City - Revision history

WikiDwarfBOT at 01:26, 15 October 2022

2022-10-15T01:26:20Z

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:36, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:36:40Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:06, 18 March 2022
Line 472:		Line 472:
	* [[Arnold J. Toynbee\|Toynbee, Arnold J.]] (ed), ''Cities of Destiny'', New York: [[McGraw-Hill]], 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis".		* [[Arnold J. Toynbee\|Toynbee, Arnold J.]] (ed), ''Cities of Destiny'', New York: [[McGraw-Hill]], 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis".
	* [[Max Weber\|Weber, Max]], ''[[The City (Weber book)\|The City]]'', 1921. (tr. 1958)		* [[Max Weber\|Weber, Max]], ''[[The City (Weber book)\|The City]]'', 1921. (tr. 1958)

			==External links==
			{{wiktionary\|city\|urban\|metropolis}}
			{{Sister project links\|commons=Category:Cities\|wikt=city\|s=Cities}}
			* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170710184532/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm World Urbanization Prospects], Website of the United Nations Population Division
			* [http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS Urban population (% of total)] – World Bank website based on UN data.
			* [https://www.statista.com/statistics/270860/urbanization-by-continent/ Degree of urbanization (percentage of urban population in total population) by continent in 2016] – [[Statista]], based on [[Population Reference Bureau]] data.
			* {{Curlie\|Science/Social_Sciences/Geography/Human_Geography\|Human Geography}}
			* {{Curlie\|Science/Social_Sciences/Urban_and_Regional_Planning\|Urban and Regional Planning}}

			{{City topics\|state=expanded}}
			{{Land-use planning}}
			{{Terms for types of administrative territorial entities}}

			{{Authority control}}

			[[Category:City\| ]]
			[[Category:Cities]]
			[[Category:Urban geography]]
			[[Category:Populated places by type]]
			[[Category:Types of populated places]]

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:36, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:36:08Z

@@ Line 418: / Line 418: @@
 {{notelist}}
-== Notes ==
+==References==
-{{notelist}}
+{{Reflist}}

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:35, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:35:36Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:05, 18 March 2022
Line 415:		Line 415:
	* [[Urbanization]]		* [[Urbanization]]
	* '''''<small>{{portal-inline\|Cities}}</small>'''''		* '''''<small>{{portal-inline\|Cities}}</small>'''''
			== Notes ==
			{{notelist}}

	== Notes ==		== Notes ==
	{{notelist}}		{{notelist}}

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:34, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:34:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:04, 18 March 2022
Line 415:		Line 415:
	* [[Urbanization]]		* [[Urbanization]]
	* '''''<small>{{portal-inline\|Cities}}</small>'''''		* '''''<small>{{portal-inline\|Cities}}</small>'''''

			== Notes ==
			{{notelist}}

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:33, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:33:53Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:03, 18 March 2022
Line 405:		Line 405:

	Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both [[utopian]] and [[dystopian]]. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as [[Nylonkong]] (New York, London, Hong Kong)<ref>Curtis (2016), pp. vii–x, 1.</ref> and visions of a single world-encompassing [[ecumenopolis]].<ref>[[Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis]], ''[http://www.doxiadis.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=14929 Ecumenopolis: Tomorrow's City]''; Britannica Book of the Year, 1968. Chapter V: Ecumenopolis, the Real City of Man. "Ecumenopolis, which mankind will have built 150 years from now, can be the real city of man because, for the first time in history, man will have one city rather than many cities belonging to different national, racial, religious, or local groups, each ready to protect its own members but also ready to fight those from other cities, large and small, interconnected into a system of cities. Ecumenopolis, the unique city of man, will form a continuous, differentiated, but also unified texture consisting of many cells, the human communities."</ref>		Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both [[utopian]] and [[dystopian]]. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as [[Nylonkong]] (New York, London, Hong Kong)<ref>Curtis (2016), pp. vii–x, 1.</ref> and visions of a single world-encompassing [[ecumenopolis]].<ref>[[Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis]], ''[http://www.doxiadis.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=14929 Ecumenopolis: Tomorrow's City]''; Britannica Book of the Year, 1968. Chapter V: Ecumenopolis, the Real City of Man. "Ecumenopolis, which mankind will have built 150 years from now, can be the real city of man because, for the first time in history, man will have one city rather than many cities belonging to different national, racial, religious, or local groups, each ready to protect its own members but also ready to fight those from other cities, large and small, interconnected into a system of cities. Ecumenopolis, the unique city of man, will form a continuous, differentiated, but also unified texture consisting of many cells, the human communities."</ref>
			==See also==
			* [[Lists of cities]]
			* [[List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities]]
			* [[Lost city]]
			* [[Metropolis]]
			* [[Compact City]]
			* [[Megacity]]
			* [[Settlement hierarchy]]
			* [[Urbanization]]
			* '''''<small>{{portal-inline\|Cities}}</small>'''''

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:33, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:33:04Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:03, 18 March 2022
Line 395:		Line 395:

	The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, [[UNESCO]] has increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing [[cultural governance]]. It has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select [[World Heritage Sites]] gives the organization significant influence over [[cultural capital]], [[tourism]], and [[historic preservation]] funding.<ref name=DuxburyJeannotte2013 />		The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, [[UNESCO]] has increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing [[cultural governance]]. It has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select [[World Heritage Sites]] gives the organization significant influence over [[cultural capital]], [[tourism]], and [[historic preservation]] funding.<ref name=DuxburyJeannotte2013 />

			== Representation in culture ==
			[[File:The fall of Babylon; Cyrus the Great defeating the Chaldean Wellcome V0034440.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|[[John Martin (painter)\|John Martin]]'s ''The Fall of Babylon'' (1831), depicting chaos as the Persian army occupies Babylon, also symbolizes the ruin of decadent civilization in modern times. Lightning striking the [[Etemenanki\|Babylonian ziggurat]] (also representing the [[Tower of Babel]]) indicates God's judgment against the city.]]{{Further\|urban fiction\|Cities in fiction}}
			Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the [[Bible]] in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by [[Babylon]] and [[Jerusalem]].<ref>Ellul (1970).</ref> [[Cain]] and [[Nimrod]] are the first city builders in the [[Book of Genesis]]. In Sumerian mythology [[Gilgamesh]] built the walls of [[Uruk]].

			Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.<ref>Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson, "City Imaginaries", in Bridge & Watson, eds. (2000).</ref> The name [[anti-urbanism]] refers to various types of ideological opposition to cities, whether because of their culture or their political relationship with [[Rural area\|the country]]. Such opposition may result from identification of cities with oppression and the ruling [[elite]].<ref>Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 7–8. "Growing inequalities as a result of neo-liberal globalism, such as between the successful cities and the less successful, struggling, often peripheral, cities and regions, produce rising political discontent, such as we are now facing across Europe and in the United States as populist accusations of self-serving metropolitan elitism."</ref> This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in [[discourse]] about cities.<ref name=Lynch2008p678 /> In turn, cities symbolize their home societies.<ref>[[J.E. Cirlot]], "City"; ''A Dictionary of Symbols'', Second Edition, translated from Spanish to English by Jack Read; New York: Philosophical Library, 1971; pp. 48–49 ([https://archive.org/stream/DictionaryOfSymbols/Dictionary%20of%20Symbols#page/n103/mode/2up online]).</ref>

			Writers, painters, and filmmakers have produced innumerable works of art concerning the urban experience. Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of ''[[List of literary descriptions of cities (before 1550)\|descriptiones]]'' which treat of city features and history. Modern authors such as [[Charles Dickens]] and [[James Joyce]] are famous for evocative descriptions of their home cities.<ref>Latham et al. (2009), p. 115.</ref> [[Fritz Lang]] conceived the idea for his influential 1927 film ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)\|Metropolis]]'' while visiting [[Times Square]] and marveling at the nighttime [[neon light]]ing.<ref>Leach (1993), p. 345. "The German film director Fritz Lang was inspired to 'make a film' about 'the sensations' he felt when he first saw Times Square in 1923; a place 'lit as if in full daylight by neon lights and topping them oversized luminous advertisements moving, turning, flashing on and off ... something completely new and nearly fairly-tale-like for a European ... a luxurious cloth hung from a dark sky to dazzle, distract, and hypnotize.' The film Lang made turned out to be ''The Metropolis'', an unremittingly dark vision of a modern industrial city.</ref> Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport. By the 1960s, however, [[traffic congestion]] began to appear in such films as ''[[The Fast Lady]]'' (1962) and ''[[Playtime]]'' (1967).<ref name=Borden />

			Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both [[utopian]] and [[dystopian]]. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as [[Nylonkong]] (New York, London, Hong Kong)<ref>Curtis (2016), pp. vii–x, 1.</ref> and visions of a single world-encompassing [[ecumenopolis]].<ref>[[Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis]], ''[http://www.doxiadis.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=14929 Ecumenopolis: Tomorrow's City]''; Britannica Book of the Year, 1968. Chapter V: Ecumenopolis, the Real City of Man. "Ecumenopolis, which mankind will have built 150 years from now, can be the real city of man because, for the first time in history, man will have one city rather than many cities belonging to different national, racial, religious, or local groups, each ready to protect its own members but also ready to fight those from other cities, large and small, interconnected into a system of cities. Ecumenopolis, the unique city of man, will form a continuous, differentiated, but also unified texture consisting of many cells, the human communities."</ref>

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:31, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:31:44Z

Show changes

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:31, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:31:08Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:01, 18 March 2022
Line 299:		Line 299:
	== Housing ==		== Housing ==
	[[Housing]] of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical [[Shelter (building)\|shelters]] but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.<ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.</ref> [[Owner-occupancy\|Home ownership]] represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to [[renting]] which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. [[Homelessness]], or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.<ref>Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>		[[Housing]] of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical [[Shelter (building)\|shelters]] but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.<ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.</ref> [[Owner-occupancy\|Home ownership]] represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to [[renting]] which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. [[Homelessness]], or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.<ref>Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>
			==Ecology==
			[[File:Trash in Paramaribo.JPG\|thumb\|This urban scene in [[Paramaribo]] features a few plants growing amidst [[solid waste]] and [[rubble]] behind some [[house]]s.]]
			{{Main\|Urban ecology}}

			Urban [[ecosystems]], influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and activities differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings. Anthropogenic [[buildings]] and [[waste]], as well as [[Agriculture\|cultivation]] in [[gardens]], create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in [[wilderness]], in some cases enabling exceptional [[biodiversity]]. They provide homes not only for immigrant humans but also for [[introduced species\|immigrant plants]], bringing about interactions between species which never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent [[disturbance (ecology)\|disturbances]] (construction, walking) to plant and animal [[habitat]]s, creating opportunities for [[Secondary succession\|recolonization]] and thus favoring [[ecological succession\|young ecosystems]] with [[r/K selection theory\|r-selected species]] dominant. On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.<ref>Franz Rebele, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2997649 Urban Ecology and Special Features of Urban Ecosystems]", ''Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters'' 4(6), November 1994.</ref><ref>Herbert Sukopp, "On the Early History of Urban Ecology in Europe"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref><ref name=PickettEtAl2008>S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, & R. Costanza, "Urban Ecological Systems: Linking Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan Areas"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref><ref>Ingo Kowarik, "On the Role of Alien Species in Urban Flora and Vegetation"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref>

			Typical urban [[fauna]] include [[insect]]s (especially [[ant]]s), [[rodent]]s ([[mouse\|mice]], [[rat]]s), and [[bird]]s, as well as [[cat]]s and [[dog]]s ([[domestication\|domesticated]] and [[feral]]). Large [[predator]]s are scarce.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			[[File:Urban heat island (Celsius).png\|thumb\|left\|Profile of an [[urban heat island]].]]

			Cities generate considerable [[ecological footprint]]s, locally and at longer distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one perspective, cities are not ecologically [[sustainable]] due to their resource needs. From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects.<ref>Roberto Camagni, Roberta Capello, & Peter Nijkamp, "Managing Sustainable Urban Environments"; in Paddison (2001).</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.michellenijhuis.com/ \|title=National Geographic Magazine; Special report 2008: Changing Climate: Village Green \|publisher=Michelle Nijhuis \|date=2008-08-26 \|access-date=2009-02-07}}</ref> [[Air pollution]] arises from various forms of combustion,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.aklung.org/air-quality/indoor-air-quality/ \|title=Indoor Air Quality – American Lung Association of Alaska \|publisher=Aklung.org \|access-date=2009-02-07 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211234047/http://www.aklung.org/air-quality/indoor-air-quality/ \|archive-date=2009-02-11 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/20/epa-put-fairbanks-air-pollution-problem-list/ \|title=Newsminer.com; EPA to put Fairbanks on air pollution problem list \|publisher=Newsminer.com \|date=2008-08-20 \|access-date=2009-02-07 }}{{dead link\|date=December 2017 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and [[internal combustion engine]]s. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are notorious for veils of [[smog]] (industrial [[haze]]) which envelop them, posing a chronic threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants.<ref name=Adey2013>Peter Adey, "Coming up for Air: Comfort, Conflict and the Air of the Megacity"; in Brighenti (2013), p. 103.</ref> Urban soil contains higher concentrations of [[heavy metals]] (especially [[lead]], [[copper]], and [[nickel]]) and has lower [[pH]] than soil in comparable wilderness.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			Modern cities are known for creating their own [[microclimate]]s, due to [[concrete]], [[asphalt]], and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in [[sunlight]] and channel [[rain]]water into [[storm sewer\|underground ducts]]. The [[Geography of New York City#Climate\|temperature in New York City]] exceeds [[Climate of New York\|nearby rural temperatures]] by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes (independently of the city's physical size).<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 /><ref>Anthony Brazel, Nancy Selover, Russel Vose, & Gordon Heisler, "[https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr/15/c015p123.pdf The tale of two climates – Baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites]"; ''Climate Research'' 15, 2000.</ref> Aerial [[particulate]]s increase rainfall by 5–10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby country.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks (known as [[environmental racism]] when intersecting also with racial segregation). For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).<ref>Sharon L. Harlan, Anthony J. Brazel, G. Darrel Jenerette, Nancy S. Jones, Larissa Larsen, Lela Prashad, & William L. Stefanov, "In the Shade of Affluence: The Inequitable Distribution of the Urban Heat Island"; in Robert C. Wilkinson & William R. Freudenburg, eds., ''Equity and the Environment'' (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, Volume 15); Oxford: JAI Press (Elsevier); {{ISBN\|978-0-7623-1417-1}}.</ref>

			[[File:Dublin Stephen's Green-44 edit.jpg\|thumb\|[[St Stephen's Green]], an [[urban park]] in [[Dublin]], Ireland]]
			One of the main methods of improving the urban ecology is including in the cities more natural areas: [[Park]]s, [[Garden]]s, [[Lawn]]s, and [[Tree]]s. These areas improve the health, the well-being of the human, animal, and plant population of the cities.<ref name="fuller">{{cite journal\|last1=Fuller\|first1=R.A.\|last2=Irvine\|first2=K.N.\|last3=Devine-Wright\|first3=P.\|last4=Warren\|first4=P.H.\|last5=Gaston\|first5=K.J.\|year=2007\|title=Psychological benefits of green-space increase with biodiversity\|journal=Biology Letters\|volume=3\|issue=4\|pages=390–394\|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149\|pmc=2390667\|pmid=17504734}}</ref> Generally they are called [[Urban open space]] (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening. Well-maintained urban trees can provide many social, ecological, and physical benefits to the residents of the city.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Turner-Skoff\|first1=J. \|last2=Cavender\|first2=N. \|title=The Benefits of Trees for Livable and Sustainable Communities \|journal=Plants, People, Planet \|volume=1 \|issue=4 \|pages=323–335 \|year=2019 \|doi=10.1002/ppp3.39\|doi-access=free }}</ref>

			A study published in Nature's Scientific Reports journal in 2019 found that people who spent at least two hours per week in nature, were 23 percent more likely to be satisfied with their life and were 59 percent more likely to be in good health than those who had zero exposure. The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK. Benefits increased for up to 300 minutes of exposure. The benefits applied to men and women of all ages, as well as across different ethnicities, socioeconomic status, and even those with long-term illnesses and disabilities.

			[[File:Central Park - The Pond (48377220157).jpg\|thumb\|left\|[[Central Park]] in [[New York City]]]]
			People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.

			The study is the latest addition to a compelling body of evidence for the health benefits of nature. Many doctors already give nature prescriptions to their patients.

			The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. "Even visiting local [[urban green space]]s seems to be a good thing," Dr. White said in a press release. "Two hours a week is hopefully a realistic target for many people, especially given that it can be spread over an entire week to get the benefit.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Sam Nickerson \|first1=Sam \|title=Two Hours a Week in Nature Can Boost Your Health and Well-Being, Research Finds \|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/nature-time-health-wellness-2638941663.html \|access-date=23 June 2019 \|agency=Ecowatch \|date=June 21, 2019}}</ref>"

Dhaneesh Ram at 15:30, 18 March 2022

2022-03-18T15:30:40Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:00, 18 March 2022
Line 296:		Line 296:

	{{clear\|left}}		{{clear\|left}}

			== Housing ==
			[[Housing]] of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical [[Shelter (building)\|shelters]] but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.<ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.</ref> [[Owner-occupancy\|Home ownership]] represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to [[renting]] which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. [[Homelessness]], or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.<ref>Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>

← Older revision		Revision as of 21:01, 18 March 2022
Line 299:		Line 299:
	== Housing ==		== Housing ==
	[[Housing]] of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical [[Shelter (building)\|shelters]] but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.<ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.</ref> [[Owner-occupancy\|Home ownership]] represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to [[renting]] which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. [[Homelessness]], or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.<ref>Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>		[[Housing]] of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical [[Shelter (building)\|shelters]] but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.<ref>McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food.</ref> [[Owner-occupancy\|Home ownership]] represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to [[renting]] which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers. [[Homelessness]], or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor.<ref>Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>
			==Ecology==
			[[File:Trash in Paramaribo.JPG\|thumb\|This urban scene in [[Paramaribo]] features a few plants growing amidst [[solid waste]] and [[rubble]] behind some [[house]]s.]]
			{{Main\|Urban ecology}}

			Urban [[ecosystems]], influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and activities differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings. Anthropogenic [[buildings]] and [[waste]], as well as [[Agriculture\|cultivation]] in [[gardens]], create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in [[wilderness]], in some cases enabling exceptional [[biodiversity]]. They provide homes not only for immigrant humans but also for [[introduced species\|immigrant plants]], bringing about interactions between species which never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent [[disturbance (ecology)\|disturbances]] (construction, walking) to plant and animal [[habitat]]s, creating opportunities for [[Secondary succession\|recolonization]] and thus favoring [[ecological succession\|young ecosystems]] with [[r/K selection theory\|r-selected species]] dominant. On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.<ref>Franz Rebele, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2997649 Urban Ecology and Special Features of Urban Ecosystems]", ''Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters'' 4(6), November 1994.</ref><ref>Herbert Sukopp, "On the Early History of Urban Ecology in Europe"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref><ref name=PickettEtAl2008>S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, & R. Costanza, "Urban Ecological Systems: Linking Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan Areas"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref><ref>Ingo Kowarik, "On the Role of Alien Species in Urban Flora and Vegetation"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).</ref>

			Typical urban [[fauna]] include [[insect]]s (especially [[ant]]s), [[rodent]]s ([[mouse\|mice]], [[rat]]s), and [[bird]]s, as well as [[cat]]s and [[dog]]s ([[domestication\|domesticated]] and [[feral]]). Large [[predator]]s are scarce.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			[[File:Urban heat island (Celsius).png\|thumb\|left\|Profile of an [[urban heat island]].]]

			Cities generate considerable [[ecological footprint]]s, locally and at longer distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one perspective, cities are not ecologically [[sustainable]] due to their resource needs. From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects.<ref>Roberto Camagni, Roberta Capello, & Peter Nijkamp, "Managing Sustainable Urban Environments"; in Paddison (2001).</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.michellenijhuis.com/ \|title=National Geographic Magazine; Special report 2008: Changing Climate: Village Green \|publisher=Michelle Nijhuis \|date=2008-08-26 \|access-date=2009-02-07}}</ref> [[Air pollution]] arises from various forms of combustion,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.aklung.org/air-quality/indoor-air-quality/ \|title=Indoor Air Quality – American Lung Association of Alaska \|publisher=Aklung.org \|access-date=2009-02-07 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211234047/http://www.aklung.org/air-quality/indoor-air-quality/ \|archive-date=2009-02-11 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://newsminer.com/news/2008/aug/20/epa-put-fairbanks-air-pollution-problem-list/ \|title=Newsminer.com; EPA to put Fairbanks on air pollution problem list \|publisher=Newsminer.com \|date=2008-08-20 \|access-date=2009-02-07 }}{{dead link\|date=December 2017 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and [[internal combustion engine]]s. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are notorious for veils of [[smog]] (industrial [[haze]]) which envelop them, posing a chronic threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants.<ref name=Adey2013>Peter Adey, "Coming up for Air: Comfort, Conflict and the Air of the Megacity"; in Brighenti (2013), p. 103.</ref> Urban soil contains higher concentrations of [[heavy metals]] (especially [[lead]], [[copper]], and [[nickel]]) and has lower [[pH]] than soil in comparable wilderness.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			Modern cities are known for creating their own [[microclimate]]s, due to [[concrete]], [[asphalt]], and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in [[sunlight]] and channel [[rain]]water into [[storm sewer\|underground ducts]]. The [[Geography of New York City#Climate\|temperature in New York City]] exceeds [[Climate of New York\|nearby rural temperatures]] by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes (independently of the city's physical size).<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 /><ref>Anthony Brazel, Nancy Selover, Russel Vose, & Gordon Heisler, "[https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr/15/c015p123.pdf The tale of two climates – Baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites]"; ''Climate Research'' 15, 2000.</ref> Aerial [[particulate]]s increase rainfall by 5–10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby country.<ref name=PickettEtAl2008 />

			Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks (known as [[environmental racism]] when intersecting also with racial segregation). For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).<ref>Sharon L. Harlan, Anthony J. Brazel, G. Darrel Jenerette, Nancy S. Jones, Larissa Larsen, Lela Prashad, & William L. Stefanov, "In the Shade of Affluence: The Inequitable Distribution of the Urban Heat Island"; in Robert C. Wilkinson & William R. Freudenburg, eds., ''Equity and the Environment'' (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, Volume 15); Oxford: JAI Press (Elsevier); {{ISBN\|978-0-7623-1417-1}}.</ref>

			[[File:Dublin Stephen's Green-44 edit.jpg\|thumb\|[[St Stephen's Green]], an [[urban park]] in [[Dublin]], Ireland]]
			One of the main methods of improving the urban ecology is including in the cities more natural areas: [[Park]]s, [[Garden]]s, [[Lawn]]s, and [[Tree]]s. These areas improve the health, the well-being of the human, animal, and plant population of the cities.<ref name="fuller">{{cite journal\|last1=Fuller\|first1=R.A.\|last2=Irvine\|first2=K.N.\|last3=Devine-Wright\|first3=P.\|last4=Warren\|first4=P.H.\|last5=Gaston\|first5=K.J.\|year=2007\|title=Psychological benefits of green-space increase with biodiversity\|journal=Biology Letters\|volume=3\|issue=4\|pages=390–394\|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149\|pmc=2390667\|pmid=17504734}}</ref> Generally they are called [[Urban open space]] (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening. Well-maintained urban trees can provide many social, ecological, and physical benefits to the residents of the city.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Turner-Skoff\|first1=J. \|last2=Cavender\|first2=N. \|title=The Benefits of Trees for Livable and Sustainable Communities \|journal=Plants, People, Planet \|volume=1 \|issue=4 \|pages=323–335 \|year=2019 \|doi=10.1002/ppp3.39\|doi-access=free }}</ref>

			A study published in Nature's Scientific Reports journal in 2019 found that people who spent at least two hours per week in nature, were 23 percent more likely to be satisfied with their life and were 59 percent more likely to be in good health than those who had zero exposure. The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK. Benefits increased for up to 300 minutes of exposure. The benefits applied to men and women of all ages, as well as across different ethnicities, socioeconomic status, and even those with long-term illnesses and disabilities.

			[[File:Central Park - The Pond (48377220157).jpg\|thumb\|left\|[[Central Park]] in [[New York City]]]]
			People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.

			The study is the latest addition to a compelling body of evidence for the health benefits of nature. Many doctors already give nature prescriptions to their patients.

			The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. "Even visiting local [[urban green space]]s seems to be a good thing," Dr. White said in a press release. "Two hours a week is hopefully a realistic target for many people, especially given that it can be spread over an entire week to get the benefit.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Sam Nickerson \|first1=Sam \|title=Two Hours a Week in Nature Can Boost Your Health and Well-Being, Research Finds \|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/nature-time-health-wellness-2638941663.html \|access-date=23 June 2019 \|agency=Ecowatch \|date=June 21, 2019}}</ref>"