Berlin Committee - Revision history

Prof.Dr.VK Agarwal: update

2026-02-07T10:01:50Z

update

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:31, 7 February 2026
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	{{Short description\|Pan-Indian independence think tank and conspiracy circle in WW1-era Germany}}		{{Short description\|Pan-Indian independence think tank and conspiracy circle in WW1-era Germany}}
	{{Use Indian English\|date=September ~~2022~~}}		{{Use Indian English\|date=September 2016}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=August ~~2022~~}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2020}}
	The '''Berlin Committee''', later known as the '''Indian Independence Committee''' ({{~~lang-~~de\|Indisches Unabhängigkeitskomitee}}) after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country. The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of [[Indian independence movement\|Indian Independence]]. Initially called the Berlin–Indian Committee, the organisation was renamed the Indian Independence Committee and came to be an integral part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Members of the committee included [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), [[Chempakaraman Pillai]], Dr [[Jnanendra Das Gupta]], and [[Abinash Bhattacharya]].		[[File:Biren_Chattopadhyaya.jpg \| thumb \| right \| alt=Black and white portrait photograph of a man wearing a suit \| Virendranath Chattopadhyaya was a member of the committee]]
			The '''Berlin Committee''', later known as the '''Indian Independence Committee''' ({{langx\|de\|Indisches Unabhängigkeitskomitee}}) after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country. The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of [[Indian independence movement\|Indian Independence]]. Initially called the Berlin–Indian Committee, the organisation was renamed the Indian Independence Committee and came to be an integral part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Members of the committee included [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), [[Chempakaraman Pillai]], Dr [[Jnanendra Das Gupta]], and [[Abinash Bhattacharya]].

	==Background==		==Background==
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	At the outbreak of World War I, Indian nationalists looked for ways to use the enmities to support their goals. As early as 1912, the [[German Foreign Office]] had considered supporting the Pan-Islamist and [[Bengali people\|Bengali]] revolutionary movement in India to weaken the British position.<ref name=Fraser256>{{Harvnb\|Fraser\|1977\|p=256}}</ref>		At the outbreak of World War I, Indian nationalists looked for ways to use the enmities to support their goals. As early as 1912, the [[German Foreign Office]] had considered supporting the Pan-Islamist and [[Bengali people\|Bengali]] revolutionary movement in India to weaken the British position.<ref name=Fraser256>{{Harvnb\|Fraser\|1977\|p=256}}</ref>

	The [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor\|Kaiser]] had considered the option on 31 July 1914 when Russian mobilisation was confirmed, and the scope of British mobilisation against Germany was becoming evident.<ref name=Fraser256/> In September 1914, the German Chancellor, [[Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg]], was authorised by the Kaiser to sanction German activity against British India.<ref name=Fraser256/><ref>{{Harvnb\|Hoover\|1985\|p=251}}</ref> The German effort was headed by [[Max von Oppenheim]], an archaeologist and the head of the newly formed [[Intelligence Bureau for the East]]. He was to organize the Indian student groups into a cohesive group. Oppenheim also convinced [[Har Dayal]] of the feasibility of the project.		The [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor\|Kaiser]] had considered the option on 31 July 1914 when Russian mobilisation was confirmed, and the scope of British mobilisation against Germany was becoming evident.<ref name=Fraser256/> In September 1914, the German Chancellor, [[Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg]], was authorised by the Kaiser to sanction German activity against British India.<ref name=Fraser256/><ref>{{Harvnb\|Hoover\|1985\|p=251}}</ref> The German effort was headed by [[Max von Oppenheim]], an archaeologist and the head of the newly formed [[Intelligence Bureau for the East]]. He was to organize the Indian student groups into a cohesive group. Oppenheim also convinced [[Har Dayal]] of the feasibility of the project.

	A group of Indians resident in Germany, headed by M. Prabhakar (then teaching at [[Düsseldorf]] after graduating from [[Heidelberg University\|Heidelberg]]), along with Abd ur Rahman and A Siddiqui, had issued statements condemning England and France for their support of the [[Czar]] in Russia. As these students were political novices, Oppenheim sought to find more prominent revolutionaries who would carry more weight in the community. Otto Gunther von Wesendonck, a young officer of the ''[[Auswärtiges Amt]]'', was given the task of organising revolutionary outbreaks along the Indian and Russian border.<ref name=Fraser257>{{Harvnb\|Fraser\|1977\|p=257}}</ref>		A group of Indians resident in Germany, headed by M. Prabhakar (then teaching at [[Düsseldorf]] after graduating from [[Heidelberg University\|Heidelberg]]), along with Abd ur Rahman and A Siddiqui, had issued statements condemning England and France for their support of the [[Czar]] in Russia. As these students were political novices, Oppenheim sought to find more prominent revolutionaries who would carry more weight in the community. Otto Gunther von Wesendonck, a young officer of the ''[[Auswärtiges Amt]]'', was given the task of organising revolutionary outbreaks along the Indian and Russian border.<ref name=Fraser257>{{Harvnb\|Fraser\|1977\|p=257}}</ref>
	~~with~~ the help of their close acquaintance Anna Maria Simon, [[Abhinash Bhattacharya]] and [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] issued similar statements against Britain and France, which were distributed in [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[Netherlands]] in addition to Germany, attracting editorial comments. The duo, with the help of Frau Simon, set up meetings with the Berlin Foreign office.<ref name=Bhavans>{{cite web		With the help of their close acquaintance Anna Maria Simon, [[Abhinash Bhattacharya]] and [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] issued similar statements against Britain and France, which were distributed in [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[Netherlands]] in addition to Germany, attracting editorial comments. The duo, with the help of Frau Simon, set up meetings with the Berlin Foreign office.<ref name=Bhavans>{{cite web
	\| publisher = Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan		\| publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
	\| url=http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp		\| url=http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp
	\| title=Champak-Chatto" And the Berlin Committee		\| title=Champak-Chatto" And the Berlin Committee
	\| access-date=2007-11-04		\| access-date=2007-11-04
			\| archive-date=8 June 2008
			\| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608220240/http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp
			\| url-status=dead
	}}</ref>		}}</ref>

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	==Hindu–German Conspiracy==		==Hindu–German Conspiracy==
	{{Main\|Hindu–German Conspiracy}}		{{Main\|Hindu–German Conspiracy}}
	The committee soon established contacts with Indian revolutionaries, including [[Bagha Jatin]]. They visited armament and explosives factories to identify war material, and met with Indian prisoners-of-war held in Germany to recruit them to the nationalist cause. [[Lala Har Dayal]], who had fled to Germany after his arrest in the United States, was convinced to lend his support to the committee's cause. They established contacts with the [[Ghadar Party\|Ghadarite movement]] in the United States. Dr. Dhiren Sarkar and N.S. Marathe left for Washington, D.C. on 22 September 1915 and, through the German Ambassador, [[Johann von Bernstoff]], established links with the Ghadar Party. The culmination of the American efforts was the [[Annie Larsen arms plot]].		The committee soon established contacts with Indian revolutionaries, including [[Bagha Jatin]]. They visited armament and explosives factories to identify war material, and met with Indian prisoners-of-war held in Germany to recruit them to the nationalist cause. [[Lala Har Dayal]], who had fled to Germany after his arrest in the United States, was convinced to lend his support to the committee's cause. They established contacts with the [[Ghadar Party\|Ghadarite movement]] in the United States. Dr. Dhiren Sarkar and N.S. Marathe left for Washington, D.C., on 22 September 1915 and, through the German Ambassador, [[Johann von Bernstoff]], established links with the Ghadar Party. The culmination of the American efforts was the [[Annie Larsen arms plot]].

	===Kabul mission===		===Kabul mission===
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	Its formation infers the seriousness of intention and purpose of the revolutionaries. The government had [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]] as president, [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] as Prime Minister, Ubaid al Sindhi as the Minister for India, [[Maulavi Bashir]] as War Minister and [[Champakaran Pillai]] as Foreign Minister. It tried to gain support from the [[Russian Empire]], [[Republic of China (1912–1949)\|Republican China]], and Japan. [[Galib Pasha]] joined them in proclaiming ''[[jihad]]'' against Britain.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516"/>		Its formation infers the seriousness of intention and purpose of the revolutionaries. The government had [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]] as president, [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] as Prime Minister, Ubaid al Sindhi as the Minister for India, [[Maulavi Bashir]] as War Minister and [[Champakaran Pillai]] as Foreign Minister. It tried to gain support from the [[Russian Empire]], [[Republic of China (1912–1949)\|Republican China]], and Japan. [[Galib Pasha]] joined them in proclaiming ''[[jihad]]'' against Britain.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516"/>

	Following the [[February Revolution]] in Russia in 1917, Pratap's Government is known to have corresponded with the nascent Soviet Government. In 1918, Pratap met the Russian leader [[Leon Trotsky]] in [[Petrograd]] before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin; he urged both to ~~mobillise~~ against British India.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474">{{Harvnb\|Hughes\|2002\|p=474}}</ref> Under pressure from the British, the Afghans withdrew their cooperation and the mission closed down. The [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], with associated liaisons of the German mission had a profound effect on the political and social situation in Afghanistan. It catalyzed political change that ended with the assassination of [[Habibullah Khan\|Habibullah]] in 1919 and the transfer of power to [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah]] and, subsequently, Amānullah; the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began, which led to Afghan Independence.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474"/>		Following the [[February Revolution]] in Russia in 1917, Pratap's Government is known to have corresponded with the nascent Soviet Government. In 1918, Pratap met the Russian leader [[Leon Trotsky]] in [[Petrograd]] before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin; he urged both to mobilise against British India.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474">{{Harvnb\|Hughes\|2002\|p=474}}</ref> Under pressure from the British, the Afghans withdrew their cooperation and the mission closed down. The [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], with associated liaisons of the German mission had a profound effect on the political and social situation in Afghanistan. It catalyzed political change that ended with the assassination of [[Habibullah Khan\|Habibullah]] in 1919 and the transfer of power to [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah]] and, subsequently, Amānullah; the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began, which led to Afghan Independence.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474"/>

	==End of the Indian Independence Committee==		==End of the Indian Independence Committee==
	The committee was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of the members shifting their attention to the nascent [[Soviet Union\|Soviet Russia]]. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the members became active Communists.<ref>{{Cite book~~\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/954115551~~\|title=Communist histories\|others=Prashad, Vijay.\|year=2016\|isbn=978-93-80118-33-8\|location=New Delhi, India\|oclc=954115551}}</ref>		The committee was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of the members shifting their attention to the nascent [[Soviet Union\|Soviet Russia]]. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the members became active Communists.<ref>{{Cite book\|title=Communist histories\|others=Prashad, Vijay.\|year=2016\|isbn=978-93-80118-33-8\|location=New Delhi, India\|oclc=954115551}}</ref>

	==Notes==		==Notes==
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	==References==		==References==
	* {{Citation \|last1=Dignan \|first1=Don \|title=The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations during World War I \|journal=The Pacific Historical Review \|volume=40 \|issue=1 \|date=February 1971 \|pages=57–76 \|publisher=University of California Press \|issn=0030-8684 \|doi=10.2307/3637829 \|jstor=3637829}}		* {{Citation \|last1=Dignan \|first1=Don \|title=The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations during World War I \|journal=The Pacific Historical Review \|volume=40 \|issue=1 \|date=February 1971 \|pages=57–76 \|publisher=University of California Press \|issn=0030-8684 \|doi=10.2307/3637829 \|jstor=3637829}}
	*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718223554/http://newdelhi.daad.de/mainFrame/news/mehrfart5.html Newsletter of the Regional Office-South East Asia]. German Academic Exchange Service.		*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718223554/http://newdelhi.daad.de/mainFrame/news/mehrfart5.html Newsletter of the Regional Office-South East Asia]. German Academic Exchange Service.
	*[http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp "Champak-Chatto And the Berlin Committee"].[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]		*[http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp "Champak-Chatto And the Berlin Committee"] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608220240/http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp \|date=8 June 2008 }}.[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]
	* {{Citation		* {{Citation
	\| surname1 = Hoover		\| surname1 = Hoover
	\| given1 = Karl.		\| given1 = Karl.
	\| year = 1985		\| year = 1985
	\| title = The Hindu Conspiracy in California, ~~1913-1918~~. German Studies Review, Vol. 8, No. 2. (May, 1985), pp. ~~245-261~~		\| title = The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913–1918. German Studies Review, Vol. 8, No. 2. (May, 1985), pp. 245–261
	\| journal = German Studies Review		\| journal = German Studies Review
	\| publisher = German Studies Association		\| publisher = German Studies Association
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	\| given1 = Thomas G		\| given1 = Thomas G
	\| year = 1977		\| year = 1977
	\| title = Germany and Indian Revolution, ~~1914-18~~. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. ~~255-272~~.		\| title = Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914–18. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. 255–272.
	\| journal = Journal of Contemporary History		\| journal = Journal of Contemporary History
	\| publisher = Sage Publications		\| publisher = Sage Publications
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	\| given1 = K.H.		\| given1 = K.H.
	\| year = 1986		\| year = 1986
	\| title = Pan-Islam and the Making of the Early Indian Muslim Socialist. Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3. (1986), pp. ~~509-537~~		\| title = Pan-Islam and the Making of the Early Indian Muslim Socialist. Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3. (1986), pp. 509–537
	\| publisher = Cambridge University Press		\| publisher = Cambridge University Press
	}}.		}}.
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	\| given1 = Ursula		\| given1 = Ursula
	\| year = 1980		\| year = 1980
	\| title = The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 7, No. 2. (1980), pp. ~~118-122~~		\| title = The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 7, No. 2. (1980), pp. 118–122
	\| journal = Bulletin		\| journal = Bulletin
	\| publisher = London, Taylor & Francis Ltd.		\| publisher = London, Taylor & Francis Ltd.
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	\| given1 = Thomas L		\| given1 = Thomas L
	\| year = 2002		\| year = 2002
	\| title = The German Mission to Afghanistan, ~~1915-1916~~.German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct., 2002), pp. ~~447-476~~.		\| title = The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915–1916.German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct., 2002), pp. 447–476.
	\| journal = German Studies Review		\| journal = German Studies Review
	\| publisher = German Studies Association		\| publisher = German Studies Association

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2022-07-30T15:16:36Z

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← Older revision		Revision as of 20:46, 30 July 2022
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	{{Use Indian English\|date=September ~~2016~~}}		{{Short description\|Pan-Indian independence think tank and conspiracy circle in WW1-era Germany}}
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=August ~~2020~~}}		{{Use Indian English\|date=September 2022}}
			{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2022}}
	The '''Berlin Committee''', later known as the '''Indian Independence Committee''' ({{lang-de\|Indisches Unabhängigkeitskomitee}}) after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country. The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of [[Indian independence movement\|Indian Independence]]. Initially called the Berlin–Indian Committee, the organisation was renamed the Indian Independence Committee and came to be an integral part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Members of the committee included [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), [[Chempakaraman Pillai]], Dr [[Jnanendra Das Gupta]], and [[Abinash Bhattacharya]].		The '''Berlin Committee''', later known as the '''Indian Independence Committee''' ({{lang-de\|Indisches Unabhängigkeitskomitee}}) after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country. The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of [[Indian independence movement\|Indian Independence]]. Initially called the Berlin–Indian Committee, the organisation was renamed the Indian Independence Committee and came to be an integral part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Members of the committee included [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), [[Chempakaraman Pillai]], Dr [[Jnanendra Das Gupta]], and [[Abinash Bhattacharya]].

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	With the help of Oppenheim, messages were sent out to Indian students in German universities, as well as Switzerland, Austria and the Netherlands, who were likely to share the same views. Among those who joined the organisation at the time were Dr. Dhiren Sarkar, Chanji Kersasp, N. S. Marathe, Dr. [[Jnanendra Das Gupta\|J. N. Dasgupta]], and C. Padmanabhan Pillai, quickly joined by his brother, [[Champak Raman Pillai]]. The 'Champak-Chatto' Berlin Committee was founded.<ref name=Bhavans/>		With the help of Oppenheim, messages were sent out to Indian students in German universities, as well as Switzerland, Austria and the Netherlands, who were likely to share the same views. Among those who joined the organisation at the time were Dr. Dhiren Sarkar, Chanji Kersasp, N. S. Marathe, Dr. [[Jnanendra Das Gupta\|J. N. Dasgupta]], and C. Padmanabhan Pillai, quickly joined by his brother, [[Champak Raman Pillai]]. The 'Champak-Chatto' Berlin Committee was founded.<ref name=Bhavans/>

	Although the group urged him, Oppenheim refused to approach [[Shyamji Krishnavarma]], then in [[Geneva]], nor did he try to reach [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], then in the United States. The latter was suspected by British intelligence in the United States to be deeply involved in the seditionist movement<ref>{{Harvnb\|Dignan\|1971\|p=}}</ref> although he personally refused to enter an alliance with another Imperialist Power.<ref name=Fraser257/> In 1915, [[Har Dayal]] and [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] became actively involved in the Berlin Committee and its goals. The committee is known to have sent missions to the Middle Eastern cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[Baghdad]], and [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].~~<ref name=Bagulia146>~~{{~~Harvnb\|Bagulia\|2006~~\|p=~~146~~}}~~</ref>~~		Although the group urged him, Oppenheim refused to approach [[Shyamji Krishnavarma]], then in [[Geneva]], nor did he try to reach [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], then in the United States. The latter was suspected by British intelligence in the United States to be deeply involved in the seditionist movement<ref>{{Harvnb\|Dignan\|1971\|p=}}</ref> although he personally refused to enter an alliance with another Imperialist Power.<ref name=Fraser257/> In 1915, [[Har Dayal]] and [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] became actively involved in the Berlin Committee and its goals. The committee is known to have sent missions to the Middle Eastern cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[Baghdad]], and [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].{{CN\|date=July 2022}}

	==Hindu–German Conspiracy==		==Hindu–German Conspiracy==
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	Although the Amir made no commitment to the group, they found support amongst the Amir's immediate and close political and religious advisory group, including his brother [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah Khan]], his sons [[Inayatullah Khan]] and [[Amānullāh Khān]], and religious leaders and tribesmen.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> Afghanistan's then most influential newspaper, the ''Siraj al-Akhbar'', took Barkatullah as an officiating editor in early 1916. Its editor [[Mahmud Tarzi]] published a number of inflammatory articles by [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]], as well as increasingly anti-British and pro-[[Central Powers]] articles and propaganda. By May 1916, the tone in the paper was deemed serious enough for the [[British Raj]] to intercept its issues.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> In 1916, the Berlin Committee established the [[Provisional Government of India]] in Kabul.		Although the Amir made no commitment to the group, they found support amongst the Amir's immediate and close political and religious advisory group, including his brother [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah Khan]], his sons [[Inayatullah Khan]] and [[Amānullāh Khān]], and religious leaders and tribesmen.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> Afghanistan's then most influential newspaper, the ''Siraj al-Akhbar'', took Barkatullah as an officiating editor in early 1916. Its editor [[Mahmud Tarzi]] published a number of inflammatory articles by [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]], as well as increasingly anti-British and pro-[[Central Powers]] articles and propaganda. By May 1916, the tone in the paper was deemed serious enough for the [[British Raj]] to intercept its issues.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> In 1916, the Berlin Committee established the [[Provisional Government of India]] in Kabul.

	Its formation infers the seriousness of intention and purpose of the revolutionaries. The government had [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]] as president, [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] as Prime Minister, Ubaid al Sindhi as the Minister for India, [[Maulavi Bashir]] as War Minister and [[Champakaran Pillai]] as Foreign Minister. It tried to gain support from the [[Russian Empire]], [[~~Republican~~ China~~#Republican China.2C 1911-1949~~\|Republican China]], and Japan. [[Galib Pasha]] joined them in proclaiming ''[[jihad]]'' against Britain.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516"/>		Its formation infers the seriousness of intention and purpose of the revolutionaries. The government had [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]] as president, [[Maulavi Barkatullah\|Barkatullah]] as Prime Minister, Ubaid al Sindhi as the Minister for India, [[Maulavi Bashir]] as War Minister and [[Champakaran Pillai]] as Foreign Minister. It tried to gain support from the [[Russian Empire]], [[Republic of China (1912–1949)\|Republican China]], and Japan. [[Galib Pasha]] joined them in proclaiming ''[[jihad]]'' against Britain.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516"/>

	Following the [[February Revolution]] in Russia in 1917, Pratap's Government is known to have corresponded with the nascent Soviet Government. In 1918, Pratap met the Russian leader [[Leon Trotsky]] in [[Petrograd]] before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin; he urged both to mobillise against British India.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474">{{Harvnb\|Hughes\|2002\|p=474}}</ref> Under pressure from the British, the Afghans withdrew their cooperation and the mission closed down. The [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], with associated liaisons of the German mission had a profound effect on the political and social situation in Afghanistan. It catalyzed political change that ended with the assassination of [[Habibullah Khan\|Habibullah]] in 1919 and the transfer of power to [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah]] and, subsequently, Amānullah; the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began, which led to Afghan Independence.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474"/>		Following the [[February Revolution]] in Russia in 1917, Pratap's Government is known to have corresponded with the nascent Soviet Government. In 1918, Pratap met the Russian leader [[Leon Trotsky]] in [[Petrograd]] before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin; he urged both to mobillise against British India.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474">{{Harvnb\|Hughes\|2002\|p=474}}</ref> Under pressure from the British, the Afghans withdrew their cooperation and the mission closed down. The [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], with associated liaisons of the German mission had a profound effect on the political and social situation in Afghanistan. It catalyzed political change that ended with the assassination of [[Habibullah Khan\|Habibullah]] in 1919 and the transfer of power to [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)\|Nasrullah]] and, subsequently, Amānullah; the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began, which led to Afghan Independence.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474"/>
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	==References==		==References==
			* {{Citation \|last1=Dignan \|first1=Don \|title=The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations during World War I \|journal=The Pacific Historical Review \|volume=40 \|issue=1 \|date=February 1971 \|pages=57–76 \|publisher=University of California Press \|issn=0030-8684 \|doi=10.2307/3637829 \|jstor=3637829}}
	*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718223554/http://newdelhi.daad.de/mainFrame/news/mehrfart5.html Newsletter of the Regional Office-South East Asia]. German Academic Exchange Service.		*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718223554/http://newdelhi.daad.de/mainFrame/news/mehrfart5.html Newsletter of the Regional Office-South East Asia]. German Academic Exchange Service.
	*[http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp "Champak-Chatto And the Berlin Committee"].[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]		*[http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp "Champak-Chatto And the Berlin Committee"].[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]

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← Older revision		Revision as of 18:17, 27 September 2021
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	==End of the Indian Independence Committee==		==End of the Indian Independence Committee==
	The committee was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of the members shifting their attention to the nascent [[Soviet Union\|Soviet Russia]]. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the members became active Communists.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/954115551\|title=Communist histories\|others=Prashad, Vijay.\|isbn=978-93-80118-33-8\|location=New Delhi, India\|oclc=954115551}}</ref>		The committee was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of the members shifting their attention to the nascent [[Soviet Union\|Soviet Russia]]. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the members became active Communists.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/954115551\|title=Communist histories\|others=Prashad, Vijay.\|year=2016\|isbn=978-93-80118-33-8\|location=New Delhi, India\|oclc=954115551}}</ref>

	==Notes==		==Notes==
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	\| year = 1985		\| year = 1985
	\| title = The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913-1918. German Studies Review, Vol. 8, No. 2. (May, 1985), pp. 245-261		\| title = The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913-1918. German Studies Review, Vol. 8, No. 2. (May, 1985), pp. 245-261
			\| journal = German Studies Review
	\| publisher = German Studies Association		\| publisher = German Studies Association
	\| ~~ISSN~~ = 0149-7952		\| issn = 0149-7952
	}}.		}}.
	*{{Citation		*{{Citation
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	\| year = 1977		\| year = 1977
	\| title = Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914-18. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. 255-272.		\| title = Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914-18. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. 255-272.
			\| journal = Journal of Contemporary History
	\| publisher = Sage Publications		\| publisher = Sage Publications
	\| issn = 0022-0094		\| issn = 0022-0094
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	\| year = 1980		\| year = 1980
	\| title = The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 7, No. 2. (1980), pp. 118-122		\| title = The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 7, No. 2. (1980), pp. 118-122
			\| journal = Bulletin
	\| publisher = London, Taylor & Francis Ltd.		\| publisher = London, Taylor & Francis Ltd.
	\| ~~ISSN~~ = 0305-6139		\| issn = 0305-6139
	}}.		}}.
	*{{Citation		*{{Citation
Line 97:		Line 100:
	\| year = 2002		\| year = 2002
	\| title = The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915-1916.German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct., 2002), pp. 447-476.		\| title = The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915-1916.German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct., 2002), pp. 447-476.
			\| journal = German Studies Review
	\| publisher = German Studies Association		\| publisher = German Studies Association
	\| issn = 0149-7952		\| issn = 0149-7952
Line 105:		Line 109:
	\| year = 2001		\| year = 2001
	\| title = From Palestine to the Caucasus-Oskar Niedermayer and Germany's Middle Eastern Strategy in 1918.German Studies Review, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Feb., 2001), pp. 1-18		\| title = From Palestine to the Caucasus-Oskar Niedermayer and Germany's Middle Eastern Strategy in 1918.German Studies Review, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Feb., 2001), pp. 1-18
			\| journal = German Studies Review
	\| publisher = German Studies Association		\| publisher = German Studies Association
	\| ~~ISSN~~ = 0149-7952		\| doi = 10.2307/1433153
			\| jstor = 1433153
			\| issn = 0149-7952
	}}.		}}.
	*Liebau, Heike (2019): "[https://www.projekt-mida.de/reflexicon/unternehmungen-und-aufwiegelungen-das-berliner-indische-unabhaengigkeitskomitee-in-den-akten-des-politischen-archivs-des-auswaertigen-amts-1914-1920/ "Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelungen": Das Berliner Indische Unabhängigkeitskomitee in den Akten des Politischen Archivs des Auswärtigen Amts (1914–1920).]" In: ''[https://www.projekt-mida.de/rechercheportal/reflexicon/ MIDA Archival Reflexicon]'', ISSN 2628-5029, 1–11.		*Liebau, Heike (2019): "[https://www.projekt-mida.de/reflexicon/unternehmungen-und-aufwiegelungen-das-berliner-indische-unabhaengigkeitskomitee-in-den-akten-des-politischen-archivs-des-auswaertigen-amts-1914-1920/ "Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelungen": Das Berliner Indische Unabhängigkeitskomitee in den Akten des Politischen Archivs des Auswärtigen Amts (1914–1920).]" In: ''[https://www.projekt-mida.de/rechercheportal/reflexicon/ MIDA Archival Reflexicon]'', ISSN 2628-5029, 1–11.
Line 113:		Line 120:
	* Liebau, Heike: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/berlin_indian_independence_committee/ Berlin Indian Independence Committee], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].		* Liebau, Heike: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/berlin_indian_independence_committee/ Berlin Indian Independence Committee], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
	{{Indian independence movement}}		{{Indian independence movement}}
			{{Indian Revolutionary Movement}}
	{{Hindu-German Conspiracy}}		{{Hindu-German Conspiracy}}

202.142.77.224 at 18:39, 7 June 2021

2021-06-07T18:39:51Z

New page

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
The '''Berlin Committee''', later known as the '''Indian Independence Committee''' ({{lang-de|Indisches Unabhängigkeitskomitee}}) after 1915, was an organisation formed in Germany in 1914 during World War I by Indian students and political activists residing in the country. The purpose of the committee was to promote the cause of [[Indian independence movement|Indian Independence]]. Initially called the Berlin–Indian Committee, the organisation was renamed the Indian Independence Committee and came to be an integral part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Members of the committee included [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), [[Chempakaraman Pillai]], Dr [[Jnanendra Das Gupta]], and [[Abinash Bhattacharya]].

==Background==
A number of Indians, notably [[Shyamji Krishna Varma]], had formed the [[India House]] in England in 1905. This organisation, with the support of Indian luminaries like [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], [[Madame Bhikaji Cama]] and others, offered scholarships to Indian students, promoted nationalistic work, and was a major platform for anti-colonial opinions and views. ''[[The Indian Sociologist]],'' published by Krishna Varma, was a notable anti-colonial publication. Prominent Indian Nationalists associated with the India House included [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] (also known as Veer Savarkar), [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] (alias Chatto), and [[Har Dayal]].

The British government kept track of India House because of the nature of its work and the increasingly inciting tone of ''The Indian Sociologist,'' which proposed killing British colonial officials. English detectives followed and watched the student leaders in India House. In 1909, [[Madan Lal Dhingra]], closely associated with the India House, shot and killed [[William Hutt Curzon Wyllie]], the political ADC to the Secretary of State for India. In the aftermath of the assassination, India House was rapidly suppressed. Evidence found showed that Browning pistols were being sent to India in order to bring about an armed revolution. Savarkar was deported from England, and denied asylum by the French government on a stop in Marseilles) while Krishna Varma successfully fled to [[Europe]]. Those who continued the struggle, including Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, moved to Germany, while a number of the leadership moved to [[Paris]].<ref name=Bhavans/> This set of fugitives would later coalesce in the Berlin Committee.

==World War I==
At the outbreak of World War I, Indian nationalists looked for ways to use the enmities to support their goals. As early as 1912, the [[German Foreign Office]] had considered supporting the Pan-Islamist and [[Bengali people|Bengali]] revolutionary movement in India to weaken the British position.<ref name=Fraser256>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1977|p=256}}</ref>

The [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser]] had considered the option on 31 July 1914 when Russian mobilisation was confirmed, and the scope of British mobilisation against Germany was becoming evident.<ref name=Fraser256/> In September 1914, the German Chancellor, [[Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg]], was authorised by the Kaiser to sanction German activity against British India.<ref name=Fraser256/><ref>{{Harvnb|Hoover|1985|p=251}}</ref> The German effort was headed by [[Max von Oppenheim]], an archaeologist and the head of the newly formed [[Intelligence Bureau for the East]]. He was to organize the Indian student groups into a cohesive group. Oppenheim also convinced [[Har Dayal]] of the feasibility of the project.

A group of Indians resident in Germany, headed by M. Prabhakar (then teaching at [[Düsseldorf]] after graduating from [[Heidelberg University|Heidelberg]]), along with Abd ur Rahman and A Siddiqui, had issued statements condemning England and France for their support of the [[Czar]] in Russia. As these students were political novices, Oppenheim sought to find more prominent revolutionaries who would carry more weight in the community. Otto Gunther von Wesendonck, a young officer of the ''[[Auswärtiges Amt]]'', was given the task of organising revolutionary outbreaks along the Indian and Russian border.<ref name=Fraser257>{{Harvnb|Fraser|1977|p=257}}</ref>
with the help of their close acquaintance Anna Maria Simon, [[Abhinash Bhattacharya]] and [[Virendranath Chattopadhyaya]] issued similar statements against Britain and France, which were distributed in [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[Netherlands]] in addition to Germany, attracting editorial comments. The duo, with the help of Frau Simon, set up meetings with the Berlin Foreign office.<ref name=Bhavans>{{cite web
| publisher = Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
| url=http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp
| title=Champak-Chatto" And the Berlin Committee
| access-date=2007-11-04
}}</ref>

===Berlin Committee===
Arriving at Berlin, they were assigned a building in the [[Schöneberg]] suburbs, as their new headquarters. In their first meeting with the foreign office liaison [[Max von Oppenheim]], on 3 September 1915, Chattopadhyay (also known as Chatto) identified the goals and requirements of the committee:<ref name=Bhavans/>
*For the Germans to provide money, arms, experts in military strategy
*Facilitate repatriation of Indian patriots in Europe and provide asylum in case of failure (and not yield to pressure as had happened in the case of Savarkar)
*train Indians at Spandau and other military bases, including on submarine mines
*publish literature in Indian languages
*provide aircraft for propaganda airdrops
*provide 10 rupee banknotes for secret use
*support with radio communication
*no concession to Indian Principalities opposed to the plan to form a Socialist Republic
With the help of Oppenheim, messages were sent out to Indian students in German universities, as well as Switzerland, Austria and the Netherlands, who were likely to share the same views. Among those who joined the organisation at the time were Dr. Dhiren Sarkar, Chanji Kersasp, N. S. Marathe, Dr. [[Jnanendra Das Gupta|J. N. Dasgupta]], and C. Padmanabhan Pillai, quickly joined by his brother, [[Champak Raman Pillai]]. The 'Champak-Chatto' Berlin Committee was founded.<ref name=Bhavans/>

Although the group urged him, Oppenheim refused to approach [[Shyamji Krishnavarma]], then in [[Geneva]], nor did he try to reach [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], then in the United States. The latter was suspected by British intelligence in the United States to be deeply involved in the seditionist movement<ref>{{Harvnb|Dignan|1971|p=}}</ref> although he personally refused to enter an alliance with another Imperialist Power.<ref name=Fraser257/> In 1915, [[Har Dayal]] and [[Maulavi Barkatullah|Barkatullah]] became actively involved in the Berlin Committee and its goals. The committee is known to have sent missions to the Middle Eastern cities of [[Istanbul]] and [[Baghdad]], and [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=Bagulia146>{{Harvnb|Bagulia|2006|p=146}}</ref>

==Hindu–German Conspiracy==
{{Main|Hindu–German Conspiracy}}
The committee soon established contacts with Indian revolutionaries, including [[Bagha Jatin]]. They visited armament and explosives factories to identify war material, and met with Indian prisoners-of-war held in Germany to recruit them to the nationalist cause. [[Lala Har Dayal]], who had fled to Germany after his arrest in the United States, was convinced to lend his support to the committee's cause. They established contacts with the [[Ghadar Party|Ghadarite movement]] in the United States. Dr. Dhiren Sarkar and N.S. Marathe left for Washington, D.C. on 22 September 1915 and, through the German Ambassador, [[Johann von Bernstoff]], established links with the Ghadar Party. The culmination of the American efforts was the [[Annie Larsen arms plot]].

===Kabul mission===
{{Main|Provisional Government of India}}
{{See also|Oskar von Niedermayer|Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition}}
The Berlin-Indian Committee (which became the ''Indian Independence Committee'' after 1915) created an Indo-German-Turkish mission to the Indo-Iranian border to encourage the tribes to strike against British interests.<ref>{{harvnb|Ansari|1986|p=514}}</ref> At this time, the Berlin Committee was in touch with the Khairi brothers (Abdul Jabbar Khairi and Abdul Sattar Khairi) who had settled in [[Istanbul]] at the onset of the [[World War I]]. In 1917 they had proposed to the Kaiser a plan to lead tribes in [[Kashmir]] and [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–55)|North-West Frontier Province]] against British interests. Another group, led by the [[Deobandi]] Maulana Ubaid Allah Sindhi and [[Mahmud al-Hasan]] (principle of the [[Darul Uloom Deoband]]), had traveled to [[Kabul]] in October 1915 with plans to initiate a Muslim insurrection in the tribal belt of India. Ubaid Allah proposed that the [[Habibullah Khan|Amir of Afghanistan]] should declare war against Britain while Mahmud al Hasan sought German and Turkish help. Hasan proceeded to [[Hijaz]]. Ubaid Allah, in the meantime, established friendly relations with the Amir.

At Kabul, Ubaid Allah, along with some students who had preceded him to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]] to join the [[Caliph]]'s "''[[Jihad]]''" against Britain, decided that the pan-Islamic cause would be better served by focusing on the [[Indian Freedom Movement]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ansari|1986|p=515}}</ref> This group was met by the Indo-German-Turkish mission to Kabul in December 1915, headed by [[Oskar von Niedermayer]] and including among its members [[Werner Otto von Hentig]], the German diplomatic representative to Kabul; and [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]], [[Maulavi Barkatullah|Barkatullah]] and other prominent nationalists from the Berlin group. Known as the Niedermayer–Hentig mission, it brought members of the Indian movement to India's border, and carried messages from the Kaiser, [[Enver Pasha]], and [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas Hilmi]], the displaced [[Khedive]] of [[Egypt]], expressing support for Pratap's mission. They asked the Amir to move against India.<ref name=Sims-Williams120>{{Harvnb|Sims-Williams|1980|p=120}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Seidt|2001|p=1,3}}</ref> The mission's immediate goal was to rally the Amir against [[British India]]<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> and to obtain a right of free passage for the conspirators from the Afghan Government.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516">{{harvnb|Ansari|1986|p=516}}</ref>

Although the Amir made no commitment to the group, they found support amongst the Amir's immediate and close political and religious advisory group, including his brother [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)|Nasrullah Khan]], his sons [[Inayatullah Khan]] and [[Amānullāh Khān]], and religious leaders and tribesmen.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> Afghanistan's then most influential newspaper, the ''Siraj al-Akhbar'', took Barkatullah as an officiating editor in early 1916. Its editor [[Mahmud Tarzi]] published a number of inflammatory articles by [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]], as well as increasingly anti-British and pro-[[Central Powers]] articles and propaganda. By May 1916, the tone in the paper was deemed serious enough for the [[British Raj]] to intercept its issues.<ref name=Sims-Williams120/> In 1916, the Berlin Committee established the [[Provisional Government of India]] in Kabul.

Its formation infers the seriousness of intention and purpose of the revolutionaries. The government had [[Raja Mahendra Pratap]] as president, [[Maulavi Barkatullah|Barkatullah]] as Prime Minister, Ubaid al Sindhi as the Minister for India, [[Maulavi Bashir]] as War Minister and [[Champakaran Pillai]] as Foreign Minister. It tried to gain support from the [[Russian Empire]], [[Republican China#Republican China.2C 1911-1949|Republican China]], and Japan. [[Galib Pasha]] joined them in proclaiming ''[[jihad]]'' against Britain.<ref name="Ansari 1986 516"/>

Following the [[February Revolution]] in Russia in 1917, Pratap's Government is known to have corresponded with the nascent Soviet Government. In 1918, Pratap met the Russian leader [[Leon Trotsky]] in [[Petrograd]] before meeting the Kaiser in Berlin; he urged both to mobillise against British India.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474">{{Harvnb|Hughes|2002|p=474}}</ref> Under pressure from the British, the Afghans withdrew their cooperation and the mission closed down. The [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], with associated liaisons of the German mission had a profound effect on the political and social situation in Afghanistan. It catalyzed political change that ended with the assassination of [[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]] in 1919 and the transfer of power to [[Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)|Nasrullah]] and, subsequently, Amānullah; the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] began, which led to Afghan Independence.<ref name="Hughes 2002 474"/>

==End of the Indian Independence Committee==
The committee was formally disbanded in November 1918, with most of the members shifting their attention to the nascent [[Soviet Union|Soviet Russia]]. Between 1917 and 1920, most of the members became active Communists.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/954115551|title=Communist histories|others=Prashad, Vijay.|isbn=978-93-80118-33-8|location=New Delhi, India|oclc=954115551}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718223554/http://newdelhi.daad.de/mainFrame/news/mehrfart5.html Newsletter of the Regional Office-South East Asia]. German Academic Exchange Service.
*[http://www.bhavans.info/heritage/champakchatto.asp "Champak-Chatto And the Berlin Committee"].[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]
* {{Citation
| surname1 = Hoover
| given1 = Karl.
| year = 1985
| title = The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913-1918. German Studies Review, Vol. 8, No. 2. (May, 1985), pp. 245-261
| publisher = German Studies Association
| ISSN = 0149-7952
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Fraser
| given1 = Thomas G
| year = 1977
| title = Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914-18. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1977), pp. 255-272.
| publisher = Sage Publications
| issn = 0022-0094
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Ansari
| given1 = K.H.
| year = 1986
| title = Pan-Islam and the Making of the Early Indian Muslim Socialist. Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3. (1986), pp. 509-537
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Sims-Williams
| given1 = Ursula
| year = 1980
| title = The Afghan Newspaper Siraj al-Akhbar. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 7, No. 2. (1980), pp. 118-122
| publisher = London, Taylor & Francis Ltd.
| ISSN = 0305-6139
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Hughes
| given1 = Thomas L
| year = 2002
| title = The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915-1916.German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct., 2002), pp. 447-476.
| publisher = German Studies Association
| issn = 0149-7952
}}.
*{{Citation
| surname1 = Seidt
| given1 = Hans-Ulrich
| year = 2001
| title = From Palestine to the Caucasus-Oskar Niedermayer and Germany's Middle Eastern Strategy in 1918.German Studies Review, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Feb., 2001), pp. 1-18
| publisher = German Studies Association
| ISSN = 0149-7952
}}.
*Liebau, Heike (2019): "[https://www.projekt-mida.de/reflexicon/unternehmungen-und-aufwiegelungen-das-berliner-indische-unabhaengigkeitskomitee-in-den-akten-des-politischen-archivs-des-auswaertigen-amts-1914-1920/ "Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelungen": Das Berliner Indische Unabhängigkeitskomitee in den Akten des Politischen Archivs des Auswärtigen Amts (1914–1920).]" In: ''[https://www.projekt-mida.de/rechercheportal/reflexicon/ MIDA Archival Reflexicon]'', ISSN 2628-5029, 1–11.

==External links==
* Liebau, Heike: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/berlin_indian_independence_committee/ Berlin Indian Independence Committee], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Hindu-German Conspiracy}}

[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Independence movements]]
[[Category:Hindu–German Conspiracy]]
[[Category:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]