]], the primary source of [[Indica (Arrian)|Arrian's Indica]]
*How Alexander was Educated and geographical works by [[Onesicritus]]
*Work of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]
*History of Alexander by [[Timagenes]]
*Historiae Philippicae by [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus]]

==Greek epigraphy==
*[[Decree of Philippi (ca.335-330 BC)]] Alexander arbitrates a boundary dispute between local Thracian tribes and the city of Philippi.
*A dedicatory inscription to [[Apollo]] was found at Toumbes Kalamotou, [[Thessaloniki (regional unit)|Thessaloniki regional unit]] ; it records a list of priests of [[Asclepius]] who had fulfilled their duties from the time ''when [[Alexander the Great|King Alexandros]] gave [[Kalindoia]] and the villages around to [[Macedon|Makedones]].<ref>The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor Page 94 by Getzel M. Cohen {{ISBN|0520083296}}</ref>''
*A dedicatory inscription to Olympian Zeus by Philonides of Crete in which he is mentioned as ''King Alexandros' hemerodromos (cursor) and [[bematist]] of Asia''.<ref>Elis – Olympia – 336–323 BC [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main?url=oi%3Fikey%3D214081%26bookid%3D224%26region%3D2%26subregion%3D5 IvO 276]</ref><ref>From the end of the Peloponnesian War to the battle of Ipsus By Phillip Harding Page 135 {{ISBN|0521299497}}</ref>
*[[Lindos Chronicle]]. ''King Alexandros having defeated Darius in battle and become lord ''[[kurios]]'' of Asia, sacrificed to [[Athena]] of [[Lindos]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epigraphy.packhum.org/error|title=Error - PHI Greek Inscriptions|website=epigraphy.packhum.org|access-date=17 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320212918/https://epigraphy.packhum.org/error|archive-date=20 March 2019|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>The Greek world after Alexander, 323-30 B.C. Page 37 By Graham Shipley {{ISBN|0415046181}}</ref> boukephala (ox-heads) and hopla (armour)<ref>New terms for new ideas By Michael Lackner, Iwo Amelung, Joachim Kurtz Page 124 {{ISBN|9004120467}}</ref>
*[[Antigonus (son of Callas)]] hetairos from Amphipolis, commemorates his victory in [[hoplitodromos|hoplite racing]] at Heraclean games after the Conquest of Tyrus.

==Non-Greco-Roman Sources==

===Babylonian Chronicles===
*''Alexander Chronicle'' mentions the [[battle of Gaugamela]] and the incident of [[Bessus]], who was pursued by ''Aliksandar''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-alexander/alexander_06.html|title=The Alexander Chronicle (ABC 8)|website=www.livius.org}}</ref>
*''Alexander and Arabia Chronicle'' refers to events concerning the last years of the King.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/bchp-arabia/arabia_02.html|title=Chronicle concerning Alexander and Arabia (BCHP 2)|website=www.livius.org}}</ref>

===Zoroastrian texts===
{{Main|Book of Arda Viraf}}

{{cquote|They say that, once upon a time, the pious [[Zartosht]] made the religion, which he had received, current in the world; and till the completion of 300 years, the religion was in purity, and men were without doubts. But afterward, the accursed evil spirit, the wicked one, in order to make men doubtful of this religion, instigated the accursed Alexander, the [[Rûm]]an,<ref>Alexander the Great was called "the Ruman" in Zoroastrian tradition because he came from Greek provinces which later were a part of the [[eastern Roman empire]] – The archeology of world religions By Jack Finegan Page 80 {{ISBN|0415221552}}</ref> who was dwelling in Egypt, so that he came to the country of Iran with severe cruelty and war and devastation; he also slew the ruler of Iran, and destroyed the metropolis and empire, and made them desolate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avesta.org/mp/viraf.html|title=The Book of Arda Viraf|website=www.avesta.org}}</ref>}}

===The Bible===
{{Main|1 Maccabees}}
Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander.

Alexander was briefly mentioned in the [[1 Maccabees|first Book of the Maccabees]]. All of Chapter 1, verses 1–7 was about Alexander and this serves as an introduction of the book. This explains how the Greek influence reached the [[Land of Israel]] at that time.
===The Quran===
{{Main|Alexander the Great in the Quran}}

There is evidence to suggest that orally transmitted legends about Alexander the Great found their way to the [[Quran]].<ref>{{Cite book| last = Stoneman | first = Richard | editor1-last = Panayotakis | editor1-first= Stelios | editor2-last = Zimmerman | editor2-first= Maaike | editor3-last = Keulen | editor3-first= Wytse | year = 2003 | chapter= Alexander the Great in Arabic Tradition | title = The Ancient Novel and Beyond | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers NV | page = 3 | isbn = 978-90-04-12999-3 }}</ref> The story of [[Dhul-Qarnayn]], "the two-horned one" – in chapter [[al-Kahf]], verse 83–94 – is identified by many scholars with Alexander the Great.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bietenholz |first=Peter G. |title=Historia and fabula: myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age |publisher=Brill |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFjXaCAWoOUC&q=%22from+a+Syrian+version+it+found+its+way+into+the+Koran%22&pg=PA123 | page = 122–123 |isbn=978-9004100633}}</ref> Most Western and traditional Muslim scholars generally identify Alexander the Great as the Dhul-Qarnayn, {{sfn|Stoneman|2003|p=3}}{{sfn|EI2|p=127}} however, Wheeler disagrees.<ref>Shirazi, Naser Makarem. Tafseer-e-Namoona. Yamanaka & Nishio 2006, p. 103-105.</ref> Regarding Alexander's identification, some Muslim scholars (including those from classical times)<ref>{{cite book|last=Renard |first=John |year=2001 |chapter=Alexander |title=Encyclopedia of the Quran. 1 (1st ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. |pages=61–62 |isbn=9004114653}}</ref> have differed, with, according to Maududi, modern Muslim scholarship also leaning in favour of identifying him with [[Cyrus the Great]].<ref name=Maududi>Maududi, Syed Abul Ala. Tafhim al-Qur'an.</ref> "The identification ... has been a controversial matter from the earliest times. In general, the commentators have been of the opinion that he was Alexander the Great but the characteristics of Zul-Qarnain described in the Qur'an are not applicable to him. However, now the commentators are inclined to believe that Zul-Qarnain was Cyrus ... We are also of the opinion that probably Zul-Qarnain was Cyrus..."<ref name=Maududi/>

==See also==
*[[Dhul-Qarnayn]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Zambrini |first1=Andrea |editor1-last=Marincola |editor1-first=John |publication-date=12 September 2017 |year=2017 |title=A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography |chapter=The Historians of Alexander the Great |pages=193–202 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |doi=10.1002/9781405185110.ch17 |isbn=978-1405102162 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hammond |first=Nicholas G. L. |author-link=N. G. L. Hammond |orig-year=1st pub. 1983 |year=2007 |title=The Historians of Alexander the Great: The So-Called Vulgate Authors, Diodorus, Justin, and Curtius. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Classical Studies |isbn=978-0521036535 }}

[[Category:Historiography of Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:Historiography of ancient Greece|Alexander]]

Historiography of Alexander the Great - Revision history

Imtiaz Qureshi: adjusted content to improve readability and cleaned formatting

>Citation bot: Alter: url. URLs might have been anonymized. Add: pages. Removed parameters. Formatted dashes. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by AManWithNoPlan | Category:CS1 maint: ref=harv | via #UCB_Category 939/2500