>Hemiauchenia: Ephedrine is better characterised as a stimulant

2021-06-26T16:24:41Z

Ephedrine is better characterised as a stimulant

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{{about|the genus Ephedra, and the family Ephedraceae|the use of the plant in medicine|Ephedra}}
{{short description|genus of gymnosperms in the family Ephedraceae}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| oldest_fossil = Aptian
| image = Green ephedra Ephedra viridis close.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Ephedra viridis]]''
| grandparent_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier|Dumort.]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=1E4EB308-C14C-49A9-8D0A-A2D3F4C4223F |title=Ephedrales Dumort. |work=EU-NOMEN |access-date=20 January 2016}}</ref>
| parent_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier|Dumort.]]<ref name=Kramer>{{cite book|title=The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol. 1: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms|year=1990|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin|isbn=3540517944|pages=379–381| vauthors = Kramer KU, Green PS, Götz E | veditors = Kramer KU, Green PS }}</ref>
| taxon = Ephedra
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=Kramer/>
| subdivision_ranks =
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=liz10/>
| synonyms = ''Alloephedra'' Tao JR et Yang Y., 2003.
''Chaetocladus'' Nelson 1866 nom. illeg.
''Liaoxia'' Cao et S.Q. Wu, 1996
| subdivision =
| range_map = Ephedra distribution.PNG
| range_map_alt = Map showing the range of ''Ephedra''
| range_map_caption = Global range of ''Ephedra''
}}

'''''Ephedra''''' is a [[genus]] of [[gymnosperm]] [[shrub]]s. The various species of ''Ephedra'' are widespread in many arid regions of the world, ranging across southwestern [[North America]], southern [[Europe]], northern [[Africa]], southwest and central [[Asia]], northern China and western [[South America]].<ref name=liz10>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=332845 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> It is the only extant genus in its family, '''Ephedraceae''', and order, '''Ephedrales''' and one of the three living members of the division [[Gnetophyta]] alongside ''[[Gnetum]]'' and ''[[Welwitschia]].''

In [[temperate climates]], most ''Ephedra'' species grow on shores or in sandy soils with direct sun exposure. Common names in English include '''joint-pine''', '''jointfir''', '''Mormon-tea''' or '''Brigham tea'''. The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name for ''Ephedra'' species is ''mahuang'' ({{zh|s=麻黄|t=麻黃|p=máhuáng|w=ma-huang|l=hemp yellow}}). ''Ephedra'' is the origin of the name of the stimulant [[ephedrine]], which the plants contain in significant concentrations.
[[File:Ephedra fragilis2 ies 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Ephedra fragilis]]'' pollen cones]]
[[File:Ephedra distachya (cones) 2011 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Ephedra distachya]]'': ripe female cones with seeds]]
[[File:Ephedra-ciliata-seed.jpg|thumb|''[[Ephedra ciliata]]'' seed]]

==Description==
The family Ephedraceae, of which ''Ephedra'' is the only genus, are [[gymnosperms]], and generally shrubs, sometimes clambering vines, and rarely, small trees. Members of the genus frequently spread by the use of [[rhizome]]s.<ref name=judd/>

The stems are green and photosynthetic.<ref name=apg/> The leaves are opposite or whorled. The scalelike leaves fuse into a sheath at the base and this often sheds soon after development.
There are no resin canals.<ref name=judd/>

The plants are mostly dioecious: with the pollen [[strobilus|strobili]] in whorls of 1-10, each consisting of a series of decussate<ref name=vic/> bracts. The pollen is furrowed. The female strobili also occur in whorls, with bracts which fuse around a single ovule. There are generally 1-2 yellow to dark brown seeds per strobilus.<ref name=judd/>

==Taxonomy==
The genus ''Ephedra'' was first described in 1753 by [[Carl Linnaeus]],<ref name=gymno/><ref name=linn/><ref name=linn2/> and the [[type species]] is ''[[Ephedra distachya]]''.<ref name=linn/> The family, Ephedraceae, was first described in 1829 by [[Dumort.|Dumortier]].<ref name=gymno>[https://www.conifers.org/ep/Ephedraceae.php The Gymnosperm database: ''Ephedra''.] Retrieved 5 July 2019.</ref><ref name=dumort/>

=== Evolutionary history ===
The oldest known members of the genus are from the [[Early Cretaceous]] around 125 million years ago, with records being known from the [[Aptian]]-[[Albian]] of Argentina,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Puebla GG, Iglesias A, Gómez MA, Prámparo MB | title = Fossil record of Ephedra in the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian), Argentina | journal = Journal of Plant Research | volume = 130 | issue = 6 | pages = 975–988 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 28528483 | doi = 10.1007/s10265-017-0953-1 | s2cid = 23766815 | url = http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10265-017-0953-1 }}</ref>China,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang Y, Wang Q | title = The earliest fleshy cone of Ephedra from the early cretaceous Yixian Formation of northeast China | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = e53652 | date = 2013-01-14 | pmid = 23341964 | pmc = 3544918 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0053652 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...853652Y | url = https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0053652 }}</ref> Portugal and the United States.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rydin C, Pedersen KR, Crane PR, Friis EM | title = Former diversity of Ephedra (Gnetales): evidence from Early Cretaceous seeds from Portugal and North America | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 98 | issue = 1 | pages = 123–40 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16675607 | pmc = 2803531 | doi = 10.1093/aob/mcl078 | url = }}</ref> The fossil record of ''Ephedra'' outside of pollen disappears after the Early Cretaceous.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bolinder|first1=Kristina|last2=Norbäck Ivarsson|first2=Lena|last3=Humphreys|first3=Aelys M.|last4=Ickert-Bond|first4=Stefanie M.|last5=Han|first5=Fang|last6=Hoorn|first6=Carina|last7=Rydin|first7=Catarina|date=2016-01-02|title=Pollen morphology of Ephedra (Gnetales) and its evolutionary implications|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00173134.2015.1066424|journal=Grana|language=en|volume=55|issue=1|pages=24–51|doi=10.1080/00173134.2015.1066424|s2cid=83696018|issn=0017-3134}}</ref> [[Molecular clock]] estimates have suggested that last common ancestor of living ''Ephedra'' species lived much more recently, during the [[Rupelian|Early Oligocene]] around 30 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ickert‐Bond|first1=Stefanie M.|last2=Rydin|first2=Catarina|last3=Renner|first3=Susanne S.|date=2009|title=A fossil-calibrated relaxed clock for Ephedra indicates an Oligocene age for the divergence of Asian and New World clades and Miocene dispersal into South America|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1759-6831.2009.00053.x|journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|pages=444–456|doi=10.1111/j.1759-6831.2009.00053.x|issn=1759-6831|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, pollen modified from the ancestral condition of the genus with branched pseudosulci (grooves), which [[Parallel evolution|evolved in parallel]] in the living North American and Asian lineages is known from the [[Late Cretaceous]], suggesting that the last common ancestor is at least this old.<ref name=":0" />

=== Species ===
{{As of|2021|June}}, [[Plants of the World Online]] accepted the following species:<ref name="POWO_328160-2">{{cite web |title=''Ephedra'' Tourn. ex L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328160-2 |access-date=2021-06-23 }}</ref>
*''[[Ephedra alata]]'' [[Joseph Decaisne|Decne.]] – North Africa, Arabian Peninsula
*''[[Ephedra altissima]]'' [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]] non Bové (1834), non Delile (1813), non Buch (1828) – North Africa, Canary Islands
*''[[Ephedra americana]]'' [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humb.]] & [[Aimé Bonpland|Bonpl.]] ''ex'' [[Carl Ludwig von Willdenow|Willd.]] – Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Chile
*''[[Ephedra antisyphilitica]]'' Berland ''ex'' [[Carl Anton von Meyer|C.A.Mey.]] – Clapweed, Erect Ephedra – Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Chihuahua
*''[[Ephedra aphylla]]'' [[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]] – eastern Mediterranean from Libya and Cyprus to the Persian Gulf
*[[Ephedra × arenicola|''Ephedra'' × ''arenicola'']] [[Hugh Carson Cutler|H.C.Cutler]] – Arizona, Utah (hybrid, ''E. cutleri'' × ''E. torreyana'')
*''[[Ephedra aspera]]'' [[George Engelmann|Engelm.]] ''ex'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – Boundary Ephedra, Pitamoreal – Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, California, Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Sinaloa, Sonora, Baja California
*''[[Ephedra aurantiaca]]'' [[Armen Takhtajan|Takht.]] & [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]] – Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan
*''[[Ephedra boelckei]]'' [[Fidel Antonio Roig|F.A.Roig]] – Argentina
*''[[Ephedra botschantzevii]]'' [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]] – Kazakhstan, Tuva region of Siberia
*''[[Ephedra breana]]'' [[Rodolfo Amando Philippi|Phil.]] – Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra brevifoliata]]'' Ghahr. – Iran
*''[[Ephedra californica]]'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – California Ephedra, California Jointfir – California, western Arizona, Baja California
*''[[Ephedra chilensis]]'' [[Carl Borivoj Presl|C.Presl]] – Chile, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra compacta]]'' [[Joseph Nelson Rose|Rose]] – widespread in much of Mexico
*''[[Ephedra coryi]]'' E.L.Reed – Cory's Ephedra – Texas, New Mexico
*''[[Ephedra cutleri]]'' [[Robert Hibbs Peebles|Peebles]] – Navajo Ephedra, Cutler's Ephedra, Cutler Mormon-tea, Cutler's Jointfir – Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming
*''[[Ephedra dahurica]]'' [[Nicolai Stepanovitch Turczaninow|Turcz.]] – Siberia, Mongolia
*''[[Ephedra dawuensis]]'' Y.Yang – Sichuan
*''[[Ephedra distachya]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] – Joint-pine, Jointfir – southern Europe and central Asia from Portugal to Kazakhstan
*''[[Ephedra × eleutherolepis]]'' [[Vladimir Alekseevich Nikitin|V.A.Nikitin]] – Tajikistan (hybrid ''E. intermedia'' × ''E. strobilacea'')
*''[[Ephedra equisetina]]'' [[Alexander Andrejewitsch von Bunge|Bunge]] – Ma huang – Caucasus, Central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, Gansu, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shanxi, Xinjiang
*''[[Ephedra fasciculata]]'' [[Aven Nelson|A.Nelson]] – Arizona Ephedra, Arizona Jointfir, Desert Mormon-tea – Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah
*''[[Ephedra fedtschenkoae]]'' [[Ove Paulsen|Paulsen]] – Central Asia, Siberia, Mongolia, Xinjiang
*''[[Ephedra foeminea]]'' [[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]] – North Africa, Somalia, Balkans, Italy, Middle East; naturalized in Santa Barbara County of California
*''[[Ephedra foliata]]'' [[Pierre Edmond Boissier|Boiss.]] ''ex'' [[Carl Anton von Meyer|C.A.Mey.]] – North Africa, Somalia, Middle East, India
*''[[Ephedra fragilis]]'' [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]] – Mediterranean, Canary Islands, Madeira
*''[[Ephedra frustillata]]'' [[John Miers (botanist)|Miers]] – Patagonian Ephedra – Chile, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra funerea]]'' [[Frederick Vernon Coville|Coville]] & [[C.V.Morton]] – Death Valley Ephedra, Death Valley Jointfir – California, Arizona, Nevada
*''[[Ephedra gerardiana]]'' [[Nathaniel Wallich|Wall.]] ''ex'' Klotzsch & Garcke – Gerard's Jointfir, Shan Ling Ma Huang – Himalayas, Tibet, Yunnan, Siberia, Central Asia
*''[[Ephedra gracilis]]'' Phil. ex Stapf
*''[[Ephedra holoptera]]'' [[Ludwig Riedel|Riedl]] – Iran
*''[[Ephedra intermedia]]'' [[Alexander Gustav von Schrenk|Schrenk]] & [[Carl Anton von Meyer|C.A.Mey.]] – China, Siberia, Central Asia, Himalayas, Iran, Pakistan
*''[[Ephedra kardangensis]]'' P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
*''[[Ephedra khurikensis]]'' P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
*''[[Ephedra laristanica]]'' Assadi – Iran
*''[[Ephedra likiangensis]]'' Florin – Guizhou, Sichuan, Tibet, Yunnan
*''[[Ephedra lomatolepis]]'' [[Alexander Gustav von Schrenk|Schrenk]] – Kazakhstan, Tuva region of Siberia
*''[[Ephedra major]]'' [[Nicolaus Thomas Host|Host]] – Mediterranean, Middle East, Central Asia; from Canary Islands to Kashmir
*''[[Ephedra milleri]]'' Freitag & Maier-St. – Oman, Yemen
*''[[Ephedra minuta]]'' Florin – Qinghai, Sichuan
*''[[Ephedra monosperma]]'' J.G.Gmel. ''ex'' [[Carl Anton von Meyer|C.A.Mey.]] – Siberia, Mongolia, much of China including Tibet and Xinjiang
*''[[Ephedra multiflora]]'' Phil. ''ex'' [[Otto Stapf|Stapf]] – Chile, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra nevadensis]]'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – Nevada Ephedra, Nevada Jointfir, Nevada Mormon-tea – Baja California, California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Oregon
*''[[Ephedra ochreata]]'' Miers – Argentina
*''[[Ephedra oxyphylla]]'' [[Harald Udo von Riedl|Riedl]] – Afghanistan
*''[[Ephedra pachyclada]]'' [[Pierre Edmond Boissier|Boiss.]] – Middle East from Sinai and Yemen to Pakistan
*''[[Ephedra pangiensis]]'' Rita Singh & P.Sharma
*''[[Ephedra pedunculata]]'' [[George Engelmann|Engelm.]] ''ex'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – Vine Ephedra, Vine Jointfir – Texas, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, Zacatecas
*''[[Ephedra pentandra]]'' [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]] – Iran
*''[[Ephedra procera]]'' Fisch. & C.A.Mey. − Iran, Caucasus
*''[[Ephedra przewalskii]]'' [[Otto Stapf|Stapf]] – Central Asia, Mongolia, Pakistan, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, Tibet
*''[[Ephedra pseudodistachya]]'' [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]] – Siberia, Mongolia
*''[[Ephedra regeliana]]'' Florin – Xi Zi Ma Huang – Central Asia, Siberia, Pakistan, Xinjiang
*''[[Ephedra rhytidosperma]]'' [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]], syn. ''E. lepidosperma'' C.Y.Cheng – Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Mongolia
*''[[Ephedra rituensis]]'' Y.Yang, D.Z.Fu & G.H.Zhu – Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet
*''[[Ephedra rupestris]]'' [[George Bentham|Benth.]] – Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra sarcocarpa]]'' [[James Edward Tierney Aitchison|Aitch.]] & [[William Botting Hemsley|Hemsl.]] – Pakistan, Afghanistan
*''[[Ephedra saxatilis]]'' (Stapf) Royle ex Florin
*''[[Ephedra sinica]]'' [[Otto Stapf|Stapf]] – Cao Ma Huang, Chinese ephedra – Mongolia, Siberia, Primorye, Manchuria
*''[[Ephedra somalensis]]'' Freitag & Maier-St. – Somalia, Eritrea
*''[[Ephedra strobilacea]]'' [[Alexander Andrejewitsch von Bunge|Bunge]] – Iran, Central Asia
*''[[Ephedra sumlingensis]]'' P.Sharma & P.L.Uniyal – western Himalayas
*''[[Ephedra tilhoana]]'' [[René Maire|Maire]] – Chad
*''[[Ephedra torreyana]]'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – Torrey's Ephedra, Torrey's Jointfir, Torrey's Mormon-tea, Cañutillo – Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Chihuahua
*''[[Ephedra transitoria]]'' [[Harald Udo von Riedl|Riedl]] – Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia
*''[[Ephedra triandra]]'' [[Louis René Tulasne|Tul.]] − Bolivia, Argentina
*''[[Ephedra trifurca]]'' [[John Torrey|Torrey]] ''ex'' [[Sereno Watson|S.Watson]] – Longleaf Ephedra, Longleaf Jointfir, Longleaf Mormon-tea, Popotilla, Teposote – California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California
*''[[Ephedra trifurcata]]'' Zöllner
*''[[Ephedra tweedieana]]'' [[Carl Anton von Meyer|C.A.Mey.]] – Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay
*''[[Ephedra viridis]]'' [[Frederick Vernon Coville|Coville]] – Green Ephedra, Green Mormon-tea – California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, South Dakota, Oregon
*''[[Ephedra vvedenskyi]]'' [[M.G. Pachomova|Pachom.]] – Iran, Caucasus, Turkmenistan
*''[[Ephedra yangthangensis ]]'' [[Prabha Sharma & Rita Singh]] – Yangthang to Ka, Leo, Nako, Chango, Chulling, Sumdo, Hoorling and Lira of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma P, Singh R | title = Ephedra yangthangensis (Ephedraceae), a new species from Himachal Pradesh, India. Bangladesh | journal = Journal of Plant Taxonomy | date = December 2016 | volume = 23 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–8 | doi = 10.3329/bjpt.v23i2.30850 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Distribution==
The genus is found worldwide, in desert regions, but not in [[Australia]].<ref name=judd/>

==Ecology==
[[File:Ephedra major shrubs near the gorge.jpg|thumb|Shrubs of ''Ephedra major'' in [[Karvachar]]]]
Ephedraceae are adapted to extremely arid regions, growing often in high sunny habitats, and occur as high as 4000 m above sea level in both the [[Andes]] and the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=judd/>

==Drug and supplement uses==
[[File:Maou.jpg|thumb|upright|Plant as used in Chinese herbology ([[crude medicine]])]]
{{main|Ephedra}}
The ''Ephedra'' [[alkaloid]]s, [[ephedrine]] and [[pseudoephedrine]] {{ndash}} constituents of ''E. sinica'' and other members of the genus {{ndash}} have [[Sympathomimetic amine|sympathomimetic]] and [[decongestant]] qualities,<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Ephedrine |url=https://www.drugs.com/cons/ephedrine-intravenous.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=23 June 2021 |date=9 January 2021}}</ref> and have been used as [[dietary supplement]]s, mainly for [[weight loss]].<ref name="nccih">{{cite web |title=Ephedra |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ephedra |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health |access-date=23 June 2021 |date=1 July 2020}}</ref> The drug, ''ephedrine'', is used to prevent [[hypotension|low blood pressure]] during [[spinal anesthesia]].<ref name=drugs/>

In the United States, ephedra supplements were banned from the market in the early [[21st century]] due to serious safety risks.<ref name=nccih/> Plants of the genus ''Ephedra'', including ''[[Ephedra sinica|E. sinica]]'' and others, were used in [[traditional medicine]] for treating [[headache]] and [[respiratory infection]]s, but there is no scientific evidence they are effective or safe for these purposes.<ref name=nccih/>

==Adverse effects==
Alkaloids obtained from the species of ''Ephedra'' used in herbal medicines, which are used to synthetically prepare [[pseudoephedrine]] and ephedrine, can cause cardiovascular events.<ref name=drugs/> These events have been associated with arrhythmias, palpitations, tachycardia and myocardial infarction.<ref name=drugs/> [[Caffeine]] consumption in combination with ephedrine has been reported to increase the risk of these cardiovascular events.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>

==Economic botany and alkaloid content==
Earliest uses of ''Ephedra'' spp. (mahuang) for specific illnesses date back to 5000 BC. [[Ephedrine]] and [[isomers]] were already isolated in 1881 from ''Ephedra dystachia'' and characterized by the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[organic chemist]] [[Nagai Nagayoshi]] of the 19th century. His work to access ''Ephedra'' drug materials to isolate a pure [[pharmaceutical]] substance, and the systematic production of [[semi-synthetic]] [[Derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s thereof is relevant still today as the three species ''[[Ephedra sinica]]'', ''[[Ephedra vulgaris]]'' and to a lesser extent ''[[Ephedra equisetina]]'' are commercially grown in [[Mainland China]] as a source for natural ephedrines and isomers for use in [[pharmacy]]. ''E. sinica'' and ''E. vulgaris'' usually carry six [[optically active]] [[phenylethylamines]], mostly [[ephedrine]] and [[pseudoephedrine]] with minor amounts of [[norephedrine]], [[Cathine|norpseudoephedrine]] as well as the three [[methylated]] analogs. Reliable information on the total alkaloid content of the crude drug is difficult to obtain. Based on [[HPLC]] analyses in industrial settings, the concentrations of total alkaloids in dried ''Herba Ephedra'' ranged between 1 and 4%, and in some cases up to 6%.<ref>{{cite book | veditors = Brossi A | date = 1989 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aQ16om_WW60C&pg=PA106 | title = The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Pharmacology | volume = 35 | isbn = 0-12-469535-3 }}</ref>

For a review of the [[alkaloid]] distribution in different species of the [[genus]] ''Ephedra'' see Jian-fang Cui (1991).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim HK, Choi YH, Erkelens C, Lefeber AW, Verpoorte R | title = Metabolic fingerprinting of Ephedra species using 1H-NMR spectroscopy and principal component analysis | journal = Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–9 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15635242 | doi = 10.1002/pca.2800020305 }}</ref> Other American and European species of ''Ephedra'', e.g. ''[[Ephedra nevadensis]]'' (Nevada Mormon tea) have not been systematically assayed; based on unpublished field investigations, they contain very low levels (less than 0.1%) or none at all.<ref>Hegnauer R. (1962) "Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen. I". Birkhauser Verlag, Basel; Switzerland, pp. 460–462 as cited in {{cite journal | vauthors = Roman MC | title = Determination of ephedrine alkaloids in botanicals and dietary supplements by HPLC-UV: collaborative study | journal = Journal of AOAC International | volume = 87 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15084081 | pmc = 2584348 | doi = 10.1093/jaoac/87.1.1 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|32em|refs=

<ref name=judd>{{cite book | first1 = Walter S. | last1 = Judd | first2 = Christopher S. | last2 = Campbell | first3 = Elizabeth A. | last3 = Kellog | first4 = Peter F. | last4 = Stevens | first5 = Michael J. | last5 = Donoghue | name-list-style = vanc | date = 2007 | title = Plant Systematics, a phylogenetic approach | edition = 3rd. | publisher = Sinauer associates, Inc. }}</ref>

<ref name=vic>{{cite web | vauthors = Messina A | date = 2014 | url = https://vicflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/flora/taxon/15129edd-fd5c-420c-88ee-a98c9cab2b19 | title = VicFlora: Ephedraceae. | publisher = Royal Botanic Gardens Foundation | location = Victoria, Australia | access-date = 5 July 2019 }}</ref>

<ref name=apg>{{cite web | url = http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ | work = Angiosperm Phylogeny Website | title = Family "Ephedraceae" | access-date = 5 July 2019 }}</ref>

<ref name=dumort>{{cite book | vauthors = Dumortier BC | date = 1829 | url = https://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/idviewer/14540/9 | title = Analyse des familles des plantes, avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent | location = Tournay | publisher = J. Casterman aîné | page = 11 }}</ref>

<ref name=linn>{{cite book | vauthors = Linnaeus C | date = 1753 | url = http://botanicus.org/page/359061 | title = Species Plantarum | volume = 2 | pages = 1040 }}</ref>

<ref name=linn2>{{cite web | vauthors = Linnaeus C | date = 1754 | url = https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/651470 | title = Genera plantarum | volume = 5 | page = 462 }}</ref>

}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ephedra}}
*[http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Ephedra+viridis ''Ephedra viridis'' (Plants for a Future Database)]
*[http://shen-nong.com/eng/herbal/index.html Usage in Chinese Medicine ]
*[https://nccih.nih.gov/health/ephedra Ephedra fact sheet], [[NIH]] National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
*[http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/ephedra--ma-huang/background/hrb-20059270 Ephedrea (Evidence and dosing)], [[Mayo Clinic]]
*[http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/ephedra Ephedra - Clinical summary and mechanism of action], [[MSKCC]] Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
*[http://greif.uni-greifswald.de/floragreif/?fam=Ephedraceae&gen=&spec=&flora_search=taxon Ephedraceae of Mongolia in FloraGREIF]

{{Taxonbar|from1=Q838000|from2=Q12324122}}

[[Category:Gymnosperm genera]]
[[Category:Ephedraceae| ]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Soma (drink)]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances]]
[[Category:Aptian genus first appearances]]
[[Category:Monotypic gymnosperm genera]]
[[Category:Monogeneric families]]

Ephedra (plant) - Revision history

>Hemiauchenia: Ephedrine is better characterised as a stimulant