FlorenciaMacDevi at 18:34, 5 April 2026

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{{Short description|Invasion in 1068}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Chola invasion of Kedah
| partof = [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
| image = Bodh Gaya - Wat Thai - City on Fire (9228326130).jpg
| image_size = 200
| caption = Painting from [[Wat Buppharam, Penang|Wat Thai]], [[Penang]], [[Malaysia]], depicting of the Chola raid in Kedah
| date = 1025–1068 CE
| place = Known as Kadaram by Chola (now modern-day [[Kedah]])
| result = Chola victory<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Michael |date=December 2010 |title=Book Review: Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/084387141002200220 |journal=International Journal of Maritime History |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=352–354 |doi=10.1177/084387141002200220 |s2cid=127026949 |issn=0843-8714|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia {{!}} ISEAS Publishing |url=https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/publication/1210 |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=bookshop.iseas.edu.sg |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spencer |first=George W. |date=May 1976 |title=The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/politics-of-plunder-the-cholas-in-eleventhcentury-ceylon/926938631DA4BF69B0DED43421E08658 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.2307/2053272 |jstor=2053272 |s2cid=154741845 |issn=1752-0401|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
}}

The Tamil ''[[Epigraphy|prasaśti]]'' of [[Virarajendra Chola]] records about a [[Amphibious warfare|naval invasion]] of the early Ancient Kedah called "''Kadaram''"<ref name="yes">{{cite book|author1-link=John N. Miksic|author1=Miksic, John Norman |author2=Yian, Goh Geok |title=Ancient Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ&q=Kedah+was+previously+known+as+Kadaram&pg=PA397|year=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-73554-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Zain |first=Sabri |title=Kedah: The Birthplace of Malay Civilisation |url=https://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/early2.htm |access-date=4 June 2025}}</ref> (now modern-day [[Kedah]] in [[Malaysia]]) named by the medievals and ancient Tamils,<ref name="yes" /> and also the [[Cholas]] in 1068. Sources assert that the expedition was undertaken to help a Kadaram prince who had approached Virarajendra Chola for assistance in procuring the throne. The kingdom of Kadaram is believed to be the same as the [[Srivijaya]] empire although some scholars disagree.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=271-272}}

== Sources ==
The most detailed source of information on the campaign is the Tamil stele of [[Rajendra Chola I]].{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=211}} The stele states:
{{blockquote|(Who) having despatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea and having caught Sangrāma-vijayōttunga-varman, the king of Kadāram, together with the elephants in his glorious army, (took) the large heap of treasures, which (that king) had rightfully accumulated; (captured) with noise the (arch called) Vidhyādharatorana at the "war gate" of his extensive city, Śrī Vijaya with the "jewelled wicket-gate" adorned with great splendour and the "gate of large jewels"; Paṇṇai with water in its bathing ghats; the ancient Malaiyūr with the strong mountain for its rampart; Māyuriḍingam, surrounded by the deep sea (as) by a moat; Ilangāśōka (i.e. Lankāśōka) undaunted in fierce battles; Māpappālam having abundant (deep) water as defence; Mēviḷimbangam having fine walls as defence; Vaḷaippandūru having Viḷappandūru (?); Talaittakkōlam praised by great men (versed in) the sciences; Mādamālingam, firm in great and fierce battles; Ilāmuridēśam, whose fierce strength rose in war; Mānakkavāram, in whose extensive flower gardens honey was collecting; and Kadāram, of fierce strength, which was protected by the deep sea{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=211}}<ref name="majumdar">{{cite book|title=Ancient Indian colonies in the Far East|volume=2: Suvarnadvipa|first=R. C.|last=Majumdar|place=Dacca|year=1937|publisher=Ashok Kumar Majumdar|pages=167–190}}</ref>}}

The Thiruvalangadu plates, from the fourteenth year of Rajendra Chola I, mentions his conquest of Kadaram but does not go into the details.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=211}} The first attempt by someone from outside India to identify the places associated with the campaign was made by [[epigraphy|epigraphist]] [[E. Hultzsch]], who had published the stele in 1891.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=212}} Hultzsch identified the principalities mentioned in the inscription with places ruled by the [[Pandyan Dynasty]].{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=212}} In 1903, he rescinded his theory and stated that the stele described Rajendra Chola I's conquest of [[Bago, Burma|Bago]] in [[Burma]].{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=212}} [[George Coedès]]' ''Le Royaume de Sri Vijaya'' published in 1918 after several years of research, rejected both the theories and provided the first convincing description of Rajendra Chola I's conquest of Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=213}}

== Background ==
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.<ref name=cholasi>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref> Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318–336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref>

==Invasion==
Malaiyur in Malaysia, with "its strong mountain", has been identified with [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] in today [[Jambi]] province in [[Batanghari]] river valley, where a strong principality flourished at that time. Other suggestion is the southern part of the [[Malay peninsula]]{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=215}} gets raided by the cholas. Mayirudingam is believed to be the same as Ji-lo-ting listed by the Chinese writer Chau Ju-Kua among the dependencies of Sri Vijaya and is identified with the city of [[Chaiya]] in the centre of the Malay peninsula.<ref name=cholasi />
The land of Ilangasoka ([[Langkasuka]]) mentioned in the inscriptions has been located on the east coast of the [[Malay Peninsula]] and is believed to be the same as the province of Ling-ya-sseu-kia mentioned in Chau Ju-Kua's list.Talaittakkolam is believed to be the same as Takkola mentioned by [[Ptolemy]] as a trading [[Emporium (antiquity)|emporion]] on the [[Golden Chersonese]], and identified with [[Trang Province|Trang]] or the modern-day city of [[Takuapa]] in the [[Isthmus of Kra]].{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=216}}<ref name="linehan">{{cite journal |url=http://myrepositori.pnm.gov.my/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/172/JB0024_ISPP.pdf?sequence=1 |title=The Identifications of Some of Ptolemy's Place Names in the Golden Khersonese |author=W. Linehan |date=1951 |journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=xxiv |issue=III |pages=86–98 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225121127/http://myrepositori.pnm.gov.my/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/172/JB0024_ISPP.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=2017-02-25 }}</ref><ref name=Arokiaswamy2000>{{cite book | last = Arokiaswamy| first = Celine W.M.| title = Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines| year = 2000| location = Manila s.n.| page = 46}}</ref> and at last Kadaram, All these cities were raided and sacked by the [[Cholas|Chola empire]].{{sfn|Sastri|2000|pp=217-218}}

== Aftermath ==
This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded by Chola Empire]], a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.<ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342" /> The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the [[Khmer Empire]] and [[Kahuripan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Rila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |title=Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism |publisher=Primus Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-93-80607-20-7 |page=76 |author-link=Rila Mukherjee |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729231954/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xeqhnYtrKcC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Continued commercial contacts with the [[Mid-Imperial China|Chinese Empire]] enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital [[Angkor]] hosts majestic monuments—such as [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Bayon]]. <ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. ''The CōĻas'', 1935, p. 709.</ref> However, the Chola raids on ports within the Srivijaya network around 1025 CE were short-term naval expeditions primarily aimed at capturing tribute and asserting Chola naval power <ref>{{cite web|title=The real reason why the Cholas invaded Kedah’s waters|url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/leisure/2021/07/28/the-real-reason-why-the-cholas-invaded-kedahs-waters|website=Free Malaysia Today|date=28 July 2021|access-date=6 April 2026}}</ref>. In Kedah, which was ruled by the local House of Merong, and in the Srivijaya Empire, whose rulers were considered god-kings, the raids caused temporary disruption but did not result in permanent Chola control. Following the decline of Chola influence in the 12th century due to internal conflicts and the resurgence of the Pandya dynasty, these regions gradually regained autonomy and continued under their respective local dynasties <ref>{{cite web
|last=Tan
|first=Ah Kow
|title=The real reason why the Cholas invaded Kedah’s waters
|url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/leisure/2021/07/28/the-real-reason-why-the-cholas-invaded-kedahs-waters
|website=Free Malaysia Today
|date=28 July 2021
|access-date=6 April 2026
}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book | first= K. A. Nilakanta| last=Sastri| author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The Cōlas| publisher= [[University of Madras]] | location= Madras}}

[[Category:1068 in Asia]]
[[Category:Military campaigns involving the Chola Empire]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:11th century in India]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Chola Empire]]

Chola invasion of Kedah - Revision history

FlorenciaMacDevi at 18:34, 5 April 2026