2600:1702:35F0:A1D0:15B:A19A:4970:2710: robot: import pages using Special:Import

2022-03-17T12:30:39Z

robot: import pages using Special:Import

New page

{{Short description|Classification of Indian philosophies}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Āstika'' and ''nāstika''}}
{{Redirect|Astika|other uses|Astika (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Buddhism}}
{{Jainism}}

'''''Āstika''''' and '''''nāstika''''' are concepts that have been used to classify [[Indian philosophies]] by modern scholars, as well as some [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism|Jain]] texts.<ref>Perrett, Roy. 2000. ''Indian Philosophy''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}. p. 88.</ref><ref>Mittal, Sushil, and Gene Thursby. 2004. ''The Hindu World''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0415772273}}. pp. 729–30.</ref>{{refn|Flood: "These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox (''nāstika'') by orthodox (''āstika'') Brahmanism."{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=82}}}} The various definitions for ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' philosophies have been disputed since ancient times, and there is no consensus.<ref name="andrew">Nicholson, Andrew J. 2013. [[Unifying Hinduism|''Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History'']]. [[Columbia University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}. ch. 9.</ref><ref name="wendy">Doniger, Wendy. 2014. ''On Hinduism''. [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0199360079}}. p. 46.</ref> In current Indian languages like [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Hindi]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]], ''āstika'' and its derivatives usually mean '[[theism|theist]]', and ''nāstika'' and its derivatives denote an '[[atheism|atheist]]';<ref>For [http://www.iheu.org/node/185 instance], the Atheist Society of India produces a monthly publications ''Nastika Yuga'', which it translates as 'The Age of Atheism'. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418105244/http://www.iheu.org/node/185|date=18 April 2007}}.</ref> however, the two terms in ancient- and medieval-era Sanskrit literature do not refer to 'theism' or 'atheism'.<ref name="andrew" /> The terms are used differently in [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>Chatterjee, Satischandra, and Dhirendramohan Datta. 1984. ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy'' (8th reprint ed.). Calcutta: [[University of Calcutta]]. p. 5n1:

"In modern Indian languages, 'āstika' and 'nāstika' generally mean 'theist' and 'atheist,' respectively. But in Sanskrit philosophical literature, 'āstika' means 'one who believes in the authority of the Vedas'. ('nāstika' means the opposite of these). The word is used here in the first sense. The six orthodox schools are 'āstika', and the Cārvāka is 'nāstika' in both the senses."</ref> For example, ''[[Sāṃkhya]]'' is both a non-theistic (as it does not explicitly affirm the existence of God in its classical formulation) and ''āstika'' ([[Vedas|Vedic]]) philosophy, though “God” is often used as an epithet for consciousness ([[purusha]]) within its doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|ref=none |author=Francis Clooney |chapter=Restoring 'Hindu Theology' as a category in Indian intellectual discourse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |publisher=Blackwell Academic |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-99868-7 |editor=Gavin Flood |pages=451–455}} "By {{IAST|Sāṃkhya}} reasoning, the material principle itself simply evolves into complex forms, and there is no need to hold that some spiritual power governs the material principle or its ultimate source."</ref> Similarly, though [[Buddhism]] is considered to be ''nāstika'', [[Gautama Buddha]] is considered an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] in some Hindu traditions.<ref>Literature review of secondary references of Buddha as Dashavatara which regard Buddha to be part of standard list:
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45474/avatar Britannica]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=jW_FVoFtgWsC&pg=PA102&dq=mahabharata++balarama+avatar&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AIK6UozvDMunrgfI0oHgAQ&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=Balarama%20avatar&f=false A Dictionary of Asian Mythology By David Adams Leeming p. 19 "Avatar"]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA112&dq=dashavatara&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B4O6Ur7UJsfarAfC14DICQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dashavatara&f=false Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide By Roshen Dalal p. 112 "Dashavatara"] ""The standard and most accepted list found in Puranas and other texts is: ... Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Kalki."
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA175&dq=dashavatara&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B4O6Ur7UJsfarAfC14DICQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=avatar&f=false The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M p. 73 "Avatar"]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=xhrnkdByWDIC&pg=PA27&dq=dashavatara&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GIa6UoWkCIeJrgfUoICYCw&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCDgK#v=onepage&q=Buddha&f=false Hindu Gods and Goddesses By Sunita Pant Bansal p. 27] "Vishnu Dashavatara"
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=ajLoN2yuZbwC&pg=PA175&dq=avatar+visnu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yYe6UtfjHIGTrgfy84HgBQ&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=avatar%20visnu&f=false Hindu Myths (Penguin Books) pp. 62-63]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=f9cSlaLMlgEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=book+of+Vishnu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_Qm7Us2aI8KWrgfo-4CQAw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=book%20of%20Vishnu&f=false The Book of Vishnu] (see index)
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=7RyPetVLdCcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=book+of+Vishnu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_Qm7Us2aI8KWrgfo-4CQAw&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Buddha&f=false Seven secrets of Vishnu By Devdutt Pattanaik] p. 203 "In the more popular list of ten avatars of Vishnu, the ninth avatar is shown as Buddha, not Balarama."
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=HJ6O8nwsFWgC&pg=PA46&dq=Visnu+avatara&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GAy7UrTpHIfsrAeN14CwAg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=Visnu%20avatara&f=false A Dictionary of Hinduism p. 47 "Avatara"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/god/hinduismrev2.shtml BBC]
* {{cite book|ref=none|first=Gavin D. |last=Flood |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |date=13 July 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/116 116] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

'''''Āstika''''' ({{Lang-sa|आस्तिक}}; from Sanskrit: ''asti'', 'there is, there exists') means one who believes in the existence of a [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Self]] or [[Brahman]], etc. It has been defined in one of three ways:<ref name="andrew" /><ref name="gsghurye">[[G. S. Ghurye|GS Ghurye]], Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary, Ed: S. Devadas Pillai (2011), {{ISBN|978-8171548071}}, page 354</ref>
# as those who accept the [[Pramana|epistemic]] authority of the [[Vedas]];
# as those who accept the existence of ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'';
# as those who accept the existence of ''[[Ishvara]]''.

'''''Nāstika''''' (Sanskrit: ''na'', 'not' + ''{{IAST|āstika}}''), by contrast, are those who deny all the respective definitions of ''āstika'';<ref name="andrew" /> they do not believe in the existence of Self.<ref name="MW" />

The six most studied Āstika schools of Indian philosophies, sometimes referred to as [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] schools, are [[Nyaya|Nyāyá]], [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]], [[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta|Vedānta]]. The four most studied ''Nāstika'' schools of Indian philosophies, sometimes referred to as [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] schools, are [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Charvaka|Chārvāka]], and [[Ājīvika]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=82, 224–49}}</ref><ref>For an overview of this method of classification, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: {{harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1989}}</ref> However, this orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit. Recent scholarly studies state that there have been various [[Heresiology|heresiological]] translations of Āstika and Nāstika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies, but many are unsophisticated and flawed.<ref name="andrew" />

== Etymology ==
''Āstika'' is a [[Sanskrit]] adjective and noun that derives from ''asti'' ('there is or exists'),<ref name="MW">{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2006}}</ref> meaning 'knowing that which exists' or '[[Piety|pious]].'<ref>{{harvnb|Apte|1965|pp=240}}</ref> The word ''Nāstika'' (''na'', not, + ''{{IAST|āstika}}'') is its negative.

One of the traditional etymologies of the term ''āstika''—based on [[Pāṇini#Aṣṭādhyāyī|Pāṇini's ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'']] 4.4.60 ("''astināstidiṣṭam matiḥ''")—defines the concept as ‘he whose opinion is that [[Ishvara|Īśvara]] exists’ (''asti īśvara iti matir yasya'').<ref name="SquarciniSquarcini2012">{{cite book |last=Squarcini|first=Federico|editor-last=Squarcini|editor-first=Federico|title=Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia |chapter=Traditions against Tradition. Criticism, Dissent and the Struggle for the Semiotic Primacy of Veridiction|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2011|page=446|doi= 10.7135/UPO9781843313977.018|isbn=9781843313977}}</ref> According to Sanskrit grammarian [[Hemachandra]], ''āstika'' is a synonym for ‘he who believes’.{{refn|name=SquarciniSquarcini2012}} Other definitions include:

* 'opposite of ''nāstika''<nowiki/>' (''nāstika bhinna'');
* 'he whose idea is that Īśvara exists' (''īśvara asti iti vādī''); and
* 'he who considers the [[Vedas]] as authorities' (''vedaprāmāṇyavādī'').

As used in Hindu philosophy, the differentiation between ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' does not refer to theism or atheism.<ref name="andrew" /> The terms often, but not always, relate to accepting [[Vedic Literature|Vedic literature]] as an authority, particularly on their teachings on Self. The Veda and Hinduism do not subscribe to or include the concept of an almighty that is separate from oneself i.e. there is no concept of God in the [[Christianity|Christian]] or [[Islam]]ic sense. N. N. Bhattacharya writes:
{{quote|The followers of Tantra were often branded as Nāstika by the political proponents of the Vedic tradition. The term Nāstika does not denote an atheist since the Veda presents a godless system with no singular almighty being or multiple almighty beings. It is applied only to those who do not believe in the Vedas. The {{IAST| Sāṃkhya}}s and {{IAST|Mīmāṃsaka}}s do not believe in God, but they believe in the Vedas and hence they are not Nāstikas. The Buddhists, Jains, and Cārvākas do not believe in the Vedas; hence they are Nāstikas.|{{harvnb|Bhattacharyya|1999|pp=174}}}}

''Āstika'' is also a name, such as that of a Vedic scholar born to the goddess [[Manasa|Mānasā]] ('Mind') and the sage [[Jaratkaru]].<ref>George Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195332612}}, page 65</ref>

== Classification of schools ==

The terms Āstika and Nāstika have been used to classify various Indian intellectual traditions.

=== Āstika ===

A list of six systems or ''ṣaḍdarśana''s (also spelled ''Sad Darshan'') consider [[Vedas]] as a reliable source of knowledge and an authoritative source.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=231–2}}</ref> These are the [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]] and [[Vedanta]] schools of Hinduism, and they are classified as the ''āstika'' schools:

# [[Nyaya|Nyāyá]], the school of logic
# [[Vaiśeṣika]], the [[atomism|atomist school]]
# [[Sāṃkhya]], the enumeration school
# [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], the school of Patañjali (which assumes the metaphysics of Sāṃkhya)
# [[Mīmāṃsā]], the tradition of Vedic exegesis
# [[Vedanta]] or [[Uttara Mimāṃsā]], the [[Upanishad|Upaniṣad]]ic tradition.

These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāyá-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mimāṃsā-Vedanta.

=== Nāstika ===

The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the [[Vedas]] were regarded as heterodox in the tradition:{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=82}}

# [[Buddhism]]
# [[Jainism]]
# [[Cārvāka]]
# [[Ājīvika]]
# [[Ajñana|Ajñāna]]

The use of the term ''nāstika'' to describe Buddhism and Jainism in India is explained by Gavin Flood as follows:

{{quote|At an early period, during the formation of the Upaniṣads and the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, we must envisage a common heritage of meditation and mental discipline practiced by renouncers with varying affiliations to non-orthodox (Veda-rejecting) and orthodox (Veda-accepting) traditions.... These schools [such as Buddhism and Jainism] are understandably regarded as heterodox (''nāstika'') by orthodox (''āstika'') Brahmanism.|Gavin Flood<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=82}}</ref>}}

[[Tantra|Tantric traditions]] in Hinduism have both ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' lines; as Banerji writes in "''Tantra in Bengal''":

{{quote|Tantras are ... also divided as ''āstika'' or Vedic and ''nāstika'' or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the ''āstika'' works are again divided as {{IAST|Śākta, Śaiva, Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava}}.|Banerji<ref>{{harvnb|Banerji|1992|pp= 2}}</ref>}}

== Usage in religion ==

=== Hinduism ===

Manusmriti, in verse 2.11, defines Nāstika as those who do not accept "[[Vedic literature]] in entirety based on two roots of science of reasoning ([[Śruti]] and [[Smriti]])".<ref name=andrew/> The 9th century Indian scholar Medhatithi analyzed this definition and stated that Nāstika does not mean someone who says "Vedic literature are untrue", but rather one who says "Vedic literature are immoral". [[Medhatithi]] further noted verse 8.309 of [[Manusmriti]], to provide another aspect of the definition of Nāstika as one who believes, "there is no other world, there is no purpose in giving [[Dāna|charity]], there is no purpose in rituals and the teachings in the Vedic literature."<ref name=andrew/>

Manusmriti does not define, or imply a definition for Astika. It is also silent or contradictory on specific rituals such as animal sacrifices, asserting [[Ahimsa]] ([[non-violence]], non-injury) is [[dharma]] in its verses such as verse 10.63 based on [[Upanishadic]] layer of Vedic literature, even though the older layer of Vedic literature mention such sacrifices unlike the later layer of Vedic literature.<ref>Sanskrit: [https://archive.org/stream/manusmriti/manusmriti_six_commentaries#page/n1333/mode/2up Manusmriti with six scholar commentaries] VN Mandlik, page 1310<br>English: [http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/quotes/manu-smriti-10-63 Manusmriti 10.63] Berkeley Center for World Religion, Peace and World Affairs, Georgetown University</ref> Indian scholars, such as those from Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vedanta schools, accepted Astika to be those that include ''[[Shabda|Śabda]]'' ({{Lang-sa|शब्द|label=none}}; or ''Aptavacana'', testimony of Vedic literature and reliable experts) as a reliable means of [[epistemology]], but they accepted the later ancient layer of the Vedic literature to be superseding the earlier ancient layer.<ref name=andrew/>

==== Without reference to Vedas ====

In contrast to ''[[Manusmriti]]'', the 6th century CE Jain scholar and [[Doxography|doxographer]] [[Haribhadra]], provided a different perspective in his writings on Astika and Nāstika. Haribhadra did not consider "reverence for Vedas" as a marker for an Astika. He and other 1st millennium CE Jaina scholars defined Astika as one who "affirms there exists another world, [[Transmigration of a soul|transmigration]] exists, virtue (''punya'') exists, vice (''paapa'') exists."<ref name=andrew/><ref name=wendy/>

The 7th century scholars Jayaditya and Vamana, in ''[[Kāśikāvṛttī|Kasikavrtti]]'' of Pāṇini tradition, were silent on the role of or authority of Vedic literature in defining Astika and Nāstika. They state, "Astika is the one who believes there exists another world. The opposite of him is the Nāstika."<ref name=andrew/><ref>P. Haag and V. Vergiani (Eds., 2009), Studies in the Kāśikāvṛtti, Firenze: Società Editrice Fiorentina, {{ISBN|978-8860321145}}</ref>

Similarly the widely studied 2nd-3rd century CE Buddhist philosopher [[Nagarjuna]], in Chapter 1 verses 60-61 of Ratnāvalī, wrote [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]] and [[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]] schools of Hinduism were Nāstika, along with Jainism, his own school of Buddhism and Pudgalavadins (''Vātsīputrīya'') school of Buddhism.<ref>Markus Dressler and Arvind Mandair (2011), Secularism and Religion-Making, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199782949}}, page 59 note 39</ref><ref>Ernst Steinkellner (1991), Studies in the Buddhist Epistemological Tradition: Proceedings of the Second International Dharmakīrti Conference, Vienna, Volume 222, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, {{ISBN|978-3700119159}}, pages 230-238</ref>

==== Based on belief in Atman ====

Astika, in some texts, is defined as those who believe in the existence of ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'' (Self), while Nastika being those who deny there is any "Self" in human beings and other living beings.<ref name=gsghurye/><ref>C Sharma (2013), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803657}}, page 66</ref> All six schools of Hinduism classified as Astika philosophies hold the premise, "Atman exists". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist."<ref>Dae-Sook Suh (1994), Korean Studies: New Pacific Currents, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824815981}}, page 171</ref><ref name=johnplott3>John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref> Asanga Tilakaratna translates ''Astika'' as 'positivism' and Nastika as 'negativism', with Astika illustrated by Brahmanic traditions who accepted "Self and God exists", while Nastika as those traditions, such as Buddhism, who denied "Self and God exists."<ref>Asanga Tilakaratna (2003, Editors: Anne Blackburn and Jeffrey Samuels), Approaching the Dhamma: Buddhist Texts and Practices in South and Southeast Asia, Pariyatti, {{ISBN|978-1928706199}}, pages 128-129;<br>God, states Tilakaratna, in Brahmanic traditions is ''Parama-atma'' (universal Self, [[Ishvara]], Brahman)</ref>

=== Jainism ===

According to [[G. S. Ghurye]], the Jain texts define ''na''+''astika'' as one "denying what exists" or any school of philosophy that denies the existence of the Self.<ref name=pillai353>{{cite book|author=S. Devadas Pillai|title=Indian Sociology Through Ghurye, a Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3uD22Ghqs4C&pg=PA354|year=1997|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-807-1|pages=353–354}}</ref> The Vedanta sub-traditions of Hinduism are "astika" because they accept the existence of Self, while Buddhist traditions denying this are referred to as "nastika".<ref name=pillai353/>

One of the earliest mentions of ''astika'' concept in Jain texts is by [[Manibhadra]], who states that an ''astika'' is one who "accepts there exist another world (''paraloka''), transmigration of Self, virtue and vice that affect how a Self journeys through time".<ref name="Nicholson2013p172">{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVusAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14987-7|pages=172–175}}</ref>

The 5th–6th century Jainism scholar [[Haribhadra]], states Andrew Nicholson, does not mention anything about accepting or rejecting the Vedas or god as a criterion for being an ''astika'' or ''nastika''. Instead, Haribhadra explains ''nastika'' in the manner of the more ancient Jain scholar Manibhadra, by stating a nastika to be one "who says there is no other worlds, there is no purpose in charity, there is no purpose in offerings".<ref name="Nicholson2013p172"/> An ''astika'', to Haribhadra, is one who believes that there is a purpose and merit in an ethical life such as ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) and ritual actions.<ref name="Nicholson2013p172"/> This exposition of the word ''astika'' and ''nastika'' by Haribhadra is similar to one by the Sanskrit grammarian and Hindu scholar Pāṇini in section 4.4.60 of the ''[[Astadhyayi]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVusAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14987-7|page=173}}</ref>

The 12th century Jaina scholar [[Hemachandra]] similarly states, in his text ''[[Abithana Chintamani]]'', that a ''nastika'' is any philosophy that presumes or argues there is "no virtue and vice."<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramkrishna Bhattacharya|title=Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59eygxzQTWQC&pg=PA164|year=2011|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-0-85728-433-4|pages=164–166}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===

[[Nagarjuna]], according to Chandradhar Sharma, equates ''Nastikya'' to "nihilism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Chandradhar Sharma|title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3gQVd5WogsC|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|page=101}}</ref>

The 4th century Buddhist scholar [[Asanga]], in ''Bodhisattva Bhumi'', refers to nastika Buddhists as ''sarvaiva nastika'', describing them as who are complete deniers. To Asanga, ''nastika'' are those who say "nothing whatsoever exists," and the worst kind of ''nastika'' are those who deny all designation and reality.<ref name="Nicholson2013p174">{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVusAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14987-7|pages=174–176}}</ref> Astika are those who accept merit in and practice a religious life.<ref name="Nicholson2013p174"/> According to Andrew Nicholson, later Buddhists understood Asanga to be targeting [[Madhyamaka]] Buddhism as ''nastika'', while considering his own [[Yogachara|Yogachara Buddhist]] tradition to be ''astika''.<ref name="Nicholson2013p174"/> Initial interpretations of the Buddhist texts with the term ''astika'' and ''nastika'', such as those composed by [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Aśvaghoṣa]], were interpreted as being directed at the Hindu traditions. However, states John Kelly, most later scholarship considers this as incorrect, and that the ''astika'' and ''nastika'' terms were directed towards the competing Buddhist traditions and the intended audience of the texts were Buddhist monks debating an array of ideas across various Buddhist traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=John D Kelly|editor=Jan E. M. Houben|title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA88|year=1996|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-10613-8|pages=88–89}}</ref>

The charges of being a ''nastika'' were serious threat to the social standing of a Buddhist, and could lead to expulsion from Buddhist monastic community. Thus, states Nicholson, the colonial era Indologist definition of astika and nastika schools of Indian philosophy, was based on a narrow study of literature such as a version of ''[[Manusmriti]]'', while in truth these terms are more complex and contextually apply within the diverse schools of Indian philosophies.<ref name="Nicholson2013p174"/>

The most common meaning of astika and nastika, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism was the acceptance and adherence to ethical premises, and not textual validity or doctrinal premises, states Nicholson. It is likely that astika was translated as orthodox, and nastika as heterodox, because the early European Indologists carried the baggage of Christian theological traditions and extrapolated their own concepts to Asia, thereby distorting the complexity of Indian traditions and thought.<ref name="Nicholson2013p174"/>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Atman (Buddhism)]]
* [[Atheism in Hinduism]]
* [[Atman (Hinduism)]]
* [[Atman (Jainism)]]
* [[Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism]]
* [[Transtheism]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Apte |first=V. S. |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965}}
*{{citation |last=Banerji |first=S. C. |title=Tantra in Bengal |publisher=Manohar |location=Delhi |edition=Second Revised and Enlarged |year=1992|isbn=81-85425-63-9}}
*{{citation |last=Bhattacharyya |first=N. N. |title=History of the Tantric Religion |edition=Second Revised |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |year=1999|isbn=81-7304-025-7}}
*{{citation |last=Flood |first=Gavin |author-link= Gavin Flood|year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=81-7596-028-0}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Gavin |author-link= Gavin Flood|title=Blackwell companion to Hinduism |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-631-21535-2 |author=Francis Clooney}}
*{{citation |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Nataraj Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-881338-58-4}}
*{{citation |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=Sarvepalli |last2=Moore |first2=Charles A. |title=A Source Book in Indian Philosophy |publisher=Princeton University Press |orig-year=1957 |edition=Princeton paperback 12th |year=1989 |isbn=0-691-01958-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh }}
*{{citation |last=Vivekananda|first=Swami|author-link=Swami Vivekananda|title=Complete Works of, Volume 1, Lectures and Discourses|year=1900|isbn=978-8185301761 |url=http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_1/lectures_and_discourses/krishna.htm}}
{{Refend}}

{{Indian Philosophy}}
{{Theology|faith}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Astika and nastika}}
[[Category:Āstika| ]]
[[Category:Nāstika| ]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Movements in ancient Indian philosophy]]

Āstika and nāstika - Revision history

NereidaMccurdy5: formatting fix

2600:1702:35F0:A1D0:15B:A19A:4970:2710: robot: import pages using Special:Import