Black Stone - Revision history

https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?action=history&feed=atom&title=Black_Stone Black Stone - Revision history 2026-08-17T14:15:00Z Revision history for this page on the wiki MediaWiki 1.43.6 https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Stone&diff=476248&oldid=prev LiveHi: expand intro further and added references 2026-03-23T02:29:15Z

<p>expand intro further and added references</p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 07:59, 23 March 2026</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l78">Line 78:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 78:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== History and tradition ==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== History and tradition ==</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|thumb|left|A 1315 illustration from the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' inspired by the [[sīrah]] story of [[Muhammad]] and the [[Mecca]]n clan elders lifting the Black Stone into place.<ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web |author=University of Southern California |title=The Prophet of Islam – His Biography |access-date=3 December 2010 |url=http://msawest.net/islam/11-prophet/325-the-prophet-of-islam-his-biography |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723212201/http://msawest.net/islam/11-prophet/325-the-prophet-of-islam-his-biography |archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref>]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|thumb|left|A 1315 illustration from the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' inspired by the [[sīrah]] story of [[Muhammad]] and the [[Mecca]]n clan elders lifting the Black Stone into place.<ref name=uscmsa>{{cite web |author=University of Southern California |title=The Prophet of Islam – His Biography |access-date=3 December 2010 |url=http://msawest.net/islam/11-prophet/325-the-prophet-of-islam-his-biography |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723212201/http://msawest.net/islam/11-prophet/325-the-prophet-of-islam-his-biography |archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref>]]</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l129">Line 129:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 129:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Scientific origins ==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Scientific origins ==</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The Black Stone has never been analysed with modern scientific techniques. Its nature and origin has been much debated but it remains the subject of scientific speculation.<ref name="M. Golia">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oiTNCgAAQBAJ&q=Wabar+meteorite+craters+black+stone&pg=PT68 |title=Meteorite: Nature and Culture |last=Golia |first=Maria |date=2015 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1780235479 |language=en |access-date=30 October 2020 |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705055559/https://books.google.com/books?id=oiTNCgAAQBAJ&q=Wabar+meteorite+craters+black+stone&pg=PT68 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been described variously as [[basalt]] stone, an [[agate]], a piece of natural [[glass]] or—most popularly—a stony [[meteorite]] or a result of a meteorite impact called [[tektite]].<ref name="Thomsen87">Thomsen: „New Light on the Origin of the Holy Black Stone of the Ka'ba“. 1980, S. 87.</ref> [[Paul Partsch]], the curator of the [[Natural History Museum, Vienna#Imperial Natural History Museum|Austro-Hungarian imperial collection of minerals]], published the first comprehensive analysis of the Black Stone in 1857, in which he favoured a meteoritic origin for the stone.<ref name="partsch">{{cite journal |last=Partsch |first=Paul Maria |title=Über den schwarzen Stein der Kaaba zu Mekka, mitgetheilt aus den hinterlassenen Schriften des wirklichen Mitgliedens |journal=Denkschriften der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien |issue=13 |year=1857 |publisher=Erste Abtheilung |pages=1–5 |url=http://www.landesmuseum.at/pdf_frei_remote/DAKW_13_1_0001-0005.pdf |access-date=29 August 2015 |archive-date=19 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919061303/http://www.landesmuseum.at/pdf_frei_remote/DAKW_13_1_0001-0005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Robert S. Dietz]] and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</del>John McHone<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] </del>proposed in 1974 that the Black Stone was actually an agate, judging from its physical attributes and a report by an Arab geologist that the stone contained clearly discernible diffusion banding characteristic of agates.<ref name="Burke" /></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The Black Stone has never been analysed with modern scientific techniques. Its nature and origin has been much debated but it remains the subject of scientific speculation.<ref name="M. Golia">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oiTNCgAAQBAJ&q=Wabar+meteorite+craters+black+stone&pg=PT68 |title=Meteorite: Nature and Culture |last=Golia |first=Maria |date=2015 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1780235479 |language=en |access-date=30 October 2020 |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705055559/https://books.google.com/books?id=oiTNCgAAQBAJ&q=Wabar+meteorite+craters+black+stone&pg=PT68 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been described variously as [[basalt]] stone, an [[agate]], a piece of natural [[glass]] or—most popularly—a stony [[meteorite]] or a result of a meteorite impact called [[tektite]].<ref name="Thomsen87">Thomsen: „New Light on the Origin of the Holy Black Stone of the Ka'ba“. 1980, S. 87.</ref> [[Paul Partsch]], the curator of the [[Natural History Museum, Vienna#Imperial Natural History Museum|Austro-Hungarian imperial collection of minerals]], published the first comprehensive analysis of the Black Stone in 1857, in which he favoured a meteoritic origin for the stone.<ref name="partsch">{{cite journal |last=Partsch |first=Paul Maria |title=Über den schwarzen Stein der Kaaba zu Mekka, mitgetheilt aus den hinterlassenen Schriften des wirklichen Mitgliedens |journal=Denkschriften der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien |issue=13 |year=1857 |publisher=Erste Abtheilung |pages=1–5 |url=http://www.landesmuseum.at/pdf_frei_remote/DAKW_13_1_0001-0005.pdf |access-date=29 August 2015 |archive-date=19 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919061303/http://www.landesmuseum.at/pdf_frei_remote/DAKW_13_1_0001-0005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Robert S. Dietz]] and John McHone proposed in 1974 that the Black Stone was actually an agate, judging from its physical attributes and a report by an Arab geologist that the stone contained clearly discernible diffusion banding characteristic of agates.<ref name="Burke" /></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the stone's recovery in 951 CE, after it had been stolen 21 years earlier. According to a chronicler,{{Who|date=August 2024}} the stone was identified by its ability to float in water, which would rule out the Black Stone being an agate, a [[basalt]], or a [[stony-iron meteorite|stony meteorite]], though it would be compatible with it being glass or [[pumice]].<ref name="bevan">{{cite book |first1=Alex |last1=Bevan |first2=John |last2=De Laeter |title=Meteorites: A Journey Through Space and Time |pages=14–15 |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-86840-490-5}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the stone's recovery in 951 CE, after it had been stolen 21 years earlier. According to a chronicler,{{Who|date=August 2024}} the stone was identified by its ability to float in water, which would rule out the Black Stone being an agate, a [[basalt]], or a [[stony-iron meteorite|stony meteorite]], though it would be compatible with it being glass or [[pumice]].<ref name="bevan">{{cite book |first1=Alex |last1=Bevan |first2=John |last2=De Laeter |title=Meteorites: A Journey Through Space and Time |pages=14–15 |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-86840-490-5}}</ref></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</del>Elsebeth Thomsen<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] </del>of the [[University of Copenhagen]] proposed a different hypothesis in 1980. She suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment, or [[impactite]], from the impact of a fragmented meteorite that fell 6000 years ago at [[Wabar craters|Wabar]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=New Light on the Origin of the Holy Black Stone of the Ka'ba |last=Thomsen |first=E. |journal=Meteoritics |volume=15 |number=1 |page=87 |bibcode=1980Metic..15...87T |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1980.tb00176.x |year=1980}}</ref> a site in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert {{convert|1100|km|mi}} east of Mecca. A 2004 scientific analysis of the Wabar site suggests that the impact event occurred much more recently than previously thought and may have happened within the last 200–300 years.<ref name="Prescott2004">{{cite journal |last1=Prescott |first1=J. R. |title=Luminescence dating of the Wabar meteorite craters, Saudi Arabia |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=109 |issue=E1 |year=2004 |pages=E01008 |issn=0148-0227 |doi=10.1029/2003JE002136 |bibcode=2004JGRE..109.1008P|doi-access=free }}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Elsebeth Thomsen of the [[University of Copenhagen]] proposed a different hypothesis in 1980. She suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment, or [[impactite]], from the impact of a fragmented meteorite that fell 6000 years ago at [[Wabar craters|Wabar]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=New Light on the Origin of the Holy Black Stone of the Ka'ba |last=Thomsen |first=E. |journal=Meteoritics |volume=15 |number=1 |page=87 |bibcode=1980Metic..15...87T |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1980.tb00176.x |year=1980}}</ref> a site in the [[Rub' al Khali]] desert {{convert|1100|km|mi}} east of Mecca. A 2004 scientific analysis of the Wabar site suggests that the impact event occurred much more recently than previously thought and may have happened within the last 200–300 years.<ref name="Prescott2004">{{cite journal |last1=Prescott |first1=J. R. |title=Luminescence dating of the Wabar meteorite craters, Saudi Arabia |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=109 |issue=E1 |year=2004 |pages=E01008 |issn=0148-0227 |doi=10.1029/2003JE002136 |bibcode=2004JGRE..109.1008P|doi-access=free }}</ref></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The meteoritic hypothesis is viewed by geologists as doubtful. The [[Natural History Museum, London]] suggests that it may be a pseudometeorite; in other words, a terrestrial rock mistakenly attributed to a meteoritic origin.<ref>{{cite book |title=Catalogue of meteorites: with special reference to those represented in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London |volume=1 |page=263 |editor=Grady, Monica M. |last1=Grady |first1=Monica M. |last2=Graham |first2=A. L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-66303-8}}</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The meteoritic hypothesis is viewed by geologists as doubtful. The [[Natural History Museum, London]] suggests that it may be a pseudometeorite; in other words, a terrestrial rock mistakenly attributed to a meteoritic origin.<ref>{{cite book |title=Catalogue of meteorites: with special reference to those represented in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London |volume=1 |page=263 |editor=Grady, Monica M. |last1=Grady |first1=Monica M. |last2=Graham |first2=A. L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-66303-8}}</ref></div></td></tr> </table>

LiveHi https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Stone&diff=445916&oldid=prev RaushanYoganta at 03:10, 14 March 2026 2026-03-14T03:10:55Z

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RaushanYoganta https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Stone&diff=431298&oldid=prev Bot: Removing protection template from an unprotected page 2023-09-29T04:44:57Z

<p>Removing protection template from an unprotected page</p> <table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 10:14, 29 September 2023</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1">Line 1:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 1:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Short description|Islamic relic at the Kaaba in Mecca, also known as Hajar Al Aswad}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Short description|Islamic relic at the Kaaba in Mecca, also known as Hajar Al Aswad}}</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{About|the Muslim object of reverence}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{About|the Muslim object of reverence}}</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{pp-semi-indef}}</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}</div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:The Blackstone.jpg|thumb|right|The Black Stone is seen through a portal in the Kaaba]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:The Blackstone.jpg|thumb|right|The Black Stone is seen through a portal in the Kaaba]]</div></td></tr> </table>

Bot https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Stone&diff=431216&oldid=prev Ajay Kumar: Created a new article 2023-09-28T20:01:10Z

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Ajay Kumar