UpdateBot at 12:30, 25 June 2022

2022-06-25T12:30:48Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:00, 25 June 2022
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	{{EngvarB\|date=April 2015}}		{{EngvarB\|date=April 2015}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2015}}
	'''''Dharmaśāstra''''' ({{lang-sa\|धर्मशास्त्र}}) is a genre of [[Sanskrit]] texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ([[shastras\|śāstras]]) on [[dharma]]. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view.{{refn\|group=note\|[[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] mentions over 100 different Dharmasastra texts which were known by the Middle Ages in India, but most of these are lost to history and their existence is inferred from quotes and citations in [[bhasya]] and digests that have survived.<ref>Kane, P.V. ''History of the Dharmaśāstras'' Vol. 1 p. 304</ref>}} Each of these texts exist in many different versions, and each is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to 1st millennium BCE that emerged from [[Kalpa (Vedanga)]] studies in the Vedic era.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Dharma Shastras" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN\|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 191–192</ref>{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}		'''''Dharmaśāstra''''' ({{lang-sa\|धर्मशास्त्र}}) is a genre of [[Sanskrit]] texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ([[shastras\|śāstras]]) on [[dharma]]. Unlike Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas, these texts are mainly based on Puranas. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view.{{refn\|group=note\|[[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] mentions over 100 different Dharmasastra texts which were known by the Middle Ages in India, but most of these are lost to history and their existence is inferred from quotes and citations in [[bhasya]] and digests that have survived.<ref>Kane, P.V. ''History of the Dharmaśāstras'' Vol. 1 p. 304</ref>}} Each of these texts exist in many different versions, and each is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to 1st millennium BCE that emerged from [[Kalpa (Vedanga)]] studies in the Vedic era.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Dharma Shastras" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN\|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 191–192</ref>{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}

	The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses,{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}} are part of the Hindu [[Smriti]]s,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|pp=173, 175–176, 183}} constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society.<ref>[[Patrick Olivelle]], ''Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' (New York: Oxford UP, 2005), 64.</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume'', ed. S.A.J. Zaidi. (New Delhi, 1972), pp.167–194 and Richard W. Lariviere, "Law and Religion in India" in ''Law, Morality, and Religion: Global Perspectives'', ed. Alan Watson (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp.75–94.</ref> The texts include discussion of [[Ashrama (stage)\|ashrama]] (stages of life), [[varna (Hinduism)\|varna]] (social classes), [[Puruṣārtha\|purushartha]] (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of [[just war]], and other topics.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195171464}}, pages 31–32, 81–82, 154–166, 208–214, 353–354, 356–382</ref><ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0521877046}}, page 13-16, 166–179</ref><ref>{{cite book\|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari\|title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNYS_IlSXYsC\|year=1998\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-1607-7\|pages=88–95}}</ref>		The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses,{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}} are part of the Hindu [[Smriti]]s,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|pp=173, 175–176, 183}} constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society.<ref>[[Patrick Olivelle]], ''Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' (New York: Oxford UP, 2005), 64.</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume'', ed. S.A.J. Zaidi. (New Delhi, 1972), pp.167–194 and Richard W. Lariviere, "Law and Religion in India" in ''Law, Morality, and Religion: Global Perspectives'', ed. Alan Watson (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp.75–94.</ref> The texts include discussion of [[Ashrama (stage)\|ashrama]] (stages of life), [[varna (Hinduism)\|varna]] (social classes), [[Puruṣārtha\|purushartha]] (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of [[just war]], and other topics.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195171464}}, pages 31–32, 81–82, 154–166, 208–214, 353–354, 356–382</ref><ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0521877046}}, page 13-16, 166–179</ref><ref>{{cite book\|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari\|title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNYS_IlSXYsC\|year=1998\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-1607-7\|pages=88–95}}</ref>

	Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early [[British India\|British]] colonial administrators to be the law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in [[South Asia]], after [[Sharia]] i.e. [[Mughal Empire]]'s [[Fatawa-~~e-Alamgiri~~]]<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Jackson\|first1=Roy\|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State\|date=2010\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1=Chapra\|first1=Muhammad Umer\|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance\|date=2014\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing\|isbn=9781783475728\|pages=62–63\|language=en}}</ref> set by Emperor [[Aurangzeb\|Muhammad Aurangzeb]], was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Rocher \|first=Ludo \|date=July–September 1972 \|title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \|volume=92 \|issue=3 \|pages=419–424 \|doi=10.2307/600567 \|jstor=600567}}</ref><ref name="J. Duncan M. Derrett 1961 pp.10">{{cite journal \|last=Derrett \|first=J. Duncan M. \|date=November 1961 \|title=The Administration of Hindu Law by the British \|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=10–52 \|doi=10.1017/S0010417500001213 \|jstor=177940}}</ref><ref name="Werner Menski 2003">Werner Menski (2003), Hindu Law: Beyond tradition and modernity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0-19-569921-0}}, Chapter 1</ref>		Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early [[British India\|British]] colonial administrators to be the law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in [[South Asia]], after [[Sharia]] i.e. [[Mughal Empire]]'s [[Fatawa al-Alamgir]]<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Jackson\|first1=Roy\|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State\|date=2010\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1=Chapra\|first1=Muhammad Umer\|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance\|date=2014\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing\|isbn=9781783475728\|pages=62–63\|language=en}}</ref> set by Emperor [[Aurangzeb\|Muhammad Aurangzeb]], was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Rocher \|first=Ludo \|date=July–September 1972 \|title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \|volume=92 \|issue=3 \|pages=419–424 \|doi=10.2307/600567 \|jstor=600567}}</ref><ref name="J. Duncan M. Derrett 1961 pp.10">{{cite journal \|last=Derrett \|first=J. Duncan M. \|date=November 1961 \|title=The Administration of Hindu Law by the British \|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=10–52 \|doi=10.1017/S0010417500001213 \|jstor=177940}}</ref><ref name="Werner Menski 2003">Werner Menski (2003), Hindu Law: Beyond tradition and modernity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0-19-569921-0}}, Chapter 1</ref>

	==History==		==History==
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	===The Dharmasutras===		===The Dharmasutras===
	The Dharmasutras were numerous, but only four texts have survived into the modern era.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The most important of these texts are the sutras of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasistha.<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 1999">{{Harv\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}</ref> These extant texts cite writers and refer opinions of seventeen authorities, implying that a rich Dharmasutras tradition existed prior to when these texts were composed.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–22, Quote: The dharma-sutra of Apastamba suggests that a rich literature on dharma already existed. He cites ten authors by name. (...)}}{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|pp=178, see note 29 for a list of 17 cited ancient scholars in different Dharmasutras}}		The Dharmasutras were numerous, but only four texts have survived into the modern era.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The most important of these texts are the sutras of [[Apastamba]], [[Gautama Maharishi\|Gautam]], [[Baudhayana]], and [[Vasistha]].<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 1999">{{Harv\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}</ref> These extant texts cite writers and refer opinions of seventeen authorities, implying that a rich Dharmasutras tradition existed prior to when these texts were composed.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–22, Quote: The dharma-sutra of Apastamba suggests that a rich literature on dharma already existed. He cites ten authors by name. (...)}}{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|pp=178, see note 29 for a list of 17 cited ancient scholars in different Dharmasutras}}

	The extant Dharmasutras are written in concise [[sutra]] format,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|p=178}} with a very terse incomplete sentence structure which are difficult to understand and leave much to the reader to interpret.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The Dharmasastras are derivative works on the Dharmasutras, using a [[shloka]] (four 8-syllable verse style [[chandas]] poetry, Anushtubh meter), which are relatively clearer.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}}{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}}		The extant Dharmasutras are written in concise [[sutra]] format,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|p=178}} with a very terse incomplete sentence structure which are difficult to understand and leave much to the reader to interpret.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The Dharmasastras are derivative works on the Dharmasutras, using a [[shloka]] (four 8-syllable verse style [[chandas]] poetry, Anushtubh meter), which are relatively clearer.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}}{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}}
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	# [[Gautama Dharmasutra\|Gautama]] (600–200 BCE) although this Dharmasūtra comes down as an independent treatise it may have once formed a part of the Kalpasūtra, linked to the [[Samaveda]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=19}} It is likely the oldest extant Dharma text, and originated in what is modern [[Maharashtra]]-[[Gujarat]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–20}} It contains 973 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=46}}		# [[Gautama Dharmasutra\|Gautama]] (600–200 BCE) although this Dharmasūtra comes down as an independent treatise it may have once formed a part of the Kalpasūtra, linked to the [[Samaveda]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=19}} It is likely the oldest extant Dharma text, and originated in what is modern [[Maharashtra]]-[[Gujarat]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–20}} It contains 973 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=46}}
	# [[Baudhāyana]] (500–200 BCE) this Dharmasūtra like that of Apastamba also forms a part of the larger Kalpasūtra. It contains 1,236 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}		# [[Baudhāyana]] (500–200 BCE) this Dharmasūtra like that of Apastamba also forms a part of the larger Kalpasūtra. It contains 1,236 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}
	# [[~~Vāsiṣṭha~~]] (300–100 BCE) this Dharmasūtra forms an independent treatise and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=18}} It contains 1,038 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}		# [[Vasishtha]] (300–100 BCE) this Dharmasūtra forms an independent treatise and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=18}} It contains 1,038 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}
	</blockquote>		</blockquote>

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	\|[[Warren Hastings]]\|August 15, 1772<ref name=rocherresponse>{{cite journal \| last=Rocher \| first=Ludo \| title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \| journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \| publisher=JSTOR \| volume=92 \| issue=3 \| year=1972 \| pages=419–424 \| doi=10.2307/600567 \| jstor=600567 }}</ref>}}		\|[[Warren Hastings]]\|August 15, 1772<ref name=rocherresponse>{{cite journal \| last=Rocher \| first=Ludo \| title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \| journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \| publisher=JSTOR \| volume=92 \| issue=3 \| year=1972 \| pages=419–424 \| doi=10.2307/600567 \| jstor=600567 }}</ref>}}

	For [[~~Muslims~~ in ~~India~~\|Muslims of India]], the [[Sharia]] or the religious law for Muslims was ~~readily~~ available in [[Al-Hidayah\|al-Hidaya]] and [[Fatawa-~~i-Alamgiri\|Fatawa-i Alamgiri~~]] written under the sponsorship of [[Aurangzeb]]. ~~For Hindus and other~~ non-Muslims such as ~~Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains,~~ [[Parsis]] ~~and Tribal people~~, this information was ~~unavailable~~.<ref name=timlubin/> ~~The~~ British colonial officials extracted from the Dharmaśāstra, the legal code to apply on non-Muslims for the purposes of colonial administration.<ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume''. ed. S.A.J. Zaidi (New Delhi, 1972), 190–1.</ref><ref>J.D.M. Derrett, ''Religion, Law, and the State in India'' (London: Faber, 1968), 96; For a related distinction between religious and secular law in Dharmaśāstra, see {{cite journal \|last=Lubin \|first=Timothy \|date=2007 \|title=Punishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law \|ssrn=1084716 \|journal=Indologica Taurinensia \|volume=33 \|pages=93–122}}</ref>		For [[Islam in South Asia\|Muslims of British India]], the [[Sharia]] or the religious law for Muslims was easily available in [[Al-Hidayah\|al-Hidaya]] and [[Fatawa al-Alamgir]] written under the sponsorship of [[Aurangzeb]]. But for non-Muslims (followers of [[Dharmic religions]] and others such as Tribal people and [[Parsis]]), this information was not readily available.<ref name=timlubin/> Hence the British colonial officials extracted from the Dharmaśāstra, the legal code to apply on non-Muslims for the purposes of colonial administration.<ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume''. ed. S.A.J. Zaidi (New Delhi, 1972), 190–1.</ref><ref>J.D.M. Derrett, ''Religion, Law, and the State in India'' (London: Faber, 1968), 96; For a related distinction between religious and secular law in Dharmaśāstra, see {{cite journal \|last=Lubin \|first=Timothy \|date=2007 \|title=Punishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law \|ssrn=1084716 \|journal=Indologica Taurinensia \|volume=33 \|pages=93–122}}</ref>

	The Dharmashastra-derived laws for non-Muslim Indians were dissolved after India gained independence, but Indian Muslim Personal Law ([[Sharia]]t) Application Act of 1937 continued to be the personal and family law for Indian Muslims.<ref name=gjlarson2001/> For non-Muslims, a non-religious uniform civil code was passed by Indian parliament in the 1950s, and amended by its elected governments thereafter, which has since then applied to all non-Muslim Indians.<ref name=gjlarson2001>{{cite book\|author=Gerald James Larson \|title=Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGV3noHZ1QMC \|year=2001\|publisher=Indiana University Press \|isbn=0-253-21480-7 \|pages=50–56, 112–114 }}</ref>		The Dharmashastra-derived laws for non-Muslim Indians were dissolved after India gained independence, but Indian Muslim Personal Law ([[Sharia]]t) Application Act of 1937 continued to be the personal and family law for Indian Muslims.<ref name=gjlarson2001/> For non-Muslims, a non-religious uniform civil code was passed by Indian parliament in the 1950s, and amended by its elected governments thereafter, which has since then applied to all non-Muslim Indians.<ref name=gjlarson2001>{{cite book\|author=Gerald James Larson \|title=Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGV3noHZ1QMC \|year=2001\|publisher=Indiana University Press \|isbn=0-253-21480-7 \|pages=50–56, 112–114 }}</ref>

ImportMaster at 16:10, 28 October 2021

2021-10-28T16:10:53Z

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← Older revision		Revision as of 18:00, 25 June 2022
Line 5:		Line 5:
	{{EngvarB\|date=April 2015}}		{{EngvarB\|date=April 2015}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2015}}
	'''''Dharmaśāstra''''' ({{lang-sa\|धर्मशास्त्र}}) is a genre of [[Sanskrit]] texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ([[shastras\|śāstras]]) on [[dharma]]. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view.{{refn\|group=note\|[[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] mentions over 100 different Dharmasastra texts which were known by the Middle Ages in India, but most of these are lost to history and their existence is inferred from quotes and citations in [[bhasya]] and digests that have survived.<ref>Kane, P.V. ''History of the Dharmaśāstras'' Vol. 1 p. 304</ref>}} Each of these texts exist in many different versions, and each is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to 1st millennium BCE that emerged from [[Kalpa (Vedanga)]] studies in the Vedic era.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Dharma Shastras" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN\|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 191–192</ref>{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}		'''''Dharmaśāstra''''' ({{lang-sa\|धर्मशास्त्र}}) is a genre of [[Sanskrit]] texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ([[shastras\|śāstras]]) on [[dharma]]. Unlike Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas, these texts are mainly based on Puranas. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view.{{refn\|group=note\|[[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] mentions over 100 different Dharmasastra texts which were known by the Middle Ages in India, but most of these are lost to history and their existence is inferred from quotes and citations in [[bhasya]] and digests that have survived.<ref>Kane, P.V. ''History of the Dharmaśāstras'' Vol. 1 p. 304</ref>}} Each of these texts exist in many different versions, and each is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to 1st millennium BCE that emerged from [[Kalpa (Vedanga)]] studies in the Vedic era.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Dharma Shastras" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN\|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 191–192</ref>{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}

	The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses,{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}} are part of the Hindu [[Smriti]]s,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|pp=173, 175–176, 183}} constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society.<ref>[[Patrick Olivelle]], ''Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' (New York: Oxford UP, 2005), 64.</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume'', ed. S.A.J. Zaidi. (New Delhi, 1972), pp.167–194 and Richard W. Lariviere, "Law and Religion in India" in ''Law, Morality, and Religion: Global Perspectives'', ed. Alan Watson (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp.75–94.</ref> The texts include discussion of [[Ashrama (stage)\|ashrama]] (stages of life), [[varna (Hinduism)\|varna]] (social classes), [[Puruṣārtha\|purushartha]] (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of [[just war]], and other topics.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195171464}}, pages 31–32, 81–82, 154–166, 208–214, 353–354, 356–382</ref><ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0521877046}}, page 13-16, 166–179</ref><ref>{{cite book\|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari\|title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNYS_IlSXYsC\|year=1998\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-1607-7\|pages=88–95}}</ref>		The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses,{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}} are part of the Hindu [[Smriti]]s,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|pp=173, 175–176, 183}} constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society.<ref>[[Patrick Olivelle]], ''Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' (New York: Oxford UP, 2005), 64.</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume'', ed. S.A.J. Zaidi. (New Delhi, 1972), pp.167–194 and Richard W. Lariviere, "Law and Religion in India" in ''Law, Morality, and Religion: Global Perspectives'', ed. Alan Watson (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp.75–94.</ref> The texts include discussion of [[Ashrama (stage)\|ashrama]] (stages of life), [[varna (Hinduism)\|varna]] (social classes), [[Puruṣārtha\|purushartha]] (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of [[just war]], and other topics.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195171464}}, pages 31–32, 81–82, 154–166, 208–214, 353–354, 356–382</ref><ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0521877046}}, page 13-16, 166–179</ref><ref>{{cite book\|author=Kedar Nath Tiwari\|title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNYS_IlSXYsC\|year=1998\|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass\|isbn=978-81-208-1607-7\|pages=88–95}}</ref>

	Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early [[British India\|British]] colonial administrators to be the law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in [[South Asia]], after [[Sharia]] i.e. [[Mughal Empire]]'s [[Fatawa-~~e-Alamgiri~~]]<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Jackson\|first1=Roy\|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State\|date=2010\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1=Chapra\|first1=Muhammad Umer\|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance\|date=2014\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing\|isbn=9781783475728\|pages=62–63\|language=en}}</ref> set by Emperor [[Aurangzeb\|Muhammad Aurangzeb]], was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Rocher \|first=Ludo \|date=July–September 1972 \|title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \|volume=92 \|issue=3 \|pages=419–424 \|doi=10.2307/600567 \|jstor=600567}}</ref><ref name="J. Duncan M. Derrett 1961 pp.10">{{cite journal \|last=Derrett \|first=J. Duncan M. \|date=November 1961 \|title=The Administration of Hindu Law by the British \|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=10–52 \|doi=10.1017/S0010417500001213 \|jstor=177940}}</ref><ref name="Werner Menski 2003">Werner Menski (2003), Hindu Law: Beyond tradition and modernity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0-19-569921-0}}, Chapter 1</ref>		Dharmaśāstra became influential in modern colonial India history, when they were formulated by early [[British India\|British]] colonial administrators to be the law of the land for all non-Muslims (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs) in [[South Asia]], after [[Sharia]] i.e. [[Mughal Empire]]'s [[Fatawa al-Alamgir]]<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Jackson\|first1=Roy\|title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State\|date=2010\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136950360}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|last1=Chapra\|first1=Muhammad Umer\|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance\|date=2014\|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing\|isbn=9781783475728\|pages=62–63\|language=en}}</ref> set by Emperor [[Aurangzeb\|Muhammad Aurangzeb]], was already accepted as the law for Muslims in colonial India.<ref>{{cite journal \|last=Rocher \|first=Ludo \|date=July–September 1972 \|title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \|volume=92 \|issue=3 \|pages=419–424 \|doi=10.2307/600567 \|jstor=600567}}</ref><ref name="J. Duncan M. Derrett 1961 pp.10">{{cite journal \|last=Derrett \|first=J. Duncan M. \|date=November 1961 \|title=The Administration of Hindu Law by the British \|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|volume=4 \|issue=1 \|pages=10–52 \|doi=10.1017/S0010417500001213 \|jstor=177940}}</ref><ref name="Werner Menski 2003">Werner Menski (2003), Hindu Law: Beyond tradition and modernity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0-19-569921-0}}, Chapter 1</ref>

	==History==		==History==
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	===The Dharmasutras===		===The Dharmasutras===
	The Dharmasutras were numerous, but only four texts have survived into the modern era.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The most important of these texts are the sutras of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasistha.<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 1999">{{Harv\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}</ref> These extant texts cite writers and refer opinions of seventeen authorities, implying that a rich Dharmasutras tradition existed prior to when these texts were composed.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–22, Quote: The dharma-sutra of Apastamba suggests that a rich literature on dharma already existed. He cites ten authors by name. (...)}}{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|pp=178, see note 29 for a list of 17 cited ancient scholars in different Dharmasutras}}		The Dharmasutras were numerous, but only four texts have survived into the modern era.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The most important of these texts are the sutras of [[Apastamba]], [[Gautama Maharishi\|Gautam]], [[Baudhayana]], and [[Vasistha]].<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 1999">{{Harv\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pages=xxiii–xxv}}</ref> These extant texts cite writers and refer opinions of seventeen authorities, implying that a rich Dharmasutras tradition existed prior to when these texts were composed.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–22, Quote: The dharma-sutra of Apastamba suggests that a rich literature on dharma already existed. He cites ten authors by name. (...)}}{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|pp=178, see note 29 for a list of 17 cited ancient scholars in different Dharmasutras}}

	The extant Dharmasutras are written in concise [[sutra]] format,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|p=178}} with a very terse incomplete sentence structure which are difficult to understand and leave much to the reader to interpret.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The Dharmasastras are derivative works on the Dharmasutras, using a [[shloka]] (four 8-syllable verse style [[chandas]] poetry, Anushtubh meter), which are relatively clearer.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}}{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}}		The extant Dharmasutras are written in concise [[sutra]] format,{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle\|2006\|p=178}} with a very terse incomplete sentence structure which are difficult to understand and leave much to the reader to interpret.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}} The Dharmasastras are derivative works on the Dharmasutras, using a [[shloka]] (four 8-syllable verse style [[chandas]] poetry, Anushtubh meter), which are relatively clearer.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|1999 \|pp=xxiv–xxv}}{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=73}}
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	# [[Gautama Dharmasutra\|Gautama]] (600–200 BCE) although this Dharmasūtra comes down as an independent treatise it may have once formed a part of the Kalpasūtra, linked to the [[Samaveda]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=19}} It is likely the oldest extant Dharma text, and originated in what is modern [[Maharashtra]]-[[Gujarat]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–20}} It contains 973 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=46}}		# [[Gautama Dharmasutra\|Gautama]] (600–200 BCE) although this Dharmasūtra comes down as an independent treatise it may have once formed a part of the Kalpasūtra, linked to the [[Samaveda]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=19}} It is likely the oldest extant Dharma text, and originated in what is modern [[Maharashtra]]-[[Gujarat]].{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|pp=19–20}} It contains 973 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=46}}
	# [[Baudhāyana]] (500–200 BCE) this Dharmasūtra like that of Apastamba also forms a part of the larger Kalpasūtra. It contains 1,236 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}		# [[Baudhāyana]] (500–200 BCE) this Dharmasūtra like that of Apastamba also forms a part of the larger Kalpasūtra. It contains 1,236 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}
	# [[~~Vāsiṣṭha~~]] (300–100 BCE) this Dharmasūtra forms an independent treatise and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=18}} It contains 1,038 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}		# [[Vasishtha]] (300–100 BCE) this Dharmasūtra forms an independent treatise and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing.{{Sfn\|Robert Lingat\|1973\|p=18}} It contains 1,038 sutras.{{Sfn\|Patrick Olivelle \|2006\|page=185}}
	</blockquote>		</blockquote>

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	\|[[Warren Hastings]]\|August 15, 1772<ref name=rocherresponse>{{cite journal \| last=Rocher \| first=Ludo \| title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \| journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \| publisher=JSTOR \| volume=92 \| issue=3 \| year=1972 \| pages=419–424 \| doi=10.2307/600567 \| jstor=600567 }}</ref>}}		\|[[Warren Hastings]]\|August 15, 1772<ref name=rocherresponse>{{cite journal \| last=Rocher \| first=Ludo \| title=Indian Response to Anglo-Hindu Law \| journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society \| publisher=JSTOR \| volume=92 \| issue=3 \| year=1972 \| pages=419–424 \| doi=10.2307/600567 \| jstor=600567 }}</ref>}}

	For [[~~Muslims~~ in ~~India~~\|Muslims of India]], the [[Sharia]] or the religious law for Muslims was ~~readily~~ available in [[Al-Hidayah\|al-Hidaya]] and [[Fatawa-~~i-Alamgiri\|Fatawa-i Alamgiri~~]] written under the sponsorship of [[Aurangzeb]]. ~~For Hindus and other~~ non-Muslims such as ~~Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains,~~ [[Parsis]] ~~and Tribal people~~, this information was ~~unavailable~~.<ref name=timlubin/> ~~The~~ British colonial officials extracted from the Dharmaśāstra, the legal code to apply on non-Muslims for the purposes of colonial administration.<ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume''. ed. S.A.J. Zaidi (New Delhi, 1972), 190–1.</ref><ref>J.D.M. Derrett, ''Religion, Law, and the State in India'' (London: Faber, 1968), 96; For a related distinction between religious and secular law in Dharmaśāstra, see {{cite journal \|last=Lubin \|first=Timothy \|date=2007 \|title=Punishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law \|ssrn=1084716 \|journal=Indologica Taurinensia \|volume=33 \|pages=93–122}}</ref>		For [[Islam in South Asia\|Muslims of British India]], the [[Sharia]] or the religious law for Muslims was easily available in [[Al-Hidayah\|al-Hidaya]] and [[Fatawa al-Alamgir]] written under the sponsorship of [[Aurangzeb]]. But for non-Muslims (followers of [[Dharmic religions]] and others such as Tribal people and [[Parsis]]), this information was not readily available.<ref name=timlubin/> Hence the British colonial officials extracted from the Dharmaśāstra, the legal code to apply on non-Muslims for the purposes of colonial administration.<ref>Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" in ''Malik Ram Felicitation Volume''. ed. S.A.J. Zaidi (New Delhi, 1972), 190–1.</ref><ref>J.D.M. Derrett, ''Religion, Law, and the State in India'' (London: Faber, 1968), 96; For a related distinction between religious and secular law in Dharmaśāstra, see {{cite journal \|last=Lubin \|first=Timothy \|date=2007 \|title=Punishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law \|ssrn=1084716 \|journal=Indologica Taurinensia \|volume=33 \|pages=93–122}}</ref>

	The Dharmashastra-derived laws for non-Muslim Indians were dissolved after India gained independence, but Indian Muslim Personal Law ([[Sharia]]t) Application Act of 1937 continued to be the personal and family law for Indian Muslims.<ref name=gjlarson2001/> For non-Muslims, a non-religious uniform civil code was passed by Indian parliament in the 1950s, and amended by its elected governments thereafter, which has since then applied to all non-Muslim Indians.<ref name=gjlarson2001>{{cite book\|author=Gerald James Larson \|title=Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGV3noHZ1QMC \|year=2001\|publisher=Indiana University Press \|isbn=0-253-21480-7 \|pages=50–56, 112–114 }}</ref>		The Dharmashastra-derived laws for non-Muslim Indians were dissolved after India gained independence, but Indian Muslim Personal Law ([[Sharia]]t) Application Act of 1937 continued to be the personal and family law for Indian Muslims.<ref name=gjlarson2001/> For non-Muslims, a non-religious uniform civil code was passed by Indian parliament in the 1950s, and amended by its elected governments thereafter, which has since then applied to all non-Muslim Indians.<ref name=gjlarson2001>{{cite book\|author=Gerald James Larson \|title=Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGV3noHZ1QMC \|year=2001\|publisher=Indiana University Press \|isbn=0-253-21480-7 \|pages=50–56, 112–114 }}</ref>

Dharmaśāstra - Revision history

UpdateBot at 12:30, 25 June 2022

ImportMaster at 16:10, 28 October 2021