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	[[Category:Abies\|alba]]		[[Category:Abies\|alba]]
	[[Category:Trees of Europe]]		[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
			[[Category:National symbols of the Free State of Bavaria]]
	[[Category:Flora of the Alps]]		[[Category:Flora of the Alps]]
	[[Category:Flora of Spain]]		[[Category:Flora of Spain]]

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{{Short description|Species of conifer tree}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Abies_alba_Wisła_1.jpg
| image_caption = In Silesian Beskids, Poland
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2017 |title=''Abies alba'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T42270A83978869 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T42270A83978869.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Abies alba
| authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]<ref name=TPL>{{ThePlantList | access-date = 12 October 2016}}</ref>
| range_map = Abies alba range.svg
| range_map_caption = Distribution map:
:{{Colorbox|#70A800}} <big>'''✖'''</big> Native range and isolated population. 
:{{Colorbox|#FFD37F}} <big>▲</big> Introduced and naturalized (synanthropic) area and isolated population.
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets=on
|''Abies argentea'' {{Au|Chambray}}
|''Abies baldensis'' {{Au|(Zuccagni) Zucc. ''ex'' Nyman}}
|''Abies candicans'' {{Au|Fisch. ''ex'' Endl.}}
|''Abies chlorocarpa'' {{Au|Purk. ''ex'' Nyman}}
|''Abies duplex'' {{Au|Hormuz. ''ex'' Beissn.}}
|''Abies metensis'' {{Au|Gordon}}
|''Abies miniata'' {{Au|Knight ''ex'' Gordon}}
|''Abies minor'' {{Au|Gilib.}}
|''Abies nobilis'' {{Au|A.Dietr.}}
|''Abies pardei'' {{Au|Gaussen}}
|''Abies rinzii'' {{Au|K.Koch}}
|''Abies taxifolia'' {{Au|Duhamel}}
|''Abies taxifolia'' {{Au|Desf.}}
|''Abies taxifolia'' {{Au|Raf.}}
|''Abies tenuirifolia'' {{Au|Beissn.}}
|''Abies vulgaris'' {{Au|Poir.}}
|''Peuce abies'' {{Au|Rich.}}
|''Picea kukunaria'' {{Au|Wender.}}
|''Picea metensis'' {{Au|Gordon}}
|''Picea pectinata'' {{Au|(Lam.) Loudon}}
|''Picea pyramidalis'' {{Au|Gordon}}
|''Picea rinzi'' {{Au|Gordon}}
|''Picea tenuifolia'' {{Au|Beissn.}}
|''Pinus baldensis'' {{Au|Zuccagni}}
|''Pinus heterophylla'' {{Au|K.Koch}}
|''Pinus lucida'' {{Au|Salisb.}}
|''Pinus pectinata'' {{Au|Lam.}}
|''Pinus picea'' {{Au|L.}}}}
| synonyms_ref =<ref name=TPL/>
}}

'''''Abies alba''''', the '''European silver fir''' or '''silver fir''',<ref name="S&S">{{cite book|title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices|editor=Stanley Schuler|isbn=978-0-671-73489-3|author=Gualtiero Simonetti|year=1990|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]], Inc.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/simonschustersgu0000simo}}</ref> is a [[fir]] native to the [[mountain]]s of [[Europe]], from the [[Pyrenees]] north to [[Normandy]], east to the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]], [[Serbia]], and south to [[Italy]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Kosovo]], [[Albania]] and northern [[Greece]]; it is also commonly grown on Christmas tree plantations in the North East region of North America spanning New England in the US to the Maritime provinces of Canada.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />
[[File:European Silver-fir Vallombrosa (FI), Italy.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Silver fir trunk and bark of a tree in Vallombrosa State Forest (Italy)]]
[[File:Illustration Abies alba0.jpg|225px|thumb|right|Illustration of several parts of the plant]]
[[File:Abies alba R1.JPG|225px|thumb|right|Immature cone]]
[[File:Silver fir seedlings.jpg|225px|thumb|right|[[Seedling]]s]]

==Description==
''Abies alba'' is a large [[evergreen]] [[conifer]]ous [[tree]] growing to {{convert|40|–|50|m|abbr=on}} (exceptionally {{convert|60|m|abbr=on}}) tall and with a trunk diameter up to {{convert|1.5|m|abbr=on}}. The largest measured tree was 60 m tall and had a trunk diameter of {{convert|3.8|m|abbr=on}}. It occurs at altitudes of {{convert|300|-|1700|m|abbr=on}} (mainly over {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}}), on mountains with rainfall over {{convert|1000|mm}} per year.<ref name="S&S"/>

The [[leaf|leaves]] are needle-like, flattened, {{convert|1.8|–|3.0|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2.0|mm|abbr=on}} wide by {{convert|0.5|mm|abbr=on}} thick, glossy dark green above, and with two greenish-white bands of [[stomata]] below. The leaf is usually slightly notched at the tip. The [[conifer cone|cones]] are {{convert|9|–|17|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|3|–|4|cm|abbr=on}} broad, with about 150-200 scales, each scale with an exserted bract and two winged [[seed]]s; they disintegrate when mature to release the seeds.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} The wood is white, leading to the species name ''alba''.<ref name="S&S"/>

When cultivated on Christmas Tree plantations, the tree naturally forms a symmetrical triangle shape. The trees are full and dense with strong evergreen fragrance, and are known to be one of the longest lasting after being cut. In the forest the evergreen tends to form stands with other firs and beeches.<ref name="S&S"/> It is closely related to Bulgarian fir (''[[Abies borisiiregis]]'') further to the southeast in the Balkan Peninsula, [[Spanish fir]] (''[[Abies pinsapo]]'') of Spain and Morocco and Sicilian fir (''[[Abies nebrodensis]]'') in [[Sicily]], differing from these and other related Euro-Mediterranean firs in the sparser foliage, with the leaves spread either side of the shoot, leaving the shoot readily visible from above. Some botanists treat Bulgarian fir and Sicilian fir as varieties of silver fir, as ''A. alba'' var. ''acutifolia'' and ''A. alba'' var. ''nebrodensis'', respectively.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

==Ecology==
Silver fir is an important component species in the [[dinaric calcareous block fir forest]] in the western [[Balkan Peninsula]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

In [[Italy]], the silver fir is an important component of the mixed broadleaved-coniferous forest of the Apennine Mountains, especially in northern Apennine. The fir prefer a cold and humid climate, in northern exposition, with a high rainfall (over 1500 mm per year). In the oriental Alps of Italy, silver firs grow in mixed forests with Norway spruce, beech, and other trees.

Its cone scales are eaten by the [[caterpillar]]s of the [[tortrix moth]] ''[[Cydia illutana]]'', while ''[[Cydia duplicana|C. duplicana]]'' feeds on the bark around injuries or [[canker]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

==Chemistry and pharmacology==

The bark and wood of silver fir are rich in antioxidative [[polyphenol]]s.<ref name=Tavcar2017>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/02773813.2017.1340958|title = Identification, in vitro and in vivo Antioxidant Activity, and Gastrointestinal Stability of Lignans from Silver Fir (Abies alba) Wood Extract|year = 2017|last1 = Tavčar Benković|first1 = Eva|last2 = Žigon|first2 = Dušan|last3 = Mihailović|first3 = Vladimir|last4 = Petelinc|first4 = Tanja|last5 = Jamnik|first5 = Polona|last6 = Kreft|first6 = Samo|journal = Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology|volume = 37|issue = 6|pages = 467–477|s2cid = 90833072}}</ref><ref>Vasincu A, Creţu E, Geangalău I, Amalinei RL, Miron A. Polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity of an extractive fraction from ''Abies alba'' bark. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2013 Apr-Jun;117(2):545-50.</ref> Six phenolic acids were identified ([[gallic acid|gallic]], [[homovanillic acid|homovanillic]], [[protocatechuic acid|protocatechuic]], [[p-hydroxybenzoic acid|p-hydroxybenzoic]], [[vanillic acid|vanillic]] and [[p-coumaric acid|p-coumaric]]), three [[flavonoid]]s ([[catechin]], [[epicatechin]] and [[catechin tetramethyl ether]]) and eight [[lignan]]s ([[taxiresinol]], 7-(2-methyl-3,4-dihydroxytetrahydropyran-5-yloxy)-taxiresinol, [[secoisolariciresinol]], [[lariciresinol]], [[hydroxymatairesinol]], [[isolariciresinol]], [[matairesinol]] and [[pinoresinol]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tavčar Benković | first1 = Eva | last2 = Grohar | first2 = Tina | last3 = Žigon | first3 = Dušan | last4 = Švajger | first4 = Urban | last5 = Janeš | first5 = Damjan | last6 = Kreft | first6 = Samo | last7 = Štrukelj | first7 = Borut | year = 2014 | title = Chemical composition of the silver fir (''Abies alba'') bark extract Abigenol and its antioxidant activity | journal = Industrial Crops and Products | volume = 52 | pages = 23–28 | doi = 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.10.005 }}</ref><ref name=Tavcar2017/>
The extract from the trunk was shown to prevent [[atherosclerosis]] in guinea pigs<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Drevenšek | first1 = Gorazd | last2 = Lunder | first2 = Mojca | last3 = Tavčar Benković | first3 = Eva | last4 = Mikelj | first4 = Ana | last5 = Štrukelj | first5 = Borut | last6 = Kreft | first6 = Samo | year = 2015| title = Silver fir (''Abies alba'') trunk extract protects guinea pig arteries from impaired functional responses and morphology due to an atherogenic diet | journal = Phytomedicine | volume = 22| issue = 9| pages = 856–861| doi = 10.1016/j.phymed.2015.06.004 | pmid = 26220633 }}</ref> and to have [[Cardioprotection|cardioprotective]] effect in isolated rat hearts.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.3402/fnr.v60.29623|pmid = 27756448|pmc = 5069298|title = Cardioprotective effects of silver fir (Abies alba) extract in ischemic-reperfused isolated rat hearts|year = 2016|last1 = Drevenšek|first1 = Gorazd|last2 = Lunder|first2 = Mojca|last3 = Benković|first3 = Eva Tavčar|last4 = Štrukelj|first4 = Borut|last5 = Kreft|first5 = Samo|journal = Food & Nutrition Research|volume = 60|pages = 29623}}</ref> Silver fir wood extract was found to reduce the post-prandial glycemic response (concentration of sugar in the blood after the meal) in healthy volunteers.<ref>Debeljak, J.; Ferk, P.; Čokolič, M.; Zavratnik, A.; Tavč Benković, E.; Kreft, S.; Štrukelj, B.: Randomised, double blind, cross-over, placebo and active controlled human pharmacodynamic study on the influence of silver fir wood extract (Belinal) on post-prandial glycemic response. Die Pharmazie - An International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume 71, Number 10, October 2016, pp. 566-569(4)</ref>

==Uses==
In [[ancient Rome|Roman times]] the wood was used to make wooden casks to store and transport wine and other substances.<ref>Kilby, Kenneth (1977), ''The cooper and his trade'', Fresno, California, Linden Publishing, p.99. {{ISBN|0941936163}}</ref>

A resinous [[essential oil]] can be extracted. This pine-scented oil is used in perfumes, bath products, and aerosol inhalants.<ref name="S&S"/> Its branches (including the leaves, bark and wood) were used for production of [[spruce beer]].<ref>London Medical Gazette, 23 September 1837, page 935: https://books.google.si/books?id=TPQaAQAAMAAJ</ref>

Silver fir is the species first used as a [[Christmas tree]], but has been largely replaced by [[Nordmann fir]] (which has denser, more attractive foliage), [[Norway spruce]] (which is much cheaper to grow), and other species.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

The [[wood]] is strong, lightweight, light-colored, fine grained, even-textured and long fibered. The [[timber]] is mainly used as construction wood, furniture, [[plywood]], [[pulpwood]] and [[paper]] manufacture.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wolf|first1=Heino|title=Silver fir - ''Abies alba''|journal=EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/925_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_for_silver_fir__Abies_alba_.pdf|access-date=18 October 2016|archive-date=23 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123035636/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/925_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_for_silver_fir__Abies_alba_.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] which is produced by [[Aphid|aphids]] sitting on the silver fir is collected by [[honey bee]]s. The resulting [[honey]] is marketed as "fir honey".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://melisseon.com/fir/ | title=Fir Honey }}</ref>

==Etymology==
''Abies'' is derived from [[Latin]], meaning 'rising one'. The name was used to refer to tall trees or ships.<ref name="gledhill">Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521866453}} (hardback), {{ISBN|9780521685535}} (paperback). pp 32, 41</ref>

''Alba'' means 'bright' or 'dead white'.<ref name="gledhill" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

* {{cite book |first1=Alp |last1=Kunkar |first2=Ennio |last2=Kunkar |title=Le piante officinali della Calabria |year=2000 |publisher=Laruffa Editore |isbn=978-88-7221-140-3 |language=it}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Abies alba}}
*[http://www.conifers.org/pi/Abies_alba.php conifers.org: ''Abies alba'']
*[http://botany.cz/en/abies-alba/ botany.cz: ''Abies alba'' Mill]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111042/http://www.photomazza.com/?Abies-alba-3933 photomazza.com: ''Abies alba'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093330/http://conifersaroundtheworld.com/blog/abies_alba_european_white_fir conifersaroundtheworld.com: Abies alba - European White Fir].
*[http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abies+alba pfaf.org: ''Abies alba'' Mill.]
*[http://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/trees/europeansilverfir/records/ monumentaltrees.com: The thickest, tallest, and oldest European silver fir trees (''Abies alba'')]
*[http://www.baumkunde.de/Abies_alba/ baumkunde.de: Weiß-Tanne (''Abies alba'')] | [[German language|In German]]
*[http://www.euforgen.org/species/abies-alba/ ''Abies alba'']. Distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources. [[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]] (EUFORGEN)

{{Taxonbar|from=Q146992}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Abies|alba]]
[[Category:Trees of Europe]]
[[Category:Flora of the Alps]]
[[Category:Flora of Spain]]
[[Category:Flora of the Pyrenees]]
[[Category:Flora of France]]
[[Category:Flora of the Carpathians]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1768]]
[[Category:Flora of Montenegro]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Philip Miller]]

Abies alba - Revision history

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