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{{Short description|History article about the disagreements between Arthur Eddington and S. Chandraskhar}}
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Arthur Stanley Eddington.jpg
| image2 = Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (cropped).gif
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 350
| caption1 = [[Arthur Eddington]] (1882–1944)
| caption2 = [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910–1995)
}}

In the '''Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute''' of the early 20th century, English astronomer [[Arthur Eddington]] and the Indian astronomer [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] disagreed over the correct theory to describe the final stages of a [[star]]'s lifecycle. During the dispute, Chandrasekhar was at the beginning of his career and Eddington was a renowned physicist of the time. Chandrasekhar had proposed a limit, now known as [[Chandrasekhar limit]], indicating a maximum limit for the mass of a star. In a series of conferences and encounters Eddington advocated for an alternative theory and openly criticized and made fun of Chandrasekhar's models.

Chandrasekhar's theories ended up being successful in astronomy; he would receive the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1983, for his stellar models. Chandrasekhar's limit became a supporting theoretical evidence for the existence of [[Black hole|black holes]].

== Background ==
{{See also|Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar|Arthur Eddington}}
Arthur Eddington became a very famous and established scientist for the 1919 [[Eddington experiment]], in which he demonstrated [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]] by measuring the deviation of light by the sun during an eclipse in [[Príncipe]] island in Africa.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |date=2017-10-19 |title=S Chandrasekhar: the student who took on the world's top astrophysicist |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2005/mar/31/research.highereducation |access-date=2023-09-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

In the early 1920s, three candidates for [[White dwarf|white dwarfs]] were known.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Wali |first=Kameshwar C. |date=1982-10-01 |title=Chandrasekhar vs. Eddington—an unanticipated confrontation |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/35/10/33/433732/Chandrasekhar-vs-Eddington-an-unanticipated |journal=Physics Today |language=en |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1063/1.2914790 |bibcode=1982PhT....35j..33W |issn=0031-9228}}</ref> These stars were suggested to appear at the end of the star life cycle when the stars collapse under their own weight. The remaining material forms a star in a very dense state.<ref name=":3" /> One of the three white dwarfs, Sirius B, a companion to [[Sirius]], was discovered by [[Walter Sydney Adams]] after a suggestion by Arthur Eddington to use the [[relativistic Doppler effect]] as predicted by [[special relativity]].<ref name=":3" /> In 1926, Eddington pointed out a problem with the models at the time which considered such dense matter as the lowest energy state. Eddington suggested that it could not be the case as stars radiate and cool down.<ref name=":3" /> [[Ralph H. Fowler]] solved this issue by considering that the white dwarf is held for collapsing further due to [[electron degeneracy pressure]].<ref name=":3" />

In 1929, by suggestion [[James Jeans]] stellar models, [[Edmund Clifton Stoner]] working in collaboration with [[Wilhelm Anderson]], investigated the mass limits of [[White dwarf|white dwarfs]], modelling them as homogenous spherical stars governed by quantum [[Fermi–Dirac statistics]].<ref name=":0" />

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar had recently graduated from [[Presidency College, Madras]], India, and was accepted for as scholarship at [[University of Cambridge]]. During his boat trip to England, without knowing of Stoner and Anderson's work, worked a more sophisticated stellar model based on [[Ralph H. Fowler]] work, in which he also noticed that due to relativistic constraints a white dwarf could not surpass a certain mass. He published his model in 1930.<ref name=":0" />

During Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar studies at Cambridge, Fowler, Eddington and [[Edward Arthur Milne]], remained skeptical of Chandrasekhar's limit because the theory did not explain what happened after a star goes beyond the limit.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> However Milne and Eddington, which became the examiners of Chandrasekhar's 1933 PhD thesis, appreciated Chandrasekhar's work on white dwarfs because it could help solve some discrepancies between the two. Chandrasekhar's model supported Eddington's idea that a star over the critical mass would act as a perfect gas, however according to Chandrasekhar not all stars became white dwarfs in direct conflict with Eddington's theories.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Soon after, the same year, Chandrasekhar was elected fellow of the [[Royal Astronomical Society]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" />

After leaving Cambridge, Chandrasekhar resumed his work on the mass limit of stars in 1934, in Russia, working with [[Viktor Ambartsumian]] and [[Lev Landau]].<ref name=":0" />

== Diputes ==
In 1935, Chandrasekhar was in close contact with Eddington, who was aware of his recent works. In preparation for a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1935, Chandrasekhar noticed that Eddington had booked a talk right after him but was unaware of its contents and Eddington did not disclose it during their conversations.<ref name=":3" /> During the meeting, Chandrasekhar presented a full solution to his stellar equation. Eddington followed up with a presentation on similar topic, titled "Relativistic Degeneracy''"'' in which he directly criticized Chandrasekhar's theory for what he considered lacked physical meaning.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Eddington critics focus on the upper limit for a white dwarf's mass and disapproved of Chandrasekhar use of relativity in along with non-relativistic quantum theory.<ref name=":3" /> Milne was supportive of Eddington's arguments.<ref name=":3" /> Chandrasekhar left the conference depressed.<ref name=":3" />

Later the same year, during the general assembly of the [[International Astronomical Union]] in Paris, Eddington continued his critics against Chandrasekhar's theory. Chandrasekhar would later comment in an interview that Eddington made fun of his theory during the conference. Chandrasekhar appealed to [[Henry Norris Russell]], the president of the assembly, but he convinced Chandrasekhar to not reply to Eddington's remarks.<ref name=":0" /> At the end of the meeting Eddington went to say "I am sorry if I hurt you" to Chandrasekhar.<ref name=":2" />

Chandrasekhar decided to write about the controversy to [[Léon Rosenfeld]] who was working with [[Niels Bohr]]. Bohr and Rosenfeld responded that they were "absolutely unable to see any meaning in Eddington's statements." Bohr, Rosenfeld and [[Wolfgang Pauli]] (by suggestion of the other two) received Chandrasekhar's paper but said that they were too busy to deal with the controversy, yet approved Chandrasekhar's methodology.<ref name=":3" />

Chandrasekhar wrote a couple of papers in collaboration with [[Christian Møller]], to refute and point out contradictions in Eddington's theory.<ref name=":0" />

In 1936, [[Rudolf Peierls]] published a paper that proved a relation between pressure and volume of a relativistic gas that was against Eddington's theory. The same year, during a meeting at [[Harvard University]], Eddington qualified Chandrasekhar's theory of "stellar buffoonery".<ref name=":0" />

In 1937, Chandrasekhar met again with Eddington in the England on his way to the International Astrophysical Colloquium in Paris. Eddington, Chandrasekhar, [[Paul Dirac]] and [[Maurice Pryce]] met. Their discussion ended when Eddington left after a dispute. Chandrasekhar recorded in his version of the event:<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoAU1Ut1QnQC |title=Empire of the Stars: Obsession, Friendship, and Betrayal in the Quest for Black Holes |date=2005 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-618-34151-1 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=Pryce expressed surprise at seeing me and asked me whether I would join them in discussion with Eddington after Hall on the matter of relativistic degeneracy. After Hall, we adjourned to Pryce's room in Neville's Court. The discussion began with Pryce trying to tell Eddington his version of Eddington's arguments against relativistic degeneracy, so that Eddington could be satisfied that he, Pryce, understood Eddington's arguments. After Pryce had completed his narration, Eddington remarked that Pryce's account was entirely fair and accurate, and asked, "What was the argument about?" Pryce turned to Dirac and asked him, "Did you agree with any of the things I have said?" Dirac said, "No." Pryce added, "I do not either." Eddington became very angry - in fact, it was the only occasion when I saw him really angry. He got up from his chair, walked back and forth, and said, "This matter is not for joking!" He went on finding fault with Pryce's argument even though he had agreed with it a moment earlier and, for the next hour of so, it was Eddington's monologue. Next day, after Hall, Eddington came up to me and said that he was very disappointed that Dirac did not seem to understand the implications of his own relativity theory of the electron. I did not assent or dissent with Eddington's remark but asked instead, "How much of you fundament theory depends on your ideas on relativistic degeneracy?" He replied, "Why, all of it!". Since I did not react to that remark, he asked me why I had asked the question. My response was, "I am only sorry" - not a polite remark to have made but by that time I was really enraged with Eddington's supreme confidence in himself and his own ideas.}}

In 1939, Chandrasekhar finished his theory of white dwarfs which was quickly praised by [[Bengt Strömgren]] and [[Paul Ledoux]]. The latter said in his introductory book of astronomy that Chandrasekhar's theory deserved to be compared to the works of Eddington, Jeans and [[Svein Rosseland]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last1=Mena and |first1=J. G. |last2=Peres |first2=T. S. C. |date=2018 |title=Chandrasekhar-Eddington dispute |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Chandrasekhar_Eddington/ |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref> In a conference in Paris in the same year, was the first time that Chandrasekhar openly said that Eddington theory was wrong.<ref name=":3" />

Peierls, Dirac and Pryce in a paper in 1941 pointed out Eddington's misunderstandings of the theory of relativity in conjunction to quantum theory.<ref name=":0" />

Eddington died in 1944 and never retracted on his attacks to Chandrasekhar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 4 - Test Tubes and Tantrums, Arthur Stanley Eddington and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00ksc3v |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> Nevertheless, Chandrasekhar maintained correspondency with Eddington at the end of his life and held admiration for him. In an obituary speech for Eddington, Chandrasekhar ranked Eddington next to [[Karl Schwarzschild]], as the greatest astronomer of our time.<ref name=":3" />

The discovery of [[Cygnus X-1]] in 1972, the first detection of a black hole, demonstrating that a star beyond Chandrasekhar limit collapsed into something different than a white dwarf.<ref name=":2" />

In 1983, Chandrasekhar received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], alongside [[William Alfred Fowler]], for their "theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1983/chandrasekhar/facts/ |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=NobelPrize.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> For the Nobel biography, Chandrasekhar listed Eddington as his friend.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}{{History of physics}}

[[Category:Scientific rivalry]]
[[Category:Scientific debates]]
[[Category:History of physics]]

Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute - Revision history

Gopisainii: List of physics conferences: creating list article