Battle of the Yarmuk - Revision history

Predator.Maratha at 09:19, 6 September 2026

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	\| coordinates = {{coord\|32.8141\|35.9548\|region:IT_type:event\|display=inline,title}}{{dubious\|Coordinates incorrect\|date=December 2019\|}}		\| coordinates = {{coord\|32.8141\|35.9548\|region:IT_type:event\|display=inline,title}}{{dubious\|Coordinates incorrect\|date=December 2019\|}}
	\| territory = [[Byzantine Syria]] annexed by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]		\| territory = [[Byzantine Syria]] annexed by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
	\| result = ~~Rashidun~~ victory		\| result = Muslim victory
	\| combatant1 = [[Rashidun Caliphate]]		\| combatant1 = [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
	\| combatant2 = {{tree list}} [[Byzantine Empire]]<br>		\| combatant2 = {{tree list}} [[Byzantine Empire]]<br>

Predator.Maratha at 09:18, 6 September 2026

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	<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid, aware of the situation at the wings, ordered the cavalry of the right wing to attack the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing while he with his mobile guard attacked the southern flank of the Byzantine left wing, and the Muslim right wing infantry attacked from the front. The three-pronged attack forced the Byzantine left wing to abandon the Muslim positions they had gained on, and Amr regained his lost ground and started reorganizing his corps for another round.<ref name=Nicolle71/>		<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid, aware of the situation at the wings, ordered the cavalry of the right wing to attack the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing while he with his mobile guard attacked the southern flank of the Byzantine left wing, and the Muslim right wing infantry attacked from the front. The three-pronged attack forced the Byzantine left wing to abandon the Muslim positions they had gained on, and Amr regained his lost ground and started reorganizing his corps for another round.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

	The situation on the Muslim left wing, which Yazid commanded was considerably more serious. The Muslim right wing enjoyed assistance from the mobile guard but not the left wing, and the numerical advantage the Byzantines enjoyed caused the Muslim positions to be overrun, with soldiers retreating towards base camps.<ref name=nicolle70>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=70}}.</ref> There, the Byzantines had broken through the corps. The [[testudo formation]] that Gregory's army had adopted moved slowly but also had a good defence. Yazid used his cavalry regiment to counterattack but was repulsed. Despite stiff resistance, the warriors of Yazid on the left flank finally fell back to their camps and for a moment Vahan's plan appeared to be succeeding. The centre of the Muslim army was pinned down and its flanks had been pushed back. However, neither flank had broken though		The situation on the Muslim left wing, which Yazid commanded was considerably more serious. The Muslim right wing enjoyed assistance from the mobile guard but not the left wing, and the numerical advantage the Byzantines enjoyed caused the Muslim positions to be overrun, with soldiers retreating towards base camps.<ref name=nicolle70>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=70}}.</ref> There, the Byzantines had broken through the corps. The [[testudo formation]] that Gregory's army had adopted moved slowly but also had a good defence. Yazid used his cavalry regiment to counterattack but was repulsed. Despite stiff resistance, the warriors of Yazid on the left flank finally fell back to their camps and for a moment Vahan's plan appeared to be succeeding. The centre of the Muslim army was pinned down and its flanks had been pushed back. However, neither flank had broken though morale was severely damaged.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=418}}.</ref>

			The retreating Muslim army was met by the ferocious Arab women in the camps.<ref name=nicolle70/> Led by Hind, the Muslim women dismantled their tents, and armed with tent poles, charged at their husbands and fellow men singing an improvised song from the [[Battle of Uhud]], which then had been directed against the Muslims.

			{{Quote\|<poem>We are the daughters of the night;
			We move amongst the cushions,
			With the grace of gentle kittens
			Our bracelets on our elbows.
			If you attack we shall embrace you;
			And if you retreat we will forsake you
			With a loveless separation.<ref name=Nicolle71/></poem>}}

			That boiled the blood of the retreating Muslims so much that they returned to the battlefield.<ref>{{harvnb\|Regan\|2003\|p=164}}.</ref>

			<u>'''Phase 3:'''</u> After managing to stabilize the position on the right flank, Khalid ordered the mobile guard cavalry to provide relief to the battered left flank.

			Khalid detached one regiment under Dhirar and ordered him to attack the front of the army of Dairjan (left centre) to create a diversion and threaten the withdrawal of the Byzantine right wing from its advanced position. With the rest of the cavalry reserve he attacked Gregory's flank. Here again, under simultaneous attacks from the front and flanks, the Byzantines fell back but more slowly because they had to maintain their formation.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|pp=418–19}}.</ref>

			At sunset, the central armies broke contact and withdrew to their original positions and both fronts were restored along the lines occupied in the morning. The death of Dairjan and the failure of Vahan's battle plan left the larger Imperial army relatively demoralized, but Khalid's successful counterattacks emboldened his troops despite their being smaller in number.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=419}}.</ref>

			===Day 3===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-3.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=Day 3, Phase 1. showing Byzantine left wing and centre pushing back respective Muslim divisions.\|Day 3, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-3 phase-2.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=Day 3, Phase 2. showing khalid's attack on flank of Byzantine left centre with his mobile guard.\|Day 3, Phase 2]]

			On 17 August, Vahan pondered over his failures and mistakes of the previous day, where he launched attacks against respective Muslim flanks, but after initial success, his men were pushed back. What bothered him the most was the loss of one of his commanders.{{citation needed\|date=August 2020}}

			The Byzantine army decided on a less ambitious plan, and Vahan now aimed to break the Muslim army at specific points. He decided to press upon the relatively exposed right flank, where his mounted troops could maneuver more freely as compared to the rugged terrain at the Muslims' left flank. The junction was to be between the Muslim right centre, its right wing held by Qanatir's Slavs, to break them apart so that they would be fought separately.{{citation needed\|date=August 2020}}

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> The battle resumed with Byzantine attacks on the Muslim right flank and right centre.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=420}}.</ref>

			After holding off the initial attacks by the Byzantines, the Muslim right wing fell back, followed by the right centre. They were again said to have been met by their own women, who abused and shamed them. The corps, however, managed to reorganize some distance from the camp and held their ground preparing for a counterattack.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Knowing that the Byzantine army was focusing on the Muslim right, Khalid launched an attack with his mobile guard, along with the Muslim right flank cavalry. Khalid struck at the right flank of the Byzantines left centre, and the cavalry reserve of the Muslims right centre struck at the Byzantines left centre at its left flank. Meanwhile, he ordered the Muslims' right-wing cavalry to strike at the left flank of the Byzantines left wing. The combat soon developed into a bloodbath. Many fell on both sides. Khalid's timely flanking attacks again saved the day for Muslims and by dusk, the Byzantines had been pushed back to the positions they had at the start of the battle.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

			===Day 4===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-4.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 4 phase 1, showing Byzantine left centre and wing pushing back respective Muslim divisions.\|Day 4, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-4 phase-2.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 4 phase 2, showing khalid's flanking attack on Byzantine left centre with his mobile guard.\|Day 4, Phase 2]]

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> Vahan decided to persist with the previous day's [[war plan]] as he had been successful in inflicting damage on the Muslim right.

			Qanatir led two armies of Slavs against the Muslim right wing and right centre with some assistance from the Armenians and Christian Arabs led by Jabalah. The Muslim right wing and right centre again fell back.<ref name=nicolle72>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=72}}.</ref>
			Khalid entered the fray yet again with the mobile guard. He feared a general attack on a broad front, which he would be unable to repulse, and so ordered Abu Ubayda and Yazid on the left centre and the left wings, respectively, to attack the Byzantine armies at the respective fronts. The attack would result in stalling the Byzantine front and prevent a general advance of the Imperial army.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=421}}.</ref>

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid divided his mobile guard into two divisions and attacked the flanks of the Byzantine left centre, and the infantry of the Muslim right centre attacked from the front. Under the three-pronged [[flanking manoeuvre\|flanking maneuver]], the Byzantines fell back. Meanwhile, the Muslim right wing renewed its offense with its infantry attacking from the front and the cavalry reserve attacking the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing. As the Byzantine left centre retreated under three-pronged attacks of Khalid, the Byzantine left wing, having been exposed at its southern flank, also fell back.<ref name=nicolle72/>

			While Khalid and his mobile guard were dealing with the Armenian front throughout the afternoon, the situation on the other end was worsening.<ref name=nicolle75>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=75}}.</ref> Byzantine horse-archers had taken to the field and subjected Abu Ubayda and Yazid's troops to intense archery preventing them from penetrating their Byzantine lines. Many Muslim soldiers lost their sight to Byzantine arrows on that day, which thereafter became known as the "Day of Lost Eyes".<ref name=waqidi148>{{harvnb\|Al-Waqidi\|p=148}}.</ref> The veteran [[Abu Sufyan]] is also believed to have lost an eye that day.<ref name=waqidi148/> The Muslim armies fell back except for one regiment, led by Ikrimah bin Abi Jahal, which was on the left of Abu Ubayda's corps. Ikrimah covered the retreat of the Muslims with his 400 members of the cavalry by attacking the Byzantine front, and the other armies reorganized themselves to counterattack and regain their lost positions. All of Ikrimah's men were either seriously injured or dead that day. Ikrimah, a childhood friend of Khalid, was mortally wounded and died later in the evening.<ref name=nicolle75/>

			===Day 5===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-5.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=troop deployment day-5\|Deployment of troops on the fifth day. Khalid gathered all his cavalry for a decisive flanking charge.]]

			During the four-day offence of Vahan, his troops had failed to achieve any breakthrough and had suffered heavy casualties, especially during the mobile guard's flanking counterattacks. Early on 19 August, the fifth day of the battle, Vahan sent an emissary to the Muslim camp for a truce for the next few days so that fresh negotiations could be held. He supposedly wanted time to reorganize his demoralized troops, but Khalid deemed victory to be in reach and he declined the offer.<ref name=nicolle76>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=76}}.</ref>

			Until now, the Muslim army had adopted a largely defensive strategy, but knowing that the Byzantines were apparently no longer eager for battle, Khalid now decided to take the offensive and reorganized his troops accordingly. All cavalry regiments were grouped together into one powerful mounted force with the mobile guard acting as its core. The total strength of the cavalry group was now about 8,000 mounted warriors, an effective mounted corps for an offensive attack the next day. The rest of the day passed uneventfully. Khalid planned to trap Byzantine troops, cutting off their every route of escape. There were three natural barriers, the three gorges in the battlefield with their steep ravines, ''Wadi-ur-Ruqqad'' at west, ''Wadi al-Yarmouk'' in south and ''Wadi al-Allah'' in east. The northern route was to be blocked by Muslim cavalry.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=422}}.</ref>

			There were however, some passages across the {{convert\|200\|m\|ft}} deep ravines of Wadi-ur-Ruqqad in west, strategically the most important one was at Ayn Dhakar, a bridge. Khalid sent Dhirar with 500 cavalry at night to secure that bridge. Dhirar moved around the northern flank of Byzantines and captured the bridge, a maneuver that was to prove decisive the next day.<ref name=Akram423>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=423}}.</ref>

			===Day 6===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-1.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 1, showing khalid's flanking maneuver at Byzantine left flank routing Byzantine left wing and its cavalry units.\|Day 6, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-3.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 2, showing khalid's two prong attack on Byzantine cavalry, and Muslim right wing flanking attack on Byzantine left centre.\|Day 6, Phase 2]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-4.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 3, showing khalid's cavalry routed Byzantine cavalry off the field and attacking Byzantine left centre at its rear.\|Day 6, Phase 3]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-5.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 last phase, showing general retreat of Byzantine army towards Wadi-ur-Ruqqad.\|Day 6, the 4th and last phase]]

			On 20 August,<ref>{{harvnb\|Kaegi\|1995\|p=114}}.</ref> Khalid put into action a simple but bold plan of attack. With his massed cavalry force, he intended to drive the Byzantine cavalry entirely off the battlefield so that the infantry, which formed the bulk of the imperial army, would be left without cavalry support and thus would be exposed when attacked from the flanks and rear.
			At the same time, he planned to push a determined attack to turn the left flank of the Byzantine army and drive them towards the ravine to the west.<ref name=Akram423/>

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> Khalid ordered a general attack on the Byzantine front and [[Canter and gallop\|galloped]] his cavalry around the left wing of the Byzantines. Part of his cavalry engaged the Byzantine left wing cavalry while the rest of it attacked the rear of the Byzantine left wing infantry. Meanwhile, the Muslim right wing pressed against it from the front. Under the two-pronged attack, the Byzantine left wing fell back and collapsed and fell back to the Byzantine left centre, greatly disordering it.<ref name=nicolle76/> The remaining Muslim cavalry then attacked the Byzantine left wing cavalry at the rear while they were held frontally by the other half of the Muslim cavalry, routing them off the battlefield to the north.
			The Muslim right-wing infantry now attacked the Byzantine left centre at its left flank while the Muslim right centre attacked from front.

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Vahan, noticing the huge cavalry maneuver of t

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	\| image_size = 300		\| image_size = 300
	\| caption = Illustration of the Battle of Yarmuk by an anonymous [[Catalans\|Catalan]] illustrator ({{Circa\|1310 – 1325}})		\| caption = Illustration of the Battle of Yarmuk by an anonymous [[Catalans\|Catalan]] illustrator ({{Circa\|1310 – 1325}})
			\|place = Near the Yarmuk River, along the tripoint border of [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and Golan Heights
	\| pushpin_map = Syria#Levant#Middle East2		\| pushpin_map = Syria#Levant#Middle East2
	\| pushpin_caption = Battle location on a map of modern [[Syria]]		\| pushpin_caption = Battle location on a map of modern [[Syria]]

Predator.Maratha at 09:14, 6 September 2026

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	~~{{pp-pc\|small=yes}}~~
	{{Short description\|636 CE conflict between the Rashidun Caliphate and Byzantine Empire}}		{{Short description\|636 CE conflict between the Rashidun Caliphate and Byzantine Empire}}
	{{Distinguish\|Battle of Yarmouk Camp (disambiguation){{!}}Battle of Yarmouk Camp}}		{{Distinguish\|Battle of Yarmouk Camp (disambiguation){{!}}Battle of Yarmouk Camp}}

Predator.Maratha: Created page with "{{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Short description|636 CE conflict between the Rashidun Caliphate and Byzantine Empire}} {{Distinguish|Battle of Yarmouk Camp (disambiguation){{!}}Battle of Yarmouk Camp}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Battle of Yarmuk | part_of = the Muslim conquest of Syria
(Arab–Byzantine wars) | image = Hayton BNF886 9v.jpg | image_size = 300 | caption = Ill..."

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Created page with "{{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{Short description|636 CE conflict between the Rashidun Caliphate and Byzantine Empire}} {{Distinguish|Battle of Yarmouk Camp (disambiguation){{!}}Battle of Yarmouk Camp}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Battle of Yarmuk | part_of = the Muslim conquest of Syria (Arab–Byzantine wars) | image = Hayton BNF886 9v.jpg | image_size = 300 | caption = Ill..."

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{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Short description|636 CE conflict between the Rashidun Caliphate and Byzantine Empire}}
{{Distinguish|Battle of Yarmouk Camp (disambiguation){{!}}Battle of Yarmouk Camp}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Yarmuk
| part_of = the [[Muslim conquest of Syria]] ([[Arab–Byzantine wars]])
| image = Hayton BNF886 9v.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = Illustration of the Battle of Yarmuk by an anonymous [[Catalans|Catalan]] illustrator ({{Circa|1310 – 1325}})
| pushpin_map = Syria#Levant#Middle East2
| pushpin_caption = Battle location on a map of modern [[Syria]]
| pushpin_relief = 1
| date = 15–20 August 636
| location = Near the [[Yarmuk River]], along the tripoint border of [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and [[Golan Heights]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32.8141|35.9548|region:IT_type:event|display=inline,title}}{{dubious|Coordinates incorrect|date=December 2019|}}
| territory = [[Byzantine Syria]] annexed by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| result = Rashidun victory
| combatant1 = [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| combatant2 = {{tree list}} [[Byzantine Empire]] 
**[[Ghassanids|Ghassanid Kingdom]] 
**[[Tanukhids]]{{tree list/end}}
| commander1 = [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]] [[Amr ibn al-As]] [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb]] [[Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan]] [[Shurahbil ibn Hasana]] [[Ikrima ibn Amr]]{{KIA}} [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]] [[Al-Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi|Al-Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr]] [[Dirar ibn al-Azwar]] [[Ubadah ibn al-Samit]] [[Suhayl ibn Amr]] [[Safwan ibn Umayya]]
| commander2 = [[Vahan (Byzantine commander)|Vahan]]{{KIA}}{{cref|g}} [[Theodore Trithyrius]]{{KIA}} [[Jabalah ibn al-Aiham]] [[Dairjan]]{{KIA}} [[Niketas the Persian]] Buccinator ([[Qanatir]]) [[Gregory, Byzantine General|Gregory]]<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|pp=64–65}}.</ref>
| strength1 = 15,000–40,000 (modern estimates){{cref|d}} 24,000–40,000 (primary Arab sources){{cref|e}}
| strength2 = {{ublist|15,000–50,000 (modern estimates)}}{{cref|a}} 
{{ublist|100,000–200,000 (primary Arab sources)}}{{cref|c}} 
{{ublist|140,000 (primary Roman sources)}}{{cref|b}}
| casualties1 = 4,000 killed{{sfn|Akram|2004|p=425}} '''Total casualties:''' 5,000<ref>{{cite web|title=Battle of Yarmouk|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Yarmouk-636|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|access-date=2025-06-05|quote=Losses: Byzantine allied, 40,000; Arab, 5,000.}}</ref>–17,000{{sfnp|Bolshakov|2002|p=67}}
| casualties2 = 70,000–120,000 killed (primary Arab sources){{cref|f}} 50,000+ killed<ref>{{cite web|title=Khālid ibn al-Walīd|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Khalid-ibn-al-Walid|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica–, Inc.|access-date=2025-06-17|quote=Early in 636 he withdrew south of the Yarmūk River before a powerful Byzantine force that advanced from the north and from the coast of Palestine. The Byzantine armies were composed mainly of Christian Arab, Armenian, and other auxiliaries, however; and when many of these deserted the Byzantines, Khālid, reinforced from Medina and possibly from the Syrian Arab tribes, attacked and destroyed the remaining Byzantine forces along the ravines of the Yarmūk valley (Aug. 20, 636).''' Almost 50,000 Byzantine troops were slaughtered''', which opened the way for many other Islamic conquests.}}</ref> (modern estimates)
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Khalid ibn Walid}}
}}

The '''Battle of the Yarmuk''' (also spelled '''Yarmouk'''; {{Langx|ar|معركة اليرموك}}) was a major battle between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] near the [[Yarmouk River]] in [[Byzantine Syria]] that marked a crucial point in the [[Muslim conquest of Syria]]. The result of the battle was a decisive Arab victory that effectively ended Byzantine rule in Syria.

The battle consisted of a series of engagements that lasted for six days in August 636, near the [[Yarmouk River]], along what are now the borders between [[Jordan–Syria border|Syria and Jordan]] and [[Borders of Israel#Border with Syria and Lebanon|Syria and Israel]], southeast of the [[Sea of Galilee]]. To check the [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Arab advance]] and to recover lost territory, Emperor [[Heraclius]] had sent a massive expedition to the Levant in May 636. As the [[Byzantine army]] approached, the Arabs tactically withdrew from Syria and regrouped all their forces at the Yarmuk plains close to the [[Arabian Peninsula]], where they were reinforced, and defeated the numerically superior Byzantine army.

The Battle of the Yarmuk is regarded as one of the most decisive battles in military history.<ref name=walton30>{{harvnb|Nafziger|Walton|2003|p=30}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=6}}.</ref> It was also [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]'s greatest military victory and cemented his reputation as one of the greatest tacticians and cavalry commanders in history.<ref name=nicolle19>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=19}}.</ref> The battle marked the culmination of the first great wave of [[early Muslim conquests]] after the death of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], which witnessed the rapid advance of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] into both the [[Sasanian Empire]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]].

==Background==
{{Further|Muslim conquest of the Levant}}
In 610, during the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], [[Heraclius]] became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire,<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=41}}.</ref> after overthrowing [[Phocas]]. Meanwhile, the [[Sasanian Empire]] conquered [[Mesopotamia]] and in 611 they overran [[Syria]] and entered [[Anatolia]], occupying Caesarea Mazaca (now [[Kayseri]], Turkey). In 612, Heraclius managed to expel the Persians from Anatolia but was decisively defeated in 613 when he launched a major offensive in Syria against the Persians.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=189–90}}.</ref> Over the following decade, the Persians were able to conquer [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Egypt]]. Meanwhile, Heraclius prepared for a counterattack and rebuilt his army.

In 622, Heraclius finally launched his offensive.<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=196}}.</ref> After his overwhelming victories over the Persians and their allies in the [[Caucasus]] and [[Byzantine Armenia|Armenia]], Heraclius launched a winter offensive against the Persians in Mesopotamia in 627, winning a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]], thus threatening the Persian capital city of [[Ctesiphon]]. Discredited by the series of disasters, [[Khosrow II]] was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son [[Kavad II]],<ref>{{harvnb|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|pp=217–27}}.</ref> who immediately [[suing for peace|sued for peace]] and agreed to withdraw from all occupied territories of the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=46}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, there had been rapid political development in the Arabian Peninsula, where [[Muhammad]] had been preaching Islam and, by 630, had successfully annexed most of Arabia under a single political authority. When Muhammad died in June 632, [[Abu Bakr]] was chosen as caliph and his political successor. Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, and several Arab tribes openly revolted against him. He declared war against the rebels. In what became known as the [[Ridda Wars]] of 632–633, Abu Bakr managed to defeat his opponents and unite Arabia under the central authority of the caliph at [[Medina]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|pp=12–14}}.</ref> [[File:Yarmuk_Battle_Islam.svg|thumb|Topographical and strategic map of the Battle of Yarmouk (636 CE), depicting key locations, Roman and Muslim troop positions, roads, rivers, and terrain features. Based on historical sources, including Syvänne (2019), Kaegi (1992), and GIS data.{{legend|Green|[[Rashidun army|Rashidun Army]]}}{{legend|red|[[Current Geographical Boundary]]}}{{legend|yellow|[[Byzantine army]]}}{{legend|blue|[[Yarmuk River]]}}|238x238px]][[File:Mohammad adil-Muslims Invasion of Syria.PNG|thumb|right|230px|alt=Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the Levant|Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the Levant]]
Once the rebels had been subdued, Abu Bakr began a war of conquest, beginning with [[Iraq]]. His most brilliant general, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], conquered Iraq in a series of successful campaigns against the Sasanian Empire. Abu Bakr's confidence grew, and once Khalid had established his stronghold in Iraq, Abu Bakr issued a call to arms for the invasion of Syria in February 634.<ref>{{harvnb|Luttwak|2009|p=199}}.</ref> The Muslim invasion of Syria was a series of carefully planned and well-coordinated military operations, which employed strategy, instead of pure strength, to deal with the Byzantine defensive measures.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=87}}.</ref>

The Muslim armies, however, soon proved to be too small to handle the Byzantine response, and their commanders called for reinforcements. Khalid was sent by Abu Bakr from Iraq to Syria with reinforcements and to lead the invasion. In July, the Byzantines were decisively defeated at [[Battle of Ajnadayn|Ajnadayn]]. [[Siege of Damascus (634)|Damascus fell]] in September, followed by the [[Battle of Fahl]], in which the last significant [[garrison]] of Palestine was routed.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=246}}.</ref>

After Abu Bakr died in 634, his successor [[Umar]] was determined to continue the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Caliphate]]'s expansion deeper into Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1987|p=15}}.</ref> Though previous campaigns led by Khalid had been successful, he was replaced by [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]]. Having secured southern Palestine, Muslim forces now advanced up the trade route, and [[Tiberias]] and [[Baalbek]] fell without much struggle and [[Homs#Arab Caliphate|conquered Emesa]] early in 636.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=298}}.</ref>

==Byzantine counterattack==
Having seized Emesa, the Muslims were just a march away from [[Aleppo]], a Byzantine stronghold, and [[Antioch]], where Heraclius resided. Seriously alarmed by the series of setbacks, Heraclius prepared for a counterattack to reacquire the lost regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=60}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kaegi|1995|p=112}}.</ref> In 635 [[Yazdegerd III]], the Emperor of [[Sassanid Persian Empire|Persia]], sought an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor. While Heraclius prepared for a major offensive in the Levant, Yazdegerd was to mount a simultaneous counterattack in [[Iraq]], in what was meant to be a well-coordinated effort. When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd could not co-ordinate with the maneuver, probably owing to the exhausted condition of his government, and what would have been a decisive plan missed the mark.<ref>
{{harvnb|Akram|2009|p=133}}.</ref>

[[File:Muslim-Byzantine troop movement (635-636).svg|thumb|right|240px|alt=map of Muslim and Byzantine troop movement prior to yarmuk|Muslim and Byzantine troop movements before the battle. Modern countries indicated.]]
Byzantine preparations began in late 635 and by May 636 Heraclius had a large force concentrated at Antioch in Northern Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=402}}.</ref> The assembled Byzantine army contingents consisted of [[Slavs]], [[Franks]], [[Georgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Christian Arabs]], [[Lombards]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], [[Khazars]], [[Balkans]] and [[Göktürks]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Al-Waqidi|p=100}}</ref> The force was organized into five armies, the joint leader of which was [[Theodore Trithyrius]]. [[Vahan (Byzantine commander)|Vahan]], an Armenian and former garrison commander of Emesa,<ref>{{in lang|hy}} [[Hrach Bartikyan|Bartikyan, Hrach]]. ''«Վահան»'' (Vahan). [[Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia]]. vol. xi. Yerevan: [[Armenian Academy of Sciences]], 1985, p. 243.</ref> was made the overall field commander,<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|2007|p=82}}.</ref> and had under his command a purely Armenian army. Buccinator (Qanatir), a [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] prince, commanded the Slavs and [[Jabalah ibn al-Aiham]], king of the [[Ghassanid]] Arabs, commanded an exclusively Christian Arab force. The remaining contingents, all European, were placed under Gregory and Dairjan.<ref name="Akram409">{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=409}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Al-Waqidi|p=106}}.</ref> Heraclius himself supervised the operation from Antioch. Byzantine sources mention [[Niketas the Persian|Niketas]], son of the Persian general [[Shahrbaraz]], among the commanders, but it is not certain which army he commanded.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=16}}.</ref>

The Rashidun army was then split into four groups: one under [[Amr ibn al-Aas|Amr]] in Palestine, one under [[Shurahbil ibn Hasana|Shurahbil]] in Jordan, one under [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan|Yazid]] in the [[Damascus]]-[[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] region and the last one under [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubayda]] along with Khalid at Emesa.

As the Muslim forces were geographically divided, Heraclius sought to exploit that situation and planned to attack. He did not wish to engage in a single [[pitched battle]] but rather to employ a [[central position]] and fight the enemy [[Defeat in detail|in detail]] by concentrating large forces against each of the Muslim corps before they could consolidate their [[Troop|troops]]. By forcing the Muslims to retreat, or by destroying Muslim forces separately, he would fulfil his strategy of recapturing lost territory. Reinforcements were sent to [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] under Heraclius' son [[Constantine III (Byzantine emperor)|Constantine III]], probably to tie down Yazid's forces, which were besieging the town.<ref name="Akram409" /> The Byzantine imperial army moved out from Antioch and Northern Syria in the middle of June 636.

The Byzantine imperial army was to operate under the following plan:
*Jabalah's lightly armed Christian Arabs would march to Emesa from Aleppo via [[Hama]] and hold the main Muslim army at Emesa.
*Dairjan would make a flanking movement between the coast and Aleppo's road and approach Emesa from the west, striking at the Muslims' left flank while they were being held frontally by Jabalah.
*Gregory would strike the Muslims' right flank, approaching Emesa from the northeast via [[Mesopotamia]].
*Qanatir would march along the coastal route and occupy [[Beirut]], from where he was to attack the weakly defended Damascus from the west to cut off the main Muslim army at Emesa.
*Vahan's corps would act as a reserve and would approach Emesa via Hama.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=399}}.</ref>

==Rashidun strategy==
The Muslims discovered Heraclius' preparations at [[Shaizar]] from Byzantine prisoners. Alert to the possibility of being caught with separated forces that could be destroyed, Khalid called a [[council of war]] and advised Abu Ubayda to pull the troops back from Palestine and Northern and Central Syria and concentrate the entire Rashidun army in one place.<ref name="nicolle61">{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=61}}.</ref><ref name="Kaegi67">{{harvnb|Kaegi|1995|p=67}}.</ref> Abu Ubayda ordered the concentration of troops in the vast plain near [[Jabiyah]], as control of the area made cavalry charges possible and facilitated the arrival of reinforcements from Umar, so that a strong, united force could be fielded against the Byzantine armies.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=401}}.</ref> The position also benefited from close proximity to the Rashidun stronghold of [[Najd]], if retreat became necessary. Instructions were also issued to return [[jizya]] (tribute) to people who had paid it due to the Muslims inability to protect them from the invading Byzantine army.<ref>{{harvnb|Al-Baladhuri|p=143}}.</ref>

However, once concentrated at Jabiyah, the Muslims were subject to raids from pro-Byzantine Ghassanid forces. Encamping in the region was also precarious as a strong Byzantine force was garrisoned in Caesarea and could attack the Muslim rear while they were held in front by the Byzantine army. On Khalid's advice the Muslim forces retreated to [[Daraa|Dar'aa]] and [[Dayr Ayyub]], covering the gap between the Yarmuk Gorges and the [[Harrat al-Sham|Harra]] lava plains,<ref name="nicolle61" /> and established a line of camps in the eastern part of the plain of Yarmuk. This was a strong defensive position, and the maneuverers brought the Muslims and Byzantines into a decisive battle, which the latter had tried to avoid.<ref name="Kaegi134">{{harvnb|Kaegi|1995|p=134}}.</ref> During the maneuvers, there were no engagements except for a minor skirmish between Khalid's [[Mobile guard|elite light cavalry]] and the Byzantine advance guard.<ref>{{harvnb|Akram|2004|p=407}}.</ref>

==Battlefield==
[[File:Battlefield of yarmouk-mohammad adil.jpg|thumb|Across the ravines lies the battlefield of Yarmuk, about 8 miles away from here, in Jordan]]
[[File:Mohammad-adil-rais-battlefield of yamouk.PNG|thumb|right|250px|alt=map detailing the battle field of Yarmouk|Map detailing where the battle took place]]
The battlefield lies in the plain of Jordanian [[Hauran]], just southeast of the [[Golan Heights]], an upland region currently on the frontier between Jordan and Syria, east of the [[Sea of Galilee]]. The battle was fought on the plain east of [[Ruqqad|Wadi-ur-Ruqqad]]. That wadi joins the Yarmuk River, a tributary of the [[Jordan River]], on its south. The stream had very steep banks, ranging from {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=on}}–{{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. On the north is the Jabiyah road and to the east are the [[Izra|Azra]] hills although the hills were outside the actual field of battle. Strategically, there was only one prominence in the battlefield: a {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} elevation known as ''Tel al Jumm'a'', and for the Muslim troops concentrated there, the hill gave a good view of the plain of Yarmuk. The ravine on the west of the battlefield was accessible at a few places in 636 AD, and had one main crossing: a Roman bridge (''Jisr-ur-Ruqqad'') near [[Ayn Zakar|Ayn Dhakar]]<ref name=nicolle64/><ref>{{harvnb|Schumacher|Oliphant|Le Strange|1889|pp=77–79}}.</ref> Logistically, the Yarmuk plain had enough water supplies and pastures to sustain both armies. The plain was excellent for cavalry maneuvers.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaegi|1995|p=122}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nicolle|1994|p=63}}.</ref>

==Army setup==

===Troop deployment===
Most early accounts place the size of the Muslim forces between 36,000 and 40,000 and the number of Byzantine forces between 60,000 and 70,000 (This number has been estimated by taking into account the logistical situation of the Empire and with the view that they could never have mustered such troops when the Empire was at its apex but especially not with the especially weak and exhausted realm of 628 onwards). Modern estimates for the sizes of the respective armies vary: some estimates for the [[Byzantine army]] are around 40,000 at most,<ref name="BY">{{Cite journal |last=Jandora |first=John W. |date=1985 |title=The Battle of the Yarmūk: A Reconstruction |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41930557 |journal=Journal of Asian History |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=8–21 |jstor=41930557 |issn=0021-910X}}</ref> while other estimates are 15,000 to 20,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=242}}: "The Byzantines, together with their Christian Arab allies, probably enjoyed numerical superiority, having troops that totalled up to 15–20,000 men, possibly more." {{harvnb|Haldon|2008|pp=48–49}}: "The numbers fighting on each side are impossible to determine. [...] A total imperial force of about 20,000 would, therefore, be not unreasonable, although this remains a gue

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:48, 6 September 2026
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	<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid, aware of the situation at the wings, ordered the cavalry of the right wing to attack the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing while he with his mobile guard attacked the southern flank of the Byzantine left wing, and the Muslim right wing infantry attacked from the front. The three-pronged attack forced the Byzantine left wing to abandon the Muslim positions they had gained on, and Amr regained his lost ground and started reorganizing his corps for another round.<ref name=Nicolle71/>		<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid, aware of the situation at the wings, ordered the cavalry of the right wing to attack the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing while he with his mobile guard attacked the southern flank of the Byzantine left wing, and the Muslim right wing infantry attacked from the front. The three-pronged attack forced the Byzantine left wing to abandon the Muslim positions they had gained on, and Amr regained his lost ground and started reorganizing his corps for another round.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

	The situation on the Muslim left wing, which Yazid commanded was considerably more serious. The Muslim right wing enjoyed assistance from the mobile guard but not the left wing, and the numerical advantage the Byzantines enjoyed caused the Muslim positions to be overrun, with soldiers retreating towards base camps.<ref name=nicolle70>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=70}}.</ref> There, the Byzantines had broken through the corps. The [[testudo formation]] that Gregory's army had adopted moved slowly but also had a good defence. Yazid used his cavalry regiment to counterattack but was repulsed. Despite stiff resistance, the warriors of Yazid on the left flank finally fell back to their camps and for a moment Vahan's plan appeared to be succeeding. The centre of the Muslim army was pinned down and its flanks had been pushed back. However, neither flank had broken though		The situation on the Muslim left wing, which Yazid commanded was considerably more serious. The Muslim right wing enjoyed assistance from the mobile guard but not the left wing, and the numerical advantage the Byzantines enjoyed caused the Muslim positions to be overrun, with soldiers retreating towards base camps.<ref name=nicolle70>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=70}}.</ref> There, the Byzantines had broken through the corps. The [[testudo formation]] that Gregory's army had adopted moved slowly but also had a good defence. Yazid used his cavalry regiment to counterattack but was repulsed. Despite stiff resistance, the warriors of Yazid on the left flank finally fell back to their camps and for a moment Vahan's plan appeared to be succeeding. The centre of the Muslim army was pinned down and its flanks had been pushed back. However, neither flank had broken though morale was severely damaged.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=418}}.</ref>

			The retreating Muslim army was met by the ferocious Arab women in the camps.<ref name=nicolle70/> Led by Hind, the Muslim women dismantled their tents, and armed with tent poles, charged at their husbands and fellow men singing an improvised song from the [[Battle of Uhud]], which then had been directed against the Muslims.

			{{Quote\|<poem>We are the daughters of the night;
			We move amongst the cushions,
			With the grace of gentle kittens
			Our bracelets on our elbows.
			If you attack we shall embrace you;
			And if you retreat we will forsake you
			With a loveless separation.<ref name=Nicolle71/></poem>}}

			That boiled the blood of the retreating Muslims so much that they returned to the battlefield.<ref>{{harvnb\|Regan\|2003\|p=164}}.</ref>

			<u>'''Phase 3:'''</u> After managing to stabilize the position on the right flank, Khalid ordered the mobile guard cavalry to provide relief to the battered left flank.

			Khalid detached one regiment under Dhirar and ordered him to attack the front of the army of Dairjan (left centre) to create a diversion and threaten the withdrawal of the Byzantine right wing from its advanced position. With the rest of the cavalry reserve he attacked Gregory's flank. Here again, under simultaneous attacks from the front and flanks, the Byzantines fell back but more slowly because they had to maintain their formation.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|pp=418–19}}.</ref>

			At sunset, the central armies broke contact and withdrew to their original positions and both fronts were restored along the lines occupied in the morning. The death of Dairjan and the failure of Vahan's battle plan left the larger Imperial army relatively demoralized, but Khalid's successful counterattacks emboldened his troops despite their being smaller in number.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=419}}.</ref>

			===Day 3===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-3.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=Day 3, Phase 1. showing Byzantine left wing and centre pushing back respective Muslim divisions.\|Day 3, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-3 phase-2.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=Day 3, Phase 2. showing khalid's attack on flank of Byzantine left centre with his mobile guard.\|Day 3, Phase 2]]

			On 17 August, Vahan pondered over his failures and mistakes of the previous day, where he launched attacks against respective Muslim flanks, but after initial success, his men were pushed back. What bothered him the most was the loss of one of his commanders.{{citation needed\|date=August 2020}}

			The Byzantine army decided on a less ambitious plan, and Vahan now aimed to break the Muslim army at specific points. He decided to press upon the relatively exposed right flank, where his mounted troops could maneuver more freely as compared to the rugged terrain at the Muslims' left flank. The junction was to be between the Muslim right centre, its right wing held by Qanatir's Slavs, to break them apart so that they would be fought separately.{{citation needed\|date=August 2020}}

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> The battle resumed with Byzantine attacks on the Muslim right flank and right centre.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=420}}.</ref>

			After holding off the initial attacks by the Byzantines, the Muslim right wing fell back, followed by the right centre. They were again said to have been met by their own women, who abused and shamed them. The corps, however, managed to reorganize some distance from the camp and held their ground preparing for a counterattack.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Knowing that the Byzantine army was focusing on the Muslim right, Khalid launched an attack with his mobile guard, along with the Muslim right flank cavalry. Khalid struck at the right flank of the Byzantines left centre, and the cavalry reserve of the Muslims right centre struck at the Byzantines left centre at its left flank. Meanwhile, he ordered the Muslims' right-wing cavalry to strike at the left flank of the Byzantines left wing. The combat soon developed into a bloodbath. Many fell on both sides. Khalid's timely flanking attacks again saved the day for Muslims and by dusk, the Byzantines had been pushed back to the positions they had at the start of the battle.<ref name=Nicolle71/>

			===Day 4===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-4.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 4 phase 1, showing Byzantine left centre and wing pushing back respective Muslim divisions.\|Day 4, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-Day-4 phase-2.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 4 phase 2, showing khalid's flanking attack on Byzantine left centre with his mobile guard.\|Day 4, Phase 2]]

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> Vahan decided to persist with the previous day's [[war plan]] as he had been successful in inflicting damage on the Muslim right.

			Qanatir led two armies of Slavs against the Muslim right wing and right centre with some assistance from the Armenians and Christian Arabs led by Jabalah. The Muslim right wing and right centre again fell back.<ref name=nicolle72>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=72}}.</ref>
			Khalid entered the fray yet again with the mobile guard. He feared a general attack on a broad front, which he would be unable to repulse, and so ordered Abu Ubayda and Yazid on the left centre and the left wings, respectively, to attack the Byzantine armies at the respective fronts. The attack would result in stalling the Byzantine front and prevent a general advance of the Imperial army.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=421}}.</ref>

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Khalid divided his mobile guard into two divisions and attacked the flanks of the Byzantine left centre, and the infantry of the Muslim right centre attacked from the front. Under the three-pronged [[flanking manoeuvre\|flanking maneuver]], the Byzantines fell back. Meanwhile, the Muslim right wing renewed its offense with its infantry attacking from the front and the cavalry reserve attacking the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing. As the Byzantine left centre retreated under three-pronged attacks of Khalid, the Byzantine left wing, having been exposed at its southern flank, also fell back.<ref name=nicolle72/>

			While Khalid and his mobile guard were dealing with the Armenian front throughout the afternoon, the situation on the other end was worsening.<ref name=nicolle75>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=75}}.</ref> Byzantine horse-archers had taken to the field and subjected Abu Ubayda and Yazid's troops to intense archery preventing them from penetrating their Byzantine lines. Many Muslim soldiers lost their sight to Byzantine arrows on that day, which thereafter became known as the "Day of Lost Eyes".<ref name=waqidi148>{{harvnb\|Al-Waqidi\|p=148}}.</ref> The veteran [[Abu Sufyan]] is also believed to have lost an eye that day.<ref name=waqidi148/> The Muslim armies fell back except for one regiment, led by Ikrimah bin Abi Jahal, which was on the left of Abu Ubayda's corps. Ikrimah covered the retreat of the Muslims with his 400 members of the cavalry by attacking the Byzantine front, and the other armies reorganized themselves to counterattack and regain their lost positions. All of Ikrimah's men were either seriously injured or dead that day. Ikrimah, a childhood friend of Khalid, was mortally wounded and died later in the evening.<ref name=nicolle75/>

			===Day 5===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-5.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=troop deployment day-5\|Deployment of troops on the fifth day. Khalid gathered all his cavalry for a decisive flanking charge.]]

			During the four-day offence of Vahan, his troops had failed to achieve any breakthrough and had suffered heavy casualties, especially during the mobile guard's flanking counterattacks. Early on 19 August, the fifth day of the battle, Vahan sent an emissary to the Muslim camp for a truce for the next few days so that fresh negotiations could be held. He supposedly wanted time to reorganize his demoralized troops, but Khalid deemed victory to be in reach and he declined the offer.<ref name=nicolle76>{{harvnb\|Nicolle\|1994\|p=76}}.</ref>

			Until now, the Muslim army had adopted a largely defensive strategy, but knowing that the Byzantines were apparently no longer eager for battle, Khalid now decided to take the offensive and reorganized his troops accordingly. All cavalry regiments were grouped together into one powerful mounted force with the mobile guard acting as its core. The total strength of the cavalry group was now about 8,000 mounted warriors, an effective mounted corps for an offensive attack the next day. The rest of the day passed uneventfully. Khalid planned to trap Byzantine troops, cutting off their every route of escape. There were three natural barriers, the three gorges in the battlefield with their steep ravines, ''Wadi-ur-Ruqqad'' at west, ''Wadi al-Yarmouk'' in south and ''Wadi al-Allah'' in east. The northern route was to be blocked by Muslim cavalry.<ref>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=422}}.</ref>

			There were however, some passages across the {{convert\|200\|m\|ft}} deep ravines of Wadi-ur-Ruqqad in west, strategically the most important one was at Ayn Dhakar, a bridge. Khalid sent Dhirar with 500 cavalry at night to secure that bridge. Dhirar moved around the northern flank of Byzantines and captured the bridge, a maneuver that was to prove decisive the next day.<ref name=Akram423>{{harvnb\|Akram\|2004\|p=423}}.</ref>

			===Day 6===
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-1.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 1, showing khalid's flanking maneuver at Byzantine left flank routing Byzantine left wing and its cavalry units.\|Day 6, Phase 1]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-3.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 2, showing khalid's two prong attack on Byzantine cavalry, and Muslim right wing flanking attack on Byzantine left centre.\|Day 6, Phase 2]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-4.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 phase 3, showing khalid's cavalry routed Byzantine cavalry off the field and attacking Byzantine left centre at its rear.\|Day 6, Phase 3]]
			[[File:Mohammad adeel-day-6 phase-5.PNG\|thumb\|right\|alt=day 6 last phase, showing general retreat of Byzantine army towards Wadi-ur-Ruqqad.\|Day 6, the 4th and last phase]]

			On 20 August,<ref>{{harvnb\|Kaegi\|1995\|p=114}}.</ref> Khalid put into action a simple but bold plan of attack. With his massed cavalry force, he intended to drive the Byzantine cavalry entirely off the battlefield so that the infantry, which formed the bulk of the imperial army, would be left without cavalry support and thus would be exposed when attacked from the flanks and rear.
			At the same time, he planned to push a determined attack to turn the left flank of the Byzantine army and drive them towards the ravine to the west.<ref name=Akram423/>

			<u>'''Phase 1:'''</u> Khalid ordered a general attack on the Byzantine front and [[Canter and gallop\|galloped]] his cavalry around the left wing of the Byzantines. Part of his cavalry engaged the Byzantine left wing cavalry while the rest of it attacked the rear of the Byzantine left wing infantry. Meanwhile, the Muslim right wing pressed against it from the front. Under the two-pronged attack, the Byzantine left wing fell back and collapsed and fell back to the Byzantine left centre, greatly disordering it.<ref name=nicolle76/> The remaining Muslim cavalry then attacked the Byzantine left wing cavalry at the rear while they were held frontally by the other half of the Muslim cavalry, routing them off the battlefield to the north.
			The Muslim right-wing infantry now attacked the Byzantine left centre at its left flank while the Muslim right centre attacked from front.

			<u>'''Phase 2:'''</u> Vahan, noticing the huge cavalry maneuver of t