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Dalit

2023-07-14T09:06:22Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: /* Regional terms */Added information about Kerala Dalits

{{Short description|Marginalized castes in India}}
{{For|the legal term|Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}

[[File:Dalit or Untouchable Woman of Bombay (Mumbai) according to Indian Caste System - 1942.jpg|thumb|Dalit woman of Bombay according to Indian Caste System, 1942]]
'''Dalit''' (from {{lang-sa|दलित|dalita}} meaning "broken/scattered"), also previously known as '''untouchable''', is the lowest stratum of the [[Caste system in India|castes in India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/from-buddhist-texts-to-east-india-company-to-now-dalit-has-come-a-long-way/articleshow/65678182.cms |title=From Buddhist texts to East India Company to now, 'Dalit' has come a long way |website=The Times of India}}</ref> Dalits were excluded from the four-fold [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] system of Hinduism and were seen as forming a [[avarna|fifth varna]], also known by the name of ''Panchama''. Dalits now profess various religious beliefs, including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. [[Scheduled Castes]] is the official term for Dalits as per the [[Constitution of India]].

== History ==
{{Further|Dalit studies}}
The term ''Dalit'' is a self-applied concept for those called the "untouchables" and others that were outside of the traditional Hindu caste hierarchy.<ref name="kaminsky">{{cite book |first11=Arnold P. |last1=Kaminsky |first2=Roger D. |last2=Long |title=India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVxlfDHGTFYC&pg=PA156 |year=2011 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0-313-37463-0 |page=156 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Kanmony">{{cite book |first1=Jebagnanam Cyril |last1=Kanmony |title=Dalits and Tribes of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfUYBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |year=2010 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-348-3 |page=198 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Economist and reformer [[B. R. Ambedkar]] (1891–1956) said that untouchability came into Indian society around 400 CE, due to the struggle for supremacy between [[Buddhism]] and [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanism]] (an ancient term for Brahmanical Hinduism).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/article-in-rss-mouthpiece-misquotes-ambedkar-on-untouchability/article1-1338054.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416235122/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/article-in-rss-mouthpiece-misquotes-ambedkar-on-untouchability/article1-1338054.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2015 |title=Top RSS leader misquotes Ambedkar on untouchability |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> Some Hindu priests befriended untouchables and were demoted to low-caste ranks. [[Eknath]], another excommunicated Brahmin, fought for the rights of untouchables during the [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti period]].

In the late 1880s, the [[Marathi language|Marathi]] word 'Dalit' was used by [[Mahatma Jotiba Phule]] for the outcasts and Untouchables who were oppressed and broken in the Hindu society.<ref name=Robinson2003>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Rowena |year=2003 |title=Christians of India |pages=193–96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyU4nepW2xQC&pg=PA193 |isbn=0761998225 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=New Delhi |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> ''Dalit'' is a vernacular form of the [[Sanskrit]] दलित (''dalita''). In Classical Sanskrit, this means "divided, split, broken, scattered". This word was repurposed in 19th-century Sanskrit to mean "(a person) not belonging to one of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]]s".<ref>"Dalit, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2016. Web. 23 August 2016.</ref> It was perhaps first used in this sense by [[Pune]]-based social reformer [[Jyotirao Phule]], in the context of the oppression faced by the erstwhile "untouchable" castes from other [[Hindu]]s.<ref name="mendelsohnvicziany">{{cite book|first1=Oliver |last1=Mendelsohn|first2=Marika |last2=Vicziany|author-link2=Marika Vicziany|title=The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FGbp9MjhvKAC |page=4}} |page=4|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55671-2}}</ref> The term ''dalits'' was in use as a translation for the [[British Raj]] census classification of ''Depressed Classes'' prior to 1935. It was popularised by Ambedkar, himself a Dalit,<ref name="katuwal">{{cite book |editor1-first=Panchanan |editor1-last=Mohanty |editor2-first=Ramesh C. |editor2-last=Malik |editor3-first=Eswarappa |editor3-last=Kasi |title=Ethnographic Discourse of the Other: Conceptual and Methodological Issues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfUYBwAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-0856-9 |chapter=The Issues and Concerns of Dalit Labourers in Nepal |first=Shyam Bahadur |last=Katuwal |page=114 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> who included all depressed people irrespective of their caste into the definition of Dalits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Independent labour party: 19th July (1937) in Dalit History – Dr. Ambedkar took oath as the member of Bombay Legislative Council |url=https://drambedkarbooks.com/tag/independent-labour-party/ |website=drambedkarbooks.com/ |publisher=Dr. Ambedkar Books |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> It covered people who were excluded from the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and thought of themselves as forming a fifth varna, describing themselves as ''Panchama''.<ref>{{cite book |first1=S. |last1=Sagar |first2=V. |last2=Bhargava |chapter=Dalit Women in India: Crafting Narratives of Success |page=22 |title=Resistance in Everyday Life: Constructing Cultural Experiences |editor1-first=Nandita |editor1-last=Chaudhary |editor2-first=Pernille |editor2-last=Hviid |editor3-first=Giuseppina |editor3-last=Marsico |editor4-first=Jakob Waag |editor4-last=Villadsen |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XyEsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |publisher=Springer |year=2017 |isbn=978-9-81103-581-4 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In the 1970s its use was invigorated when it was adopted by the [[Dalit Panthers]] activist group.<ref name="kaminsky"/>

Socio-legal scholar Oliver Mendelsohn and political economist [[Marika Vicziany]] wrote in 1998 that the term had become "intensely political ... While the use of the term might seem to express appropriate solidarity with the contemporary face of Untouchable politics, there remain major problems in adopting it as a generic term. Although the word is now quite widespread, it still has deep roots in a tradition of political radicalism inspired by the figure of B. R. Ambedkar." They went on to suggest that its use risked erroneously labelling the entire population of untouchables in India as being united by a radical politics.<ref name="mendelsohnvicziany"/> [[Anand Teltumbde]] also detects a trend towards denial of the politicised identity, for example among educated middle-class people who have converted to Buddhism and argue that, as Buddhists, they cannot be Dalits. This may be due to their improved circumstances giving rise to a desire not to be associated with the what they perceive to be the demeaning Dalit masses.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dalits: Past, present and future |first=Anand |last=Teltumbde |author-link=Anand Teltumbde |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-31552-643-0 |pages=10–11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZXgDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

=== Other terms ===

==== Official term ====
''Scheduled Castes'' is the official term for Dalits in the opinion of India's National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (NCSC), who took legal advice that indicated modern legislation does not refer to Dalit and that therefore, it says, it is "unconstitutional" for official documents to do so. In 2004, the NCSC noted that some state governments used ''Dalits'' rather than ''Scheduled Castes'' in documentation and asked them to desist.<ref name="express2008a">{{cite news |url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Dalit-word-unconstitutional-says-SC-Commission/262903/ |title=Dalit word un-constitutional says SC|date=18 January 2008 |newspaper=[[Express India]] |access-date=27 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922060507/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Dalit-word-unconstitutional-says-SC-Commission/262903/ |archive-date=22 September 2009}}</ref>

Some sources say that ''Dalit'' encompasses a broader range of communities than the official ''Scheduled Caste'' definition. It can include nomadic tribes and another official classification that also originated with the British Raj [[positive discrimination]] efforts in 1935, being the ''Scheduled Tribes''.<ref name="zelliot">{{cite journal |last=Zelliot |first=Eleanor |author-link=Eleanor Zelliot |year=2010 |title=India's Dalits: Racism and Contemporary Change|url=http://www.worlddialogue.org/content.php?id=490 |journal=Global Dialogue |volume=12 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430015723/http://www.worlddialogue.org/content.php?id=490 |archive-date=30 April 2013}}</ref> It is also sometimes used to refer to the entirety of India's oppressed peoples,<ref name="kaminsky"/> which is the context that applies to its use in Nepalese society.<ref name="Kanmony"/> An example of the limitations of the ''Scheduled Caste'' category is that, under Indian law, such people can only be followers of Buddhism, Hinduism or Sikhism,<ref name=2011Census/> yet there are communities who claim to be [[Dalit Christian]]s and Muslims,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System |first=C. J. |last=Fuller |author-link=Chris Fuller (academic)|journal=Man |series=New series |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=March 1976 |pages=53–70 |doi=10.2307/2800388 |jstor=2800388}}</ref> and the tribal communities often practise [[Tribal religions in India|folk religions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/india/57.htm |title=Tribal Religions |work=U.S. [[Library of Congress]] |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] Country Studies |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==== Harijan ====
The term ''Harijan'', or 'children of God', was coined by [[Narsinh Mehta]], a Gujarati poet-saint of the Bhakti tradition, to refer to all devotees of [[Krishna]] irrespective of caste, class, or sex.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramabadran |first1=Sudharshan |last2=Paswan |first2=Guru |title=Makers of Modern Dalit History |date=2021 |publisher=Penguin Random House India |isbn=9780143451426 |page=xv}}</ref> Mahatma Gandhi, an admirer of Mehta's work, first used the word in the context of identifying Dalits in 1933. Ambedkar disliked the name as it placed Dalits in relation to a greater Hindu nation rather than as in an independent community like Muslims. In addition, many Dalits found, and still find, the term patronizing and derogatory, with some even claiming that the term really refers to children of [[devadasi]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/stop-calling-dalits-harijan-sc-calls-term-abusive-we-remain-ignorant-and-insensitive-59315 |title=Stop calling Dalits 'Harijan': SC calls the term abusive, as we remain ignorant and insensitive |date=27 March 2017 |work=The News Minute |access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Omvedt |first=Gail |author-link=Gail Omvedt |title=Ambedkar: towards an enlightened India |year=2008 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House|Penguin]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0143065906}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2017}} When untouchability was outlawed after Indian independence, the use of the word ''Harijan'' to describe ex-untouchables became more common among other castes than within Dalits themselves.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perez |first=Rosa Maria |title=Kings and untouchables : a study of the caste system in western India |year=2004 |publisher=Chronicle Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-8-18028-014-6 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRWAglUumEC&pg=PA15 |access-date=25 July 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

In 2017, [[Supreme Court of India]] noted calling people ''harijan'' was offensive.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calling People 'Harijan' or 'Dhobi' Is Offensive: Supreme Court |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/law/calling-people-harijan-or-dhobi-is-offensive-supreme-court |language=en |date=26 March 2017}}</ref>

==== Regional terms ====
In Southern India, Dalits are sometimes known as ''[[Adi Dravida]]'', ''[[Adi Karnataka]]'', and ''Adi Andhra'', which literally mean First Dravidians, Kannadigas, and Andhras, respectively. These terms were first used in 1917 by Southern Dalit leaders, who believed that they were the indigenous inhabitants of India.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India |first1=Oliver |last1=Mendelsohn |first2=Marika |last2=Vicziany |author-link2=Marika Vicziany |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1998|isbn=978-0-52155-671-2 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGbp9MjhvKAC&pg=PA3 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The terms are used in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]]/[[Telangana]], respectively, as a generic term for anyone from a Dalit caste.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}{{clarify|reason=Andhra has now bifurcated – does it apply in Telangana also?|date=July 2017}}

In [[Kerala]], according multiple native historians and foreign travellers, the term Avarna was used to describe Dalits or Panchamas. In last two centuries,some Dalit castes like Ezhavas have attained OBC status and are not longer classified as SC, due to improved social and financial conditions.

In [[Maharashtra]], according to historian and women's studies academic Shailaja Paik, ''Dalit'' is a term mostly used by members of the [[Mahar]] caste, into which Ambedkar was born. Most other communities prefer to use their own caste name.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Mahar–Dalit–Buddhist: The history and politics of naming in Maharashtra |first=Shailaja |last=Paik |journal=Contributions to Indian Sociology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=217–241 |date=September 2011 |doi=10.1177/006996671104500203 |s2cid=144346975}}</ref>

In Nepal, aside from ''Harijan'' and, most commonly, ''Dalit'', terms such as ''Haris'' (among Muslims), ''Achhoot'', ''outcastes'' and ''neech jati'' are used.<ref name="katuwal"/>

== Demographics ==
[[File:2011 Census Scheduled Caste caste distribution map India by state and union territory.svg|thumb|360px|Scheduled Castes distribution map in India by state and union territory according to the 2011 Census of India.<ref name=2011Census>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-Documents/SCST%20Presentation%2028-10-2013.ppt Census of India 2011, Primary Census Abstract]{{PPTlink}}, Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Government of India (28 October 2013).</ref> [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] had the highest proportion of its population as SC (around 32%), while India's island territories and two northeastern states had approximately zero.<ref name=2011Census/>]]

Scheduled Caste communities exist across India and comprised 16.6% of the country's population, {{As of|2011|alt=according to the}} 2011 Census of India.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/scs-sts-form-25--of-population-says-census-2011-data/1109988/|title=SCs, STs form 25% of population, says Census 2011 data |date=1 May 2013 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> [[Uttar Pradesh]] (21%), [[West Bengal]] (11%), [[Bihar]] (8%) and Tamil Nadu (7%) between them accounted for almost half the country's total Scheduled Caste population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Half of India's dalit population lives in 4 states |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Half-of-Indias-dalit-population-lives-in-4-states/articleshow/19827757.cms |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=2 May 2013 |first=B. |last=Sivakumar |access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> They were most prevalent as a proportion of the states' population in Punjab, at about 32 per cent,<ref name="Welfare Department">{{cite web |url=http://welfarepunjab.gov.in/SCpopulation.html|title=Scheduled Caste Population in Punjab |website=Welfare Department |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423052611/http://welfarepunjab.gov.in/SCpopulation.html |archive-date=23 April 2016 |access-date=25 April 2016}}</ref> while [[Mizoram]] had the lowest at approximately zero.<ref name=2011Census/>

Similar groups are found throughout the rest of the Indian subcontinent; less than 2 per cent of Pakistan's population are Hindu and 70–75 per cent of those Hindus are Dalits,<ref name="Ghosh2020">{{cite book |first=Lipi |last=Ghosh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umsJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT115 |title=Political Governance and Minority Rights: The South and South-East Asian Scenario |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |date=29 November 2020 |isbn=978-1-00-008390-3 |pages=115– |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> in Nepal,<ref name="Kanmony"/> Bangladesh had 5 million Dalits in 2010 with the majority being landless and in chronic poverty,<ref name="Committee2010">Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: International Development Committee. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=n2JhCnVni4kC&pg=PA93 DFID's programme in Bangladesh: third report of session 2009–10, Vol. 2: Oral and written evidence]''. The Stationery Office; 4 March 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-215-54435-3}}. p. 93–.</ref> and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Separatist Conflict in Sri Lanka: Terrorism, Ethnicity, Political Economy |first=Asoka |last=Bandarage |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-13597-085-7 |page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOuSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> They are also found as part of the Indian diaspora in many countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Singapore, and the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite news |last=Soundararajan |first=Thenmozhi |title=Black Indians |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?281938|work=Outlook India |date=20 August 2012 |access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Rath |first=Kayte |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-21659744 |title=Outlaw caste discrimination in UK, peers tell government |work=[[BBC News]] |date=5 March 2013 |access-date=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lepoer |first=Barbara Leitch |title=GPO for the Library of Congress |url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/18.htm |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=11 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="Naidu">{{cite web |last1=Naidu |first1=Janet |title=Retention and Transculturation of Hinduism in the Caribbean |url=http://www.guyanajournal.com/hinduism_caribbean.html |work=Guyana Journal |access-date=5 April 2015}}</ref>

India is home to over 200 million Dalits.<ref>{{cite news |title=India top court recalls controversial caste order |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49889815 |work=BBC News |date=1 October 2019}}</ref> According to [[Paul Diwakar]], a Dalit activist from the [[National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights]], "India has 600,000 villages and almost every village a small pocket on the outskirts is meant for Dalits."<ref>{{cite news |title=Under India's caste system, Dalits are considered untouchable. The coronavirus is intensifying that slur |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/15/asia/india-coronavirus-lower-castes-hnk-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=16 April 2020}}</ref>

== Social status ==
{{Main|Caste system in India|Untouchability}}
Dalits have had lowest social status in the traditional Hindu social structure but James Lochtefeld, a professor of religion and Asian studies, said in 2002 that the "adoption and popularization of [the term ''Dalit''] reflects their growing awareness of the situation, and their greater assertiveness in demanding their legal and constitutional rights".<ref>{{cite book |first=James G. |last=Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA168 |year=2002 |publisher=The [[Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn= 978-0-8239-3179-8 |page=168 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

India's [[National Commission for Scheduled Castes]] considers official use of ''dalit'' as a label to be "unconstitutional" because modern legislation prefers ''[[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes]]''; however, some sources say that ''Dalit'' has encompassed more communities than the official term of ''Scheduled Castes'' and is sometimes used to refer to all of India's oppressed peoples. A similar all-encompassing situation prevails in Nepal.

In 1932, the British Raj recommended separate electorates to select leaders for Dalits in the [[Communal Award]]. This was favoured by Ambedkar but when [[Mahatma Gandhi]] opposed the proposal it resulted in the [[Poona Pact]]. That in turn influenced the [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act, 1935]], which introduced the reservation of seats for the Depressed Classes, now renamed as Scheduled Castes.

From soon after [[Indian Independence Act 1947|its independence]] in 1947, India introduced a [[Reservation in India|reservation system]] to enhance the ability of Dalits to have political representation and to obtain government jobs and education.{{clarify|Central or state level or both? Need to check.|date=July 2017}} In 1997, India elected its first Dalit President, [[K. R. Narayanan]]. Many social organisations have promoted better conditions for Dalits through education, healthcare and employment. Nonetheless, while caste-based discrimination was prohibited and untouchability abolished by the [[Constitution of India]], such practices are still widespread. To prevent harassment, assault, discrimination and similar acts against these groups, the [[Government of India]] enacted the [[Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989|Prevention of Atrocities Act]], also called the SC/ST Act, on 31 March 1995. In accordance with the order of the [[Bombay High Court]], the Information and Broadcasting Ministry (I&B Ministry) of the Government of India issued an advisory to all media channels in September 2018, asking them to use "Scheduled Castes" instead of the word "Dalit".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/stop-using-the-term-dalit-i-b-ministry-tells-media-1331855-2018-09-04/ |title=Stop using the term Dalit: I&B Ministry tells media |website=India Today}}</ref>

George Kunnath claims that there "is and has been an internal hierarchy between the various Dalit castes". According to Kunnath, the [[Dusadh]]s are considered the highest while the [[Musahar]]s are considered the lowest within the Dalit groups.<ref>{{cite web |website=[[University of Oxford]] |title=Compliance or Defiance? The Case of Dalits and Mahadalits |first=George |last=Kunnath |year=2013 |pages=36–59 |url=https://www.anthro.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/anthro/documents/media/jaso5_1_2013_36_59.pdf |s2cid=35045790}}</ref>{{rp|38}}

=== Occupations ===
In the past, they were believed to be so impure that upper caste Hindus considered their presence to be polluting. The "impure status" was related to their historic hereditary occupations that caste Hindus considered to be "polluting" or debased, such as working with [[leather]], disposing of dead animals, [[manual scavenging]], or [[sanitation worker|sanitation work]].<ref>{{cite book|first=James G. |last=Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=The [[Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/720 720]}}</ref>

Forced by the circumstance of their birth and poverty, Dalits in India continue to work as sanitation workers: manual scavengers, cleaners of drains, garbage collectors, and sweepers of roads.<ref name=":0">PRIA (2019): [https://pria.org/knowledge_resource/1560777260_Occasional%20Paper%204%20(2019)%20(Lived%20Realities%20of%20Women%20Sanitation%20Workers%20i....pdf Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India]. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India</ref>{{rp|4}} As of 2019, an estimated 40 to 60 per cent of the 6 million Dalit households are engaged in sanitation work.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|5}} The most common Dalit caste performing sanitation work is [[Valmiki caste|Valmiki]] (also Balmiki) caste.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|3}}

=== History ===
{{Main|Dalit History Month}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 250
| footer = [[Dharavi]] is a [[slum]] in [[Mumbai]], founded in the 1880s during the [[British Raj]]. The colonial government expelled Dalits, along with their traditional profession of leather and tannery work, from Mumbai (Bombay) peninsula to create Dharavi.<ref name=jn2010>J{{Cite journal |first=Jan |last=Nijman |title=A Study of Space in Mumbai's Slums |journal=Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=4–17 |date=February 2010}}</ref> Currently, about 20 per cent of the Dharavi population are Dalits, compared to 16 per cent nationwide. Dalits live together with Muslims (who constitute about a third of Dharavi's population) and other castes and tribes.<ref>[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/dharavi-mumbai-slum/jonas-bendiksen-photography Dharavi: Mumbai's Shadow City] National Geographic (2007)</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/10311293 |title=A flourishing slum |work=[[The Economist]] |date=19 December 2007}} Above are two images of Dharavi.</ref>
| image1 = Mumbai 03-2016 52 Dharavi near Mahim Junction.jpg
| alt1 = Dharavi View 1
| image2 = Dharavi slum in Mumbai, India August 2009 5.jpg
| alt2 = Dharavi View 2
}}

[[Gopal Baba Walangkar]] (c. 1840–1900) is generally considered to be the pioneer of the Dalit movement, seeking a society in which they were not discriminated against. Another pioneer was [[Harichand Thakur]] (c. 1812–1878) with his [[Matua Mahasangha|Matua]] organisation that involved the [[Namasudra]] ([[Chandala]]) community in the [[Bengal Presidency]]. Ambedkar himself believed Walangkar to be the progenitor.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dalits: Past, present and future |first=Anand |last=Teltumbde |author-link=Anand Teltumbde |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-31552-643-0 |pages=52–54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZXgDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT52}}</ref> Another early social reformer who worked to improve conditions for Dalits was [[Jyotirao Phule]] (1827–1890).

The 1950 Constitution of India, introduced after the [[independence of India|country gained independence]], included measures to improve the socioeconomic conditions of Dalits. Aside from banning untouchability, these included the reservation system, a means of [[positive discrimination]] that created the classifications of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes for Dalits. Communities that were categorised as being one of those groups were guaranteed a percentage of the seats in the national and state legislatures, as well as in government jobs and places of education. The system has its origins in the 1932 Poona Pact between Ambedkar and Gandhi, when Ambedkar conceded his demand that the Dalits should have an electorate separate from the caste Hindus in return for Gandhi accepting measures along these lines.<ref name="keane">{{cite book |title=Religion, Human Rights and International Law: A Critical Examination of Islamic State Practices |editor1-first=Javid |editor1-last=Rehman |editor2-first=Susan |editor2-last=Breau |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-9-04742-087-3 |first=David |last=Keane |chapter=Why the Hindu Caste System Presents a New Challenge for Human Rights |pages=284–285 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-mwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The notion of a separate electorate had been proposed in the Communal Award made by the British Raj authorities,<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-13949-869-2 |pages=151–152 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2oexn_mLPIC&pg=PA151 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and the outcome of the Pact – the Government of India Act of 1935 – both introduced the new term of ''Scheduled Castes'' in replacement for ''Depressed Classes'' and reserved seats for them in the legislatures.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Exclusion: Essays in Honour of Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak |volume=1 |editor-first=A. K. |editor-last=Lal |publisher=Concept Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-8-18069-053-2 |chapter=Positive Discrimination in the Constitution of India |first=B. N. |last=Srivastava |page=181 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o38ZT8UVw8UC&pg=PA181 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

By 1995, of all federal government jobs in India – 10.1 per cent of Class I, 12.7 per cent of Class II, 16.2 per cent of Class III, and 27.2 per cent of Class IV jobs were held by Dalits.<ref name="scs1">{{cite web|title=Status of caste system in modern India |year=2004 |publisher=Ambedkar.org |url=http://www.ambedkar.org/News/reservationinindia.pdf |pages=34–35}}</ref> Of the most senior jobs in government agencies and government-controlled enterprises, only 1 per cent were held by Dalits, not much change in 40 years.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} In the 21st century, Dalits have been elected to India's highest judicial and political offices.<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news |title=Profile: Mayawati Kumari |date=16 July 2009 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1958378.stm}}</ref><ref name="meira">{{cite web |title=Meira Kumar, a Dalit leader is the new Lok Sabha Speaker |year=2009 |publisher=NCHRO |url=http://www.nchro.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6863:meira-kumar-a-dalit-leader-is-the-new-lok-sabha-speaker&catid=5:dalitsatribals&Itemid=14}}</ref>

In 2001, the quality of life of the Dalit population in India was worse than that of the overall Indian population on metrics such as access to health care, life expectancy, education attainability, access to drinking water and housing.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is the progress in elementary education participation in India during the last two decades?|first=Deepa |last=Shankar|publisher=The World Bank|year=2007|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDIA/2132853-1191444019328/21497941/SankarProgressinElementaryEducationusingNSS.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Darshan |year=2009 |title=Development of Scheduled Castes in India – A Review |url=http://www.nird.org.in/OctLevel%209.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Rural Development]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=529–42 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222164718/http://nird.org.in/OctLevel%209.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Changing Educational Inequalities in India in the Context of Affirmative Action |first1=Sonalde |last1=Desai |first2=Veena |last2=Kulkarni |journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]] |date=May 2008 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=245–70 |pmc=2474466 |pmid=18613480 |doi=10.1353/dem.0.0001}}</ref>

== Economic status ==
{{Main|Dalit businesses}}
According to a 2014 report to the [[Ministry of Minority Affairs]], over 44.8 per cent of Scheduled Tribe (ST) and 33.8 per cent of Scheduled Caste (SC) populations in rural India were living [[Below Poverty Line (India)|below the poverty line]] in 2011–12. In urban areas, 27.3 per cent of ST and 21.8 per cent of SC populations were below the poverty line.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-dalits-in-india-are-poorer-than-muslims-government-report-2032739|title=Dalits in India are poorer than Muslims: Government report|date=7 November 2014|website=dna}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/691545/who-among-indias-young-are-likely-to-become-modern-slaves|title=Who among India's young are likely to become modern slaves?|first=Vasudevan|last=Mukunth|website=Scroll.in}}</ref>

Some Dalits have achieved affluence, although most remain poor. Some Dalit intellectuals, such as [[Chandra Bhan Prasad]], have argued that the living standards of many Dalits have improved since the economic system became more liberalised starting in 1991 and have supported their claims through large surveys.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|last=Sengupta |first=Somini |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30caste.html?ref=asia |title=Crusader Sees Wealth as Cure for Caste Bias |location=India |work=The New York Times |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/30/AR2008083002299.html |title=In an Indian Village, Signs of the Loosening Grip of Caste |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=20 November 2011 |first=Emily |last=Wax |date=31 August 2008}}</ref> According to the [[Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011]], nearly 79 per cent of Adivasi households and 73 per cent of Dalit households were the most deprived among rural households in India. While 45 per cent of SC households are landless and earn a living by manual casual labour, the figure is 30 per cent for Adivasis.<ref>{{cite news |title=Landlessness is higher among Dalits but more adivasis are 'deprived' |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=6 July 2015 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/landlessness-is-higher-among-dalits-but-more-adivasis-are-deprived/ |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

A 2012 survey by [[Mangalore University]] in [[Karnataka]] found that 93 per cent of Dalit families in the state of Karnataka live below the poverty line.<ref name="TNN 2012">{{cite news |title=93% dalit families still live below poverty line, says survey |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=28 October 2012 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/93-dalit-families-still-live-below-poverty-line-says-survey/articleshow/16987809.cms |access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

== Discrimination ==
[[Persecution of Dalits|Discrimination against Dalits]] has been observed across [[South Asia]] and among the South Asian diaspora. According to a 2007 report by [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW), the treatment of Dalits has been like a "hidden apartheid" and that they "endure segregation in housing, schools, and access to public services". HRW noted that [[Manmohan Singh]], then [[Prime Minister of India]], saw a parallel between the [[apartheid]] system and untouchability.<ref name="HA">{{cite web |title=India: "Hidden Apartheid" of Discrimination Against Dalits |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=27 May 2002 |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/02/13/india15303.htm |access-date=27 September 2008}}</ref> [[Eleanor Zelliot]] also notes Singh's 2006 comment but says that, despite the obvious similarities, race prejudice and the situation of Dalits "have a different basis and perhaps a different solution".<ref name="zelliot" /> Though the Indian Constitution abolished untouchability, the oppressed status of Dalits remains a reality. In rural India, stated [[Klaus Klostermaier]] in 2010, "they still live in secluded quarters, do the dirtiest work, and are not allowed to use the village well and other common facilities".<ref>{{cite book |first=Klaus |last=Klostermaier |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |page=297 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In the same year, Zelliot noted that "In spite of much progress over the last sixty years, Dalits are still at the social and economic bottom of society."<ref name="zelliot" />

The South Asia State of Minorities Report 2020 has found that since the BJP (the Indian people's party)<ref>{{Cite news |title=They're Hindu too but still feel at the bottom of India's social ladder |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/india-dalits-still-feel-bottom-caste-ladder-n1239846 |access-date=20 December 2020 |work=[[NBC News]] |language=en}}</ref> has returned to political power in India as of May 2018, "Hate crimes against minorities have seen a spike – taking the form of mob lynching and vigilante violence against Muslims, Christians, and Dalits. BJP also strengthened and expanded a series of discriminatory laws and measures that target religious minorities. These include anti-conversion laws, blamed by human rights groups for empowering Hindutva groups to conduct campaigns of harassment, social exclusion and violence against Christians, Muslims, and other religious minorities across the country’. Laws ostensibly meant for the protection of cows continue to provide institutional backing for similar campaigns against Muslims and Dalits."<ref>{{Cite web |author=Scroll Staff |title=India a dangerous, violent place for Muslims under Modi government, says minorities report |url=https://scroll.in/latest/981254/india-a-dangerous-violent-place-for-muslims-under-modi-government-says-minorities-report |access-date=20 December 2020 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=South Asia State of Minorities Report 2019 |url=https://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/SA-State-of-Minorities-2019.pdf |access-date=20 December 2020 |website=minorityrights.org}}</ref>

While discrimination against Dalits has declined in urban areas and in the public sphere,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/living/caste.shtml |title=The caste system |website=[[BBC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521225627/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/living/caste.shtml |archive-date=21 May 2009}}</ref> it still exists in rural areas and in the private sphere, in everyday matters such as access to eating places, schools, temples and water sources.<ref name="TheHindu">{{cite news |title=Untouchability still prevalent in rural Gujarat: survey |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=India |date=28 January 2010 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article95821.ece |access-date=1 April 2010 |first=Manas |last=Dasgupta}}</ref> Some Dalits successfully integrated into urban Indian society, where caste origins are less obvious. In rural India, however, caste origins are more readily apparent and Dalits often remain excluded from local religious life, though some qualitative evidence suggests that exclusion is diminishing.<ref name="indianchristians.in">{{cite web |url=http://indianchristians.in/news/content/view/311/48/ |title=Hindus Support Dalit Candidates in Tamil Nadu |date=15 October 2006 |publisher=Indianchristians.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005015048/http://indianchristians.in/news/content/view/311/48/|archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Somini |last=Sengupta |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/30/world/asia/30caste.html?pagewanted=2&ref=asia |title=Crusader Sees Wealth as Cute for Caste Bias |location=India |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref>

According to the 2014 NCAER/University of Maryland survey, 27 per cent of the Indian population still practices untouchability; the figure may be higher because many people refuse to acknowledge doing so when questioned, although the methodology of the survey was also criticised for potentially inflating the figure.<ref>{{cite news |work=Scroll |title=Between the bathroom and the kitchen, there is caste |url=http://scroll.in/article/692513/Between-the-bathroom-and-the-kitchen,-there-is-caste |first=Shivam |last=Vij |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=22 July 2017}}</ref> Across India, Untouchability was practised among 52 per cent of [[Brahmin]]s, 33 per cent of Other Backward Classes and 24 per cent of non-Brahmin [[forward caste]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/columns/casteism-exists-in-india-let-s-not-remain-in-denial/story-QLfGEEFCRVOQLv9eDXIJfN.html |title=Casteism exists in India, let's not remain in denial |last=Bhandare |first=Namita |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=6 December 2014 |access-date=17 February 2021}}</ref> Untouchability was also practised by people of minority religions – 23 per cent of Sikhs, 18 per cent of Muslims and 5 per cent of Christians.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/shashi-tharoor/caste-wont-disappear-india_b_6257354.html |title=Why Caste Won't Disappear From India |first=Shashi |last=Tharoor |work=[[HuffPost]] |date=8 December 2014}}</ref> According to statewide data, Untouchability is most commonly practised in Madhya Pradesh (53 per cent), followed by [[Himachal Pradesh]] (50 per cent), Chhattisgarh (48 per cent), [[Rajasthan]] and Bihar (47 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (43 per cent), and [[Uttarakhand]] (40 per cent).<ref>{{cite news|title=Biggest caste survey: One in four Indians admit to practising untouchability |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability-biggest-caste-survey/ |work=The Indian Express |first=Seema |last=Chishti |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref>

Examples of segregation have included the Madhya Pradesh village of [[Ghatwani]], where the Scheduled Tribe population of [[Bhilala]] do not allow Dalit villagers to use the public borewell for fetching water and thus they are forced to drink dirty water.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dalits in MP village not allowed to use public borewell |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=23 May 2015 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/dalits-in-mp-village-not-allowed-to-use-public-borewell/article1-1350537.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524095642/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/dalits-in-mp-village-not-allowed-to-use-public-borewell/article1-1350537.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 May 2015 |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> In metropolitan areas around [[New Delhi]] and [[Bangalore]], Dalits and Muslims face discrimination from upper caste landlords when seeking places to rent.<ref>{{cite news |title=Study shows NCR homeowners turn away Dalits and Muslims |work=The Indian Express |date=16 June 2015 |first=Seema |last=Chishti |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/rentals-ncr-homeowners-turn-away-dalits-muslims/ |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=In 5 star Bengaluru hotel, Dalits show they have arrived |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=1 September 2015 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/in-5-star-bengaluru-hotel-dalits-show-they-have-arrived/article1-1386329.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903045915/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/in-5-star-bengaluru-hotel-dalits-show-they-have-arrived/article1-1386329.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 September 2015 |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

In 1855, Mutka Salve, a 14-year-old student of Dalit leader [[Savitribai Phule]], wrote that during the rule of [[Baji Rao II|Baji Rao]] of the [[Maratha Empire]], the Dalit castes were chased away from their lands to build large buildings. They were also forced to drink oil mixed with red lead causing them to die, and then they were buried in the foundations of buildings, thus wiping out generations of Dalits. Under the rule of Baji Rao, if a Dalit crossed in front of a gym, they would cut off his head and play "bat and ball" on the ground, with their swords as bats and his head as a ball. Under these 17th century kings, human sacrifice of untouchable persons was not unusual. They also created intricate rules and operations to ensure that they stayed untouchables.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=5 June 2015 |title=Contesting Power, Contesting Memories |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2012/42/special-articles/contesting-power-contesting-memories.html |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |language=en |volume=47 |issue=42 |pages=7–8}}</ref> She also wrote that if a Dalit learned to read and write, Baji Rao would say that their education takes away a [[Brahmin]]'s job, and they were punished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Giri |first=Dipak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWrXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |title=Perspectives on Indian Dalit Literature: Critical Responses |date=19 March 2020 |publisher=Booksclinic Publishing |isbn=978-93-89757-71-2 |pages=167 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/blog/in-pune-young-dalits-take-on-right-wing-narrative-1794118 |title=Blog: In Pune, Young Dalit's Take on Right-Wing Narrative}}</ref>

=== Education ===
According to an analysis by The IndiaGoverns Research Institute, Dalits constituted nearly half of primary [[High school dropouts|school drop-outs]] in Karnataka during the period 2012–14.<ref>{{cite news |title=Half of school dropouts in K'taka are dalits |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=5 December 2014 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Half-of-school-dropouts-in-Ktaka-are-dalits/articleshow/45378145.cms |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=why does this indicate discrimination?|date=July 2017}} A sample survey in 2014, conducted by [[Dalit Adhikar Abhiyan]] and funded by [[ActionAid]], found that among state schools in [[Madhya Pradesh]], 88 per cent discriminated against Dalit children. In 79 per cent of the schools studied, Dalit children are forbidden from touching [[Midday Meal Scheme|mid-day meals]]. They are required to sit separately at lunch in 35 per cent of schools, and are required to eat with specially marked plates in 28 per cent.<ref name="hindustantimes.com">{{cite news |last=Sarkar |first=Sravani |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bhopal/kids-bear-brunt-of-macabre-caste-abuses-in-rural-mp/article1-1293731.aspx |title=Children bear the brunt of caste abuses in rural areas |date=5 December 2014 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213194934/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bhopal/kids-bear-brunt-of-macabre-caste-abuses-in-rural-mp/article1-1293731.aspx |archive-date=13 December 2014}}</ref>

There have been incidents and allegations of SC and ST teachers and professors being discriminated against and harassed by authorities, upper castes colleagues and upper caste students in different education institutes of India.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dalit professor 'harassed' for SC quota reforms thesis|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/dalit-scholar-harassed-for-sc-quota-reforms-thesis/1/163091.html |first=Prawesh |last=Lama |date=7 December 2011 |work=India Today |access-date=24 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=VHP, Bajrang Dal activists beat up a Dalit professor|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/dalit-professor-beaten-up-in-dhule/article4366231.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=1 February 2013 |access-date=24 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Professor attempts suicide near Rajkot |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=15 April 2015 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/Professor-attempts-suicide-near-Rajkot/articleshow/46926513.cms |access-date=24 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://coastaldigest.com/index.php/news/53911-dalit-headmistress-accuses-upper-caste-teachers-of-harassment |title=dalit-headmistress-accuses-upper-caste-teachers-of-harassment |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/headmaster-booked-for-abusing-dalit-teacher-115032800696_1.html |title=Headmaster booked for abusing dalit teacher |date=28 March 2015 |work=Business Standard |agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/dalit-professor-alleges-harassment-by-colleague-students/article4542459.ece |title=Dalit professor alleges harassment by colleague, students |date=24 March 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In some cases, such as in Gujarat, state governments have argued that, far from being discriminatory, their rejection when applying for jobs in education has been because there are no suitably qualified candidates from those classifications.<ref>{{cite news |title=Prejudice reserved |url=http://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/ahmedabad/cover-story/Prejudice-reserved/articleshow/47044090.cms |work=Ahmedabad Mirror |first=Niyati |last=Rana |date=25 April 2015 |access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref>

=== Healthcare and nutrition ===
Discrimination can also exist in access to healthcare and nutrition. A sample survey of Dalits, conducted over several months in Madhya Pradesh and funded by ActionAid in 2014, found that health field workers did not visit 65 per cent of Dalit settlements. 47 per cent of Dalits were not allowed entry into ration shops; and 64 per cent were given less grains than non-Dalits.<ref name="hindustantimes.com"/> In [[Haryana]] state, 49 per cent of Dalit children under five years were underweight and [[Malnutrition|malnourished]] while 80 per cent of those in the 6–59 months age group were [[Anemia|anaemic]] in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |first=Manvir |last=Saini |title=49% of Haryana's dalit kids are malnourished: Report |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=29 July 2015 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/49-of-Haryanas-dalit-kids-are-malnourished-Report/articleshow/48259523.cms |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

=== Crime ===
Dalits comprise a slightly disproportionate number of India's prison inmates.<ref>{{cite news |title=Prejudice Blamed For Dalit Prisoners |work=The New Indian Express |first=Pon Vasanth |last=Arunachalam |date=3 November 2014 |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Prejudice-Blamed-For-Dalit-Prisoners/2014/11/03/article2505842.ece}}</ref> While Dalits (including both SCs and STs) constitute 25 per cent of the Indian population, they account for 33.2 per cent of prisoners.<ref>{{cite news |title=Skew in Dalit Jail Inmate Ratio: NCRB |first=Pon Vasanth |last=Arunachalam |work=The New Indian Express |date=3 November 2014 |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Skew-in-Dalit-Jail-Inmate-Ratio-NCRB/2014/11/03/article2505782.ece |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> About 24.5 per cent of death row inmates in India are from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes which is proportionate to their population. The percentage is highest in Maharashtra (50 per cent), Karnataka (36.4 per cent) and Madhya Pradesh (36 per cent).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thewire.in/34244/three-quarters-of-death-row-prisoners-are-from-lower-castes-or-religious-minorities/ |title=Three-Quarters of Death Row Prisoners are from Lower Castes or Religious Minorities |first=Jahnavi |last=Sen |date=6 May 2016 |work=The Wire}}</ref> Dalits have been arrested on false pretexts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2018 |title=Withdraw false cases, release arrested Dalits: Congress on police action |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/withdraw-false-cases-release-arrested-dalits-congress-on-police-action/articleshow/63615886.cms |access-date=23 December 2020 |website=The [[Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref> According to Human Rights Watch, politically motivated arrests of Dalit rights activists occur and those arrested can be detained for six months without charge.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |title=India: Dalit rights activists detained |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/5b87de2e4.html |access-date=23 December 2020 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref>

Caste-related violence between Dalit and non-Dalits stems from ongoing prejudice by upper caste members.<ref name="Washington Post">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/20/AR2007062002535.html |title=A 'Broken People' in Booming India |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=20 November 2011 |first=Emily |last=Wax |date=21 June 2007}}</ref> The [[Bhagana, Hisar|Bhagana]] rape case, which arose out of a dispute of allocation of land, is an example of atrocities against Dalit girls and women.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Portrait of the Indian as a Young Dalit Girl |first=Priyanka |last=Dubey |date=10 September 2014 |work=[[Yahoo! News]]/Grist Media |url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/a-portrait-of-the-indian-as-a-young-dalit-girl-034726310.html |access-date=31 July 2017}}</ref> In August 2015, due to continued alleged discrimination from upper castes of the village, about 100 Dalit inhabitants converted to Islam in a ceremony at [[Jantar Mantar, New Delhi]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Manvir |last=Saini |title=Dalits from Bhagana convert to Islam |work=The [[Times of India]] |date=9 August 2015 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Dalits-from-Bhagana-convert-to-Islam/articleshow/48408805.cms |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> [[Inter-caste marriage]] has been proposed as a remedy,<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/columns/they-were-rivals-but-with-the-same-mission/story-ULAJpafNtjAi2Fg7LvbrEJ.html |title=They were rivals, but with the same mission |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |first=Ramachandra |last=Guha |date=26 October 2014 |access-date=17 February 2021}}</ref> but according to a 2014 survey of 42,000 households by the New Delhi-based [[National Council of Applied Economic Research]] (NCAER) and the [[University of Maryland]], it was estimated that only 5 per cent of Indian marriages cross caste boundaries.<ref>{{cite news |title=5% of Indian marriages are inter-caste: survey|url=http://www.thehindu.com/data/just-5-per-cent-of-indian-marriages-are-intercaste/article6591502.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |first=Rukmini |last=S. |date=13 November 2014 |access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref>

According to data for 2000 collected by [[National Crime Records Bureau|India's National Crime Records Bureau]], 25,455 crimes against Dalits were committed in the year 2000, the latest year for which the data is only available, 2 Dalits are assaulted every hour, 3 Dalit women are raped every day, 2 Dalits are murdered; and 2 Dalit homes are set on fire every day.<ref name="natgeo">{{Cite web |date=2 June 2003 |title=India's "Untouchables" Face Violence, Discrimination |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/pages/article/indias-untouchables-face-violence-discrimination |access-date=22 April 2021 |website=[[National Geographic]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] documented a high number of sexual assaults against Dalit women, which were often committed by landlords, upper-caste villagers, and policemen, according to a study published in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 May 2001 |title=Sex hell of Dalit women exposed |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/may/09/lukeharding |access-date=22 April 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref> According to the research, only about 5% of assaults are recorded, and policemen dismiss at least 30% of rape reports as false. The study also discovered that cops often seek bribes, threaten witnesses, and conceal evidence. Victims of rape have also been killed.<ref name="natgeo" /> There have been reports of Dalits being forced to eat [[human faeces]] and drink [[urine]] by upper caste members and the police.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Dalit-tortured-forced-to-eat-human-excreta/articleshow/42926546.cms|title=Dalit tortured, forced to eat human excreta|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/upper-caste-youths-force-dalit-to-eat-excreta-in-tamil-nadu-64965-2010-01-14 |title=Upper caste youths force Dalit to eat excreta in Tamil Nadu |first1=M. C. |last1=Rajan |date=14 January 2010 |website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Man-tortured-made-to-drink-urine-by-cops/articleshow/46034793.cms |title=Man tortured, made to drink urine by cops |work=The [[Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/dalit-youth-assaulted-forced-to-eat-human-faeces-in-up/story-ykZ7xutIhOLiGsQHfRDVBM.html |title=Dalit youth assaulted, forced to eat human faeces in UP |date=25 April 2015 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> In September 2015, a 45-year-old dalit woman was allegedly stripped naked and was forced to drink urine by perpetrators in Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="Nair 2015">{{cite news |last=Nair |first=Nithya |title=Dalit woman allegedly stripped in Madhya Pradesh, forced to consumed urine |work=India.com |date=2 September 2015 |url=http://www.india.com/news/india/dalit-woman-allegedly-stripped-in-madhya-pradesh-forced-to-consumed-urine-529997/ |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> In some parts of India, there have been allegations that Dalit grooms riding horses for wedding ceremonies have been beaten up and [[Ostracism|ostracised]] by upper caste people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/Families-of-2-dalit-grooms-ostracized-for-riding-horse-as-marriage-ritual/articleshow/36788880.cms |title=Families of 2 dalit grooms ostracized for riding horse as marriage ritual |website=The [[Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Dalit groom beaten up in M.P. village for riding a horse |agency=Press Trust of India |date=9 June 2014|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/dalit-groom-beaten-up-in-mp-village-for-riding-a-horse/article6096734.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/dalit-wedding-fetes-face-feudal-rage-in-rajasthan/article6207590.ece |title=Dalit wedding fetes face feudal rage in Rajasthan |first=Aarti |last=Dhar |date=14 July 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In August 2015, upper caste people burned houses and vehicles belonging to Dalit families and slaughtered their livestock in reaction to Dalits daring to hold a [[temple car]] procession at a village in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite news |title=Temple procession row: TN police nab 75 for torching Dalit houses |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=18 August 2015 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/temple-procession-row-tn-police-nab-75-for-torching-dalit-houses/ |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sivaraman |first=R. |title=70 held for burning Dalit houses in Villupuram |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=17 August 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/70-held-for-burning-dalit-houses-in-villupuram/article7548443.ece |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> In August 2015, it was claimed that a [[Jat people|Jat]] [[Khap|Khap Panchayat]] ordered the rape of two Dalit sisters because their brother eloped with a married Jat girl of the same village.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jat leaders in UP village deny ordering rape of Dalit sisters |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=1 September 2015 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jat-leaders-in-up-village-deny-ordering-rape-of-dalit-sisters/article1-1386379.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903180523/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jat-leaders-in-up-village-deny-ordering-rape-of-dalit-sisters/article1-1386379.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 September 2015 |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Basu 2015">{{cite news |last=Basu |first=Indrani |title=9 Things You Need To Know About The Khap 'Rape Order' in India |work=[[HuffPost]] |date=8 September 2015 |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/09/08/dalit-girls-india_n_8095322.html |access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Bahuguna 2015">{{cite web |last=Bahuguna |first=Ankush |title=A Khap Panchayat in UP Wants Two Dalit Sisters Raped Because Their Brother Eloped with a Married Woman |website=mensxp.com |date=28 August 2015 |url=http://www.mensxp.com/special-features/today/27465-a-khap-panchayat-in-up-wants-two-dalit-sisters-raped-because-their-brother-eloped-with-a-married-woman.html |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> In 2003, the higher caste Muslims in Bihar opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |first=Anand Mohan |last=Sahay |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=6 March 2003}}</ref> A Dalit activist was killed in 2020 for social media posts criticising Brahmins.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 September 2020 |title='Anti-Brahmin' posts on social media: 5 more held for murder of Dalit lawyer in Kutch|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/anti-brahmin-posts-on-social-media-5-more-held-for-murder-of-dalit-lawyer-in-kutch-6618523/|access-date=21 December 2020 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> A dalit was killed in 2019 for eating in front of upper-caste men.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 May 2019 |title=The Indian Dalit man killed for eating in front of upper-caste men |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48265387 |access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref>

=== Prevention of Atrocities Act ===
{{Main|Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989}}{{See also|Caste-related violence in India}}
The Government of India has attempted on several occasions to legislate specifically to address the issue of caste-related violence that affects SCs and STs. Aside from the Constitutional abolition of untouchability, there has been the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955, which was amended in the same year to become the Protection of Civil Rights Act. It was determined that neither of those Acts were effective, so the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 (POA) came into force.<ref name="hindu20150823">{{cite news |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Children of a different law |first=G. |last=Sampath |date=23 August 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/sunday-anchor-g-sampaths-article-on-children-of-a-different-law/article10327614.ece |access-date=22 July 2017}}</ref>

The POA designated specific crimes against SCs and STs as "atrocities" – a criminal act that has "the quality of being shockingly cruel and inhumane" – which should be prosecuted under its terms rather than existing criminal law.<ref name="hindu20150823"/> It created corresponding punishments. Its purpose was to curb and punish violence against Dalits, including humiliations such as the forced consumption of noxious substances. Other atrocities included forced labour, denial of access to water and other public amenities, and sexual abuse. The Act permitted Special Courts exclusively to try POA cases. The Act called on states with high levels of caste violence (said to be "atrocity-prone") to appoint qualified officers to monitor and maintain law and order.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

In 2015, the [[Parliament of India]] passed the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act to address issues regarding implementation of the POA, including instances where the police put procedural obstacles in the way of alleged victims or indeed outright colluded with the accused. It also extended the number of acts that were deemed to be atrocities.<ref name="hindu20150823"/><ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Centre notifies rules for amended SC/ST Act |date=24 April 2016 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Centre-notifies-rules-for-amended-SCST-Act/article14253691.ece |access-date=22 July 2017}}</ref> One of those remedies, in an attempt to address the slow process of cases, was to make it mandatory for states to set up the exclusive Special Courts that the POA had delineated. Progress in doing so, however, was reported in April 2017 to be unimpressive. [[P. L. Punia]], a former chairman of the NCSC, said that the number of pending cases was high because most of the extant Special Courts were in fact not exclusive but rather being used to process some non-POA cases, and because "The special prosecutors are not bothered and the cases filed under this Act are as neglected as the victims".<ref>{{cite news |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |title=States lag in setting up courts to address SC, ST grievances |first=Smriti Kak |last=Ramachandran |date=16 April 2017 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/states-lag-in-setting-up-courts-to-address-sc-st-grievances/story-K7r3tuEVHnYWHaRGS6zV6K.html |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> While Dalit rights organisations were cautiously optimistic that the amended Act would improve the situation, legal experts were pessimistic.<ref name="hindu20150823"/>

== Religion ==
{{See also|Self-Respect Movement}}

Discrimination is illegal under Indian law by the Removal of Civil Disabilities Act (Act 21 of 1938), the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939 (Act XXII of 1939) and Article 17 of the Constitution which outlawed Untouchability.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fighting caste discrimination is about changing attitude, than law |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/to-fight-caste-discrimination-is-about-changing-attitude-than-law/articleshow/77778710.cms |access-date=23 December 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> After India's independence in 1947, secular nationalism based on a "composite culture" made all people equal citizens, but [[Hindutva]] forces have worked to change India's secular tradition and promote Hindu nationalism.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|title=The Fate of Secularism in India – The BJP in Power: Indian Democracy and Religious Nationalism|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/04/04/fate-of-secularism-in-india-pub-78689|access-date=23 December 2020|website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|language=en}}</ref> In Pakistan there are tensions between forces that want a modern secular state or an Islamic one.<ref>{{Cite web|website=Deutsche Welle|title=An Islamic or secular Pakistan? |date=26 December 2013|url=https://www.dw.com/en/an-islamic-or-secular-pakistan/a-17325395|access-date=23 December 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> The constitution of Bangladesh proclaims Islam is the state religion but upholds secularism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bangladesh/ |access-date=23 December 2020 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Hinduism ===
{{Main|Dalit Hindus}}
Most Dalits in India are Hindu.<ref name="Gurusamy2019">S. Gurusamy. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nqmcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 Dalit Empowerment in India]''. MJP Publisher; 11 June 2019. GGKEY:SW8XELLJGLC. p. 104–.</ref> There have been incidents which showed that Dalits were restricted from entering temples by high-caste Hindus,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kesalu |first1=Satri Veera |last2=Srinivasulu |first2=Vukkala |date=1 November 2019 |title=Dalits and Their Religious Identity in India: A Critical Look at Existing Practices |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X18822909 |journal=Contemporary Voice of Dalit |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=94–106 |doi=10.1177/2455328X18822909 |s2cid=150583258|issn=2455-328X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Anuj |date=1 November 2019 |title=Dalit women not allowed to enter temple |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/dalit-women-not-allowed-to-enter-temple/article29847456.ece |access-date=23 December 2020 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 January 2020 |first=Ajay |last=Sura |title=Not allowed to enter temple, dalit minister tells Himachal Pradesh assembly|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/not-allowed-to-enter-temple-dalit-minister-tells-himachal-pradesh-assembly/articleshow/73148162.cms|access-date=23 December 2020|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> and participation in [[Procession|religious processions]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arulselvan |first=S. |date=2 April 2016 |title=Resisting ritual repression and reclaiming social positions by Dalits in Tamilnadu: a critical discourse analysis of media text |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2016.1237459 |journal=Media Asia |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1080/01296612.2016.1237459 |s2cid=131863641 |issn=0129-6612}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chandran |first=Rina |date=6 March 2020 |title=Denied in life, India's lower-caste Dalits fight for land in death |language=en |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-landrights-caste-trfn-idUSKBN20T0T1 |access-date=23 December 2020}}</ref>

[[File:A school of untouchables near Bangalore by Lady Ottoline Morrell 2.jpg|thumb|''A school of untouchables near Bangalore'', by [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]]]]

In the 19th century, the [[Brahmo Samaj]], [[Arya Samaj]] and the [[Ramakrishna Mission]] actively participated in the rights of Dalits. While Dalits had places to worship, the first upper-caste temple to openly welcome Dalits was the Laxminarayan Temple in [[Wardha]] in 1928. It was followed by the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] issued by the [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma|last King of Travancore]] in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] in 1936.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

In the 1930s, Gandhi and Ambedkar disagreed regarding retention of the caste system. Whilst Ambedkar wanted to see it destroyed, Gandhi thought that it could be modified by reinterpreting Hindu texts so that the untouchables were absorbed into the [[Shudra]] varna. It was this disagreement that led to the Poona Pact.<ref name="keane"/> Gandhi began the Harijan Yatra to help the Dalits, but ran into some opposition from Dalits that wanted a complete break from Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nath |first=Suryakant |title=Gandhi's Harijan Padyatra in Orissa in 1934: Claims over a Contested Social Space |date=2013 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158858 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=74 |pages=564–570 |jstor=44158858 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

The declaration by princely states of Kerala between 1936 and 1947 that temples were open to all Hindus went a long way towards ending untouchability there.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} However, educational opportunities to Dalits in Kerala remain limited.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aaliya |last=Rushdi |title=In Kerala, Dalit students facing difficulties to get educated |url=http://www.twocircles.net/2010mar17/kerala_dalit_students_facing_difficulties_get_educated.html |access-date=25 March 2010}}</ref>

Other Hindu groups attempted to reconcile with the Dalit community. Hindu temples are increasingly receptive to Dalit priests, a function formerly reserved for Brahmins. Brahmins such as [[Subramania Bharati]] passed Brahminhood onto a Dalit{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}, while in Shivaji's [[Maratha Empire]] Dalit warriors (the [[Mahar Regiment]]) joined his forces.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scroll.in/article/751529/how-history-has-systematically-distorted-the-figure-of-shivaji-excerpt-from-govind-pansares-book |title=How history has systematically distorted the figure of Shivaji: Excerpt from Govind Pansare's book |first=Govind |last=Pansare |website=Scroll.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://scroll.in/article/801298/why-lakhs-of-people-celebrate-the-british-victory-over-the-maratha-peshwas-every-new-year |title=Why lakhs of Indians celebrate the British victory over the Maratha Peshwas every New Year |first=Mridula |last=Chari |website=Scroll.in}}</ref>

The fight for temple entry rights for Dalits continues to cause controversy.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-06-04/india/27978159_1_jagannath-temple-hindus-temple-management-committee |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811070926/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-06-04/india/27978159_1_jagannath-temple-hindus-temple-management-committee |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 August 2011 |title=Temples of Unmodern India |access-date=20 November 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 June 2007}}</ref> In a 2015 incident in [[Meerut]], when a Dalit belonging to [[Valmiki caste]] was denied entry to a Hindu temple he converted to [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Ali |first=Mohammad |title=Denied temple access, Dalit converts to Islam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=14 March 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/denied-temple-access-dalit-converts-to-islam/article6991578.ece |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> In September 2015, four Dalit women were fined by the upper-caste Hindus for entering a temple in Karnataka.<ref name="T. 2015">{{cite news |last=T. |first=Sathish G. |title=Dalits fume over fine on their women for entering temple in Karnataka |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=7 September 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/dalits-fume-over-fine-on-their-women-for-entering-temple/article7622311.ece |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

There have been allegations that [[Religion in Nepal|Dalits in Nepal]] are denied entry to Hindu temples.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jha |first=Hari Bansh |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2005/10-12/18-29_nepal.shtml |title=Nepal's Downtrodden |date=October 2005 |work=Hinduism Today |access-date=31 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513073026/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2005/10-12/18-29_nepal.shtml |archive-date=13 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Dalits 'barred' from entering temple |work=The Kathmandu Post |date=27 February 2014 |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2014-02-27/dalits-barred-from-entering-temple-385994.html |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> In at least one reported case, they were beaten up by some upper-caste people for doing so.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nepal: Dalits beaten up for entering temple |work=Rediff.com |date=18 September 2006 |agency=Press Trust of India |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/sep/18nepal.htm |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
In 1956, the Dalit jurist [[B. R. Ambedkar|Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar]] (1891–1956) launched the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]], leading several mass conversions of Dalits from Hinduism to Buddhism. Ambedkar's Buddhism is a new kind of Buddhism that focuses on [[Engaged Buddhism|social and political engagement]].<ref name="Robinson2003p192">{{cite book |author=Gary Tartakov |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ |title=Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations, and Meanings |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-566329-7 |editor-first=Rowena |editor-last=Robinson |pages=192–213 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Christopher Queen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_lmCgAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-119-14466-3 |editor=Steven M. Emmanuel |pages=524–525 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> About half a million Dalits joined Ambedkar in rejecting Hinduism and challenging its caste system.<ref name="skaria450">{{cite journal |last=Skaria |first=A |year=2015 |title=Ambedkar, Marx and the Buddhist Question |journal=Journal of South Asian Studies |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=450–452 |doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1049726 |doi-access=free}}, Quote: "Here [Navayana Buddhism] there is not only a criticism of religion (most of all, Hinduism, but also prior traditions of Buddhism), but also of secularism, and that criticism is articulated moreover as a religion."</ref><ref name="omvedt2">{{Cite book |last=Omvedt |first=Gail |title=Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste |edition=3rd |location=London/New Delhi/Thousand Oaks |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |date=2003 |pages=2–15, 210–213}}</ref> The movement is centered in [[Maharashtra]], and according to the 2011 census, there were 6.5 million [[Marathi Buddhists]] (mainly Dalit Buddhists) in Maharashtra.<ref name="Census of India 2001">{{Cite web |url=http://www.censusindiamaps.net/page/Religion_WhizMap1/housemap.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706213221/http://www.censusindiamaps.net/page/Religion_WhizMap1/housemap.htm |url-status=dead |title=Census GIS Household |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref>

Another Dalit Buddhist leader and reformer was Pandit [[Iyothee Thass]], founder of the Sakya Buddhist Society of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Teltumbde2016p57">{{cite book |first=Anand |last=Teltumbde |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCIlDwAAQBAJ |title=Dalits: Past, Present and Future |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-315-52644-7 |pages=57–59 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

=== Sikhism ===
{{See also|Ad-Dharmi}}
[[Guru Nanak]] in ''Guru Granth Sahib'' calls for everyone to treat each other equally. Subsequent [[Sikh Gurus]], all of whom came from the [[Khatri]] caste, also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oberoi |first1=Harjot |title=The construction of religious boundaries: culture, identity, and diversity in the Sikh tradition |date=1994 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226615936 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NKC9g2ayJEC&pg=PR10|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> Despite this, social stratification exists in the Sikh community. The bulk of the Sikhs of Punjab belong to the [[Jat]] caste;<ref>{{cite news |title=Akali Dal demands inclusion of Jat Sikhs in OBC list |work=News East West |date=23 December 2013 |url=http://newseastwest.com/akali-dal-demands-inclusion-of-jat-sikhs-in-obc-list/}}</ref> there are also two Dalit Sikh castes in the state, called the [[Mazhabi]]s and the [[Ramdasia]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=McLeod |first=W. H. |title=The A to Z of Sikhism |date=2009 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham |isbn=978-0-81086-344-6 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgixwfeCyDAC&pg=PA49 |access-date=30 July 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

Sunrinder S. Jodhka says that, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the dalit castes. While dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Sikh dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local-level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jodhka|first1=Surinder S|title=Caste and Untouchability in Rural Punjab|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date= 17 May 2002|volume= 37|issue=19|page=1822|jstor=4412102}}</ref> In 1953, Sikh leader [[Tara Singh (activist)|Master Tara Singh]] succeeded in winning the demands from the government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the [[Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee]] (SGPC), 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apnaorg.com/research-papers/harish-puri/|title=Punjabi|website=apnaorg.com}}</ref>

Sikh women are required to have the surname "Kaur", and men, the surname "Singh", in order to eradicate caste identities and discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Owen |title=Sikhism - An Introduction: Teach Yourself |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sikhism_An_Introduction_Teach_Yourself/NF04AgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT51 |publisher=John Murray Press |isbn=9781444131017 |pages=51 |date=2010 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

In 2003 the [[Talhan]] village [[Gurudwara]] endured a bitter dispute between [[Jat Sikh]]s and [[Chamar]]s. The Chamars came out in force and confronted the Randhawa and Bains Jat Sikh landlords, who refused to give the Chamars a share on the governing committee of a shrine dedicated to Shaheed Baba Nihal Singh. The shrine earned 3–7 [[crore]] Indian Rupees, and the Jat Sikh [[landlord]]s allegedly "gobbled up a substantial portion of the offerings". Though Dalits form more than 60 per cent of Talhan's 5,000-strong population, local traditions ensured that they were denied a place on the committee. The landlords, in league with radical Sikh organisations and the SGPC, attempted to keep out the Dalits by razing the shrine overnight and constructing a gurdwara on it, but the Dalit quest for a say in the governing committee did not end.<ref name="tehelka.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main16.asp?filename=Cr021806Talhan_scores.asp |title=Talhan scores for dalit rights |work=Tehelka |first=Vikram Jit |last=Singh |date=18 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219040226/http://archive.tehelka.com/story_main16.asp?filename=Cr021806Talhan_scores.asp |archive-date=19 February 2014}}</ref>

Chamars fought a four-year court battle with the landlords and their allies, including the [[Punjab Police (India)|Punjab Police]]. In that time Jats conducted several boycotts against the Chamars. The Jat Sikhs and their allies cut off the power supply to their homes. In addition, various scuffles and fights set Chamar youths armed with [[Fighting stick|lathis]], rocks, bricks, soda bottles and anything they could find fought Jat Sikh landlords, youths and the Punjab police. Dalit youngsters painted their homes and motorcycles with the slogan, ''Putt Chamar De'' (''proud sons of Chamars'') in retaliation to the Jat slogan, ''Putt Jattan De''.<ref name="tehelka.com"/>

=== Jainism ===
Historically Jainism was practised by many communities across India.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|pp=f63–124}} They are often conservative and are generally considered upper-caste.<ref name="Chapple2006">{{cite book |first=Christopher Key |last=Chapple |title=Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=abLZNdYxay8C |page=79}} |page=79 |year=2006 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2045-6}}</ref>

In 1958,<ref>Nathuram Chandalia, Mewad men Veerwal Pravriti, pp. 220–21</ref> a [[Sthanakvasi]] Jain called Muni Sameer Muni<ref>वीरवाल जैन समाज के गुरु की पुण्यतिथि मार्च में, Bhaskar News Network|31 December 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhaskar.com/article/MAT-RAJ-UDA-c-17-517497-NOR.html|title=Latest Udaipur News 31/12/2013: वीरवाल जैन समाज के गुरु की पुण्यतिथि मार्च में – www.bhaskar.com|work=bhaskar.com}}</ref> came into contact with members of the [[Khatik]] community in the Udaipur region, who decided to adopt Jainism. Their centre, Ahimsa Nagar, located about four miles from [[Chittorgarh]], was inaugurated by [[Mohanlal Sukhadia]] in 1966. Sameer Muni termed them ''Veerwaal'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jagran.com/haryana/ambala-10803168.html |script-title=hi:धर्म के नाम पर देश तक बंट गए : पहाड़िया |title=dharm ke naam par desh tak bant gae: pahaadiya |language=hi |trans-title=Even the country was divided in the name of religion: Paharia |date=18 October 2013}}</ref> that is, belonging to [[Mahavira]]. A 22-year-old youth, Chandaram Meghwal, was initiated as a Jain monk at Ahore town in Jalore district in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb012005/n10.asp |title=Dalit youth turns Jain monk |date=1 February 2005 |access-date=27 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202201216/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb012005/n10.asp|archive-date=2 February 2014 |agency=Abha Sharma DH News Service |location=Jaipur}}</ref> In 2010 a [[Mahar]] engineer called Vishal Damodar was initiated as a Jain monk by Acharya Navaratna Sagar Suriji at Samet Shikhar.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dalit Engineer Becomes a Jain Monk |work=Ahimsa Times |date=June 2010 |url=http://jainsamaj.org/magazines/ahimsatimesshow.php?id=195}}</ref> Acharya Nanesh, the eighth Achayra of Sadhumargi Jain Shravak Sangha, had preached among the [[Balai]] community in 1963 near [[Ratlam]].<ref>[http://chhotikashi.com/?p=17015 'दिव्य महापुरुष थे आचार्य नानेश'] Vinay N. Joshi on 14 June 2010,</ref> His followers are called ''Dharmapal''.<ref>[http://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other-news/--/articleshow/6589054.cms 'दाता' के दातार बन गए तारणहार, नवभारत टाइम्स], 20 September 2010</ref> In 1984, some of the [[Bhangi]]s of Jodhpur came under the influence of Acharya Shri Tulsi and adopted Jainism.<ref name="Shyamlal1997">{{cite book |last=Shyamlal |title=From Higher Caste to Lower Caste: The Processes of Asprashyeekaran and the Myth of Sanskritization |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qRBuAAAAMAAJ|page=129}} |pages=129, 135 |year=1997 |publisher=Rawat Publications}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shyamlal |title=Jain Movement and Socio-Religious Transformation of the 'Bhangis' of Jodhpur, Rajasthan |journal=Indian journal of social work |volume=53 |pages=59–68 |date=1992}} I01743</ref>

=== Christianity ===
{{Further|Dalit Christian}}
Christian Dalits are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mohanty |first1=Panchanan |last2=Malik |first2=Ramesh C. |last3=Kasi |first3=Eswarappa |year=2009 |title=Ethnographic Discourse of the Other: Conceptual and methodological issues |pages=39–116 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars}}</ref>

Mass conversions of lower caste Hindus to Christianity and Islam took place in order to escape the discrimination. The main Dalit groups that participated in these conversions were the Chuhras of Punjab, Chamars of North India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh), Vankars of Gujarat, and Pulayas of Kerala.<ref name="Dalit Christians in India">{{cite web |author=Sobin, George |year=2012 |title=Dalit Christians in India |website=DalitStudies.org.in |url=http://www.dalitstudies.org.in/uploads/publication/1473146694.pdf}}</ref>
The first people converted to Christianity by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] of the Madura Mission were members of Nadars, Maravars, and Pallar.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mosse, David |date=September 1996 |title=[no title cited] |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |volume=2 |number=3}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2020|reason=article title, page#, which country's Royal Inst.?}}</ref>
They believed that "Christianity is a true religion; a desire for protection from oppressors and, if possible, material aid; the desire for education for their children; and the knowledge that those who have become Christians had improved".<ref>{{cite conference |conference=South Indian Missionary Congress |year=1908 |place=Madras, Tamil Nadu, IN |title=The Report of Conference Held at Madras}}</ref>

Christianity was thought to be egalitarian and could provide mobility away from the caste. Sometimes the only change seen was their personal religious identity. Even after conversion, in some cases Dalits were discriminated against due to the "residual leftover" practice of caste discrimination from their previous traditions. This is attributed to the predominantly Hindu society they lived in.<ref name=Dumont_1980>{{cite book |author=Dumont, Louis |year=1980 |title=Homo Hierarchicus: The caste system and its implications |edition=Complete Revised |place=Chicago, IL |publisher=[[Chicago University Press]]}}</ref> Discrimination against Dalit Christians also remained in interactions and mannerisms between castes; for example, during the earlier days, the 'lower caste Christians' had to [cover] their mouths when talking to a Syrian Christian.<ref name="Dalit Christians in India"/>
In many cases they were still referred to by their Hindu caste names: For example ''Pulayans'' in Kerala, ''Pariah'' in Tamil Nadu, and ''Madigas'' in Andra Pradesh, by members of all religious backgrounds.<ref name=Louis2007>{{cite report |last=Louis |first=Prakash |year=2007 |title=Caste-based discrimination and atrocities on Dalit Christians and the need for reservations |series=Working Paper Series |volume=II |issue=4 |place=New Delhi, IN |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies}}</ref>

Even after conversion, to some extent segregation, restriction, hierarchy, and graded ritual purity remained. Data shows that there is more discrimination and less class mobility among the people living in the rural areas, where incidents of caste discrimination is higher among people from all religious backgrounds.<ref name="Dalit Christians in India"/>
In many cases, the churches referred to the Dalits as 'New Christians'. It is alleged to be a derogatory term which classifies the Dalit Christians to be looked down upon by other Christians. During the earlier days of Christianity, in some churches in south India the Dalits had either separate seating, or had to attend the mass outside.<ref name=Louis2007/> Dalit Christians are also said to be grossly underrepresented amongst the clergy in some places.<ref>{{cite news |work=BBC News |date=14 September 2010 |title=Indian Dalits find no refuge from caste in Christianity}}</ref>

Caste-based occupations held by Dalits also show a clear segregation which perpetuated even after becoming Christian. Occupational patterns (including manual scavenging) are prevalent among Dalit Christians in north-west India are said to be quite similar to that of Dalit Hindus.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dogar, Vidya Sagar |year=2000 |title=Rural Christian Community in North West India |place=New Delhi, IN}}</ref> Occupational discrimination for Dalit Christians goes so far as to restrict not only employment but in some cases for clean sanitation and water.<ref>Jose, Kananaikil. 1990. ''Scheduled Castes Converts and Social Disabilities: A survey of Tamil Nadu''{{full citation needed|date=August 2020|reason=Unclear: book? journal art.? If book, needs publ., ISBN}}</ref>

=== Islam ===
{{Further|Dalit Muslim}}
Most of India's 140 million Muslims are descended from local converts. Many of them converted to Islam to escape Hindu upper-caste oppression. 75% of the present Indian Muslim population as Dalits.<ref name="BBCCaste">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329 |title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable? |author=Soutik Biswas |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 May 2016 |access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="outlook">{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/dalit-muslims/216144 |title=Dalit Muslims |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=20 June 2002 |access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref>

== Political involvement ==
{{Main|Dalit Panthers}}
[[File:Flags of "Bahujan Samaj Party" at Shivaji Park.png|thumb|right|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]] (BSP) is an Indian Dalit party.]]
Dalit-led political parties include:

=== National dalit-led political parties in India ===
[[File:Dileep bsp.jpg|thumb|Dalit leaders at Bahujan Samaj Party Head office]]
* [[Bahujan Samaj Party]], is national political party as per [[Election Commission of India]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Recognized National Parties |website=Election Commission of India |date=25 October 2021 |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/category/261-recognized-national-parties/ |access-date=11 December 2021}}</ref>
* [[Azad Samaj Party]]

=== Other recognized state political parties ===
* [[Chandrashekhar Azad Ravan|Azad Samaj Party]]
*[[Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi]], led by [[Ambedkar Prakash Yashwant|Prakash Yashwant Ambedkar]], Ambedkar's grandson
*[[Republican Party of India]] factions,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/Non-Dalits-flock-to-RPI/articleshow/38052819.cms|title=Non-Dalits flock to RPI|website=Mumbai Mirror}}</ref> active in Maharashtra
* [[Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi]] and [[Puthiya Tamilagam]] are the two major dalit parties in Tamil Nadu
* [[Lok Janshakti Party]], [[Bihar]]

=== Nepali Dalit-led parties ===
* [[Bahujan Shakti Party, Nepal]]<ref name="Varghese 2015">{{cite web |last=Varghese |first=Anil |title=Nepal Dalit leader says Modi's stress on consensus has meant dilution in draft constitution |website=Scroll.in |date=17 September 2015 |url=http://scroll.in/article/745901/modis-stress-on-consensus-for-nepals-constitution-has-led-to-a-setback-for-its-bahujan-majority |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>
* [[Dalit Janajati Party]], [[Nepal]]<ref name="The Kathmandu Post 2015">{{cite web |title=10 parties register amendment proposals |website=The Kathmandu Post |date=4 September 2015 |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2015-09-04/10-parties-register-amendment-proposal.html |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>

=== Dalit-led political parties in Pakistan ===
* [[Dalit Sujag Tehreek]], Pakistan

=== Other dalit groups ===
{{Main|Bhim Sena|Bhim Army}}
Anti-Dalit prejudices exist in groups such as the extremist militia [[Ranvir Sena]], largely run by upper-caste landlords in Bihar. They oppose equal treatment of Dalits and have resorted to violence. The Ranvir Sena is considered a terrorist organisation by the government of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/slideshow_explained-what-is-the-ranvir-sena-and-why-it-is-feared_1697737#top |title=Ranvir Sena banned and declared as a Terrorist Group |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=3 June 2012 |access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> In 2015, [[Cobrapost]] exposed many leaders especially like [[C. P. Thakur]] alongside former PM [[Chandra Shekhar]] associated with Ranvir Sena in Bihar Dalit massacres<ref name="Venkat 2015">{{cite news |last=Venkat |first=Vidya |title=Cobrapost film on Bihar Dalit massacres 'exposes' BJP links |website=The Hindu |date=18 August 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cobrapost-film-on-bihar-dalit-massacres-exposes-bjp-links/article7551350.ece |access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> while governments of [[Nitish Kumar]] (under pressure from BJP), [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] and [[Rabri Devi]] did nothing to get justice for Dalits.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nitish, Lalu and BJP in the dock again over Dalit massacres in Bihar |work=Tehelka |date=27 August 2015 |url=http://www.tehelka.com/2015/08/nitish-lalu-and-bjp-in-the-dock-again-over-dalit-massacres-in-bihar/ |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

The rise of [[Hindutva]]'s (Hindu nationalism) role in Indian politics has accompanied allegations that religious conversions of Dalits are due to allurements like education and jobs rather than faith. Critics{{Who|date=October 2009}} argue that laws banning conversion and limiting social relief for converts mean that conversion impedes economic success. However, [[Bangaru Laxman]], a Dalit politician, was a prominent member of the Hindutva movement.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

Another political issue is Dalit affirmative-action quotas in government jobs and university admissions. About 8 per cent of the seats in the National and State Parliaments are reserved for Scheduled Caste and Tribe candidates.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

[[Jagjivan Ram]] (1908–1986) was the first scheduled caste leader to emerge at the national level from [[Bihar]].<ref>Verma, R.K., 1991. Caste and Bihar Politics. Economic and Political Weekly, pp.1142–1144.</ref> He was member of the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent assembly]] that drafted India's constitution.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kohli |editor1-first=Atul |title=The success of India's democracy |date=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge [u.a.] |isbn=978-0521805308 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Io0NsnlRT6sC&q=jagjivan+ram&pg=PA23 |access-date=12 September 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Ram also served in the interim national government of 1946<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Jagdish Chandra |title=Indian prime ministership: a comprehensive study |date=2002 |publisher=Concept |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788170229247 |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QkxBhRU2-AC&q=%22jagjivan+ram%22+&pg=PR7 |access-date=12 September 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> He served in the cabinets of [[Indian National Congress|Congress party]] Prime ministers [[Jawaharlal Nehru]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haqqi |first1=Anwarul Haque, Indian Political Science Association |title=Indian Democracy at the Crossroads I |date=1986 |publisher=Mittal Publications |location=New Delhi |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk7c6O2XlGwC&q=jagjivan&pg=PA114 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] and [[Indira Gandhi]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brass |first1=Paul R. |title=The Politics of India since Independence (The new Cambridge history of India.) |date=1994 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521453622 |page=249 |edition=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dtKe6XV8z7wC&q=%22jagjivan+ram%22+&pg=PR10 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> His last position in government was as [[Deputy Prime Minister of India]] in the [[Premiership of Morarji Desai|Janata Party government]] of 1977–1979,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Jagdish Chandra |title=Indian prime ministership: a comprehensive study |date=2002 |publisher=Concept |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788170229247 |pages=39–40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QkxBhRU2-AC&q=desai+jagjivan+ram&pg=PR7 |ref=Deputy Prime minister |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mirchandani |first1=G.G. |title=320 Million Judges |date=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=9788170170617 |pages=95–96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xj0g8euumQC&q=Jagjivan+Ram+janata&pg=PA178 |access-date=11 September 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/niece-vs-aunt-in-battle-for-jagjivan-ram-legacy/ |title=Niece vs aunt in battle for Jagjivan Ram legacy |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=20 March 2014}}</ref>

In modern times several Bharatiya Janata Party leaders were Dalits, including [[Dinanath Bhaskar]], [[Ramchandra Veerappa]] and [[Suraj Bhan]].{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

In India's most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, Dalits have had a major political impact.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pai |first1=Sudha |year=1994 |title=Caste and Communal Mobilisation in the Electoral Politics of Uttar Pradesh |journal=Indian Journal of Political Science |volume=LV, No3 |issue= July September 1994 |pages=307–20 |publisher=Indian Political Science Association}}</ref> The Dalit-led Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) had previously run the government and that party's leader, [[Mayawati]], served several times as chief minister.<ref>{{cite news |last=Raina |first=J. N. |date=30 May 2007 |title=Can Maya recreate another 'rainbow' in Delhi? |work=Asian Tribune |publisher=World Institute For Asian Studies |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/node/5946 |access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref> Regarding her election in 2007, some reports claimed her victory was due to her ability to win support from both 17 per cent of [[Islam in India|Muslims]] and nearly 17 per cent Brahmins<ref name="Stancati Agarwal 2012">{{cite web |last1=Stancati |first1=Margherita |last2=Agarwal |first2=Vibhuti |title=17% of BSP votes came from Brahmins, according to a survey by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies |website=The [[Wall Street Journal]] |date=16 February 2012 |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/02/16/u-p-campaign-diaries-in-pursuit-of-the-brahmin-vote/ |access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref> alongside 80 per cent of Dalits.<ref name="Vij 2009">{{cite web |last=Vij |first=Shivam |title=UP's Dalits Remind Mayawati: Democracy is a Beautiful |website=Kafila |date=21 May 2009 |url=http://kafila.org/2009/05/21/ups-dalits-remind-mayawati-democracy-is-a-beautiful-thing/ |access-date=18 September 2015}}</ref> However, surveys of voters on the eve of elections, indicated that caste loyalties were not the voters' principal concern. Instead, inflation and other issues of social and economic development dictated the outcome.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/03/14/stories/2007031416590100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315223620/http://www.hindu.com/2007/03/14/stories/2007031416590100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 March 2007 |title=Mayawati bets on Brahmin-Dalit card for U.P. polls |location=India |date=14 March 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sengupta |first=Somini |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/12/world/asia/12india.html |title=Brahmin Vote Helps Party of Low Caste Win in India |location=India |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=12 May 2007 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.co.in/news/2007/may/11flip.htm |title=The victory of caste arithmetic |publisher=Rediff.co.in |date=11 May 2007 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/mar/28chandra.htm |title=Why Mayawati is wooing the Brahmins |publisher=Rediff News |date=28 March 2007 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref> Mayawati's success in reaching across castes has led to speculation about her as a potential future [[Prime Minister of India]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Beckett |first=Paul |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121840401494128065?mod=googlenews_wsj |title=Mayawati Plans to Seek India's Premier Post |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=11 August 2008 |access-date=20 November 2011}}</ref>

Aside from Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh, [[Damodaram Sanjivayya]] was chief minister of Andhra Pradesh from 11 January 1960 to 12 March 1962, and [[Jitan Ram Manjhi]] was chief minister of Bihar for just under a year.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} In 1997, [[K. R. Narayanan]], who was a Dalit, was elected as President of India.<ref name="scs1" /> In [[2017 Indian presidential election|2017]], [[Ramnath Kovind]] was elected as the President of India, becoming the second dalit president of the country.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilani |first1=Iftikhar |title=KR Narayanan to RN Kovind — A tale of two Dalit Presidents |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-kr-narayanan-to-rn-kovind-a-tale-of-two-dalit-presidents-2477657 |access-date=10 July 2021 |work=DNA India |date=20 June 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Votebank ===
{{Main|Caste politics}}
[[Votebank]] politics are common in India, usually based on religion or caste. Indeed, the term itself was coined by the Indian sociologist [[M. N. Srinivas]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Globalization and the Politics of Identity in India |editor1-first=Bhupinder |editor1-last=Brar |editor2-first=Ashutosh |editor2-last=Kumar |editor3-first=Ronki |editor3-last=Ram |first=Rajen |last=Harshe |chapter=Thinking about Democracy, Identity Politics and Development in India |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] India |year=2008 |isbn=978-8-13178-525-6 |pages=205, 279 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4egjNvzUO8C&pg=PT279 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Dalits are often used as a votebank.<ref>{{cite news |title=Deciphering the 'Dalit vote bank' |first=Mayank |last=Mishra |date=23 April 2014 |work=Business Standard |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/deciphering-the-dalit-vote-bank-114042301330_1.html |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=All players eye Dalit vote bank|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/politics/all-players-eye-dalit-vote-bank/19374.html |date=17 December 2014 |work=The Tribune |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/PiaAeSjobU85dHwKHgZujO/The-BJPs-Dalit-game-plan.html |title=The BJP's Dalit game plan |first=Sanjay |last=Kumar |date=20 March 2014 |website=Mint}}</ref> There have been instances where it has been alleged that an election-winning party reneged on promises made to the Dalits made during the election campaign<ref>{{cite news |title=KCR has betrayed Dalits: TDP |date=4 January 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/kcr-has-betrayed-dalits-tdp/article6753363.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> or have excluded them from party affairs.<ref>{{cite news |title=CPI(M) accused of sidelining Dalits |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=19 January 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cpim-accused-of-sidelining-dalits/article6774337.ece |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

=== Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Sub-Plan ===
The [[SC, ST Sub-Plan (Andhra Pradesh)|SC, ST Sub-Plan]], or ''Indiramma Kalalu'', is a budget allocation by the Government of Andhra Pradesh for the welfare of Dalits. The law was enacted in May 2013. SCs and STs have separate panels for spending. The plan was meant to prevent the government from diverting funds meant for SCs and STs to other programs, which was historically the case. {{as of|2013}}, no equivalent national plan existed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Central-legislation-of-SCST-sub-plan-may-be-a-reality-soon/2013/08/29/article1757071.ece |title=Central legislation of SC/ST sub-plan may be a reality soon |work=The New Indian Express |date=29 August 2013 |access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> Scheduled Castes Sub Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan funds are often diverted by state governments to other purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tehelka.com/denial-and-diversion-of-plan-fund-the-great-adivasi-dalit-rip-off/#.VJVvRF4AB |title=Why They Remain on the Margins. Adivasis and Dalits have been deprived of a staggering Rs 5 lakh crore over three decades by successive governments. |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref>

While the Indian Constitution has provisions for the social and economic uplift of Dalits to support their upward social mobility, these concessions are limited to Hindus. Dalits who have converted to other religions have asked that benefits be extended to them.<ref name="dalitmuslims">{{cite web
|url=http://www.indianet.nl/dalmusl.html|title=The 'Dalit Muslims' and the All-India Backward Muslim Morcha |publisher=indianet.nl |access-date=20 June 2008 |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder}}</ref>

== Beyond the Indian subcontinent ==
=== United Kingdom ===
After [[World War II]], immigration from the former [[British Empire]] was largely driven by labour shortages.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2002/race/short_history_of_immigration.stm |title=A Short history of immigration |year=2002 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> Like the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]] diaspora, Dalits immigrated and established their own communities.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

A 2009 report alleged that caste discrimination is "rife" in the United Kingdom.<ref name="guardianjones">{{cite news |first=Sam |last=Jones |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2009/nov/11/caste-discrimination-uk-report |title=Asian caste discrimination rife in UK, says report |work=[[The Guardian]] |date= 11 November 2009 |access-date=20 January 2013 |location=London}}</ref> The report alleged that casteism persists in the workplace and within the [[National Health Service]]<ref name="guardiancohen">{{cite news |first=Nick |last=Cohen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/jun/26/nick-cohen-trevor-phillips-caste-discrimination |title=The secret scandal of Britain's caste system |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 August 2009 |access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> and at doctor's offices.<ref name="guardianjones"/><ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news |first=Dean |last=Nelson |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7541598/India-clashes-with-Britain-over-Equality-Bill-racism-law.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7541598/India-clashes-with-Britain-over-Equality-Bill-racism-law.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=India clashes with Britain over Equality Bill racism law |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=31 March 2010 |access-date=20 January 2013 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Some claim that caste discrimination is non-existent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7856969.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Does the caste system still linger in the UK? |date=12 March 2009 |access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> Some have rejected the government's right to interfere in the community. The Hindu Forum of Britain conducted their own research, concluding that caste discrimination was "not endemic in British society", that reports to the contrary aimed to increase discrimination by legislating expression and behaviour and that barriers should instead be removed through education.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/columns/Hasan_Suroor/caste-discrimination-uk-dalits-win-the-argument-nearly/article611931.ece |first=Hasan |last=Suroor |title=Caste discrimination – U.K. Dalits win the argument, nearly |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=4 September 2010 |access-date=20 January 2013 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

A 2010 study found that caste discrimination occurs in Britain at work and in service provision. While not ruling out the possibility of discrimination in education, no such incidents were uncovered. The report found favourable results from educational activities. However, non-legislative approaches were claimed to be less effective in the workplace and would not help when the authorities were discriminating. One criticism of discrimination law was the difficulty in obtaining proof of violations. Perceived benefits of legislation were that it provides redress, leads to greater understanding and reduces the social acceptance of such discrimination.<ref name="homeoffice.gov.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/equalities/research/caste-discrimination/caste-discrimination?view=Binary|title=Caste Discrimination and Harassment in Great Britain|publisher=Home Office, UK Government |author=Government Equalities Office |date=1 December 2010 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

More recent studies in Britain were inconclusive and found that discrimination was "not religion specific and is subscribed to by members of any or no religion".<ref name="inconclusive">{{cite news |title= Caste Discrimination Reforms in Britain |first=Pratik |last=Datani |url= http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/pratik-dattani/caste-discrimination-reform_b_3745885.html |work= [[HuffPost]] |date= 13 August 2013 |access-date=17 August 2013}}</ref> Equalities Minister [[Helen Grant (politician)|Helen Grant]] found insufficient evidence to justify specific legislation, while [[Shadow Secretary of State for Women and Equalities|Shadow Equalities minister]] [[Kate Green]] said that the impact is on a relatively small number of people.<ref name="inconclusive" /> Religious studies professor [[Gavin Flood]] of the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]] concluded that the Hindu community in Britain is particularly well integrated, loosening caste ties.<ref>{{Cite report |first=Gavin |last=Flood |author-link=Gavin Flood |title= Briefing on Caste Legislation |url= http://mycasteishindu.org/images/OCHS-report-on-caste-legislation-Final-June-2013.pdf}}</ref> Casteist beliefs were prevalent mainly among first generation immigrants, with such prejudices declining with each successive generation due to greater [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref name="inconclusive" />

From September 2013 to February 2014, Indian philosopher [[Meena Dhanda]] led a project on 'Caste in Britain' for the UK [[Equality and Human Rights Commission]] (EHRC), which focused on the proposed inclusion of a provision in the [[Equality Act 2010]] to protect British citizens against caste discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wlv.ac.uk/about-us/our-schools-and-institutes/faculty-of-arts/school-of-humanities/staff/dr-meena-dhanda/|title=Dr Meena Dhanda – University of Wolverhampton|website=wlv.ac.uk|language=en|access-date=21 October 2017}}</ref> In 2018 the UK government decided not to include caste as a "protected characteristic" within the terms of the Act, and to rely instead on [[case law]] to identify tests for caste-based discrimination.<ref>Pimenta, T., [https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-and-compliance/employment-law/pages/global-uk-caste-discrimination.aspx UK: Government Decides Against Writing Caste into the Equality Act 2010], ''Boyes Turner'', accessed 29 September 2022</ref>

Supporters of anti-caste legislation include [[Eric Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury|Lord Avebury]] and [[Glenys Thornton, Baroness Thornton|Lady Thornton]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite news|first=Sam |last=Jones |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/30/campaigners-government-caste-discrimination-uk |title=Campaigners urge government to tackle caste discrimination in UK |work=The Guardian |date= 30 November 2012|access-date=20 January 2013 |location=London}}</ref>

==== Sikh diaspora in Britain ====
{{Undue weight section|date=March 2017}}
[[File:Smethwick Gurdwara - geograph.org.uk - 234468.jpg|thumb|A Sikh gurdwara in Smethwick. The majority of gurdwaras in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] are caste based<ref name="Harold G. Coward 2000 p133">{{cite book |first1=Harold G. |last1=Coward |author1-link=Harold Coward |first2=John R. |last2=Hinnells |first3=Raymond Brady |last3=Williams |title=The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=mXrdXMaaYCkC |page=133}} |date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-9302-1 |page=133}}</ref> and one can indirectly inquire about a person's [[caste]] based upon which [[gurdwara]] the person attends.]]

[[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikhs in the United Kingdom]] are affected by caste. Gurdwaras such as those of the Ramgarhia Sikhs are organised along caste lines and most are controlled by a single caste.<ref name="Harold G. Coward 2000 p133"/> In most British towns and cities with a significant Sikh population, rival gurdwaras can be found with caste-specific management committees.{{sfn|Ballard|1994|p=110}} The caste system and caste identity is entrenched and reinforced.<ref name="Harold G. Coward 2000 p133" />{{sfn|Ballard|1994|pp=110–11}}

[[File:Balmiki.jpg|thumb|A Valmiki Temple in the UK. Caste segregation has meant that [[Mazhabi|Mazhabi Sikhs]] and Hindu [[Chuhra|Churas]] have united to establish their own temples throughout Britain. Some Valmiki temples keep a copy of the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]''{{sfn|Takhar|2005|p=133}} and Mazhabi Sikhs and Valmikis prayer together.]]
Caste-based discrimination has occurred amongst Sikhs in the UK. At a sports competition in [[Birmingham]] in 1999, Jat Sikhs refused to eat food that had been cooked and prepared by the Chamar community.<ref name="Human Rights Commission p22">Human rights watch (2001) Caste discrimination: A global concern. Human Rights Commission. p. 22</ref>

The few gurdwaras that accept inter-caste marriages do so reluctantly. Gurdwaras may insist on the presence of ''Singh'' and ''Kaur'' in the names of the bridegroom and bride, or deny them access to gurdwara-based religious services and community centres.<ref name="newageislam.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.newageislam.com/islam-and-pluralism/multiculturalism--the-rise-of-mixed-marriage-britain/d/6336 |title= Multiculturalism: The Rise of Mixed-marriage Britain, Islam and Pluralism |first=Ramindar |last=Singh |publisher=Newageislam.com |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>

=== In the Caribbean ===
It is estimated that in 1883, about one-third of the immigrants who arrived in the Caribbean were Dalits. The shared experience of being exploited in a foreign land gradually broke down caste barriers in the Caribbean Hindu communities.<ref name="Naidu"/>

=== In Continental Europe ===
The [[Romani people]], originating in northern India, are said to be of Dalit ancestry.<ref name="DaviesDubinsky2018">{{cite book|last1=Davies |first1=William D. |last2=Dubinsky |first2=Stanley |title=Language Conflict and Language Rights: Ethnolinguistic Perspectives on Human Conflict |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=257 |language=en |date=9 August 2018|quote=The largest cohort of Roma is hypothesized to have entered the Punjab region of present-day Pakistan between 1001 and 1026 to fight on behalf of Hindu rulers against incursions of the Islamic Ghaznavid dynasty. Their motivation for doing so may have been a promise of promotion in caste (having at that time been associated with the Dalit caste, i.e. "untouchables").}}</ref><ref name="Nelson2012">{{cite web |last1=Nelson |first1=Dean |title=European Roma descended from Indian 'untouchables', genetic study shows |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/9719058/European-Roma-descended-from-Indian-untouchables-genetic-study-shows.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/9719058/European-Roma-descended-from-Indian-untouchables-genetic-study-shows.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=9 September 2020 |language=en |date=3 December 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Between 1001 and 1026, the Romani fought under their Hindu rulers to fight the [[Ghaznavids]].<ref name="DaviesDubinsky2018"/>

=== In the United States ===
Many Dalits first came to the United States to flee caste-based oppression in South Asia. After the [[Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]], the demand for labourers brought in many caste-diverse South Asian immigrants, many of whom were Dalit. After the [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|1965 Immigration and Naturalization Act]], immigrants from India were primarily professionals and students, largely from upper caste or dominant caste families. However, from the 1990s onwards, many more of the skilled labourers arriving from India have been Dalit, due to multiple generations of affirmative action policies in India, as well as ongoing efforts of organised resistance against caste discrimination.<ref>Zwick-Maitreyi, M., Soundararajan, T., Dar, N., Bheel, R.F., and Balakrishnan, P. (2018) "Caste in the United States. A Survey of Caste among South Asian Americans." Equality Labs, USA. 28</ref><ref>Lerche, Jens. "Transnational Advocacy Networks and Affirmative Action for Dalits in India."</ref>

Dalits have faced discrimination and mistreatment throughout their existence in the United States. In the landmark Supreme Court Case ''[[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind]]'', Thind unsuccessfully argued for his right to citizenship by claiming that his lighter complexion and upper-caste background implied that he was in fact Caucasian. Thind's lawyers described his supposed superiority to lower-caste Indians, stating "The high-caste Hindu regards the aboriginal Indian Mongoloid in the same manner as the American regards the Negro, speaking from a matrimonial standpoint." This attitude describes the disapproval of low-caste Indians such as Dalits held by upper caste Indian Americans at the time.<ref>Bigsby, Christopher. The Cambridge Companion to Modern American Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>

Some people, like [[S.P. Kothari]], argue that there is no caste division within Hindus in the United States today.<ref>Ray, Tinku. "The US Isn't Safe from the Trauma of Caste Bias." The World from PRX, 2019. https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-03-08/us-isn-t-safe-trauma-caste-bias.</ref> However, reports and stories have shown Dalit Americans continue to face significant discrimination in the United States. In 2018, Equality Labs released a report on "Caste in the United States". This report found that one in two Dalit Americans live in fear of their caste being "outed". In addition, 60% have experienced caste-based discriminatory jokes, and 25% have suffered verbal or physical assault because of their caste.<ref>Zwick-Maitreyi, M., Soundararajan, T., Dar, N., Bheel, R.F., and Balakrishnan, P. (2018) "Caste in the United States. A Survey of Caste among South Asian Americans." Equality Labs, USA. 8–10</ref>

The Equality Labs report also found that two-thirds of Dalit Americans experienced unfair treatment at their workplace. In late June 2020, the [[California Department of Fair Employment and Housing]] filed a lawsuit against [[Cisco Systems]], alleging that a Dalit engineer at the company faced discrimination from two of his upper-caste supervisors for his Dalit background.<ref>Weissner, Daniel. "Westlaw Today." Westlaw Today Signon, 2020. https://today.westlaw.com/Document/Ia28d9d10d25e11ea85dce8228c52478f/View/FullText.html?transitionType=SearchItem.</ref> The lawsuit claims that "higher caste supervisors and co-workers imported the discriminatory system's practices into their team and Cisco's workplace".<ref>Arbel, Tali. "California Sues Cisco for Bias Based on Indian Caste System." AP NEWS. Associated Press, 1 July 2020. https://apnews.com/article/594de601e8eb1a69eea5a625a08d8ecc.
</ref> At the [[Swaminarayan Akshardham (North America)|BAPS Hindu temple]] in the city of [[Robbinsville Township, New Jersey|Robbinsville]], New Jersey, some 200 workers to the U.S. on R-1 visas as religious volunteers filed suit over being held against their will.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mogul |first=Fred |date=3 June 2021 |title=Human Trafficking Allegations Thrust Caste Into Spotlight For American Hindus|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/06/03/1002547517/human-trafficking-allegations-thrust-caste-into-spotlight-for-american-hindus |access-date=4 June 2021 |work=[[NPR]] News |language=en}}</ref>

== Literature ==
{{Main|Dalit literature}}
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2021}}
Dalit literature forms a distinct part of [[Indian literature]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.museindia.com/showconnew.asp?id%3D386 |website=Muse India |title=Meena Kandasamy: Brief Introduction to Dalit Literature |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107223124/http://www.museindia.com/showconnew.asp?id=386 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |access-date=17 September 2008}}</ref> One of the first Dalit writers was Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived in the reign of [[Western Chalukyas]] and who is regarded by some scholars as the "father of [[Vachana]] poetry". Another early Dalit poet is Dohara Kakkaiah, a Dalit by birth, six of whose confessional poems survive. The Bharatiya Dalit Sahitya Akademi<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bdsakademi.com/ |title=BDSAkademi Bharatiya Dalit Sahitya Academy |website=bdsakademi.com}}</ref> (Indian Dalit Literature Academy)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://twocircles.net/2014oct18/1413603021.html |title=Dalit Sahitya Samman Sammelan held at Imphal | TwoCircles.net |date=18 October 2014 |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> was founded in 1984 by Babu Jagjivan Ram.

Notable modern authors include [[Mahatma Phule]] and Ambedkar in Maharashtra, who focused on the issues of Dalits through their works and writings. This started a new trend in Dalit writing and inspired many Dalits to offer work in Marathi, Hindi, [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030928/spectrum/book5.htm Dalit's passage to consciousness] ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'', 28 September 2003</ref> There are novels, poems and even drama on Dalit issues. The Indian author Rajesh Talwar has written a play titled 'Gandhi, Ambedkar, and the Four Legged Scorpion' in which the personal experiences of Dr Ambedkar and the sufferings of the community have been highlighted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amazon.com/books-used-books-textbooks/b?ie=UTF8&node=283155 |title=Amazon.com: Books |website=Amazon}}</ref>

[[Baburao Bagul]], Bandhu Madhav<ref>[http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/clippings.nsf/(docid)/D851E94A922C228E6525694200313C9C Dalit literature is not down and out any more]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''[[Times of India]]'', 7 July 1989</ref> and [[Shankar Rao Kharat]], worked in the 1960s. Later the [[little magazine movement]] became popular.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/4JugalKishore.pdf |title=A Critical study of Dalit Literature in India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031145352/http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/4JugalKishore.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2008 |first=Jugal Kishore |last=Mishra}}</ref> In [[Sri Lanka]], writers such as K.Daniel<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/p101/p1014/html/p10144e.htm |title=Lesson – 4 : P10144 – The Novels of K. Daniel}}</ref> and [[Dominic Jeeva]] gained mainstream popularity.

== In the film industry ==
{{Main|Dalit music|Dalit Film and Cultural Festival}}
Until the 1980s, Dalits had little involvement in [[Bollywood]] or other film industries of India<ref>{{cite news |first=Avijit |last=Ghosh |title=Dalits strive to make it in Hindi, Bhojpuri films |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=6 April 2008 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dalits-strive-to-make-it-in-Hindi-Bhojpuri-films/articleshow/2929497.cms |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> and the community were rarely depicted at the heart of storylines.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dalit Representation in Bollywood |work=Mainstream Weekly |date=4 May 2013 |url=http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article4161.html |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> [[Chirag Paswan]] (son of Dalit leader [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]) launched his career in Bollywood with his debut film ''[[Miley Naa Miley Hum]]'' in 2011. Despite political connections and the financial ability to struggle against ingrained prejudices, Chirag was not able to "bag" any other movie project in the following years. Chirag, in his early days, described Bollywood as his "childhood dream", but eventually entered politics instead. When the media tried to talk to him about "Caste in Bollywood", he refused to talk about the matter.<ref name="Merinews 2011">{{cite web |title=Dalits in Bollywood: A skewed equation nobody is willing to talk about |website=Merinews |date=21 September 2011 |url=http://www.merinews.com/article/dalits-in-bollywood-a-skewed-equation-nobody-is-willing-to-talk-about/15888904.shtml |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> A recent Hindi film to portray a Dalit character in the leading role, although it was not acted by a Dalit, was ''[[Eklavya: The Royal Guard]]'' (2007).<ref>{{cite news |last=Dhaliwal |first=Nirpal |title=How Bollywood is starting to deal with India's caste system |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 December 2010 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/dec/16/bollywood-india-caste-system |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> The continued use of caste based references to Dalit sub-castes in South Indian films (typecast and pigeonholed in their main socio-economic sub-group) angers many Dalit fans.<ref name="Naig 2015">{{cite news |last=Naig |first=Udhav |title=Caste references polarise Tamil film fans |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=27 July 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/baahubali-in-caste-issues/article7467345.ece |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

A Brazilian telenovela ''[[Caminho das Índias|India: A Love Story]]'' was broadcast in 2009 where the main female character Maya, who is of upper class, falls in love with a Dalit person.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grudgings |first=Stuart |date=18 August 2009 |title=India is cool in Brazil thanks to hot 'novela' |language=en |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-41805320090818 |access-date=29 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rai |first1=Swapnil |last2=Straubhaar |first2=Joseph |date=28 June 2016 |title=BRICS{{!}} Road to India—A Brazilian Love Story: BRICS, Migration, and Cultural Flows in Brazil's Caminho das Indias |url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3812 |journal=International Journal of Communication |language=en |volume=10 |pages=17 |issn=1932-8036}}</ref>

== Internal conflicts ==
{{main|Dalit feminism}}
Several Dalit groups are rivals and sometimes communal tensions are evident. A study found more than 900 Dalit sub-castes throughout India, with internal divisions.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book |page=54 |title=Dalits and Human Rights: Dalits: security and rights implications |first=Prem K. |last=Shinde}}</ref> Emphasising any one caste threatens what is claimed to be an emerging Dalit identity and fostering rivalry among SCs.{{sfn|Gorringe|2005|p=10}}

A DLM (Dalit Liberation Movement) party leader said in the early 2000s that it is easier to organise Dalits on a caste basis than to fight caste prejudice itself.{{sfn|Gorringe|2005|p = 10}}

[[Bhangi|Balmikis]] and [[Pasi (caste)|Pasis]] in the 1990s refused to support the BSP, claiming it was a [[Chamar|Jatav]] party{{sfn|Jain|2005|p = 322}} but over 80 per cent of dalits from all united Dalit castes voted BSP to power in 2007.<ref name="Vij 2009"/>

Many converted Dalit Sikhs claim a superior status over the Hindu [[Regar|Raigar]]s, [[Chamar|Joatia Chamar]]s and Ravidasis and sometimes refuse to intermarry with them.{{sfn|Jain|2005|p = 306}} They are divided into [[gotras]] that regulate their marriage alliances. In Andhra Pradesh, [[Mala (caste)|Mala]] and [[Madiga]] were constantly in conflict with each other<ref>{{cite book |first=Anderson H. M. |last=Jeremiah |title=Community and Worldview Among Paraiyars of South India: 'Lived' Religion |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3Q1MAQAAQBAJ}} |date=14 May 2013 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-7881-7}}</ref> but as of 2015 Mala and Madiga students work for common dalit cause at University level.<ref name="Henry 2015">{{cite news |last=Henry |first=Nikhila |title=The rising rage against in-campus policing |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=6 September 2015 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-rising-rage-against-incampus-policing/article7619761.ece |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

Although the [[Khateek]] (butchers) are generally viewed as a higher caste than Bhangis, the latter refuse to offer cleaning services to Khateeks, believing that their profession renders them unclean. They also consider the Balai, Dholi and Mogya as unclean and do not associate with them.<ref name="Shyamlal1992">{{cite book |last=Shyamlal |title=The Bhangi: A Sweeper Caste, Its Socio-economic Portraits : with Special Reference to Jodhpur City |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DUsxDMyv3fcC |page=25}} |page=25 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-550-6}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{Main|List of Dalits}}

== See also ==
{{cmn|
*[[Caste discrimination in the United States]]
*[[2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra]]
*[[Bhim Army]]
*[[Chaitya Bhoomi]]
*[[Dalit Buddhism]]
*[[Dalit History Month]]
*[[Dalit nationalism]]
*[[Ambedkar Makkal Iyakkam]]
*[[Ayyathan Gopalan]]
*[[Bhopal Conference]]
*[[Deekshabhoomi]]
*[[Health care access among Dalits in India]]
*[[Lord Buddha TV]]
*[[Mahadalit]]
*[[Marichjhapi massacre]]
*[[Nepaldalitinfo]]
*[[Namantar Andolan]]
}}

=== Similarly discriminated groups ===
{{cmn|
* {{lang|ko-latn|[[Baekjeong]]}}, [[Untouchability|untouchable]] [[caste]] in Korea.
* {{lang|vi|[[Bụi đời]]}}, outcast community of Vietnam after the [[Fall of Saigon]].
* {{lang|ja-latn|[[Burakumin]]}}, in Japan.
* [[Cagot]], in France and Spain.
* {{lang|fr|[[Cascarots]]}}, an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots.
* [[Limpieza de sangre|Cleanliness of blood]], ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime.
* {{ill|Maragato|es}}, in Spain.
* [[Melungeons]], of America's central [[Appalachia]].
* {{lang|yue-latn|[[Tanka people|Tanka]]}} (danhu) ("boat people") in [[Guangdong]], [[Fuzhou Tanka]] in [[Fujian]], ''si-min'' (small people) and ''mianhu'' in [[Jiangsu]], {{lang|wuu|Gaibu}} and {{lang|wuu|[[Duomin]]}} ({{lang|wuu|To min}}; {{zh|labels=yes|t=惰民 |p=duò mín |l="idle/lazy/fallen/indolent people"}}) in [[Zhejiang]], ''[[jiuxing yumin]]'' ({{zh|labels=yes|t=九姓魚民 |p=jiǔxìng yúmín |l="nine name fishermen"}}) in the [[Yangtze]] River region, {{lang|cjy|yoh-hu}} ("music people") in [[Shanxi]]
* {{lang|es|[[Vaqueiros de alzada]]}}, in Northern Spain.
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Ballard |first=Roger |title=Desh Pardesh: The South Asian Presence in Britain |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=-VH3ngEACAAJ |page=110}} |page=110 |year=1994 |publisher=Hurst |isbn=978-1-85065-091-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Gorringe |first=Hugo |title=Untouchable Citizens: Dalit Movements and Democratization in Tamil Nadu |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=IFTySnKR2VEC}} |date=24 January 2005 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0-7619-3323-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Jain |first=L. C. |title=Decentralisation and Local Governance: Essays for George Mathew |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=fLMhoSjuLbkC}} |year=2005 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-2707-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |title=Jaina Community: A Social Survey |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FWdWrRGV_t8C}} |year=1980 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-0-317-12346-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Takhar |first=Opinderjit Kaur |title=Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=amluAAAAMAAJ}} |year=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-7546-5202-1}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Franco |first1=Fernando |title=Journeys to Freedom: Dalit Narratives |first2=Jyotsna |last2=Macwan |first3=Suguna |last3=Ramanathan |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-85604-65-7}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ghosh |first=Partha S. |title=Positive Discrimination in India: A Political Analysis |journal=Ethnic Studies Report |volume=XV |issue=2 |date=July 1997 |url=http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-Ghosh.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040312141948/http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-Ghosh.PDF|archive-date=12 March 2004}}
* {{cite book |last=Joshi |first=Barbara R. |title=Untouchable!: Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-86232-460-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Limbale |first=Sharankumar |title=Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature |year=2004 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=81-250-2656-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Mani |first=Braj Ranjan |title=Debrahmanising History: Dominance and Resistance in Indian Society |year=2005 |isbn=81-7304-640-9 |publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors}}
* {{cite book |last=Michael |first=S. M. |title=Dalits in Modern India – Vision and Values |year=2007 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0-7619-3571-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Omvedt |first=Gail |title=Dalits and the Democratic Revolution – Dr. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India |author-link=Gail Omvedt |year=1994 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=81-7036-368-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Omvedt |first=Gail |title=Dalit Visions: The Anti-caste Movement and the Construction of an Indian Identity |author-link=Gail Omvedt |publisher=Orient Longman |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-250-2895-6}}
* {{cite journal |last=Paik |first=Shailaja |url=https://www.academia.edu/37515978/The_rise_of_new_Dalit_women_in_Indian_historiography |title=The rise of new Dalit women in Indian historiography |journal=History Compass |volume=16 |number=10 |date=2018 |pages=e12491}}
* {{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Amar Nath |title=Dalit Literature: A Critical Exploration |first2=M. B. |last2=Gaijan |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-7625-817-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Rajshekhar |first=V. T. |title=Dalit – The Black Untouchables of India |year=2003 |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarity Press |isbn=0-932863-05-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Rege |first=Sharmila |title=Writing Caste Writing Gender:Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonios |year=2006 |isbn=9788189013011 |publisher=Zubaan}}
* {{cite book |last1=Samaddara |first1=Ranabira |title=Dalit Identity and Politics |first2=Ghanshyam |last2=Shah |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7619-9508-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Pradeep K. |title=Dalit Politics and Literature |publisher=Shipra Publications |year=2006|isbn=978-81-7541-271-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Zelliot |first=Eleanor |title=From Untouchable to Dalit – Essays on the Ambedkar Movement |author-link=Eleanor Zelliot |year=2005 |publisher=Manohar |isbn=81-7304-143-1}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Dalit}}
* [http://idsn.org International Dalit Solidarity Network]
* [https://www.getbengal.com/home/story_detail/is-there-dalit-literature-in-bangla Is there ‘Dalit’ literature in Bangla?]

{{Social issues in India}}
{{Ethnic groups in Nepal}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Prone to spam|date=November 2021}}

[[Category:Dalit| ]]
[[Category:Caste system in India]]
[[Category:Caste system in Nepal]]

Sambandam

2023-07-14T09:00:03Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Fixed some words And replaced misinformation with correct knowledge

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{More footnotes|date=September 2010}}
'''Sambandham''' was the functional mode of marriage followed by [[Nairs]], [[Kshatriya|Dwija Kshatriyas]], and [[Ambalavasis]] among their own communities as well as with the [[Nambudiris]], in what is the present day state of [[Kerala]], India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&q=sambandham+custom+of+kshatriyas+in+kerala&pg=PA116|title=The Nayars Today|date=1976-12-30|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-29091-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Newspaper|first=The Hindu|date=3 March 2003|title=Seeking royal roots|work=The Hindu|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/03/03/stories/2003030300550200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022024430/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/03/03/stories/2003030300550200.htm|archive-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> All of these were [[matrilineal]] communities.

Sambandham also denoted reciprocal marriage among Nairs and this term was not just used to denote hypergamous marriages between the [[Nambudiri]]s and the [[Nair]]s.<ref name="Kodoth2001p350">{{cite journal |title=Courting Legitimacy or Delegitimizing Custom? Sexuality, Sambandham and Marriage Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Malabar |first=Praveena |last=Kodoth |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |date=May 2001 |page=351 |jstor=313121 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x01002037 |pmid=18481401 |s2cid=7910533 }}</ref>
The custom is no longer observed. Alternate names for the system were used by different social groups and in different regions;<ref name="Kodoth2001p350">{{cite journal |title=Courting Legitimacy or Delegitimizing Custom? Sexuality, Sambandham and Marriage Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Malabar |first=Praveena |last=Kodoth |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |date=May 2001 |page=351 |jstor=313121 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x01002037 |pmid=18481401 |s2cid=7910533 }}</ref> they included ''Pudavamuri'', ''Pudavakoda'', ''Vastradanam'', ''Vitaram Kayaruka'', ''Mangalam'' and ''Uzhamporukkuka''.

== Practice ==

=== Among Nairs ===
The Nair women were allowed to have only one husband at a time. Since most of the Nairs were [[matrilocal]], the woman stayed at her mother's house. In, most of Kerala, the Nair husband went for work or stayed at his own mother's house during daytime. After sunset he goes to his Sambandam wife's house and stays there till the morning. While visiting, the weapons of the warrior husband were placed outside the entrance door. If a Nair woman is deemed to have had committed adultery, especially with a man from a lower caste or even from a man belonging to one of the lower Nair sub-castes. The women was punished in front of the entire enangar, disowned her caste and could be sold as a slave.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Randall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v39x_fKR-ykC&q=sambandham%20namboodiri%20nair%20sex&pg=PA300|title=Weberian Sociological Theory|last2=Randall|first2=Collins|last3=Collins|first3=Professor of Sociology Randall|last4=Collins|first4=Randall Alfred|date=1986-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31426-8|pages=300,301|language=en}}</ref>

=== Among Nambudhiri Brahmins ===
Among the [[Nambudiri|Nambudhiri]]'s, the eldest son was only allowed to marry a brahmin woman and make an inheritor to the family's property. The remaining younger sons had sambandam marriages with the Nair women. The Brahmins considered this as an informal marriage because of their paternal lineage and the Nairs however considered this as legitimate functional marriages because their lineage passed in a maternal line.<ref name="CollinsRandall" /><ref name="Nossiter1982">{{cite book|author=Thomas Johnson Nossiter|title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&pg=PR13|date=1 January 1982|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04667-2|page=26}}</ref> Since, the brahmin man was considered more [[ritually pure]] than his Nair wife, he could not touch her or her children or eat in her house during the day-time while he was in a state of ritual purity.<ref name="CollinsRandall">{{Cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Randall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v39x_fKR-ykC&q=sambandham%20namboodiri%20nair%20sex&pg=PA300|title=Weberian Sociological Theory|last2=Randall|first2=Collins|last3=Collins|first3=Professor of Sociology Randall|last4=Collins|first4=Randall Alfred|date=1986-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31426-8|pages=300,301|language=en}}</ref>After sunset however, these were allowed.

== Malabar marriage act ==
Act IV of the [[Malabar Marriage Act, 1896]], defined Sambandham as "a marriage alliance between a man and a woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom of the community to which they belong, or to which either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife."{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}

==See also==
* [[Kettu Kalyanam]]
* [[Malayali Brahmins]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* Moore, Melinda. "Symbol and Meaning in Nayar Marriage Ritual." American Ethnologist. 15 (1998) 254–273
* Gough, K. (1961) Nayar: Central Kearla, in Schneider, D. M. & Gough, K. (Eds.) Matrilineal Kinship. Berkeley & Los Angeles, p298-404
* Karl, R. (2003) Women in Practice: A Comparative Analysis of Gender and Sexuality in India. [http://www.newpaltz.edu/asianstudies/nycas/2003%20UG%20Ryan%20Prize%20Renee%20Karl.doc 2003 Marleigh Grayer Ryan Student Prize ]; Moore, M. (1998) Symbol and Meaning in Nayar Marriage Ritual, American Ethnologist 15:254-73
* Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi (1975) ''An Introduction to the Study of Indian History''.
* Dirks, Nicholas. "Homo Hierarchies: Origins of an Idea." Castes of Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2001.

[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Indian surnames]]
[[Category:Kerala society]]
[[Category:Telugu society]]

Kerala reformation movement

2023-07-14T08:18:44Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Minor edit adding some information

{{short description|Socio-cultural movement originated in Kerala}}
{{Renaissance of Kerala}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2017}}
{{Very long|date=April 2021}}

The '''Reformation movement in Kerala''' refers to a socio-cultural movement that began towards the end of 19th century and led to large scale changes in the social outlook of the southern [[India|Indian]] [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[Kerala]].

==Background==
The foundations of social changes in Kerala go back to the 16th century.
The development of the modern form of the [[Malayalam|Malayalam language]] and the creation of the [[Bhakti movement]] under the influence of authors like [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]] helped break the monopoly of the [[Brahmin|Brahmins]], Ambalavasis and Nairs over literature and knowledge.

The arrival of Europeans, beginning with the Portuguese followed by the Dutch and English, became a catalyst for these changes. The arrival of missionaries from European nations lead to a rise in educational institutions in Kerala and the rise of an educated class among Avarna caste groups like [[Ezhava|Ezhavas]].

The changes in the political order of Kerala with the establishment of centralized monarchies in [[Travancore]] and [[Kochi|Cochin]], leading to the decline of the old feudal order, were also a crucial factor that set the stage for reformation. The [[Mysorean invasion of Malabar|Mysorean invasion of Kerala]] (1766–1792) shook the hold of elites like[[Nambudiri|Namboothiris]], [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] and [[Nair|Nairs]] on Kerala's society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Christo-Racist Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric Are Gaining Ground in Kerala|url=https://thewire.in/religion/kerala-syrian-christians-caste-anti-muslim-rhetoric|access-date=2021-06-15|website=The Wire}}</ref> Mysoreans had almost no regard for the caste structures in Kerala, so most Brahmin and Nair families had to flee to southern Kerala to avoid persecution by Mysorean forces.

In contrast with North India, subaltern enlightenment in Kerala was driven by lower castes. [[Narayana Guru]], [[Ayyankali]] and others belonged to caste groups lower in the social settings of 19th century Kerala. Hence most of them emphasized the need for abolition of the caste system rather than its reformation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/three-phases-of-indian-renaissance/article9541139.ece|title=Three phases of Indian renaissance|first=K. N.|last=PANIKKAR|website=Frontline.thehindu.com|accessdate=4 March 2019}}</ref>

==Leaders==
Prominent leaders of Kerala reformation include :
* [[Narayana Guru]]
*[[Chattampi Swamikal]]
*[[Ayyankali]]
*[[Sahodaran Ayyappan]]
*[[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Padmanabhan Palpu]]
*[[Kumaran Asan]] (കുമാരനാശാൻ)
*[[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]] (ഡോ.അയ്യത്താൻ ഗോപാലൻ)
*[[Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi]].
*[[Vagbhatananda|Vaghbhatananda]]
* [[Nitya Chaitanya Yati]]
* [[Nataraja Guru]]
*[[VT Bhattathiripad]]
* [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]]
*[[C. V. Kunhiraman]]
*[[Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal]]
*[[Vakkom Moulavi]]

==Timeline of revolts and movements ==
*1813–1859 : [[Channar revolt]]
*1836 : Formation of Samatwa Samajam by [[Ayya Vaikundar]]
*1846 : First Catholic Sanskrit school founded by [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]]
*1864 : "School (pallikkoodam) along with Church" by [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]]
*1888 : [[Ezhava Siva|Aruvippuram consecration by Narayana Guru]]
*1892 : [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] visits Kerala
* 1893 : "Villu vandi" agitation lead by Ayyankali
* 1896 : Ezhava memorial submitted to [[Moolam Thirunal|Srimoolam Thirunnal]]
*1898 : [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj]] established in the Kerala region by [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Rao Sahib Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]] (റാവു സാഹിബ് ഡോ. അയ്യത്താൻ ഗോപാലൻ), first branch at Calicut.
*1900 : [[Sugunavardhini movement]] (സുഗുണവർധിനി പ്രസ്താനം) founded by [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Rao Sahib Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]] in order to foster human values in children and protect the rights of women, children, and downtrodden sections of society such as [[Dalit|Harijan and Dalit communities]], while providing them education. (Established Lady Chandhawarkar (ലേഡി ചന്ദാവർക്കർ) Elementary School), provided free education to all.
*1903 : Formation of [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana|SNDP]]
*1907 : Formation of [[Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham]] by [[Ayyankali]]
*1909 : Formation of [[Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha]] by [[Poykayil Johannan]]
* 1915 : "Kallu Maala"(Stone chain) agitation led by Ayyankali
*1914 : Formation of [[Nair Service Society]]
* 1917 : "Misra Bhojan" (community feast) organised by [[Sahodaran Ayyappan]]
*1919 : Formation of Namboothiri yuvajana Sangham under [[V. T. Bhattathiripad]]
*1924 : [[Vaikom Satyagraha]]
*1929 : Launch of [[Yukthivadi | Yukthivadi magazine]]
*1931-1932 : [[Guruvayur Satyagraha]]
*1935 : Founding of Yukthivadi Sangham by [[M.C. Joseph]] and [[Panampilly Govinda Menon]]
*1936 : [[Temple Entry Proclamation]]

==Renaissance leaders & Timeline==

'''[[Kuriakose Elias Chavara]]''' (1805–1871)

Father of literacy in Kerala, school along with every church system, Pidiyari system

*Born in a [[Syro-Malabar Church|Syro Malabar]] [[Saint Thomas Christians|Saint Thomas Syrian Christian]] family from [[Kainakary]], [[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]]
* 1831 : Founded [[Carmelites of Mary Immaculate|CMI]], Carmelites of Mary Immaculate, India's first Christian priest committee
*1846 : Established the first [[printing press]], St. Joseph's Press, without foreign support in Kerala at [[Kottayam|Mannanam]]. This was the third in India. First book published was Jnanapeeyusham.
*1986 : Declared [[Beatification|beatified]]
*2014 : Declared [[Canonization|canonized]] on 23 November
*Jeevitham thanne sandesam - visudha chavarayude jeevitham written by [[M. K. Sanu|M.K. Sanu]]

'''[[Ayya Vaikundar|Vaikunda swamikal / Ayya vaikundar]]''' (1809–1851)

Mudichoodum perumal

*The first social reformer in Kerala
*1800s : Famous disciple, [[Thycaud Ayya]]
*1800s : Sama panthi Bhojanam
* 1823 : Became leader of the Upper Cloth revolt, which lead to the 1859 [[Channar revolt]]
*1836 : Founded Samatva Samajam."
* "jathi onn, matham onn, kulam onn, daivam onn, lokam onn"

'''[[Thycaud Ayya]] / subharayan''' (1814–1909) ''[Guru of great Gurus']''

Shivaraja yogi, Supperintent ayya, Hadayogopadeshta, pandi parayan,

*1800s : Panthi bhojanam
*1800s : Saiva prakasha sabha
*1800s : Famous disciples; [[Narayana Guru]], [[Chattampi Swamikal|chattambi swami]], [[Ayyankali]], [[Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran|kerala varma]], [[Raja Ravi Varma|Raja ravi varma]]
* " intha ulakathile ore oru jathi than, ore oru matham than, ore oru kadavul than"
*1984 : Thycaud Ayya Mission was formed at [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]].

[[Chattampi Swamikal|'''Chattampi Swamikal''']] (1853-1924)

*1881 : Met [[Narayana Guru|Nanu Asan (Guru)]] at [[Vamanapuram|aniyoor temple]]
*1892 : Met [[Swami Vivekananda|swami vivekananda]]
*main works : ''jeevakarunya niroopanam, kristhumath niroopanam,'' ''kristhumatha chethanam,'' ''vedadhikara niroopanam,'' ''pracheena'' ''malayalam, advaitha chintha padhathi,'' ''aadibhasha.''

[[Narayana Guru|'''Sree Narayana Guru''']] (1856–1928)

Naanu asan, The second Buddha,

*1881 : Guru started school at anju thengu
*1887 : Built [[Aruvippuram]] temple
*1888 : [[Ezhava Siva|Aruvippuram consecration by Narayana Guru]]
*1898 : Vavoottu yogam, which was considered as the predecessor of SNDP Yogam, was formed this year
*1903 : Formation of [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam|SNDP]] by [[Narayana Guru|guru]], who later became the first and permanent president. (1st secretary; [[Kumaran Asan|Kumaranasan]], 1st vice president; [[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Palpu]])
*1904 : Founded [[Sarada Mutt|Sivagiri Mutt]]
*1911 : Declared as the National Saint in the census report of the Travancore
*1913 : ''Advaita ashram'' at [[aluva]]
*1916 : Founded ''Sree Narayan seva ashram'' at [[kanchipuram]]
*1916 : Started Sanskrit school at [[aluva]]
*1918 : Visited [[Sri Lanka]] for the first time
*1924 : Visited [[Vaikom Satyagraha|vaikom satygraha]]
*"oru jaathi, oru matham, oru daivam manushyanu"

===[[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]] (1861–1948) "''Darsarji''"& "Darsar Sahib", ''Rao Sahib'' (Title honor given by British)===

*Social reformer widely known as '''"Darsarji"''' also as "Darsar Sahib". ("''Darsar" (ദർസർ) meaning Doctor)''
* Social reformer of Kerala, physician (doctor), writer, chief surgeon, medical school professor, superintendent and in charge of hospitals all over South India (during British rule).
*Founder of [[Sugunavardhini Movement]] '''(സുഗുണവർധിനി പ്രസ്താനം)''' and popularized [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj]] in Kerala.
**1898 :Populated [[Brahmo Samaj]] in [[Kerala]] region (first branch at Calicut, now [[Ayathan School]] which runs under the patronage of Brahmosamaj at Jail Road, Calicut)
**1900s : Founded the [[Sugunavardhini movement]] to foster human values in children and ignited reform activities to protect the rights of women, children, and the downtrodden sections of society such as Harijan and Dalits in Kerala while providing them with an education.
** 1900s :Founded Lady Chandhawarkar Elementary School, educating girls and underprivileged sections of society for free. Conducted MisraBhojanam and MisraVivaham through Sugunavardhini movement and Brahmosamaj.
** 1900s : Titled his favorite disciple Karat Govinda Menon as "[[Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi|Brahmananda" Sivayogi]] and P. Kunjiraman as "Brahmavadhi" for involvement in Brahmosamaj activities. [[Vagbhatananda|Vaghbhatananda]] was also his favorite disciple who later founded Athma vidya sangam.
**1910 : Translated ''[[Brahmo Dharma]]'' (ബ്രഹ്മധർമ്മ) (known as the Bible of [[Brahmo Samaj]]) into Malayalam, originally written by [[Debendranath Tagore]]
**1910 : Published his first musical drama book ''Saranjiniparinayam''.(സാരഞ്ജിനി പരിണയം)
**1911 : Published his second musical drama book ''Susheeladukham''.(സുശീലാദുഃഖം)
**1917 : Highest civilian award given by British government and given the honor title "[[Rai Sahib|RAOSAHIB]]" for tireless service done for society and mankind.
**1924 : Opened second branch of [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj]] at [[Alappuzha]]
**works : Propagated his reform activities by conducting dramas, public awareness campaigns, and also through his writings. ''Saranjiniparinayam & Susheeladukham'' (musical drama), ''Plaguefarse'' (drama) were his famous dramas which were put on by [[Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier|Kottakkal P.S.Warier]] nadaka sangam (''P.S.V. Natyasangham)'' throughout Kerala for many years.
**Famous disciples: [[Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi|Bhramananda swami Sivayogi]], [[Vagbhatananda|Vaghbhatanandaguru]], Brahmavadhi P. Kunjiraman

[[Agamananda Swami|'''Agamananda Swami''']] (1896–1961)

Krishnam Nambyathiri

*1935 : First [[Ashram|asram]] founded - Sanadhana Dharma Vidhyarthi Sangam
*1936 : Established Kerala unit of Sree Rama Krishnasram
*1900s : Active member of [[Ramakrishna Mission|Ramakrishna mission]] in Kerala unit
*1900s : Started Sanskrit school Brahmanandodayam
*1900s : Started the magazine 'Prabudha Keralam'

'''[[Ananda Theerthan]]''' (1905–1987)

Anada Shenoy

* 1900s : Direct disciple of [[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]
*1933 : Founder of Jathi Nashini Sabha
* 1933 : first president of Jathi Nashini sabha was [[K. Kelappan]].

'''[[Brahmananda shiva yogi]] / Karat Govinda menon''' (1852–1929)

'Guru of Atheists', purusha simham, Swami of [[alathur]]

* Born at [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]]
* Started his reform activities through [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj]] founded by [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]]. [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Gopalan]] titled Karat Govinda menon as Brahmananda Sivayogi for his tireless service done through [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj.]] Sivayogi was one of the favorite disciples of Dr. Gopalan.
*1893 : Founded 'Siddha rasam' at [[Alathur]]
*1899 : ''Stree vidya poshini'' book to spread awareness of women's education
*1918 : Formed Ananda Maha Sabha
*1900s : Founded "Ananda Matham" religion
* 1900s : Famous disciple - [[Vagbhatananda|Vagbatanandan]]

[[Vagbhatananda|'''Vagbhatanandan / V.K. Gurukkal''']] (1885–1939)

Vyleri kunjikannan, balaguru

*Born in Patyam, [[Kannur district|Kannur]]
* Started his reform activities through [[Brahmo Samaj|Brahmosamaj]] founded by [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]] in the year 1898 at Calicut. [[Vagbhatananda|Vaghbhatananda]] was the favorite disciple of Dr. Gopalan who wrote the book ''Kausallya Gopalan'' as a tribute to Kausallyammal, wife of [[Ayyathan Gopalan|Dr. Gopalan]], who was the backbone behind his reform activities.
* 1906 : Tathva prakashika Ashramam [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]
*1917 : Founded Athma vidya sangam at [[Vatakara]], whose slogan was ''"unaruvin, aghileshane smarippin, kshanamezunnelpin, aneethiyod ethirpin"''
*1921 : Abhinava keralam The journal of Atma vidya sangam
*1900s : Became disciple of [[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]<nowiki/>his
*1900s : '''founder of ULCCS''' (uraalunkal Labour Contract Coperative Society) CurrentlyThe Largest Labour contract in India
*1927 : '''Preethi Bhojanam'''
*works : ''Abhinava keralam, adyathma yudham, atma vidya kahalam,'' ''Prarthananjali, kotiyoor ulsava paatu, shivayogi vilasam,''

[[Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker|'''Arattuppuzha Velayudha Panicker''']] (1825–1874)

kallissery Velayudha Chekavar, [[panicker]] Title was given by [[List of Maharajas of Travancore|Maharaja of Travancore]],

He actually belongs to [[Ezhava|Ezhava community]]

*1860 : Founded "'''Kallissery Kadhakali Yogam'''" art form to '''break the savarna [[monopoly]]'''.
*1800s : '''Mukkuthi agitation'''
*1800s : '''Achipudava agitation''' at [[Kayamkulam]]
*1874 : Got killed by Upper caste men during a boat travel at [[Kayamkulam]].

'''[[Kurumban Daivathan]]''' (1880–1927)

Naduvathamman

* 1917 : Hindu Pulaya Samajam
*1900s : Navodhansthinte surya thejass (Babu Thomas)

'''[[Pampady John Joseph|Pampadi John joseph]]''' (1887–1940)

*1921 : Founded Travancore cheramar maha sabha
*1900s : Magazine Sadhu jana Doothan
*1900s : Cheruma Boy book

[[C. V. Kunhiraman|'''C. V. Kunhiraman''']] (1871–1949)

*1911 : Kerala Koumudi from [[mayyanad]], ideas of [[Narayana Guru|Guru]] published first time in koumudi
*1900s : Ezhava koumudi
* "openion is not an iron pestle"

'''[[Ayyankali|Mahathma Ayyankali]]''' (1863–1941)

[[Mahatma Gandhi|Ghandiji]] called him 'pulaya raja' and 'untiring warrior', [[Indira Gandhi]] called him 'Great son of India',

'Aali kathiya theepori', Father of modern Dalit, known as Kerala's [[Spartacus]].

*born at [[venganoor]]
*1893 : '''Villu vandi samaram''' (right to use the public roads by the lower cast)
*1904 : Started school for pulays at [[venganoor]].
*1907 : '''Sadhujana paripalana sangam'''
*1909 : South India's First '''organized rebellion (karshaka samaram)'''
*1911 : First [[Harijan]] member to enroll in [[Sree Moolam Popular Assembly|Sree moolam praja sabha]]
*1915 : Leader of '''Kallu mala Samaram''' '''(perinaatu lahala)''' (right to use ornaments other than stone-made ornaments by the lower cast)
*1915 : Leader of '''Thonnooramandu samaram (ooruttambalam lahala / pulaya lahala)''' (right to study along with upper cast children)
*1916 : '''Kandala lahala''' ( ayyankali fired the school at ooruttambalam, where He tried to get admission for a lower caste girl named Panchami)
*1980 : [[Indira Gandhi]] unveiled Ayyankali Statue at [[vellayambalam]], architect Ezra David.

'''[[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Padmanabhan Palpu]]''' (1863–1950)

Padmanabhan, 'Political father of Ezhava community'

*1800s : '''First Medical graduate from Ezhava community'''
*1800s : Served as Jail superintent in [[Mysore]]
*1882 : Met [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami vivekananda]] at [[Mysore]].
*1800s : The book " Treatment of Thiyyas in travancore"
*1891 : '''The third signature in Malayali memorial''' (Mass petition to [[Moolam Thirunal|Sree moolam maharaja]])
*1896 : Founded Greater Ezhava association
*1896 : '''Founded 'Travancore Ezhava Sabha''''
*1896 : Sep 3, '''Ezhava Memorial''' was submitted to [[Moolam Thirunal|Moolam thirunnal]] (signed by 13176 members)
*1900 : '''Second Ezhava Memorial''' was Submitted to [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]]
*1903 : First vice president of [[Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam|SNDP]]
*1900s : '''Malabar economic Union was founded.'''
*1900s : [[Nataraja Guru]], son of Dr. Palpu, founded the Sree Narayana Gurukulam.
* 1950 : Died on 25 January the day before Republic Day.

'''[[Kumaran Asan|Kumaranasan]]'''(1873–1924)

kumaru, sneha gayakan, ashaya gambheeran, leelavathi called him 'divya kokilam',

[[Joseph Mundassery|Joseph mundassery]] called him '''Viplavathinte Shukra nakshatram.'''

*Born in [[Thiruvananthapuram|Kayikkara]]
*1907 : '''Veena poov'''
*1909 : First poet to become member of '''travancore legislative council.'''
*1922 : Only poet to become Mahakavi without writing a Mahakaavyam.
*1924 : Last work " Karuna "
*1924 : Died in accident of the 'redeemer' boat in [[Pallana|pallana river]]
*Works : '''Duravastha (aboutmalabar kalapam)''' leela, prarodhanam, chandala bikshuki

[[Sahodaran Ayyappan|'''Sahodaran Ayyappan / K. Ayyappan''']] (1889–1968)

*Born in [[Cherai]], [[Vypin|vypin, ernakulam]].
*1917 : Sahodara sangam
*1917 : '''Misra bhojanam''' under sahodara sangam at [[cherai]]
*1900s : Became disciple of [[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]
*1900s : '''Formation of Vidya poshini sabha'''
*1938 : '''Socialist party Established'''
*1964 : Sree Narayana Sevika Samajam in [[Aluva]].
*Weeklies : Velakkaran, yukthivaadi, sahodaran
*Works : Kaasi mahatmyam, sahodari kurathi.
*" No caste, No religion, No god for man."

'''[[Pandit Karuppan]]'''(1885–1939)

shankaran, sahithya kudeeram, [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] of Kerala,

[[Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran|kerala varma]] called him 'vidwan', [[Kingdom of Cochin|maharaja of cochin]] called him 'Kavi thilakam'.

*Born in [[Cheranallur|cheranalloor]], ernakulam
* 1904 : Wrote '''"Jathikkummi"''' first book in kerala to '''criticise the [[Caste|caste system]].'''
*1907 : '''Found Araya samajam'''
*1925 : Nominated as a member of the cochin [[Legislative council]].

'''[[T. K. Madhavan|T.K. Madhavan]]''' (1885–1930)

"Megha Jyothis"

*1902 : Ezhava association was started
*1900s : The founder of Temple entry movement
*1900s : Undeniable leader of '''Eradication of untouchability'''
*1915 : '''Started Deshabhimani News Paper''' From [[Kollam]]
*1923 : Only Malayali to '''attend [[Indian National Congress|INC]] session at [[Kakinada|Kakkinada]],''' Presented a resolution on Eradication of untouchability.
*1924 : '''Main leader of [[Vaikom Satyagraha|Vaikkom Satyagraha]].'''

'''[[Vakkom Moulavi|Vakkom Abdul Khadar Moulavi]]''' (1873–1932)

The father of Muslim renaissance in Kerala

*1905 : '''[[Swadeshabhimani (newspaper)|swadeshabhimani]] news paper''' started from Anjutheng, [[Thiruvananthapuram|tvm]] on Jan 19
*1906 : Magazine Muslim
*1918 : Magazine Al-Islam
*1922 : Formed '''Kerala Muslim Aikya Sangham''' at [[Kodungallur]], thrissur
*1931 : Formed Islamic Publishing House.
*1931 : '''Magazine Deepika'''

* 1900s : Formed '''Islam Dharma Paripalana Sangham''' based on SNDP model.
*1900s : Formed Dharma Poshini sabha
*works : Quran Translation, Islam matha sidhantha Samgraham, dau-u-saheb

[[Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai|'''Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna pillai''']] (1878–1916)

Keralan (pen name)

*1800s : Became first editor of Magazine Malayali
*1906 : Became editor of '''Swadeshabhimani News paper'''
*1910 : '''Elected to [[Sree Moolam Popular Assembly|Sree Moolam praja sabha]]''' from [[Neyyattinkara]]
*1910 : Deported to [[Tirunelveli|Thirunalveli]] on Sep 26 by Diwan - [[P. Rajagopalachari|P Rajagopalachari]] for criticising News against him and also for writing against govt. at the Time of [[Moolam Thirunal|Moolam thirunnal]]. Newspaper was banned
*Works : '''Biography of [[Karl Marx|Karl marx]] & [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhiji]]''' first time in Malayalam, auto Biography Ente Naadukadathal, vrithantha pathra pravarthanam (considered as the [[Bible]] of Kerala [[Journalism]])

'''[[K. Kelappan]]''' (1889–1971)

'''[[A. K. Gopalan|A K Gopalan]]''' (1904-1977) AKG

*Born in [[Peralasseri|Perelassery]]
*1931 : Volunteer captain of [[Guruvayur Satyagraha|'''Guruvayoor Satyagraha''']]
*1936 : '''Pattini jatha (kannur to madras)'''
*1937 : '''Malabar jatha (calicut to Travancore)'''
*1900s : First leader of opposition in Loksabha
*1958 : '''First [[Indian Coffee House|Indian coffie House]] started'''
*1960 : '''Karshaka jatha / peasant march (kazargod to travancore)'''
*1900s : Crusader of downtrodden
* 1900s : Ente jeevitha kadha, in the cause of the people,(auto biography) manninu vendi, ente poorvakala smaranakal,

==See also ==
*[[Mithavaadi Krishnan]]
*[[Narayana Guru|Sree Narayana Guru]]
*[[Padmanabhan Palpu|Dr. Palpu]]
*[[Kumaran Asan|Kumaranasan]]
*[[Ayyathan Gopalan|Rao Sahib Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan]]
*[[Moorkoth Kumaran]]
*[[Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi]]

*[[Ayyankali]]
*[[Chattampi Swamikal]]
*[[Ayya Vaikundar]]
*[[Pandit Karuppan]]
*[[Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker]]
*[[Caste system in Kerala]]
*[[Kerala model]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}3. R.Ponnu, Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the struggle for Social Equality in South India, Madurai, 2000.

[[Category:Anti-caste movements]]
[[Category:Social history of Kerala]]

Mappila Muslims

2023-07-14T08:07:49Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Added information on Mappila marriage system

{{short description|Muslim community}}
{{about|the Muslim Mappila Community|other uses of the title Mappila|Mappila (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mappila Muslims of Kerala and Lakshadweep 
| image = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg
| caption = A rebuilt structure of the old [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]], [[Kodungallur]]
| population = {{Circa|'''9 million'''|lk=yes}} (2011)<ref>T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller1"/>
| popplace = [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]],<ref>{{cite book
| author = William Logan | year=1887
| title= Malabar Manual (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up
}}</ref> [[Tulu Nadu]],<ref name="Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha 1996">Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- '''ix''' . {{ISBN|81-86668-06-3}}
First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973</ref> [[Kodagu]], [[Nilgiris district|Nilgiris]], [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|States of Persian Gulf]]<ref>''Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam'', [[Malayala Manorama]] Yearbook 1990;</ref>
| related = [[Beary]], [[Kodava Maaple]], [[Tamil Muslim]], [[Sri Lankan Moors]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| languages = [[Malayalam]], [[Arabi Malayalam]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kottaparamban|first=Musadhique|date=1 October 2019|title=Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar|url=https://mjsshonline.com/index.php/journal/article/view/97|journal=Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities|language=en|pages=406–416|doi=10.33306/mjssh/31|issn=2590-3691|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuzhiyan|first=Muneer Aram|title=Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/213506|publisher=The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad|hdl=10603/213506}}</ref>
| religions = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}
{{Islam}}
{{Sunni Islam}}
{{Islam in India}}
'''Mappila Muslim''', often shortened to '''Mappila''', formerly anglicized as '''Moplah/Mopla''' and historically known as '''Jonaka/Chonaka Mappila''' or '''Moors Mopulars/Mouros da Terra''' and '''Mouros Malabares,''' in general, is a member of the [[Muslim]] community of same name found predominantly in [[Kerala]] and [[Lakshadweep]] Islands , in southern India.<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |authorlink=Roland E. Miller |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |date=27 April 2015 |publisher=State University of New York Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1-4384-5601-0}}</ref><ref name=Panikkar>{{cite book |last=Panikkar |first=K. N. |authorlink=K. N. Panikkar |title=Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-19562-139-6}}</ref> Muslims of Kerala make up 26.56% of the population of the state (2011), and as a religious group they are the second largest group after [[Hindu]]s (54.73%).<ref name="census_2016_religion">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> Mappilas share the common language of [[Malayalam]] with the other religious communities of Kerala.<ref name="brill">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ]. pp. 458–56.</ref><ref>" "Oh! Calicut!" ''Outlook Traveller'' {{cite web |url=http://traveller.outlookindia.com/issuecontent.aspx?pagenum=0&id=1077 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-02-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715200049/http://traveller.outlookindia.com/issuecontent.aspx?pagenum=0&id=1077 |archive-date=15 July 2012 |df=dmy-all }} December, 2009</ref>

According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled native Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Miller1" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> In general, a Mappila is either a descendant of any native convert to Islam or a mixed descendant of any Middle Eastern — Arab or non Arab — individual.<ref name="HafizMohamadNP">Hafiz Mohamad, N. P. "Socioeconomic determinants of the continuity of matrilocal family system among Mappila Muslims of Malabar" Unpublished Ph.D. thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/11310]</ref><ref name="PPRazakAbdul">P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar" Unpublished Ph.D. thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [http://hdl.handle.net/10603/13105]</ref> Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala. No Census Report where the Muslim communities were mentioned separately is also available.<ref name="KunhaliV">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" Ph.D. Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref>

The Mappila community originated primarily as a result of the West Asian contacts with Kerala, which was fundamentally based upon commerce ("the spice trade").<ref name=Panikkar /> As per local tradition, [[Islam]] reached [[Malabar Coast]], of which the Kerala state is a part of, as early as the 7th century AD.<ref name="brill" /> Before being overtaken by the Europeans in the spice trade, Mappilas were a prosperous trading community, settled mainly in the coastal urban centres of Kerala. The continuous interaction of the Mappilas with the [[Middle East]] has created a profound impact on their life, customs, and culture. This has resulted in the formation of a unique Indo-Islamic synthesis — within the large spectrum of Kerala culture — in literature, art, food, language, and music.<ref name="brill" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |article=Mappila |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Islam |volume=VI |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1988 |pages=458–66}}</ref>

Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] [[Madh'hab|School]], while a large minority follow movements such as [[Salafi movement|Salafism]].<ref name="brill1" /><ref name=":0">{{cite web | title=Kerala Public Service Commission | website=Home 2 | url=https://www.keralapsc.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&id=338&Itemid=198 | access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> Very much unlike other parts of South Asia, the [[Caste|caste system]] does not exist among the Muslims of Kerala (all Muslims are allowed to worship in all Kerala mosques). A number of different communities, some of them having distant ethnic roots, exist as status groups in Kerala
.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref>

==Etymology==
Mappila Muslims are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala. Sometimes the whole Muslim community in Kerala, is known by the term "Mappila". [[Portuguese literature|Portuguese writer]] [[Duarte Barbosa]] (1515) uses the term 'Moors Mopulars' for the Muslims of Kerala.<ref name="Miller1"/>

"[[Mappila (disambiguation)|Mappila]]" (originally meaning "the great child" and now often used as a synonym for son-in-law<ref name="Miller1" />/bridegroom<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" />) was a respectful, and honorific title given to foreign visitors, merchants and immigrants to Malabar Coast by the native Hindus.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> The Muslims were referred to as ''Jonaka'' or ''Chonaka Mappila'' ("[[Ionians|Yavanaka]] Mappila"), to distinguish them from the ''[[Nasrani Mappila]]'' (Saint Thomas Christians) and the ''[[Juda Mappila]]'' (Cochin Jews). <ref>Mathur, P. R. G. "The Mappila Fisherfolk of Kerala: a Study in Inter-relationship Between Habitat, Technology, Economy, Society, and Culture" (1977), ''Anthropological Survey of India'', Kerala Historical Society, p. 1.</ref>

==Demographics and distribution==
=== Demographics ===
According to the 2011 census, about one-quarter of Kerala's population (26.56%) are Muslims.<ref name="Miller1" /> The calculated Muslim population (2011) in Kerala state is 88,73,472. The number of Muslims in rural areas is only 42,51,787, against an urban population of 46,21,685.<ref>T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" ''The Hindu'' August 26, 2015 [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/5472-of-population-in-kerala-are-hindus/article7581145.ece]</ref><ref name="Miller1" />
=== Distribution ===
The number of Muslims is particularly high in the northern Kerala (former [[Malabar District]]).<ref name="Miller1" /> Mappilas are also found in [[Lakshadweep]] islands in the Arabian Sea.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> A small number of Malayali Muslims have settled in the southern districts of [[Karnataka]] and western parts of [[Tamil Nadu]], while the scattered presence of the community in major cities of [[India]] can also be seen.<ref name=":1">"Remittances and its Impact on the Kerala Economy and Society – International Migration, Multi-local Livelihoods and Human Security: Perspectives from Europe, Asia and Africa", Institute of Social Studies, The Netherlands, 30–31 August 2007</ref> When the British supremacy on Malabar District was established, many Mappilas were recruited for employment in plantations in [[Burma]], [[Assam]] and for manual labor in [[South East Asia]]n concerns of the British Empire.<ref name="KunhaliV" /> Diaspora groups of Mappilas are also found in Pakistan and Malaysia.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> Furthermore, a substantial proportion of Muslims have left Kerala to seek employment in the Middle East, especially in [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name=":1" />

According to the [[2011 Census of India]], the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|title=Population By Religious Community – 2011 Census of India|access-date=2020-10-19|website=Census of India|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! {{nowrap|District wise map of Kerala}}
!'''District'''
!'''Total Pop'''
!'''Muslims'''
!'''% of Pop'''
!'''% of Muslims'''
|-
|rowspan ="15"| [[File:Political map of Kerala.svg|300px]]
|'''[[Kerala]]'''
|'''33,406,061'''
|'''8,873,472'''
|'''26.56%'''
|'''100.0%'''
|-
|[[Kasaragod district|Kasargod]]
|1,307,375
|486,913
|37.24%
|5.49%
|-
|[[Kannur district|Kannur]]
|2,523,003
|742,483
|29.43%
|8.37%
|-
|[[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]
|817,420
|234,185
|28.65%
|2.64%
|-
|[[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]
|3,086,293
|1,211,131
|39.24%
|13.65%
|-
|[[Malappuram district|Malappuram]]
|4,112,920
|2,888,849
|70.24%
|32.56%
|-
|[[Palakkad district|Palakkad]]
|2,809,934
|812,936
|28.93%
|9.16%
|-
|[[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]
|3,121,200
|532,839
|17.07%
|6.00%
|-
|[[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]]
|3,282,388
|514,397
|15.67%
|5.80%
|-
|[[Idukki district|Idukki]]
|1,108,974
|82,206
|7.41%
|0.93%
|-
|[[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]
|1,974,551
|126,499
|6.41%
|1.43%
|-
|[[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]]
|2,127,789
|224,545
|10.55%
|2.53%
|-
|[[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]]
|1,197,412
|55,074
|4.60%
|0.62%
|-
|[[Kollam district|Kollam]]
|2,635,375
|508,500
|19.30%
|5.73%
|-
|[[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]]
|3,301,427
|452,915
|13.72%
|5.10%
|}
[[File:Distribution of Muslim population in Kerala (2011 Census of India).svg|thumb|right|350px|Distribution of [[Muslim]]s in [[Kerala]] – District-wise.]]

=== Portuguese distinctions ===
The Muslims present in Kerala were distinguished by the Portuguese historians into two groups:
* Mouros da Terra ("Moors of the Land").
* Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca ("Moors from Arabia/Mecca").
The latter, also known as the "Paradesi Muslims", in fact came from all over the Islamic world.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /> They included Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, Turks, Iraqis, Gujaratis, Khorasanis and Deccanis (and Melakans, Sumatrans, Bengalis).<ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wqMWl6sSwwC|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama|last=Subrahmanyam|first=Sanjay|date=1998-10-29|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521646291|language=en}}</ref> These Muslims were not unsettled navigators but had settled in Kerala. The Malayali (and Tamil Muslim) community as a whole was considerably lower economic standing than the Paradesi Muslims.<ref name="PPRazakAbdul" /><ref name="Nossiter"/>

Till 16th century, as noticed by the contemporary observers, Muslims settled mainly along the coastal tracts of Kerala (especially in major Kerala ports such as [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (Kozhikode), [[Kannur|Cannanore]] (Kannur), [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanore]] (Tanur), Funan ([[Ponnani]]), Cochin (Kochi) and [[Kollam|Quilon]] (Kollam)).<ref name="PPRazakAbdul" /><ref name="Nossiter" /> They were traditionally elite merchants who were all part of the brisk foreign trade.<ref name="PPRazakAbdul" /> Until well into the European period, the Muslims were almost exclusively concentrated in the port cities.<ref name=":3" /> Middle Eastern sailors had to rely on lighterage at most of the Kerala ports in the medieval period. This led them to enter into mutually beneficial relationships with the traditional sea fishermen community. A large majority of fishermen, once low-caste Hindus, in northern Kerala now follow Islam.<ref name=":3" />

=== Results of Portuguese dominance ===
After and during the Portuguese period, some of the Muslim merchants were forced to turn inland (Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.<ref name="Nossiter" /> Some acquired land and became landowners and some became agricultural labourers.<ref name="KunhaliV" /> Between 16th and 19th centuries, the collective Mappila numbers increased rapidly in [[Malabar District]], chiefly by the conversion among the lower and 'outcaste' Hindu groups of the [[South Malabar]] interior.<ref name="Nossiter" /> The peak of the Muslim distribution in Kerala had gradually shifted to the interior Malabar District.<ref name="PPRazakAbdul" /> William Logan, comparing the Census Reports of 1871 and 1881, famously concluded that within ten years some 50,000 people from the Cheruma community (former untouchables) have converted to Islam.<ref name="KunhaliV" /> Muslim growth in the 20th century has considerably outpaced that of the general Kerala population due to higher birth rates.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="KunhaliV" />

=== British distinctions ===
During the British period the so-called Mappila Outbreaks, ''c.'' 1836–1921 led the officials to make and maintain a distinction between the interior Mappilas and the 'respectable' Mappila traders of the coastal cities, such as [[Kozhikode|Calicut]]. The two other regional groupings are the high-status Muslim families of [[Kannur|Cannanore]] in North Malabar — arguably converts from high caste Hindus — and the Muslims of [[Travancore]] and [[Cochin]].<ref name="Nossiter">{{cite book |last=Nossiter |first=Thomas J. |authorlink=Thomas Nossiter |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |publisher=C. Hurst and Company |year=1982 |pages=23–25 |isbn=9780905838403 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDlh-RIqrfoC}}</ref> The Colonial administrates also kept a distinction between coastal and inland Mappilas of the [[South Malabar]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="Nossiter" />

* [[Thangal|Thangals]] (the [[Sayyid|Sayyids]]) – at the top were the aristrocratic Tangals (the Sayyids), who claim descent from the family of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammed]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Jeffrey|first=Robin |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |title=Politics, Women and Well Being: How Kerala Became 'a Model'|publisher=Palgrave McMillan|year=1992|isbn=978-0-333-54808-0|pages=112}}</ref>
* Arabis - Below the Thangals are Arabis (mostly from the coastal towns), the people tracing their origin from the West Asian intermarriage with Malayali women.<ref name=":02" />
* Landed Aristocracy - the Arabis were followed by the landed aristocracy, centred on [[Kannur|Cannanore]], [[North Malabar]], arguably converts from high caste Hindus.<ref name="Nossiter" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" />
* Lastly, there were the converts from the Backward and Scheduled Hindu castes (such as the South Malabar interior Mappilas, Pusalars/Puyislans and the [[Ossan|Ossans]]).<ref name="Nossiter" /><ref name="PPRazakAbdul" />

==History==
[[File:Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg|left|thumb|A model of the old structure of the Kodungallur Mosque. According to the Cheraman Perumal tradition, the first Indian mosque was built at Kodungallur. |294x294px]]

=== Arrival of Islam in Kerala and Lakshadweep===
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Silk Road]] map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).|right]]
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|300px|thumbnail|[[Shafiʽi school]] (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the [[Muslim]]s of [[Kerala]], coastal [[Karnataka]], southern [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Sri Lanka]] unlike from rest of [[South Asia]]]]
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]] and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |first=Kaavya |last=Pradeep Kumar |work=The Hindu |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |date=28 January 2014 |access-date=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{Cite book|title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala|last1=Chattopadhyay|first1=Srikumar|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2006|isbn=978-81-8069-294-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC|last2=Franke|first2=Richard W.}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |access-date=10 October 2012 |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 |pages=57–58}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter [[Malabar Coast]] to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/>

Islam arrived in [[Malabar Coast]], a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> It is generally agreed among scholars that Middle Eastern merchants frequented the [[Malabar Coast]], which was the link between the West and ports of East Asia, even before Islam had been established in Arabia.<ref name="MayaramPandian2005">{{cite book|author1=Shail Mayaram|author2=M. S. S. Pandian|author3=Ajay Skaria |title=Muslims, Dalits, and the Fabrications of History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CNgU3OcyL4C&pg=PA39|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2005|publisher=Permanent Black and Ravi Dayal Publisher|isbn=978-81-7824-115-9|pages=39–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA506|date=2010-05-19|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7|page=506}}</ref> The western coast of India was the chief centre of Middle Eastern trading activities right from at least 4th century AD and by about 7th century AD, and several West Asian merchants had taken permanent residence in some port cities of the Malabar Coast. According to popular tradition, [[Islam]] was brought to [[Lakshadweep]], situated just to the west of [[Malabar Coast]], by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [[Andrott]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|publisher=lakshadweep.nic.in|access-date=1 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514235511/http://lakshadweep.nic.in/KL_History.html|archive-date=14 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns of [[Kerala]]. Arab writers such as Masudi of Baghdad (934–955 AD), Idrisi (1154 AD), Abul-Fida (1213 AD) and al-Dimishqi (1325 AD) mentions the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref name="PPRazakAbdul" /> Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Islamic community in South Asia.<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-81-7154-579-7|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref>

The Southwestern Coast of India was known as "Malabar" (a mixture of Tamil ''Malai'' and Arabic or Persian ''Barr'', most probably) to the West Asians. Persian scholar [[al-Biruni]] (973–1052 AD) appears to have been the first to call the region by this name. Masudi of Baghdad (896–965 AD) speaks about the contacts between Malabar and Arabia. Authors such as Ibn Khurdad Beh (869 – 885 AD), Ahmad al Baladhuri (892 AD), and Abu Zayd of Ziraf (916 AD) mentions Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="KMMohammad">Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–234.</ref> [[File:Syrian copper plates - Kollam (c. 883 AD).jpg|thumb|Quilon Syrian Copper Plate (c. 883 AD) |294x294px]]Scholar C. N. Ahammad Moulavi has mentioned that he has seen at Irikkalur near Valapattanam a tombstone bearing the date 670 AD/Hijra 50 (it seems that the tombstone is now lost).<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> Inscriptions found on a tombstone on the beach outside the Juma'h Mosque in Panthalayani Kollam record the death of one Abu ibn Udthorman in Hijra 166. The mosque itself contains two medieval royal charters, one on a block of granite built into the steps of the mosque tank and another one a loose stone lying outside, of the Kodungallur Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD). The position of the royal Chera charter (in Old Malayalam) inside the mosque suggests that the city belonged to the Muslims or included them or came into their possession at a later stage.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/><ref name="KunhaliV" /><ref name="KMMohammad" /> A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is a royal charter by Ayyan Atikal, the powerful governor of Kollam under the Chera king of Kodungallur. The Quilon Syrian Copper Plate (c. 883 AD, "the Tabula Quilonensis"<ref name=":3">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018.</ref>) is written in Old Malayalam in Vatteluttu script, and concludes with a number of "signatures" in Kufic Arabic, Middle Persian in Pahlavi script and Judaeo-Persian. The charter shows Atikal, in presence of the royal representative from Kodungallur (prince Kota Ravi Vijayaraga) and regional civil and military officials, granting land and serfs to the Tarisapalli, built by Mar Sapir Iso, and conferring privileges on Anchuvannam and Manigramam.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> The attestation to the copper plates in the [[Kufic script]] reads: "[And witness] to this Maymun ibn Ibrahim, Muhammad ibn Manih, Sulh [?Salih] ibn 'Ali, 'Uthaman ibn al-Marzuban, Muhammad ibn Yahya, 'Amr ibn Ibrahim, Ibrahim ibn al-Tayy, Bakr ibn Mansur, al-Qasim ibn Hamid, Mansur ibn 'Isa and, Isma'il ibn Ya'qub". The presence of non-Christian signatures and the names found in the charter prove that the associates of Mar Sapir Iso included Jews and Muslims too. Muslim Arabs and some Persians must have formed permanent settlements at Kollam by this period. The charter gives proof of the status and privileges of trading guilds in Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV" /><ref name="KMMohammad" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> "Anjuvannam", mentioned in the copper plate, was a merchant association composed Christians, Jews and Muslims.<ref name=":3" />

In keeping with Kodungallur's significant role in the spice trade, the legends of Kerala Christians, Jews and Muslims all depict this port city as the focal point for the spread of their respective faiths. According to the legend of Cheraman Perumal, or as per one version of it, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–459}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> Perumal's proselytisers, led by Malik ibn Dinar, established a series of mosques in his kingdom and north of it, thus facilitating the expansion of Islam in Kerala.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="KMMohammad" /> It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship known as "[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]".<ref name=":3" /> While there is no concrete historical evidence for this tradition, there can be little doubt of the early Muslim presence, and of the religious tolerance based on economic imperatives, on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> The account of conversion of Islam by the then Cheraman Perumal is generally considered apocryphal by mainstream scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Prange|first=Sebastian R.|title=Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OM5TDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|date=2018-05-03|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-42438-7|page=2}}</ref>

'''First mosques of Malabar according to the ''Qissat Shakarwati Farmad'''''<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref>

According to the ''Qissat'', the first mosque was built by Malik ibn Dinar in Kodungallur, while the rest of the mosques were founded by Malik ibn Habib.<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Location
!Qadi
|-
|Kalankallur ([[Kodungallur]])
|Muhammad ibn Malik
|-
|Kulam ([[Kollam]])
|Hasan ibn Malik
|-
|Hili ([[Madayi]])
|'Abd al-Rahman ibn Malik
|-
|Fakanur/Makanur ([[Barkur]])
|Ibrahim ibn Malik
|-
|Manjalur ([[Mangalore]])
|Musa ibn Malik
|-
|Kanjarkut ([[Kasaragod]])
|Malik ibn Muhammad
|-
|Jurfatan/Jirfatan ([[Kannur|Cannanore]])
|Shahab al-Din ibn 'Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Malik
|-
|Darmaftan ([[Dharmadom|Dharmadam]])
|Hussayn ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani
|-
|Fandarinah ([[Koyilandy|Panthalayani]])
|Sa'd al-Din ibn Malik al-Madani
|-
|Shaliyat ([[Chaliyam]])
|Zayn al-Din ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani
|}
It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] was died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">Pg 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> The [[Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque]] contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/> The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] records its foundation year as Hijra 518 (1124 AD).<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book
| author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |page=423-424
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
}}</ref><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="KunhaliV" /><ref name="KMMohammad" /> The mosque in the heart of the old Chera capital, the [[Cheraman Juma Mosque|Kodungallur Mosque]], has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.<ref name="KunhaliV" /><ref name="KMMohammad" />

=== Growth of Islam in Kerala ===
The Middle Eastern Muslim traders and Kerala mercantile community went through a long period of peaceful intercultural growth till the arrival of the Portuguese explorers (early 16th century).<ref name="Miller1" /><ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> [[Kollam|Quilon (Kollam)]] in south Kerala was the southernmost of the Kerala ports associated with black pepper. It served as the region's gateway to the eastern Indian Ocean. East and Southeast Asia were the primary markets for Kerala's main export, the spices, until at least the c. 15th century. In 1403, it seems that, the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] court first learned of the existence of [[Malacca]] from one pepper merchant, a Muslim believed to have come from the Malabar Coast.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Miller1" />

Moroccan traveller [[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Battutah]] (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.<ref name="Miller1" /> Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> The monopoly of overseas spice trade in the Arabian Sea was safe with the Arab and Persian shipping magnates from the Malabar Coast.<ref name="Shokoohy2003-144">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA144|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa)|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|pages=144|access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> Fortunes of these merchants depended on the political patronage of the native chiefs of Calicut (Kozhikode), Cannanore (Kannur), Cochin (Kochi), and Quilon (Kollam).<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> The chiefs of these tiny kingdoms derived a great part of their revenue from taxing the spice trade.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> A 13th century granite inscription, in Old Malayalam and Arabic, at [[Muchundi Mosque]] in Calicut mentions a donation by the king to the mosque. The inscription is the only surviving historical document recording royal endowment by a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] ruler, in the form of a grant, to the Muslim community in Kerala.<ref name="Narayanan2017">M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) {{ISBN|978-81-8267-114-0}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of [[Kozhikode|Calicut (Kozhikode)]] as the major port city in Kerala.<ref name=":3" /> Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims. The port commissioner, the "shah bandar", represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Batttutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut and Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The famous nakhuda Mishkal who possessed ships for the trade with China, Yemen and Persia was active in Calicut in the 1340s. But unlike in some of the other regions of the Indian Ocean, in Kerala, it seems that the nakhudas did not held any positions of commercial, communal leadership.<ref name=":3" /> The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal, near Cannanore, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over the [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="MorseStephens1897" /> Zayn al-Din Makhdum (c. 1498–1581) estimates that 10% of the population of Malabar was Muslim by the midpoint of the 16th century AD.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" />
[[File:Early Muslim Settlements.jpg|thumb|left|Early Arab Settelments in Kerala upto 1496]]

The Middle Eastern Muslims controlled the lucrative western arm of the overseas long-distance trade (to the ports of the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]]) from the Malabar Coast. Export items across the Arabian Sea included spices such as pepper, ginger and cardamom, trans-shipped textiles, coconuts and associated products. Gold, copper, and silver, horses, silk and various aromatics were imported into Kerala. The native Muslims dominated the trade to Pegu, Mergui, Melaka (in Myanmar and Malasia) and points east, and the Indian coastal trade (Canara, Malabar, [[Ceylon]], Maldives and Coromandel Coast, and other [[Bay of Bengal]] shores) with the Chettis from [[Coromandel Coast]]. Muslims, with Gujarati Vanias, also took part in the trade with ports of Gujarat.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-DZciX6WxgUC|title=The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History|last=Subrahmanyam|first=Sanjay|date=2012-04-30|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470672914|language=en}}</ref> The Indian coastal trade included goods such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into Kerala, from the Canara and the Coromandel Coast. Low-value but high-volume trade in foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims.<ref name=":2" />

=== The European period ===
[[File:City of Cannanore, 1572.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kannur]] (Cannanore) in northern Kerala in 16th century. Whenever a formal war was broke out between the [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] and the native rulers, the Portuguese attacked and plundered, as the opportunity offered, the Muslim ports in Kerala.|339x339px]]

In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.<ref>{{cite book|last=Muhammed |first=Hedayuthabdulla|title=kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity|date=January 2009|publisher=Motilal Banarasidess|page=47|isbn=9788120833739}}</ref>Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | author-link = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> Initially (c. 1500–1520), Portuguese traders were successful in reaching in agreements with the local Hindu chiefs and native Muslim (Mappila) merchants in Kerala. The major contradiction was between the Portuguese state and the Arab and Persian traders, and the Kingdom of Calicut.<ref name=":2" /> The big Mappila traders in Cochin supplied large quantities of Southeast Asian spices to the Portuguese carracks.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /> These traders, along with the Syrian Christians, acted as brokers and intermediaries in the purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2" />
Wealthy Muslim merchants of the Malabar Coast – including Mappilas – provided large credits to the Portuguese. These businessmen received large trading concessions, stipends and privileges in return. Interaction between the Portuguese private traders and Mappila merchants also continued to be tolerated by the Portuguese state.<ref name=":3" /> Kingdom of Calicut, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the Portuguese, evolved into a centre of Muslim resistance.<ref name=":3" />

Sooner rather than later, tensions arose between the wealthy Mappila traders of Cannanore and the Portuguese state. The ships of the Cannanore Mappilas again and again fell prey to the Portuguese sailors off the coast of Maldives, an important point between Southeast Asia and the Red Sea. Interests of the Portuguese ''casado moradores'' in Cochin, now planning to capture the spice trade through the Gulf of Mannar and to Sri Lanka, came into the conflict with Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayars. The narrow gulf held the key to the trade to Bengal (especially Chittagong).<ref name=":2" /> By 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese and the Mappilas, from Ramanathapuram, and Thoothukudi to northern Kerala, and to western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.<ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|author=Henry Morse Stephens|title=Albuquerque|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|year=1897|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1524-3|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The Mappila traders actively worked in even in the island of [[Sri Lanka]] to oppose the Portuguese. The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing Muslim fleets at Calicut and Quilon.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /> After a series of naval battles, the once powerful Mappila chief was finally forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the qazi of Cannanore Abu Bakr Ali (1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas. In the meantime, the Portuguese also entered into friendship with some of the leading Middle Eastern merchants residing on the Malabar Coast (1550). The mantle of the Muslim resistance was now taken by the Ali Rajas of Cannanore, who even forced the king of Calicut to turn against the Portuguese once again.<ref name=":2" /> By the close of the 16th century, the Ali Rajas had emerged as figures with as much influence in Kerala as the Kolathiri (Chirakkal Raja) himself.<ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /> [[File:Minister Kuruppu's Arabic letter to da Gama (1524).jpg|thumb|Kolattiri Raja's minister Kuruppu's Arabic letter to da Gama (1524)|235x235px]]Before the 16th century, Middle Eastern Muslims dominated the economic, social and religious affairs of Kerala Muslims. Many of these merchants fled Kerala in the course of the 16th century. The vacuum created economic opportunities for some Mappila traders, who also took on a greater role in the social and religious affairs in Malabar.<ref name=":3" /> The Portuguese tried to establish a monopoly in the spice trade in India, using violent naval warfare.<ref name="Subrahmanyam1998">{{cite book|author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam|title=The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AA3bu058pI4C&pg=PA294|access-date=26 July 2012|date=29 October 1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64629-1|pages=293–294}}</ref><ref name="Shokoohy2003-147">{{cite book|author=Mehrdad Shokoohy|title=Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ovxq8enmRKUC&pg=PA144|access-date=30 July 2012|date=29 July 2003|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-30207-4|page=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfbNcIXQwSAC&pg=PA181|title=The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.) |year=1922 |publisher=A. Constable |access-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> Whenever a formal war was broke out between the Portuguese and the Calicut rulers, the Portuguese attacked and plundered, as the opportunity offered, the Muslim ports in Kerala. Small, lightly armed, and highly mobile vessels of the Mappilas remained a major threat to Portuguese shipping all along the west coast of India.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Subrahmanyam2" /> Mappila merchants, now controlling pepper trade in Calicut in the place of the West Asian Muslims, drew Mappila corsairs and used them to transport the spices past Portuguese blockades. Some Mappila traders even tried to outwit the Portuguese by reorienting their trade to Western Indian ports. Some chose an overland route, across the Western Ghats, for the export of spices.<ref name=":3" /> By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar was defeated and killed, with the help of the Calicut ruler, in c. 1600 AD. The Ali Rajas of Cannanore was given permission to send ships to even to the Red Sea, as a way of ensuring their cooperation.<ref name=":2" /> The relentless battles led to the eventual decline of the Muslim community in Kerala, as they gradually lost control of the spice trade. The Muslims — who had been depended solely on commerce — were reduced into severe economic perplexity. Some traders turned inland (South Malabar) in search of alternate occupations to commerce. The Muslims of Kerala gradually became a society of small traders, landless labourers and poor fishermen. The once affluent, and urban, Muslim population became predominantly rural in Kerala.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /><ref name="Nossiter" />

The ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="Noorani">AG Noorani {{cite web|url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221021629/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |archive-date=21 December 2012 }}</ref> It was first printed and published in [[Lisbon]]. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of [[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]].<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
Books [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]</ref><ref>Roland E. Miller.
''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> ''Tuhfatul Mujahideen'' also describes the history of Mappila [[Muslim]] community of Kerala as well as the general condition of [[Malabar Coast]] in the 16th century CE.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/>

The [[Kingdom of Mysore]], ruled by Sultan [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]], invaded and occupied northern Kerala in the late-18th century.<ref name="Elgood1995">{{cite book|author=Robert Elgood|title=Firearms of the Islamic World: in the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=epaMx7jSZjIC&pg=PA164|access-date=25 July 2012|date=15 November 1995 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-963-9|pages=164–}}</ref> In the following Mysore rule of Malabar, Muslims were favoured against the high caste Hindu landlords. Some were able to obtain some land rights and administrative positions. There was a sharp increase in community's growth, especially through conversions from the "outcaste" society. However, such measures of the Mysore rulers only widened the communal imbalance of Malabar. The East India Company — taking advantage of the situation — allied with the Hindu high castes to fight against the occupied regime. The British subsequently won the [[Anglo-Mysore War]] against Mysore ruler [[Tipu Sultan]] and, consequently, Malabar was organised as a district under [[Madras Presidency]].<ref name="Kurien2002">{{cite book|author=Prema A. Kurien|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA51|access-date=25 July 2012|date=7 August 2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3089-5|pages=51–}}</ref>

The discriminatory land tenure system — tracing its origins to pre modern Kerala — gave Muslims of Kerala (and other tenants and labourers) no access to land ownership.<ref name="Miller1" /> This led to a series of violent attacks against the high caste landlords and colonial administration (the Mappila Outbreaks, ''c.'' 1836–1921<ref name="Nossiter" />) and in 1921–22; it took in the form of an explosion known as [[Mappila Rebellion|Mappila Uprising (Malabar Rebellion)]].<ref name="Kurien2002" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/09/04/109821285.pdf | work=The New York Times|title=Moplahs a Menace for Several Years — Malabar Fanatics Said to Have Been Emboldened by Shifting of British Troops | date=4 September 1921}}</ref> The uprising — which initially had the supported of [[Indian National Congress]] leaders such as [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas K. Gandhi]]- was suppressed by the colonial government, with [[martial law]] being temporarily instituted in the region and the leaders of the rebellion tried and [[Capital punishment|executed]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

=== Post-colonial era ===
The Muslim material strength — along with the extent of modern education, theological "reform", and active participation in democratic process — recovered slowly after the 1921–22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in provincial and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Mappila literacy rate was only 5% in 1931. Even by 1947, only 3% of the ''taluk'' officers in Malabar region were Muslim.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

The community was able to produce a number of high-regarded leaders in the following years. This included [[Mohammed Abdur Rahiman]], and [[E. Moidu Moulavi]] of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]], and most crucially, the inspirational [[K. M. Seethi Sahib]] (1898–1960). Although the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] faded into memory in the rest of India, it remained a serious political force in the state of Kerala with leaders such as [[Syed Abdurrahiman Bafaki Tangal]], P. M. S. A. [[Pukkoya Tangal]], and [[C. H. Mohammed Koya]].<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> K. O. Ayesha Bai, a member of Muslim community, the first Muslim women to rise to public fame in modern Kerala, became the Deputy Speaker of the Communist [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|Kerala Assembly]] in 1957.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

Active participation in the state elections gave rise to a psychology of accommodation that took the Muslims into cooperate relationships with Hindus and Christians of Kerala. The Communist-lead Kerala government granted the wish of the Muslim League for the formation of a Muslim majority district in 1969.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" /> [[University of Calicut]], with the former [[Malabar District]] being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.universityofcalicut.info/|title=Official website of Calicut University – Home|website=www.universityofcalicut.info|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> [[Calicut International Airport]], currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kozhikodeairport.com/#|title=Kozhikode Calicut International Airport (CCJ)|website=www.kozhikodeairport.com|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms|title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> An [[Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode|Indian Institute of Management]] (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996 and [[National Institute of Technology Calicut|National Institute of Technology]] in 2002.<ref name="About IIM K">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508141700/http://www.iimk.ac.in/iimk/about/about.php|archive-date=8 May 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=10 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Modern Mappila theological revisions and social reforms were initiated by Wakkom Maulavi (1873–1932) in Kollam. The Maulavi was initially influenced by Muḥammad 'Abduh and Rashīd Riḍā, and to some degree by the ideas of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb. He notably encouraged the Mappilas to adopt English education.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> Notable reformers such as K. M. Seethi Sahib (1898–1960), Khatib Muhammad [[K. M. Maulavi]] (1886–1964), E. K. Maulavi (1879–1974) and M. K. Haji carried his work forward to the modern age. K. M . Maulavi tried to spread the new ideas of southern Kerala to the more orthodox Malabar region. C. O. T. Kunyipakki Sahib, Maulavi Abussabah Ahmedali (died 1971), K. A. Jaleel, [[C. N. Ahmad Moulavi]], and K. O. Ayesha Bai were other prominent social and political reformers of the 20th century. An organisation known as the [[Muslim Educational Society]] (MES), founded in 1964 by P. K. Abdul Ghafoor and friends, also played a role in the development of the community. ''Aikya Sangham'' (founded in 1922, Kodungallur) and [[Farook College]] (founded 1948) also promoted the higher education among the Muslims.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2" />

A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf countries]] in the following years (beginning in the mid-1960s). This widespread participation in the Gulf Rush produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. Great influx funds from the earnings of Mappilas employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment and educational backwardness began to change.<ref name="Miller1" /> The Mappila community is now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change and positive involvement in the modern world. Mappila women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/> As per the latest government data, female literacy rate in [[Malappuram District]], center of Mappila distribution, stood at 91.55% (2011 Census).<ref>{{cite web | title=Literacy Rate 2011 | website=Government of Kerala, India | date=2019-08-14 | url=https://kerala.gov.in/web/guest/literacy-rate-2011 | access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> [[Lulu Hypermarket|Lulu Group]] chairman [[Yusuff Ali M.A.|M. A. Yusuf Ali]], 19th richest man in India, is the richest Malayali, according to the Forbes magazine (2018).<ref>"Yusuf Ali is the richest Malayali and he is richer than Donald Trump" ''Malayala Manorama'' March 2018 [https://english.manoramaonline.com/business/news/2018/03/07/yusuf-ali-is-the-richest-malayali-and-he-is-richer-than-donald-t.html]</ref> [[Azad Moopen]], chairman of the Dubai-headquartered [[Aster DM Healthcare]], is another major Muslim entrepreneur from Kerala.<ref>{{cite web | title=TOI's top 10: World's richest Malayalis | website=The Times of India | date=2015-06-04 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/TOIs-top-10-Worlds-richest-Malayalis/articleshow/47535831.cms | access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> During his state visit to Saudi Arabia in 2016, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi presented the Saudi king Salman with a gold-plated replica of the Kodungallur Mosque.<ref name=":3" />

Ever since in the Indian Independence from the British in 1947, the overwhelming majority of Muslims in former Malabar District have supported the [[Indian Union Muslim League|Muslim League]]. In south Kerala, the community generally supported [[Indian National Congress]] and in the north Kerala a small proportion vote Communist Left. Politically, the Muslims in Kerala have exhibited more unanimity than any other major communities in modern Kerala.<ref name="Nossiter" />

== Theological orientations/denominations ==
Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow the traditional [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist Sunnis) while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within [[Sunni Islam]]. The latter section consists of majority [[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]] and the minority [[Islamism|Islamists]].<ref name="brill1">Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.</ref>

The Sunnis referred here are identified by their conventional beliefs and practices and adherence to the [[Shafi‘i|Shāfiʿī]] [[madhhab]], while the other theological orientations, of which the Salafi Mujahids constitute a large majority, are seen as modern "reform" movements within the Sunni Islam. Both the Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to a number of sub-identities.<ref>Shajahan Madampat, "Malappuram Isn't Mini Kashmir" ''Outlook'' 21 August 2017 [https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/malappuram-isnt-mini-kashmir/299195]</ref><ref name="brill1" />
* [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī Islam]]<ref name=":21">[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/2788279.pdf Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India] Modern Asian Studies</ref>
**[[Shafi'i|Shāfi'ī]]<ref name=":21"/>—two factions.
**[[Salafi movement|Salafists (the Mujahids)]]—with different splinter factions (with varying degrees of puritanism).<ref name=":21"/> [[Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen]] (K. N. M) is the largest Mujahid organisation in Kerala.<ref name=":21" />
**[[Islamism|Islamists]] ([[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind|the Jama'at-i-Islami India]])—representing [[political Islam]] in Kerala.<ref name=":21"/>
**[[Hanafi|Ḥanafī]]
* [[Shia Islam|Shīiah Islam]]

==Culture==
===Mappila literature===
Mappila Songs/Poems is a famous [[folklore]] tradition emerged in ''c.'' 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Malayalam/Tamil and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.<ref name="hindu_may09">{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/07/stories/2006050719690300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107014307/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/07/stories/2006050719690300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 November 2012|title=Preserve identity of Mappila songs|date=7 May 2006|access-date=15 August 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as romance, satire, religion, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

As the modern Mappila literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Mappila authors of the modern age. Mappila periodical literature and newspaper dailies — all in Malayalam — are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "[[Chandrika (newspaper)|Chandrika]]", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Mappila community.<ref name="TheEncyclopediaofIslam2"/>

=== Mappila folk arts ===
* [[Oppana]] was a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslims of Kerala. It is generally presented by women numbering about fifteen including musicians, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief spectator; she sits on a peetham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps. Two or three girls begin the songs and the rest join the chorus.
* Kolkkali was a popular dance form among the Muslims of Kerala. It is played in group of 12 people with two sticks, similar to the [[Dandiya Raas|Dandiya]] dance of Gujarat.
* [[Duffmuttu|Duff Muttu]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WcJ7kNsdrA |title=Madikeri, Coorg, "Gaddige Mohiyadeen Ratib" Islamic religious "dikr" is held once in a year. |publisher=YouTube |access-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims of Kerala, using the traditional ''duff'', or [[daf]], also known as ''tappitta''. Participants dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.

=== Mappila marriage : Arabi Kalyanam ===
Mappila marriage traditionally were simple affairs done in Islamic style with exchange of Mahar or Mehr, by the groom to his bride. Until well into the European period, the Muslims were almost exclusively concentrated in the port cities. Middle Eastern sailors had to rely on lighterage at most of the Kerala ports in the medieval period. This led them to enter into beneficial sexual relationships with the traditional lower caste fishermen community. This practice was called Arabi Kalyanam in Malayalam, and Mutah in Arabic. And the children born out of this were called "Mappilas". As Mappilas followed Matrilinear system, the Arabi Kalyanam did not pose a hinderance to property inheritance.

===Mappila Cuisine===
{{See also|Thalassery cuisine}}
{{Multiple image
|align= centre
|direction = horizontal
|width= 150
|header_align = left/right/center
|footer_align = left/right/center
|header_background =
|footer_background =
|image1 = Pathiri.jpg
|caption1 = ''[[Pathiri]]'', a pancake made of [[rice flour]], is one of the common breakfast dishes in Malabar
|image2 = KallummakkayaNirachath.jpg
|caption2 = ''Kallummakkaya nirachathu'' or ''arikkadukka'' (mussels stuffed with rice)
|image3 = Chicken Biriyani with Raita.jpg
|caption3 = Thalassery ''biryani'' with ''[[raita]]''
|image4 = Calicut Halwa.jpg
|caption4 = Halwas are popular in towns like [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Kozhikode]], and [[Ponnani]]
}}
The Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional [[Kerala]], [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian]], [[Yemeni cuisine|Yemenese]] and [[Arab]] food culture.<ref name="MC">{{Cite news|title=Straight from the Malabar Coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/straight-from-the-malabar-coast/article27942808.ece|last=Sabhnani|first=Dhara Vora|date=June 14, 2019|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.<ref name="MC"/> ''Kallummakkaya'' ([[mussels]]) [[curry]], ''irachi puttu'' (''irachi'' meaning meat), ''parottas'' (soft flatbread),<ref name="MC"/> ''[[Pathiri]]'' (a type of rice pancake)<ref name="MC"/> and ''[[ghee]]'' rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—[[black pepper]], [[cardamom]] and [[clove]] are used profusely.

The [[Malabar District|Malabar]] version of ''[[biryani]]'', popularly known as ''kuzhi mandi'' in [[Malayalam]] is another popular item, which has an influence from [[Yemen]]. Various varieties of ''biriyanis'' like [[Thalassery biriyani|Thalassery ''biriyani'']], Kannur ''biriyani'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-23|title=Thalassery Chicken Biriyani|url=https://www.thetakeiteasychef.com/thalassery-chicken-biriyani-recipe|access-date=2021-05-13|website=The Take It Easy Chef|language=en-GB}}</ref> Kozhikode ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shamsul|date=2016-05-07|title=Calicut Biryani Recipe I Kozhikodan Biriyani Recipe|url=https://www.cookawesome.com/calicut-biryani-recipe-kozhikodan-biriyani-recipe/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=CookAwesome|language=en-US}}</ref> and Ponnani ''biriyani''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chicken and rosewater biryani recipe|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/chicken_and_rosewater_70042|access-date=2021-05-13|website=BBC Food|language=en}}</ref> are prepared by the Mappila community.<ref name="MC"/>

The snacks include ''[[Unnakai|unnakkaya]]'' (deep-fried, boiled ripe [[banana]] paste covering a mixture of cashew, [[raisins]] and [[sugar]]),<ref name="MC_2">{{Cite news|title=Flavours unlimited from the Malabar coast|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Food/flavours-unlimited-from-the-malabar-coast/article6170291.ece|last=Kurian|first=Shijo|date=July 2, 2014|access-date=January 26, 2021|work=The Hindu}}</ref> ''[[Pazham pori|pazham nirachathu]]'' (ripe banana filled with [[coconut]] grating, [[molasses]] or sugar),<ref name="MC_2"/> ''[[Fios de ovos|muttamala]]'' made of [[egg as food|eggs]],<ref name="MC"/> ''[[chatti pathiri]]'', a [[dessert]] made of flour, like a baked, layered ''chapati'' with rich filling, ''arikkadukka'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-30|title=Arikkadukka – Spicy Stuffed Mussels|url=https://www.facesplacesandplates.com/arikkadukka-spicy-stuffed-mussels/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=Faces Places and Plates|language=en-US}}</ref> and more.<ref name="MC"/>

{{Gallery
|title=Mappila Community
|width=290 | height=190
|align=
|File:Codice Casanatense Malabarese Muslims (cropped).jpg
|Anonymous 16th-century Portuguese illustration from ''Códice Casanatense'', depicting Kerala Muslims ("Mouros Malabares")
|File:Moplah_prisoners.jpg
|Mappilas captured after a battle with [[British Indian Army|colonial troops]], during the [[Malabar Rebellion]].
|File:Moplah prisoners go to trial at Calicut.jpg
|Mappila prisoners of 1921–22 Uprising go to trial at Calicut
|File:Portrait of Moplah man and woman from west coast of South India in costume (cropped).jpg
|Mappila man and woman from Kerala
|File:മലബാറിലെ മാപ്പിള (1926 - 1933).jpg
|Mappila man in Malabar (1926–1933)
|File:Ali Musliyar.jpg
| [[Ali Musliyar]], the rebel leader of the Mappila Uprising (1921–22), shortly before his execution in Coimbatore.
|File:Muslim women of Kerala (1901).jpg
|Mappila women in their traditional attire (1904)
|File:മലപ്പുറം ജില്ലയിൽ പൊന്നാനിയിലെ ഹാർബർ (1930-37).jpg
|Muslims of [[Ponnani]] (1930–37)
}}

==See also==
{{commons category}}
*[[Arabi Malayalam]]
*[[Arabi Malayalam script]]
*[[Beary|Beary Muslims]]
*[[Beary language]]
*[[Tamil Muslim]]
*[[Sri Lankan Moors]]
*[[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation
| author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
| title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
| url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
| access-date = 3 December 2020}} (The English translation of the historic work [[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]] written about the society of Kerala by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] during sixteenth century CE)

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUYS0oAmBek BBC Hindi on Muslims in Kerala]

{{Indian Muslim}}
{{Islam in Kerala}}{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mappila, Muslim}}
[[Category:Muslim communities of Kerala]]
[[Category:Mappilas| ]]
[[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]
[[Category:Islam in Kerala]]
[[Category:Moors]]

Kshatriya

2023-07-14T07:43:50Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: A small editing making corrections

{{short description|Ruling and warrior class in the Hindu Varna system of India}}
{{For|the Bollywood film of the same name|Kshatriya (film)}}

{{Multiple issues|
{{original research|date=April 2015}}
{{confusing|date=April 2015}}
}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Hindu-society-caste-kshatriya.jpg|thumb|A Kshatriya man]]
'''Kshatriya''' ({{lang-hi|क्षत्रिय}}) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] (social orders) of [[Hindu]] society, associated with [[warrior]] [[aristocracy]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|title=History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|publisher=University of California Pres|year=2004|pages=63}}</ref> The [[Sanskrit]] term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the context of [[Vedic]] society wherein members were organised into four classes: ''[[brahmin]]'', kshatriya, ''[[vaishya]]'' and ''[[shudra]]''.<ref>Bujor Avari (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1e2V_4Um10C&pg=PA74&dq=indo-aryan+society+kshatriya&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eLhWUrnwLfGw4APh24CYAQ&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCTgK#v=onepage&q=indo-aryan%20society%20kshatriya&f=false India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200]'', p. 89</ref>

==History==
===Early Rigvedic tribal monarchy===
The administrative machinery in the Vedic India was headed by a tribal king called Rajan whose position may or may not have been hereditary.<ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas">{{Cite book|last=Renou|first=Louis|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6854|title=Vedic India|date=1957|pages=130}}</ref> The king may have been elected in a tribal assembly (called Samiti), which included women.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shori|first=Maj Gen A. K.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRCiBQAAQBAJ&dq=The+king+was+elected+in+a+tribal+assembly+(called+Samiti)+which+%22included+women%22.&pg=PT87|title=Seven Shades of Rama|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-93-84391-74-4|language=en|chapter=Fifth Shade : Rama as A King}}</ref><ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas"/> The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle; was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a [[social class]]. The concept of the fourfold varna system is not yet recorded.<ref name=raj>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ram Sharan|title=India's ancient past|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=the University of Michigan|isbn= 9780195667141|pages=110–112}}</ref>

===Later Vedic period===
The hymn ''[[Purusha Sukta]]'' to the ''[[Rigveda]]'' describes the symbolic creation of the four varna-s through [[Purusha Sukta|cosmic]] sacrifice (yajña). Some scholars consider the Purusha Sukta to be a late interpolation into the Rigveda based on the neological character of the composition, as compared to the more archaic style of the Vedic literature.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta">{{Cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel P.|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-937018-4|pages=57–58|language=en}}</ref> Since not all Indians were fully regulated under the varna in the Vedic society,<ref>David Kean (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=beJP_BOIhEcC&pg=PA26 Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law], p. 26. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.</ref> the Purusha Sukta was supposedly composed in order to secure Vedic sanction for the heredity caste scheme.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta"/> An alternate explanation is that the word 'Shudra' does not occur anywhere else in the ''Rig-veda'' except the ''Purusha Sukta'', leading some scholars to believe the ''Purusha Sukta'' was a composition of the later Rig-vedic period itself to denote, legitimize and sanctify an oppressive and exploitative class structure that had already come into existence.<ref>
Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=gwUF11NRyT4C&pg=PA37 Class and Religion in Ancient India], pp. 37–47. Anthem Press.</ref>

Although the ''Purusha Sukta'' uses the term ''rajanya'', not ''Kshatriya'', it is considered the first instance in the extant Vedic texts where four social classes are mentioned for the first time together.<ref name="Roy">Kumkum Roy (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TGzbPNdtJGsC&pg=PA148 Insights and Interventions: Essays in Honour of Uma Chakravarti], p. 148. Primus Books.</ref> Usage of the term ''Rajanya'' possibly indicates the 'kinsmen of the Rajan' (i.e., kinsmen of the ruler) had emerged as a distinct social group then,<ref name="Roy"/> such that by the end of the Vedic period, the term ''rajanya'' was replaced by ''Kshatriya''; where ''rajanya'' stresses kinship with the ''Rajan'' and ''Kshatriya'' denotes power over a specific domain.<ref name="Roy"/> The term rajanya unlike the word Kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas ''Kshatra'', means "ruling; one of the ruling order".<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Turner
| first = Sir Ralph Lilley
| author-link = Ralph Lilley Turner
| author2 =Dorothy Rivers Turner
| title = A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages.
| url = http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:81.soas
| access-date =23 October 2011
| edition = Accompanied by three supplementary volumes: ''indexes'', compiled by Dorothy Rivers Turner: 1969. – ''Phonetic analysis'': 1971. – ''Addenda et corrigenda'': 1985.
| orig-year = 1962
|date=January 2006
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = London
| pages = 189–190
}}</ref>
Jaiswal points out the term ''Brahman'' rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the ''Purusha Sukta'' and may not have been used for the priestly class.<ref name="Roy"/> Based on the authority of [[Pāṇini]], [[Patanjali]], [[Kātyāyana]] and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of political people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore, a [[democracy]] (with an elected ruler).<ref name="choudhary">
Radhakrishna Choudhary (1964). The Vrātyas in Ancient India, Volume 38 of Chowkhamba Sanskrit studies, p. 125. Sanskrit Series Office.</ref> Some examples were the [[Andhaka]] and [[Vrishni|Vrsni]] Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers.<ref name="Roy"/> Ram Sharan Sharma details how the central chief was elected by various clan chiefs or lineage chiefs with increasing polarisation between the ''rajanya'' (aristocracy helping the ruler) and the ''vis'' (peasants) leading to a distinction between the chiefs as a separate class (''raja, rajanya, kshatra, kshatriya'') on one hand and ''vis'' (clan peasantry) on the other hand.<ref name="sharma">Ram Sharan Sharma (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=9_E3K8fQoDgC&pg=PA172 Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, p. 172]. Motilal Banarsidass Publications.</ref>

The term kshatriya comes from ''kshatra'' and implies temporal authority and power which was based less on being a successful leader in battle and more on the tangible power of laying claim to sovereignty over a territory, and symbolising ownership over clan lands. This later gave rise to the idea of kingship.<ref name=raj1>{{cite book|last=Reddy|title=General Studies History 4 Upsc|year=2005|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn= 9780070604476|pages=78,79,33,80,27,123}}</ref>

In the period of the [[Brahmana]]s (800 BCE to 700 BCE) there was ambiguity in the position of the varna. In the ''Panchavimsha Brahmana'' (13,4,7), the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11'', the Kshatriya are placed second. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12'' the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of [[dharmasutra]]s (450 BCE to 100 BCE).<ref>Upinder Singh (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA202 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p. 202]. Pearson Education India.</ref> The kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles.<ref name=Auboyer>{{cite book|author=Jeanne Auboyer|title=Daily Life in Ancient India|year=1965|publisher=Phoenix Press|isbn=1-84212-591-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/26 26–27]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/26}}</ref> Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, but they generally acknowledged the superiority of the priestly class.<ref name=Auboyer/> The Kshatriyas also began to question the yajnas of the [[historical Vedic religion]], which led to religious ideas developed in the [[Upanishads]].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=129, 131}}

=== Mahajanapadas ===
The ''gaṇa sangha'' form of government was a oligarchic republic during the period of the [[Mahajanapadas]] (c. 600-300 BCE), that was ruled by Kshatriya clans. However, these kshatriyas did not follow the Vedic religion, and were sometimes called degenerate Kshatriyas or Shudras by Brahmanical sources. The kshatriyas served as representatives in the assembly at the capital, debated various issues put before the assembly.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=146–150}} Due to the lack of patronage of Vedic Brahmanism, the kshatriyas of the gana sanghas were often patrons of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=170}}

In the kingdoms of the Mahajanapadas, the king claimed kshatriya status through the Vedic religion. While kings claimed to be kshatriya, some kings came from non-kshatriya origins.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=150–151}}

After the Mahajanapada period, most of the prominent royal dynasties in northern [[Indian subcontinent|India]] were not kshatriyas. The [[Nanda Empire]], whose rulers were stated to be shudras, destroyed many kshatriya lineages.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=155–156}}

=== Post-Mauryan Kshatriyas ===
After the collapse of the [[Maurya Empire]], numerous clan-based polities in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan claimed kshatriya status.{{Sfn|Thapar|2002|p=211}}

The [[Shakas]] and [[Yavanas]] were considered to be low-status or vratya kshatriyas by brahmin authors.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=227}}

In the third to fourth centuries CE, kingdoms in the [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]] rivers claimed kshatriya status and performed [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic rituals]] to legitimate themselves as rulers.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=228–229}}

=== Emergence of "Puranic" Kshatriyas ===
In the era from 300 to 700 CE, new royal dynasties were bestowed kshatriya status by brahmins by linking them to the kshatriyas of the epics and Puranas. Dynasties began affiliating themselves with the [[Solar dynasty|Solar]] and [[Lunar dynasty|Lunar dynasties]] and this gave them legitimation as rulers.. In return the newly christened kshatriyas would patronize and reward the brahmins. The Sanskritic culture of the kshatriyas of this period was heavily influential for later periods and set the style that kshatriyas of later periods appealed to. This process took place both in North India and the Deccan.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=320, 324, 341, 370}}

=== Modern era ===
Writing in the context of how the [[jajmani system]] operated in the 1960s, Pauline Kolenda noted that the "caste function of the Kshatriya is to lead and protect the village, and with conquest to manage their conquered lands. The Kshatriyas do perform these functions today to the extent possible, by distributing food as payments to ''kamins'' and providing leadership."<ref name="kolenda">{{cite journal |title=Toward a Model of the Hindu Jajmani System |first=Pauline Mahar |last=Kolenda |journal=Human Organization |volume=22 |issue=1 |date=Spring 1963 |pages=11–31 |doi=10.17730/humo.22.1.x01162046g995q1j |jstor=44124164}}</ref>

==Symbols==

In rituals, the ''nyagrodha'' (''[[Ficus indica]]'' or India fig or [[banyan]] tree) ''danda'', or staff, is assigned to the kshatriya class, along with a mantra, intended to impart physical vitality or 'ojas'.<ref>Brian K. Smith. [https://books.google.com/books/about/Reflections_On_Resemblance_Ritual_And_Re.html?id=nkruE6UCz54C ''Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion''], Motilal Banarsidass Publishe, 1998</ref>

==Lineage==

The Vedas do not mention kshatriya (or varna) of any ''vansha'' (lineage). The lineages of the [[Itihasa]]-[[Purana]] tradition<ref name="indianhistory"/> are: the [[Solar dynasty]] (Suryavanshi);<ref name="indianhistory"/> and the [[Lunar dynasty]] (Chandravansi/ Somavanshi).<ref name="indianhistory"/>

There are other lineages, such as [[Agnivanshi]] ("fire lineage"), in which an eponymous ancestor rises out of [[Agni]] (fire),<ref name="indianhistory">Indian History: Ancient and medieval, p. 22. Volume 1 of Indian History, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2003.</ref> and Nagavanshi (snake-born), claiming descent from the [[Nāga]]s. The Nagavanshi, not mentioned as a purely independent lineage, were Naga clans whose origin can be found in scriptures.<ref>Omacanda Hāṇḍā. Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya, p. 251. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA251]</ref>

{{clear}}

==See also==
*[[Indian caste system]]
*[[Forward caste]]s
*[[Sanskritisation]]
*[[AJGAR]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|group=groupname}}
{{Reflist|group=ghu}}

==Further reading==
*Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age''. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. pp. 313–314

{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}

{{Hinduism footer small}}
{{Social class}}

[[Category:Kshatriya| ]]
[[Category:Varnas in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Warriors]]

Caste system in Kerala

2023-07-14T07:37:25Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Fixed inaccurate information and added accurate historical information

{{EngvarB|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
The '''caste system in [[Kerala]]''' differed from that found in the rest of India. While the [[Indian caste system]] generally modeled the four-fold division of society into [[Brahmin]]s, [[Kshatriya]]s, [[Vaishya]]s and [[Shudra]]s, in Kerala at first the [[Nambudiri]] Brahmins formed the priestly class and only rarely recognized anyone else as being other than mixed(misra jati), Shudra and[[Untouchability|Avarnas]], the latter being outside the caste system entirely. But eventually a caste system was crystallized in Kerala with the total absence of Malayali Vaishyas and inclusion of a fifth group of people known as Avarnas or Panchamas. Thus, the Kerala caste system was ritualized but it was not the ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' model found elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Cambridge economic history of India |first= Dharma |last=Kumar |publisher= Cambridge University |year=1982 |page=32 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Cambridge_Economic_History_of_India/L-s8AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Nayar}}</ref>

==Origin of the caste system==
In Sangam age itself there was a hierachy based on division of labour as per the interpretations of Sangam Literature by many historians. But its inferred that it was not rigid as in post-Chera times by observing a lack of endogamy rule mentions in any Sangam age texts.
A theory presented by Cyriac Pullapilly and also by Rene Barendse, who {{as of|2012|lc=yes}} is a Fellow of the [[International Institute for Asian Studies]], claims that the caste system established by later migrants Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala was in accordance with the will of [[Parasurama]], an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]. The [[Nambudiris]] had control of 64 villages and asserted that they had powers given to them by the gods, so much so that they considered even other Brahmin groups to be outside the caste hierarchy. Both writers consider this to be the traditional Nambudiri myth of origin.<ref name=Pullapilly1976pp26-30/><ref name=Barendse2009p640>Barendse (2009), p. 640.</ref> The Nambudiri Brahmins were at the top of the ritual caste hierarchy, outranking even the kings. Anyone who was not a Nambudiri was treated by them as an untouchable.<ref name="SchneiderGoughp306">Gough (1961), p. 306.</ref>

==Ritual pollution==
The entire Malabar region had strict pollution rules that were considered by the observers to be the most extreme in all of India. Lower caste people could use only separate paths and their houses were in places where they could not be seen. Lower castes can pollute a Brahmin or Nair, not by mere touch but also coming within certain feet from them. [[Nair]] warriors could kill a lower caste [[Pulayar]] on sight if they met with one of them on the highway.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Randall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v39x_fKR-ykC&pg=PA301|title=Weberian Sociological Theory|date=1986-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31426-8|pages=300,301|language=en}}</ref>{{better source|date=June 2020}} The [[Nambudiri|Nambudhri]] Brahmins were top of the caste hierarchy and the Pulayar were at the lowest.<ref name="NT11">{{harv|Fuller C|1976|p=11}}</ref> According to most travelers, the Nairs were placed just below the Brahmins in Caste hierarchy. The Ambalavasis were kept as an intermediate caste between the Brahmins and the Nairs.<ref name="NT13">{{harv|Fuller C|1976|p=13}}</ref> The [[Lower Caste|lower castes]] were known as ''tintal jati,'' i.e. castes which pollutes at a distance.<ref name="NT12">{{harv|Fuller C|1976|p=12}}</ref> The food of the [[Upper Castes|upper castes]] were referred to as "''Amruthathu"'' ([[Elixir of life|elixir]]) and the food of the lower castes was called "''karikadi"'' (black brew), similarly the, dwelling places of the higher castes and the thatched huts of the lower castes were called the "''royal abode''" and "''the field of rubbish''" respectively.<ref>{{harv|Nair|1986|p=37}}</ref>

The lower castes collectively called Avarnas, particularly the Pulayars were not even allowed to breathe the same air as the other castes or use a public pathway.<ref name="NT12" /> A lower caste person could pollute a higher caste person by merely coming within a certain distance from him or in extreme cases the pollution is transmitted even by simply seeing a lower caste person.<ref name="NT11" /> If by accident he was there and he sees an approaching Nair or a Brahmin, he must make a loud howling sound to warn the upper castes from getting near until he went away or climbed up a tree. If a Nair meets a Pulayar on the highway by accident, he cuts him down like a others cut an unpleasant animal. The Nair's right to kill any Pulayar imminently he met on the pathway is confirmed by almost all visitors to Kerala. Even the other lower castes had no communication with the Pulayar. According to [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|Buchanan]], the Nairs killed not only the Pulayars but any member of the other lower polluting castes, including the [[Ezhava]]s.<ref name="NT12" /> Pollution rules were also observed in touching and sexual intercourse with the lower castes. Casting out the person from the caste was the punishment for disobeying the caste rules regarding pollution and in some cases sold into slavery and even death. If a Nambudhiri Brahmin woman is accused of [[Extramarital sex|illegitimate sexual relations]], she is kept in a separate hut as her presence could pollute other members of her family before being [[Interrogation|interrogated]] by a caste court, the system is known as ''smarthavicaram.''<ref name="NT13" /> If the man involved was an Upper Caste Nair or anyone above,then the child born from the union was given to Chakyars and raised as one. If the man was of any caste lower than that up to Thiyyas, then the kids were adopted to Mannannar household in North Kerala.
Pollution by approaching a [[Muslims|Muslim]], Christian, or a [[Jews|Jew]] is not observed but their touch is considered severely polluting. The custom for removing pollution is a [[Bathing|bath]] by complete immersion in water.<ref name="NA38">{{harv|Nair|1986|p=38}}</ref>

The Nambudiris had varying rules regarding the degrees of ritual pollution while interacting with people of different castes. In return, most castes practiced the principles of untouchability in their relationship with the other regional castes.<ref name="Jeffrey1976pp9-10">Jeffrey (1976), pp. 9–10.</ref> Untouchability in Kerala is not restricted to Hindus, and George Mathew says that, "Technically, the Christians were outside the caste hierarchy, but in practice, a system of inclusion and exclusion was developed ...".<ref>Mathew (1989), p. 22.</ref> Among Christians, the established [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] also practiced the rules of untouchability. In the colonial period, many lower castes were converted to Christians by the European Missionaries but the new converts were not allowed to join the Syrian Christian community and they continued to be considered as untouchables even by the Syrian Christians. Syrian Christians derive status within the caste system from the tradition that they were elites, who were [[Saint Thomas Christians|evangeli]]<nowiki/>z[[Saint Thomas Christians|ed]] by [[Thomas the Apostle]].<ref name="Fuller1976p55">Fuller (1976), pp. 55-56.</ref><ref name="Fuller, C.J 1977 pp. 528-529">Fuller, C.J. "Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins." ''[[Man (journal)|Man]]''. New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec. 1977), pp. 528–529.</ref><ref>Amaladass (1993), pp. 15-19.</ref> Anand Amaladass says that "The Syrian Christians had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society for centuries and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy."<ref>Amaladass (1993), p. 18.</ref> Syrian Christians followed the same rules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus and they were considered as pollution neutralizers.<ref name="Fuller1976p55" /><ref name="Benedict325">Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pAncGlpGW8wC&pg=PA91 ''Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique''], pp. 325–330. Media House Delhi.</ref> Rajendra Prasad, an Indian historian, said that the Syrian Christians took ritual baths after physical contact with lower castes .<ref>{{cite book |last=Prasad |first=Rajendra |title=A Historical Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |year=2009 |volume=12 |publisher=Concept Publishing |isbn=978-8-18069-595-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gtxVmUr1ygC&pg=PA484}}</ref>

The rules of untouchability were severe to begin with, and they were very strictly enforced among Hindu communities by the time of the arrival of the [[Dutch East India Company]] in the 17th century.<ref name=Barendse2009p640/> [[Robin Jeffrey]], who is a professor specialising in the modern history and politics of India, quotes the wife of a Christian missionary, who wrote in 1860 that: {{quote|... a Nair can approach but not touch a Namboodiri Brahmin: a Ezhava must remain thirty-six paces off, and a Pulayan slave ninety-six steps distant. A Ezhava must remain twelve steps away from a Nair, and a Pulayan sixty-six steps off, and a Parayan some distance farther still ... Pulayans and Parayars, who are the lowest of all, can approach but not touch, much less may they eat with each other.<ref name=Jeffrey1976pp9-10/>}}

Nonetheless, higher ranked communities did have some social responsibility for those perceived to be their inferiors: for example, they could demand forced labor but had to provide food for such laborers, and they had responsibilities in times of famine to provide their tenants both with food and with the seeds to grow it. There were also responsibilities to protect such people from the dangers of attack and other threats to their livelihood, and so it has been described by Barendse as "an intricate dialectic of rights and duties".<ref>Barendse (2009), pp. 641-642.</ref>

=== Ritual pollution during slavery ===
According to an estimate by Dr. Francis Buchanan in 1801 AD, 41,367 persons out of the 292,366 populations were slaves in the south, central and Northern divisions of the Malabar.<ref>{{harv|Nair|1986|p=40}}</ref> In the census of 1836, 164,864 people out of the 1,280,668 were slaves in Travancore.<ref>{{harv|Nair|1986|p=41}}</ref> There was an estimated 4.25 lakh slaves in Kerala during the middle of the 19th century.<ref name="NA43">{{harv|Nair|1986|p=43}}</ref>

The slaves belonged to the lower castes and were employed only for feudal work, and the stigma that they should be kept away from their masters was strictly followed. Samuel Mateer, noted that even in the working fields the slaves were supervised from a distance.<ref name="NA38" />

Based on the 1881 census an estimated 40,000 slaves converted to Islam from 1871 to 1881. Many slaves also converted to [[Christianity]] in [[Cochin]] and [[Travancore]] during this period. During the 1882 Christian Mission Conference, it was reported that the population of [[Mappila|Muslim Mapillas]] were increasing rapidly due to the conversion from the lower strata of the Hindu society, and in such a phase, the entire west coast could become Muslim.<ref name="NA43" />

==Caste system in colonial Kerala==
By the late 19th century, the caste system of Kerala had evolved to be the most complex to be found anywhere in India,<ref name="Nossiter1982pp25-27"/> and the exploitation of it had become considerable. Barendse explains this development: {{quote|... it turned to gross unrequited exploitation only in the nineteenth century when the British colonial pacification removed the threat of the peasant harvests being ravaged by armies or robbers and their huts being burned to the ground.<ref>Barendse (2009), p. 643.</ref>}}

By this time there were over 500 groups represented in an elaborate structure of relationships and the concept of ritual pollution extended not merely to untouchability but even further, to un-approachability and even un-seeability. The system was gradually reformed to some degree, with one of those reformers, [[Swami Vivekananda]], having observed that it represented a "mad house" of castes. The usual four-tier Hindu caste system, involving the ''varnas'' of Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya (business person, involved in trading, entrepreneurship and finance) and Shudra (service person), did not exist.Dwija Kshatriyas were rare and the Vaishyas were not present.The roles left empty by the absence of these two ritual ranks were taken to some extent by the Vratya Kshatriyas called Nairs,and by Syrian Christians, respectively.<ref name="Nossiter1982pp25-27">Nossiter (1982), pp.25–27.</ref>

==Caste in the modern era==
The process of amelioration of caste distinctions by various social reform movements were overtaken by the events of 1947. With [[Partition of India|independence]] from Britain came the [[Indian constitution]], and Article 15 of that document outlawed discrimination on the grounds of caste and race.<ref>Constitution.</ref> [[Myron Weiner]] has said that the ideological basis for caste "... may be (almost, but not quite) moribund"<ref name=Weiner2001p195>Weiner (2001), p. 195.</ref> and that: {{quote|No political parties, and no political leaders, no intellectuals support the idea that caste is part of a natural moral order based on hierarchy, ... that caste is occupationally linked and hereditary, that each caste (''jati'') embodies its own code of conduct (''dharma''), and that low-caste membership is the consequence of transgressions in one's previous life.<ref>Weiner (2001), p. 193.</ref>}}

Weiner points out that despite the ideological demise: {{quote|... as a lived-in social reality it is very much alive. The demise of orthodoxy, right beliefs, has not meant the demise of orthopraxy, right practice. Caste remains endogamous. Lower castes, especially members of scheduled castes, remain badly treated by those of higher castes. But the gap between beliefs and practices is the source of tension and change. The lower castes no longer accept their position in the social hierarchy, and no longer assume that their lower economic status and the lack of respect from members of the higher castes are a "given" in their social existence. But the movement for change is not a struggle to end caste; it is to use caste as an instrument for social change. Caste is not disappearing, nor is "casteism" - the political use of caste — for what is emerging in India is a social and political system which institutionalizes and transforms but does not abolish caste.<ref name=Weiner2001p195/>}}

Despite being outlawed, the Indian governments – both at national and at regional level – do still recognise distinctions between the various communities but this recognition is for the purpose of [[positive discrimination]]. Throughout post-independence India, including in Kerala, there exists a framework of [[Reservation in India|reservation]] which is fluid in nature and attempts to recognise the socio-economic disparities between various castes. Depending both on local circumstances and on the changing modern socio-economic environment, castes are classified as [[Forward caste|Forward Classes]] (or ''General''), [[Other backward caste|Other Backward Classes]], [[Scheduled castes|Scheduled Castes]], and the [[Scheduled tribes|Scheduled Tribes]]. These classifications determine what - if any - assistance a caste community receives in any given area. Formal classification lists are compiled for the latter three groups; any community which is not listed in any of those categories is, by default, a Forward Class.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Writing in the context of violence against [[Dalit]]s (untouchables) elsewhere in India, ''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'' magazine said in 2006 that: {{quote|Successive governments have brought in legislation and programmes to protect the rights of Dalit communities. The safeguards enshrined in the Constitution stipulate that governments should take special care to advance the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, that untouchability is unacceptable and that all Dalit communities should have unrestricted entry in Hindu temples and other religious institutions. There are political safeguards in the form of reserved seats in State legislatures and in Parliament ... But prejudices die hard.<ref>Viswanathanin & Shramakrishnan (2006), p. 6.</ref>}} However, ''Frontline'' goes on to note that the situation in Kerala now, is not as severe, to the extent that those seeking to research: {{quote|... continuing inequality and deprivation among traditionally disadvantaged groups in Kerala do not include Dalits any longer in their list of communities that still represent "distinct pockets of deprivation". The list includes only the traditional coastal fishing communities, the S.T.s [Scheduled Tribes] of North Kerala, and the new underclass of Tamil migrant workers ...<ref>Krishnakumar (2006), p. 24.</ref>}}

==Demographics==
Around 2003, the Government of Kerala recognised 53 Scheduled Castes, 35 Scheduled Tribes and 80 Other Backwards Classes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official website of Kerala government |url=http://www.keralapsc.org/scstobc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215234049/http://www.keralapsc.org/scstobc.htm |archive-date=15 February 2008 }}</ref> The 2001 [[Census of India]] recognised 68 Scheduled Castes, who comprised 9.8% of the population. They were 99.9% Hindu, with a negligible number of Sikhs and Buddhists.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes |publisher=Census of India 2001 |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_kerala.pdf |date=27 March 2007 |access-date=8 November 2011}}
</ref> The Census recognised 35 Scheduled Tribes, comprising 1.14% of the population and with 93.7% being Hindus. A further 5.8% were Christian, and the remainder Muslim or "not stated".<ref>{{cite web |title=Data Highlights: The Scheduled Tribes |publisher=Census of India 2001 |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_st_kerala.pdf |date=27 March 2007 |access-date=8 November 2011}}
</ref>

==See also==
*[[Caste system among South Asian Christians]]
* [[Upper cloth revolt]]
* [[Sambandam]]

==References==
'''Citations'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019 (Malayalam Edition)|publisher=P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode|year=2018|location=Kozhikode|last=Chandran |first=VP}}
{{refend}}

'''Bibliography'''

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*{{cite web |title=Excerpts from The Constitution of India |publisher=Left Justified |year = 1997 |url=http://www.leftjustified.com/leftjust/lib/sc/ht/wtp/india.html |access-date=8 November 2011|ref=none}}
*{{cite journal |title=Kerala Christians and the Caste System |first=C. J. |last=Fuller |journal=Man |series=New Series |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=March 1976 |pages=53–70 |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |jstor=2800388 |doi=10.2307/2800388 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC |author-link=Kathleen Gough |access-date=9 June 2011|ref=Gough1961}}
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*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TuPeXFP0WgC |title=Communal Road To A Secular Kerala |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |first=George |last=Mathew |year=1989 | isbn=978-81-7022-282-8|ref=none}}
*{{cite book |title=Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation |first=Thomas Johnson |last=Nossiter |publisher=University of California Press |year=1982 |chapter=Kerala's identity: unity and diversity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |author-link=Thomas Nossiter |access-date=9 June 2011|ref=Nossiter1982}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC |title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia |volume=22 |series=International studies in sociology and social anthropology |editor-first=Bardwell L. |editor-last=Smith |publisher=E. J. Brill |first=Cyriac K. |last=Pullapilly |author-link=Cyriac Pullapilly |chapter=The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society|location=Netherlands |year=1976 |access-date=9 June 2011 | isbn=978-90-04-04510-1|ref=none}}
*{{cite book |chapter=Interaction between Classical Indian Ethics and Christian Ethics |first=C. D. |last=Sebastian |editor-first=Rajendra |editor-last=Prasad |title=A Historical-Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |series=History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilisation, Vol. XII, Part 2 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |location=Delhi |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-8069-595-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gtxVmUr1ygC |access-date=3 May 2012|ref=none}}
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*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Io0NsnlRT6sC |chapter=The struggle for equality: caste in Indian politics |title=The Success of India's Democracy |volume=6 |series=Contemporary South Asia |editor-first=Atul |editor-last=Kohil |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |first=Myron |last=Weiner |author-link=Myron Weiner |year=2001 |access-date=8 November 2011 | isbn=978-0-521-80530-8|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Nayars today|last=Fuller C|first=J|date=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-521-21301-1|location=Cambridge; New York|language=en|oclc=2238183}}
* {{Cite book|title=Slavery in Kerala|last=Nair|first=Adoor Ramachandran|date=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications : Distributed by Mittal Publishers' Distributors|year=1986|isbn=9780836419146|location=Delhi|language=en|oclc=14819318}}
{{Kerala}}
{{Kerala topics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Caste System In Kerala}}
[[Category:Caste system in India|Kerala]]
[[Category:Kerala society]]

Vattakottai Fort

2023-07-14T07:02:09Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Minor edit adding some information

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Vattakottai Fort
| native_language = Tamil
| image = Vattakottai Fort Entrance.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| designation1 =
| designation1_date =
| designation1_number =
| designation1_criteria =
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = {{IND}}
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value =
| location = [[Kanyakumari]], [[India]]
| elevation =
| built =
| architect =
| architecture =
| coordinates = {{coord|8.125|77.565|display=inline}}
| locmapin = India Tamil Nadu
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
}}

'''Vattakottai Fort''' (or 'Circular Fort') is a seaside fort near [[Kanyakumari]], [[Tamil Nadu]] the southern tip of [[India]]. It was built in the 18th century as a coastal defence-fortification and barracks in the former [[Travancore]] kingdom.

It was constructed in the 18th century by Punachal/Elakkara Valiyaveetil Marthandan Chempakaraman Pillai for the kings of [[Travancore]]. Marthanda Pillai was born in an aristocratic Nair tharavad in Punachal Elakkara near Kuzhikode near Palliyadi in Kanyakumari district. (Then South Travancore). It was a tharavad that was associated with the royal family. Marthanda Pillai was born in the month of May 903 in Bharani Nakshatra, the son of Neelamma Pillai, a member of the said house or tharavad , and Iravikurup, the bodyguard of Marthanda Varma. Later it was modified under the supervision of Captain [[Eustachius De Lannoy]], an ex-Dutch naval officer of the [[Dutch East India Company]], who became commander of the Travancore Army (the very army that defeated him in the [[Battle of Colachel]]) in the 18th century, after he earned the trust of the Travancore King [[Marthanda Varma]]. De Lannoy reconstructed Vattakottai, as part of the defence-fortifications he undertook throughout Travancore.

The fort is made of granite blocks and, today, a part of the fort extends into the sea. It is a protected site under the Indian archaeological department. A major renovation of the fort was undertaken recently by the department, and the site is now a popular tourist spot.

Vattakottai Fort commands a picturesque view of both the sea on the one side, and the hills ([[Western Ghats]]) on the other. Another interesting feature near the site is a beach of black sands. It is about {{convert|7|km|abbr=on}} from [[Kanyakumari (town)|Kanyakumari]] town.

== Photo gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Vattakottai Fort 2.jpg|Inside of the fort.
Image:Vattakottai Fort - Highest Level Facing Sea.JPG|Elevated level of the fort, facing the sea.
Image:Hill-View from Vattakottai Fort.JPG|View of the hills from Vattakottai fort.
Image:View from Vattakottai Fort.JPG|View of the sea from Vattakottai fort.
Image:Vattakottai Fort and Sea.jpg
</gallery>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.trodly.com/destination/4345/vattakottai-fort About Vattakottai Fort and Images]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041014055510/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/05/01/stories/2004050100210100.htm Forgotten fort Vattakottai: Elegant and steeped in history]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041031004917/http://www.hindu.com/2004/10/24/stories/2004102402150300.htm Facelift planned for Vattakottai]
* [http://photosynth.net/view.aspx?cid=44ed1346-6f6e-45db-b56d-5f1e10745b6a Vattakottai in 3D view]

{{Regions of Kanyakumari}}
{{Forts in Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:Forts in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Kanyakumari]]
[[Category:Archaeological monuments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Star forts]]

Battle of Colachel

2023-07-14T06:56:53Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Minor edit removing unwanted text errors

{{Short description|1741 battle of the Travancore-Dutch War}}
{{more citations needed|date=December 2022}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Colachel
| partof = the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]
| image = De Lannoy Surrender.JPG
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Eustachius De Lannoy's surrender at the Battle of Colachel
| date = 10 August 1741
| place = [[Colachel]], [[India]]
| result = [[Travancore]] Victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon image|Former Travancore flag-Martanda Varma.png}}[[Travancore]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Dutch Republic}}[[Dutch Empire]]
* {{flagicon|Dutch East India Company}}[[Dutch East India Company]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon image|Former Travancore flag-Martanda Varma.png}}[[Marthanda Varma]]
* [[Ramayyan Dalawa]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Dutch East India Company}}[[Eustachius De Lannoy]]{{POW}}
| casualties1 = Negligible
| casualties2 = 24 officials were taken as war prisoners 
Muskets, swords, and cannons were captured
| coordinates = {{Coord|8.17|N|77.24|E|display=inline}}
}}
The '''Battle of Colachel''' (or The '''Battle of Kulachal''') was fought on {{OldStyleDate|10 August 1741||31 July 1741}}<ref name="mod_2004_samachar">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090416184423/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html Ministry of Defence, Newsletter "Sainik Samachar", 15 April 2004]</ref><ref name="thehindu_colachel_anniv">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/Army-celebrates-anniversary-of-Colachel-battle/article16217159.ece The Hindu, "Army celebrates anniversary of Colachel battle", 31 July 2010]</ref>
between the [[India]]n kingdom of [[Travancore]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]]. During the [[Travancore-Dutch War]], King [[Marthanda Varma]]'s (1729–1758) forces defeated the Dutch East India Company's forces led by Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy on 10 August 1741. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pages=70–}}

== Background ==
{{main|Travancore–Dutch War#Causes}}
In the early 18th century, the [[Malabar Coast]] region of present-day [[Kerala]] was divided among several smaller kingdoms. In the 1730s, [[Marthanda Varma]], the ruler of [[Travancore]], adopted an expansionist policy, and conquered several territories from these small states. This threatened the interests of the [[Dutch East India Company]]'s [[Dutch Malabar|command at Malabar]], whose [[spice trade]] depended on procurement of spices from these states.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=375}} Marthanda Varma and his vassals refused to honour the monopoly contracts that the Dutch had with the states annexed by Travancore, adversely affecting the Dutch trade in Malabar.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=58-59}}

In January 1739, [[Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff]], the Dutch Governor of [[Dutch Ceylon|Ceylon]], visited Kochi, and in a July report, he recommended military action to save the Dutch business in Malabar.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=376}} Later that year, the Dutch organised an alliance of the rulers of Kochi, [[Thekkumkur]], Vadakkumkur, [[Purakkad]], Kollam, and [[Odanad|Kayamkulam]].{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=60}} Van Imhoff personally met Marthanda Varma to negotiate peace, threatening to wage war against Travancore if the Dutch terms were not accepted, but Marthanda Varma dismissed the threat, and replied that he had been thinking about invading [[Holland|Europe]] some day.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=61}}{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=376}}

In late 1739, the Dutch command at Malabar declared war on Travancore, without obtaining permission or waiting for reinforcements from Batavia.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=61-62}} The Dutch deployed a detachment of soldiers from Ceylon against Travancore, under the command of Captain Johannes Hackert. They and their allies achieved several military successes in the initial campaign. In November, the allied army forced the Travancore army stationed near Kollam to retreat, and advanced up to [[Tangasseri]].{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=62-63}} The [[East India Company|British East India Company]] chief at [[Anchuthengu]] congratulated the Dutch on their victory, and requested them to leave their establishment at [[Edava]] in peace.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=63}}
[[File:The-capture-of-Cochin-and-victory-of-the-Dutch-VOC-over-the-Portuguese-in-1656.-Atlas-van-der-Hagen.-No-Copyright.jpg|thumb|266x266px|Dutch East India Company]]
By early December, the Dutch and their allies marched towards [[Attingal]] and [[Varkala]].{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=63}} When the Travancore army withdrew to check an invasion by [[Chanda Sahib]] of [[Arcot State|Arcot]] in the south, the allies achieved further military successes.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=376}}{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=64-65}} However, the Dutch decided to wait for reinforcements from Ceylon before waging further war against Travancore.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=376}}

In November 1740, the Dutch command in Malabar asked for reinforcements from Ceylon, and launched a second campaign against Travancore. The Travancore force turned against the Dutch possessions, captured Dutch out-posts in Travancore, attacked the factories, and took possession of the goods stored.{{sfn|Menon|1878|p=133}} While matters were thus in the north, small reinforcement force of 105 and 70, which the Dutch Governor called from Ceylon, effected a landing at Colachel .{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=376}}

==Dutch occupation of Colachel==

On 26 November, the Dutch sent two large ships and three [[sloop]]s to [[Colachel]], bombarding the coast.{{sfn|Menon|1878|pages=136–137}} The Dutch soldiers fortified a place near the port with wooden posts and garrisoned a portion of the Dutch force in it. The rest proceeded and attacked the Travancore out-posts on the coast, such as [[Thengapattanam]], [[Midalam]], Kadiapattinam and advanced to [[Eraniel]]. On 29 November, the Dutch commander van Gollenesse announced a complete blockade of the Travancore coast around Colachel, directing his forces to seize all ships bound for the coast, with the exception of the [[British East India Company|English]] ships carrying goods to [[Edava]].{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=66}}

On 13 January 1741, the Dutch ship ''Maarseveen'' was sent southwards, to be anchored between Thengapattanam and Colachel. On 10 February, another Dutch expedition comprising seven large ships and several smaller vessels landed just north of Colachel.

To effectively control the newly-conquered territories, the Dutch were expecting reinforcements to arrive from [[Dutch Ceylon|Ceylon]] and [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], but the Company Government at Batavia could not spare any reserve forces because of the [[Java War (1741–1743)|Java War]].{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=67-68}} Faced with an acute shortage of Dutch soldiers in Malabar, Van Gollenesse requested at least 300-400 men from the [[Dutch Ceylon]], and meanwhile, sent a section of the Dutch army to Kanyakumari to attack Travancore.

The Mukkuvars Played a major role in defeating the Dutch East India company entering into colachal port. The De Lannoy's research text from the University of Leiden in Netherlands has records of Mukkuvar community and their people who played the Major role in defeating the Dutch Ships and taking hostage of Dutch soldiers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Could Marthanda Varma have won the Colachel War without the fishermen |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/04/fishermen-role-in-colachel-war-marthanda-varma.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=OnManorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=thiruththamizhththevanaar |url=http://archive.org/details/17401741 |title=குளச்சல் போர் ( 1740 1741) |date=2019-06-01}}</ref>

== Siege of Colachel ==

When Marthanda Varma reached [[Kalkulam]], he adopted measures to arrest the progress of the Dutch who being, at the time, in possession of almost all the- villages between [[Colachel]] and [[Kottar]], and are intended to attack [[Padmanabhapuram]], the capital of Travancore.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=66-67}}{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=66}} The [[Raja]] raised a levy of 2000 [[Nair|Nairs]] reinforced the regular infantry already in service in that part of the country.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=66}}{{sfn|Menon|1878|pages=136–137}} Marthanda Varma strongly remonstrated with the Dutch Governor of Cochin and wrote to the Government in Batavia a letter of remonstrance and complaint.{{sfn|Menon|1878|p=133}}

King Marthanda Varma, asked help from local Mukkuvar leaders to help them in the war. They agreed on kings demand, and many sea divers in Mukkuvars were used to sunk few Dutch ships at night time which were anchored in colachel. In the victory of the Colachal war, a local fishing village was named Marthandam Thura, and King Marthanda Varma helped to construct a new church there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Could Marthanda Varma have won the Colachel War without the fishermen |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/04/fishermen-role-in-colachel-war-marthanda-varma.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=OnManorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=THEVANAAR |first=THIRU TAMIL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85W4DwAAQBAJ |title=குளச்சல் போர் |publisher=Thiru Tamizh Thevanaar |language=ru}}</ref>

De Lannoy's research text from the university of Leiden in Netherlands had references about the Mukkuvar in Colachel. First, he made it clear that however much the Dutch tried, the 'mukkuvars' did not betray the Travancore king. As the Dutch approached the shore, the Travancore army had made a retreat, and the locals fled the area. It was not enough for the Dutch to bombard a place and then barge in. To continue the war they required fortifications, trenches, and make-shift sheds and storerooms. The Dutch captain wanted his generals to talk to the Mukkuvar community in the most peaceful manner, and get them to their side. They wanted the 'mukkuvars' for the work on the fortifications, and also for local support. Pots of money was offered. The fishermen refused. The Dutch then approached the local Jesuit priests to get the fishermen on board. De Lannoy writes that the Jesuits told the Dutch point blank that the fishermen would not betray their king.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Could Marthanda Varma have won the Colachel War without the fishermen |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/04/fishermen-role-in-colachel-war-marthanda-varma.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=OnManorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=THEVANAAR |first=THIRU TAMIL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85W4DwAAQBAJ |title=குளச்சல் போர் |publisher=Thiru Tamizh Thevanaar |language=ru}}</ref>

In retaliation, the Jesuit church in Colachel was bombarded by the Dutch. A priest was killed, and three were abducted and taken to a Dutch ship to be tortured. The second reference reveals how members of the 'mukkuvar' community delayed Dutch reinforcements from reaching Colachel. A small mail boat with an officer and a few mukkuvar men was sent to the Kanyakumari Dutch camp to fetch reinforcements. De Lannoy writes that the fisherman toppled the boat and took the officer to the Travancore camp. The fishermen were also instrumental in tricking many unsuspecting Dutch soldiers who were shipped in as reinforcements to march straight into the mouth of the Travancore army. It were some of these trapped Dutch soldiers who gave the Travancore army tips about Dutch strategy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Could Marthanda Varma have won the Colachel War without the fishermen |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/04/fishermen-role-in-colachel-war-marthanda-varma.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=OnManorama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=thiruththamizhththevanaar |url=http://archive.org/details/20200327_20200327_0456 |title=குளச்சல் போர் கட்டுக் கதைகளும் கற்பனைக் குதிரைகளும் |date=2018-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=THEVANAAR |first=THIRU TAMIL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85W4DwAAQBAJ |title=குளச்சல் போர் |publisher=Thiru Tamizh Thevanaar |language=ru}}</ref>
== Surrender of the Dutch ==

On 5 August, a cannonball fired by the Travancore army fell into a barrel of gunpowder inside the Dutch garrison, and the resulting fire destroyed the entire rice supply of the stockade. Consequently, the Dutch were forced to surrender on 7 August.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=377}}{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|pp=69-70}} While the Dutch records mention the date of the surrender as 7 August, some later sources give different dates for the Dutch surrender:{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|pp=377-378}}
* 31 July 1741 (31 Āḍi 916 [[Malayalam calendar|ME]]) according to P. Shungoonny Menon ''A History of Travancore'',{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=377}} and T. K. Velu Pillai's ''[[Travancore State Manual]]'' Volume II.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}}
* 31 July 1741 (15 Karkadakam 916 ME) according to [[V. Nagam Aiya]]'s ''Travancore State Manual'' Volume I. Aiya's conversion of the ME date to CE is wrong: the correct corresponding date would be 15 July 1741.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}}
* 10 August 1741 [[K. M. Panikkar]]'s ''A History of Kerala''.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}}

The court chronicle (''Rajyakaryam Churuna'') of Marthanda Varma simply states the date as Āḍi 916 ME, without mentioning any specific day. Historian A. P. Ibrahim Kunju takes the Dutch date (7 August 1741 CE) to be correct.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}}

The Dutch soldiers at Colachel surrender on the condition that they would be allowed to go to Kanyakumari with their weapons. However, Marthanda Varma did not honour the agreement, and imprisoned them as soon as they came out of the fort.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=70}} The Travancore forces captured a large number of muskets and some cannons from the Dutch garrison at Colachel. They imprisoned 24 Europeans, who were imprisoned at the [[Udayagiri Fort]] in Puliyoorkurichi.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}}{{sfn|Menon|1996|p=287}} Later, Marthanda Varma gave them their weapons back, and asked them to join the Travancore army.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=70}} Several European prisoners, including [[Eustachius De Lannoy]] and Duyvenschot accepted the offer and served Marthanda Varma.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}} Twenty-eight high level Dutch officers, including Admiral D'lennoy, were captured. The defeat of the Dutch in Colachael was the turning point of the Travancore-Dutch War. D'lennoy went on to serve the Travancore kingdom for the next two decades and was promoted to the post of the Valiya kappithan (Senior Admiral) of the Travancore forces. He modernised the Travancore army, and built the Nedumkottai, a line of fortifications in the north of the kingdom, which held up the army of Tipu Sultan in 1789, during his [[Battle of the Nedumkotta|invasion of Travancore]]. D'lennoy is buried in the [[Udayagiri Fort]], also known as Dillanai kottai (D'lennoy's fort).

== Impact ==

De Lannoy organized the Travancore army on European standard introduced gunpowder and firearms, hitherto not used in the kingdom, and increased the regiments and improved defence fortifications significantly.

Captain De Lannoy was a skilled military strategist. His military skills, combined with the tactics of the [[Dewan]] of Travancore, [[Ramayyan Dalawa]], and statesmanship of [[Maharaja Marthanda Varma]] proved very effective in the future military exploitations and annexations of the Northern kingdoms up to [[Cochin]] over a period of time. They defeated and annexed [[Quilon]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Kottarakkara]], [[Pandalam]], [[Ambalapuzha]], Edappalli, [[Thekkumkoor]] and Vadakkumkoor with [[Travancore]].<ref name=":0" />

The Dutch threat to Travancore was not completely eliminated after Marthanda Varma's success at Colachel, as is evident by the fact that the Dutch continued to wage war against Travancore in the northern Malabar. They also maintained their position at Kanyakumari, hoping to receive reinforcements from Ceylon.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}} However, a 5,000-strong army dispatched by Marthanda Varma prevented them from advancing towards the capital of Travancore.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=69}} They also sent 150 soldiers to reinforce their advance posts at [[Paravur, Kollam|Paravur]] and [[Ayiroor, Pathanamthitta|Ayiroor]]. The Dutch gave up their position at Kanyakumari only in October. They also abandoned [[Attingal]], after the soldiers of their ally Deshinganad abandoned them.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=379}}

Travancore's victory at Colachel greatly had decreased the Dutch morale, and in a 26 October report to Batavia, the Dutch command at Kochi mentioned that the native chiefs now believed that the Dutch East India Company could be driven off the Malabar coast.{{sfn|A. P. Ibrahim Kunju|1975|p=378}} However, by February 1742, the Dutch had captured a small fort near Attingal.{{sfn|M. O. Koshy|1989|p=73}}

In addition to the destruction of the Dutch East India Company's designs in the Malabar coast, the capture of the leaders of the expedition, [[Eustachius De Lannoy]] and his second in command Donadi, was very beneficial to the kingdom of Travancore. When De Lannoy and Donadi were paroled, they took up service with Travancore and modernized the Travancore Army (which, till then, had been armed mainly with melee weapons) into an effective fighting force. De Lannoy was initially entrusted with the training of a few companies of the Maharajah's bodyguards and he did this with such an excellence that he was entrusted with modernizing the entire Travancore army.{{sfn|Menon|1878|pp=136–137}} De Lennoy modernized the existing firearms and introduced better artillery and, more importantly, trained the Travancore army in the European style of military drill and military tactics. He carried out his orders with such sincerity and devotion that he rapidly rose through the ranks, eventually becoming the "Valia Kapitaan" (Commander in Chief) of the Tranvancore military and was given the [[Udayagiri Fort]], locally known as the "Dillanai kotta" (De Lennoy's fort), near Padmanabhapuram, to reside. He was one of the commanders of the Tranvancore army during the decisive [[Battle of Changanassery|battle of Ambalapuzha]] where his erstwhile employers were fighting on behalf of Cochin and her allies. Following Travancore's victory over Cochin and her allies, the Dutch signed a peace treaty with Travancore and later sold their forts which were incorporated by De Lannoy into the Northern Lines (the [[Nedumkotta]]) that guarded the northern border of Travancore. The Travancore military that De Lannoy was instrumental in modernizing, went on to conquer more than half of the modern state of Kerala, and the Nedumkotta forts De Lannoy had designed, held up the advance of [[Tipu Sultan]]'s French trained army during the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1791 AD till the [[British East India Company]] joined the war in support of Travancore. Donadi ended up as an officer in the Travancore army and it seems that the rest of the Dutch prisoners took up service with the Maharajah's forces and their descendants were present up to 1878 in Travancore.{{sfn|Menon|1878|p=136}}

Another direct outcome of the event at Kulachal was the takeover of the [[black pepper]] trade by the state of Travancore. This development was to have serious repercussions on the Dutch and the trading world of Kerala at large. In 1753 the Dutch signed the [[Treaty of Mavelikkara]] with the Dutch agreeing not to obstruct the Raja's expansion, and in turn, to sell to him arms and ammunition.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Aiya|first=V. Naga|title=Travancore Manual|year=1906}}</ref> This marked the beginning of the end of Dutch influence in India.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A.P Ibrahim Kunju|year=1975|pages=378}}</ref>

==Tributes==
[[File:Victory Pillar Colachal.jpg|alt=Victory Pillar Colachal|thumb|221x221px|Victory pillar, in remembrance of victory against the Dutch Navy in 1741]]
* The Indian government has built a pillar of victory in Kulachal to commemorate the event.
* The Indian Post Department released a Rupee 5 stamp on 1 April 2004 to commemorate the tercentenary (300th anniversary) of the raising of the 9th Battalion of Madras Regiment.
* The Parade Ground of Pangode Military Camp is named as Kulachal Ground.

==See also==
* [[Battle of the Nedumkotta|Battle of Nedumkotta]]
*[[Siege of Chale|Siege of Chaliyam]]

{{clear}}
==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite journal |author=A. P. Ibrahim Kunju |title=The Battle of Kuḷaccal (1741) and the defeat of Dutch on the Malabar Coast |journal=Journal of Kerala Studies |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=1975 |editor=T. K. Ravindran |publisher=University of Kerala |pages=375–386 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280419/page/n113/mode/2up?view=theater}}
* {{cite book |author=M. O. Koshy |title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729-1758 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC&pg=PA57 |year=1989 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-136-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=P. Shungoonny |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higginbotham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YdCAAAAIAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book |first=A. Sreedhara |last=Menon |title=A survey of Kerala History |publisher=Viswanathan |location=Madras |year=1996}}
{{ref end}}

==Further reading==
* Iyer, Dr. S. Krishna. ''Travancore-Dutch Relations'', Nagercoil: CBH Publications, 1994, 164 pgs. {{ISBN|81-85381-42-9}}
* Menor, Sheela. ''Military History of Travancore with special reference to the Nayar Brigade'', Ethiraj College for Women, 1995
* Menon, Dr. Sreedhara. '' A survey of Kerala history'', S. Viswanathan Printers and Publishers, 1996.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040904221619/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2004/07/24/stories/2004072401210200.htm ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121109023844/http://www.hindu.com/2010/08/01/stories/2010080154870200.htm ]
* {{Cite book |last1=Galetti |first1=A. |url=https://archive.org/details/selectionsfromre13madr/page/24/mode/2up?view=theater&q=colletje |title=Selections from the records of the Madras government. Dutch records |last2=Groot |first2=P. |publisher=Superintendent Government Press |year=1911 |location=Madras |pages=24–25 |access-date=5 June 2022}}

==External links==
* https://archive.org/details/17401741
* https://archive.org/details/20200327_20200327_0456
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051024011429/http://www.tanap.net/content/about/first_steps.cfm TANAp-a National Archives of Netherlands project]}}
* [http://www.rediff.com/news/jan/14raj.htm Rediff.com]
* [http://keralaletter.blogspot.in/2014/07/some-thoughts-on-historic-battle-of.html]

{{Kerala topics}}

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[[Category:Naval battles of the Travancore–Dutch War]]
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Polyandry in India

2023-07-14T06:53:22Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: A minor edit correcting wrong information

{{Short description|Overview about Polyandry in India}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Anthropology of kinship |studies |image=Draupadi and Pandavas.jpg |caption=[[Draupadi]] and her five husbands, the [[Pandava]]s. Top down, from left to right: the twins [[Nakula]] and [[Sahadeva]] stand either side of the throne on which [[Yudhishthira]] and Draupadi sit between [[Bhima]] and [[Arjuna]].}}
'''Polyandry in India''' refers to the practice of [[polyandry]], whereby a woman has two or more husbands at the same time, either historically on the Indian subcontinent or currently in the country of [[India]]. An early example can be found in the Hindu epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', in which [[Draupadi]], daughter of the king of [[Panchala]], is married to five brothers.<ref name="India, Past and Present">{{cite book |title=India, Past and Present, Historical, Social, and Political | first = James |last= Samuelson |year=1890 |publisher=Trübner & Co. |place= London |url=https://archive.org/stream/pli.kerala.rare.6522#page/n0|pages=18, 20, 46, 47 |access-date= 6 September 2018 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

Polyandry was mainly prevalent in the [[Kinnaur]] Region, a part of [[Himachal]] in India which is close to the [[Tibet]] or currently the [[Indo-China]] border. As mentioned in the epic ''Mahabharata'', the [[Pandavas]] were banished from their kingdom for thirteen years and they spent the last year hiding in this hilly terrain of Kinnaur. Some Kinaauris claim that this practice has been inherited from the Pandavas, who they identify as their ancestors {{citation needed|date=December 2016}}. The [[Garhwali people]] similarly identify their practice of polyandry with their descent from the Pandavas.

Polyandry is also seen in [[South India]] among the [[Toda people|Todas]] tribes of [[Nilgiris (mountains)|Nilgiri]]s, Nanjanad Vellala of [[Travancore]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lakshmi Raghunandan |title=At the Turn of the Tide: The Life and Times of Maharani Setu Lakshmi Bayi, the Last Queen of Travancore, 1995 |page=185}}</ref>While polyandrous unions have disappeared from the traditions of many of the groups and tribes, it is still practiced by some [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Pahari]]s, especially in the [[Jaunsar-Bawar]] region in [[Northern India]].

Recent years have seen the rise in [[fraternal polyandry]] in the [[agrarian societies]] in [[Malwa (Punjab)|Malwa]] region of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] to avoid division of farming land.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120211155730/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-07-16/india/27861707_1_agrarian-crisis-family-farm-punjab "Draupadis bloom in rural Punjab"] ''[[The Times of India]]''. 16 July 2005.</ref>

==Legal developments==

Section 494 and 495 of the [[Indian Penal Code]] of 1860, prohibited polygamy for the Christians. In 1955, the [[Hindu Marriage Act]] was drafted, which prohibited marriage of a Hindu whose spouse was still living. Thus [[polygamy]] became illegal in [[India]] in 1956.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XFtcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA189&lpg=PA189&dq=india+poluygamy+law&source=bl&ots=Dh7GixM7u3&sig=NFWXcseO7sY8SF1BnLwVXCMZQHk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjd_KvA_77MAhWqlIMKHUb_Bu84ChDoAQhCMAU#v=onepage&q=india%20polygamy%20law&f=false Modern Indian Family Law, Werner Menski, Routledge, 2013 p.194]</ref>

==Kinnaur==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2015}}
Polyandry is in practice in many villages of [[Kinnaur]] district of [[Himachal Pradesh]]. Fraternal polyandry (where husbands are related to each other) is mainly in practice in villages, where the societies are male dominated and which still follow ancient [[rituals]] and [[customs]].

There are many forms of polyandry which can be found here. Most often, all the brothers are married to a woman and sometimes the marriage to brothers happens at a later date. The wife can only ascertain the blood-relationship of the children, though recently there have been a few instances of [[paternity test]]s using [[DNA]] samples to resolve inheritance disputes. The rules for breaking the marriage are strict and a brother going against the marriage agreement can be treated as an outcast while losing his entire share in the property.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Negi|first=Sunder Kala|last2=Singh|first2=Hoshiar|date=2014|title=Marital Satisfaction and Well Being among Fraternal Polyandrous and Monogamous Tribal People of Kinnaur|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331816023_Marital_Satisfaction_and_Well_Being_Among_Fraternal_Polyandrous_and_Monogamous_Tribal_People_of_Kinnaur|journal=IRC'S International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Social & Management Sciences|volume=2|issue=4|pages=47-57}}</ref>

The territory of Kinnaur remained forbidden for many years as the land route was only established 30 years ago. The joint families are now fragmented into nuclear families. The level of economies and financial resources have transformed the life of the people of Kinnaur into city.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gautam|first=Rajesh K|last2=Kshatriya|first2=Gautam K|title=Polyandry: A Case Study of Kinnauras|url=https://www.academia.edu/4466645/POLYANDRY_A_CASE_STUDY_OF_KINNAURAS|journal=Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=30|issue=1-2|date=2011|pages=146–161}}</ref>

{{clarify|date=May 2016|reason=30 years back from when?}}

==Toda==
[[File:Toda men women 1871.jpg|thumb|right|Photograph of two [[Toda people|Toda]] men and a woman. [[Nilgiri Hills]], 1871.]]
[[Toda people|Toda]]s are tribal people residing in the [[Nilgiri mountains|Nilgiri]] hills in South India who for several centuries practiced polyandry.<ref>{{Cite news| last=Anthony R Walker| author-link=Oliver Cowdery| title=The truth about the Todas| newspaper=Frontline| volume=21| issue=5| date=28 February – 12 March 2004| url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312000206600.htm| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183019/http://hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312000206600.htm| archive-date=13 October 2007| df=dmy-all}}</ref> They practiced a form of polyandrous relationship which is considered to be a classic example of polyandry. They practiced both fraternal and [[sequential polyandry]].

The males who shared one or two wives were almost always full or half-brothers.<ref name="Evolution and human kinship">{{cite book | title=Evolution and Human Kinship| last=Austin L. Hughes| date=14 July 1988| publisher=OUP USA| isbn=978-0-19-505234-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5g9002yyTW8C&q=Evolution+and+human+kinship&pg=PP1|page=101 }}</ref> A Toda woman when married was automatically married to her husband's brothers.<ref name="Families in global and multicultural perspective">{{cite book | title=Families in Global and Multicultural Perspective| last=Bron B. Ingoldsby and Suzanna D. Smith| date=7 September 2005| publisher=Sage Publications, Inc| isbn=978-0-7619-2819-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UR3HhhtRy3gC&q=Families+in+global+and+multicultural+perspective|page=104 }}</ref> When the wife became pregnant, one husband would ceremonially give a bow and arrow to the wife, and would be the father of that child. When the next child arrived, another husband would perform the ceremony and become the father.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/todas00rivegoog  The Todas by William Halse Rivers Rivers].</ref>{{clarify|date=February 2017}}

==Kerala==
Polyandry and [[polygamy]] were prevalent in [[Kerala]] till the late 19th century and isolated cases were reported until the mid-20th century. [[Caste system in India|Castes]] practicing polyandry were [[Thiyyas]], [[Ezhavas]], [[Kammalans]] , [[Nadar (caste)|Nadar]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hardgrave|first=Robert L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZ9mqiLgkdEC|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad|publisher=University of California Press|language=en}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2020}}, and a few of the [[Vishwakarma (caste)|artisan castes]].<ref>''A Study of Polyandry – Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark'' (1963) The Hague: Moulton. Open Library ID OL15135517M. p. 159.</ref><ref>''Polyandry in India: Demographic, economic, social, religious, and psychological concomitants of plural marriages in women - Manis Kumar Raha and Palash Chandra Coomar'' (1987) Gian Pub. House. {{ISBN|81-212-0105-5}}. p. 432.</ref> <ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=limC6vCMYnMC |title = Polyandry in Ancient India|isbn = 9788120804876|last1 = Singh|first1 = Sarva Daman|year = 1988}}</ref> <ref>074531693</ref> <ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&pg=PA38 |title = Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|isbn = 9004045104|last1 = Smith|first1 = Bardwell L.|year = 1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mann|first=Rann Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fuxv9_upHpYC&q=Polyandry+of+thiyya&pg=PA16|title=Aspects of Indian Social Anthropology|date=1996|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-586-7|language=en}}</ref>

Ezhavas of Kerala specifically practised fraternal polyandry known as Pandavavicharam in colloquial terms . The custom of fraternal polyandry was also common among Thiyyas of Malabar. According to Cyriac Pullipally, some female members of the Thiyya community associated with English men as their concubines.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Bardwell L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&q=polyandry|title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|date=1976|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04510-1|pages=34|language=en}}</ref>

==Jaunsar-Bawar==
Polyandry was practised in [[Jaunsar-Bawar]] in [[Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The mystique of the mountains |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2024/stories/20031205000106600.htm|work=Frontline|date=November–December 2003}}</ref> A distinct group of people called [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Pahari]]s live in the lower ranges of [[Himalaya]]s in [[Northern India]] from southeastern [[Kashmir]] all the way through [[Nepal]]. Polyandry has been reported among these people in many districts but studied in great detail in Jaunsar-Bawar. It is a region in [[Dehradun district]] in [[Uttarakhand]]. The practice is believed to have descended from their ancestors who had earlier settled down in the plains from Himalayas.<ref name="Polygamy">{{cite book | title=Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis| last=Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen| date=5 August 2008| publisher=Berg Publishers| isbn=978-1-84520-221-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIzHjpTJgdQC&q=Polygamy+Miriam+Koktvedgaard+Zeitzen|page=109 }}</ref>

Polyandrous union occurs in this region when a woman marries the eldest son in a family. The woman automatically becomes the wife of all his brothers upon her marriage. The brothers can be married to more than one woman if the first woman was sterile or if the age difference of the brothers were large. The wife is shared equally by all brothers and no one in the group has exclusive privilege to the wife. The woman considers all the men in the group her husband and the children recognise them all as their father.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Berreman | first1 = Gerald D. | title = Pahari Polyandry: A Comparison| journal = [[American Anthropologist]] | volume = 64| issue = 1| pages = 60–75| year = 1962| doi = 10.1525/aa.1962.64.1.02a00070| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Berreman| first1 = Gerald D. | title = Himalayan Polyandry and the Domestic Cycle| journal = [[American Ethnologist]] | volume = 2| issue = 1| pages = 127–138| publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]], on behalf of the [[American Anthropological Association]] | date = February 1975| jstor =643539| doi = 10.1525/ae.1975.2.1.02a00070| doi-access = free}}</ref>

== Other tribes==
Fraternal polyandry exists among the Khasa of Dehradun; and among the [[Galo tribe|Gallong]] and [[Memba]] of Arunachal Pradesh, the [[Mala Madessar]], the [[Mavilan]], etc. of Kerala. Non-fraternal polyandry exists among the Kota; and among the [[Karvazhi]], [[Pulaya]], [[Muthuvan]], and [[Mannan people|Mannan]] in Kerala.

In the [[1911 Census of India]], E.A. Gait mentions polyandry of the Tibetans, [[Bhotias]], [[Kanet]]s of Kulu valley, people of state of [[Bashahr]], [[Thakkar]]s and [[Megs]] of [[Kashmir]], [[Gondi people|Gond]]s of [[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]], [[Todas]] and [[Kuruba|Kurumbas]] of [[Nilgiris (mountains)|Nilgiris]], [[Kallar (caste)|Kallars]] of [[Madurai]], [[Tolkolan]]s of [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]], [[Ezhavas]], [[Kaniyan]]s and [[Kammalan]]s of [[Cochin]] and [[Muduva]]s of [[Travancore]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UZF-ckLEnYC&pg=PA165&dq=polyandry+Jaunsar+Bawar&lr= Polyandry in Ancient India by Sarva Daman Singh]</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Madura, a Tourist's Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xANOL3bu5YC&q=polyandry+kallar&pg=PA165|isbn=9788120607064|year=1913}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Society}}
*[[Polygamy in India]]
{{clear}}

== References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Manis Kumar Raha & Palash Chandra Coomar : ''Polyandry in India''. Gian Publishing House, Delhi, 1987.

{{Indian wedding}}
{{Social issues in India}}

[[Category:Marriage in India]]
[[Category:Polyandry|India]]

Polyandry

2023-07-14T06:45:14Z

Yohanan Gheevargheese: Minor edit

{{short description|Mating system in which the female partner may have multiple partners}}
{{about|polyandrous marriage practices|polyandrous animal mating|polyandry in nature}}
{{Anthropology of kinship |concepts |image=Draupadi and Pandavas.jpg |imagealt=Illustration of Draupadi, a princess and queen in the [[ancient India]]n epic "Mahabharata", with her five husbands |caption=[[Draupadi]], a princess and queen in the [[ancient India]]n epic ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', with her five husbands (the ''Pandavas'').}}
{{Close relationships |types}}

'''Polyandry''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɒ|l|i|ˌ|æ|n|d|r|i|,_|ˌ|p|ɒ|l|i|ˈ|æ|n|-}}; from {{lang-grc-gre|πολυ-}} ''poly-'', "many" and ἀνήρ ''anēr'', "man") is a form of [[polygamy]] in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with [[polygyny]], involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polygamy,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=McCullough, Derek|author2=Hall, David S.|title=Polyamory – What it is and what it isn't.|journal=Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality|date=27 February 2003|volume=6|url=http://www.ejhs.org/volume6/polyamory.htm|access-date=30 July 2015|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210093927/http://www.ejhs.org/volume6/polyamory.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[group marriage|group or conjoint marriage]].<ref name="Zeitzen">{{cite book |last=Zeitzen |first=Miriam Koktvedgaard |title=Polygamy: a cross-cultural analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIzHjpTJgdQC&pg=PA3 |publisher=Berg |page=3 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84520-220-0 |access-date=2017-06-08 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801115116/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIzHjpTJgdQC&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage.

Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.<ref name="Atlas">[http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/Codebook4EthnoAtlas.pdf ''Ethnographic Atlas Codebook''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118232413/http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/worldcul/Codebook4EthnoAtlas.pdf |date=2012-11-18 }} derived from George P. Murdock’s ''Ethnographic Atlas'' recording the marital composition of 1,231 societies from 1960 to 1980.</ref> Polyandry is less rare than this figure suggests, as it considered only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains (28 societies). More recent studies have found more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry.<ref name="Starkweather/Hames 2012">{{cite journal |last2=Hames |first2=Raymond |last1=Starkweather |first1=Katherine |title=A survey of non-classical polyandry |journal=Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.) |year=2012 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=149–150 |doi=10.1007/s12110-012-9144-x |pmid=22688804 |s2cid=2008559 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1049&context=anthropologyfacpub |access-date=2020-11-19 |archive-date=2019-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204020235/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1049&context=anthropologyfacpub |url-status=live }}</ref>

Fraternal polyandry is practiced among [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] in [[Nepal]] and parts of [[China]], in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Dreger |first1=A. |title=When Taking Multiple Husbands Makes Sense |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/when-taking-multiple-husbands-makes-sense/272726/ |access-date=31 July 2018 |magazine=The Atlantic |date=2013 |archive-date=31 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183141/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/when-taking-multiple-husbands-makes-sense/272726/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Gielen1993">Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender Roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In L. L. Adler (Ed.), ''International handbook on gender roles'' (pp. 413–437). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</ref> It is associated with ''[[partible paternity]]'', the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father.<ref name="Starkweather/Hames 2012"/> Several ethnic groups practicing [[polyandry in India]] identify their customs with their descent from [[Draupadi]], a central character of the [[Mahabharta]] who was married to five brothers, although local practices may not be fraternal themselves.

Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival.<ref name="Gielen1993" /><ref name="Stone2006">(Linda Stone, ''Kinship and Gender'', 2006, Westview, 3rd ed., ch. 6) [http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/marriage.htm The Center for Research on Tibet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121072233/http://case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/marriage.htm |date=2018-01-21 }} Papers on Tibetan Marriage and Polyandry (accessed October 1, 2006).</ref> It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families but also among the elite families.<ref>Goldstein, "Pahari and Tibetan Polyandry Revisited" in ''[[Ethnology (journal)|Ethnology]]'' 17(3): 325–327 (1978) ([http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/marriage.htm The Center for Research on Tibet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121072233/http://case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/marriage.htm |date=2018-01-21 }}; accessed October 1, 2007).</ref> For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land. The marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were less likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh and Zanskar.<ref name="Gielen1993" /> In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance. With most siblings disinherited, many of them became celibate monks and priests.<ref>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=Nancy |title=The Dynamics of polyandry: kinship, domesticity, and population on the Tibetan border |year=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago}}</ref>

Polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom.

==Types==

===Successional polyandry ===
Unlike fraternal polyandry where a woman will receive a number of husbands simultaneously, a woman will acquire one husband after another in sequence.

This form is flexible. These men may or may not be related. And it may or may not incorporate a '''hierarchical''' system, where one husband is considered ''primary'' and may be allotted certain rights or privileges not awarded to secondary husbands, such as biologically fathering a child.

In this particular system, the ''secondary'' husbands have the power to succeed the primary if he were to become severely ill or be away from the home for a long period of time or is otherwise rendered incapable of fulfilling his husbandly duties.

Successional polyandry can likewise be '''egalitarian''', where all husbands are equal in status and receive the same rights and privileges. In this system, each husband will have a wedding ceremony and share the paternity of whatever children she may bear.

''Other Classifications: Secondary''

===Associated polyandry ===
Another form of polyandry is a combination of polyandry and polygyny; whereas women are married to several men simultaneously and the same men may marry other women. It is found in some tribes of native Africa as well as villages in northern Nigeria and the northern Cameroons. Usually, one of the woman's husbands will be chosen to be the husband of a woman from another tribe who would also have many husbands; this double-polyandrous union serves to form a marital alliance between tribes.

''Other Classifications: Equal polygamy, [[Polygynandry]]''

The system results in less land fragmentation, and a diversification of domestic activities.

===Fraternal polyandry===
{{see also|Polyandry in Tibet}}

Fraternal polyandry (from the [[Latin]] ''frater''—brother), also called '''adelphic polyandry''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''{{Lang|grc|ἀδελφός}}''—brother), is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are brothers. Fraternal polyandry was (and sometimes still is) found in certain areas of [[Tibet]], [[Nepal]], and Northern India, central African cultures<ref>{{cite news|last1=Banerjee|first1=Partha S.|title=Wild, Windy and Harsh, yet Stunningly Beautiful|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020421/spectrum/travel.htm|work=The Sunday Tribune|date=21 April 2002|access-date=19 August 2008|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804121514/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020421/spectrum/travel.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> where polyandry was accepted as a social practice.<ref name="Gielen1993" /><ref name="Levine, Nancy">Levine, Nancy, ''The Dynamics of Polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.{{Page needed|date=August 2011}}</ref> In the past the Ezhava and [[Toda people]] of southern [[India]] practice fraternal polyandry, but monogamy has become prevalent recently.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sidner|first1=Sara|title=Brothers Share Wife to Secure Family Land|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/10/24/polygamy.investigation/index.html|work=CNN|access-date=2008-10-24|archive-date=2020-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126210132/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/10/24/polygamy.investigation/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In contemporary Hindu society, polyandrous marriages in [[agrarian societies]] in the [[Malwa (Punjab)|Malwa]] region of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] seem to occur to avoid division of farming land.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1172638,prtpage-1.cms Draupadis bloom in rural Punjab] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022202106/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1172638,prtpage-1.cms |date=2010-10-22 }} ''[[Times of India]]'', Jul 16, 2005.</ref>

Fraternal polyandry achieves a similar goal to that of [[primogeniture]] in 19th-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment. Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Melvyn |title=Natural History |year=1987 |publisher=Natural History Magazine |pages=39–48}}</ref> This strategy appears less successful the larger the fraternal sibling group is.<ref>{{cite journal|author2-link=Joan Silk |last2=Silk |first2=Joan B. |last1=Levine |first1=Nancy |title=Why Polyandry Fails: Sources of Instability in Polyandrous marriages |journal=Current Anthropology |year=1997 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=375–98 |doi=10.1086/204624|s2cid=17048791 }}</ref>

Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a perceived need to retain [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] titles or [[agricultural]] [[Real Property|land]]s within kin groups, and/or because of the frequent absence, for long periods, of a man from the household. In Tibet the practice was particularly popular among the priestly [[Sakya]] class.

The female equivalent of fraternal polyandry is [[sororate marriage]].

===Partible paternity===
Anthropologist Stephen Beckerman points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "[[partible paternity]]".<ref name=beckerman>Beckerman, S., Valentine, P., ''(eds)'' (2002) ''The Theory and Practice of Partible Paternity in South America,'' University Press of Florida</ref> This often results in the shared nurture of a child by multiple fathers in a form of polyandric relation to the mother, although this is not always the case.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Starkweather, Katie|title=A Preliminary Survey of Lesser-Known Polyandrous Societies|date=2009|journal=Nebraska Anthropologist|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/50|access-date=2013-08-04|archive-date=2020-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001170847/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/50/|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the most well known examples is that of [[Trobriand]] "virgin birth". The matrilineal Trobriand Islanders recognize the importance of sex in reproduction but do not believe the male makes a contribution to the constitution of the child, who therefore remains attached to their mother's lineage alone. The mother's non-resident husbands are not recognized as fathers, although the mother's co-resident brothers are, since they are part of the mother's lineage.

==Culture==
According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the [[Sumer]]ian king [[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] (ca. 2300 BC), the earlier custom of polyandry in his country was abolished, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned upon which her crime is written.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qNAEjt_Yh5cC&pg=PA40 ''Engaging the powers: discernment and resistance in a world of domination'' p. 40] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223111414/https://books.google.com/books?id=qNAEjt_Yh5cC&pg=PA40 |date=2020-12-23 }} by Walter Wink, 1992 {{ISBN|0-8006-2646-X}}</ref>

An extreme [[gender imbalance]] has been suggested as a justification for polyandry. For example, the selective abortion of female children in India has led to a significant margin in [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] and, it has been suggested, results in related men "sharing" a wife.<ref>{{cite news |last=Arsenault |first=Chris |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/10/201110415385524923.html |title=Millions of aborted girls imbalance India |newspaper=[[Al Jazeera]] |date=24 October 2011 |quote=While prospects for conflict are unclear, other problems including human trafficking, prostitution and polyandry—men (usually relatives) sharing a wife—are certain to get worse. |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-date=9 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109041205/http://english.aljazeera.net//indepth/features/2011/10/201110415385524923.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Known cases==

[[Polyandry in Tibet]] was a common practice and continues to a lesser extent today. A survey of 753 Tibetan families by [[Tibet University]] in 1988 found that 13% practiced polyandry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Rong |title=试论藏族的"一妻多夫"婚姻 |journal=《民族学报》 |date=2000 |issue=6 |url=http://www.mzb.com.cn/res/Home/0904/1/%E8%97%8F%E6%97%8F%E5%A9%9A%E5%A7%BB.pdf |access-date=31 July 2018 |language=zh |archive-date=31 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731153518/http://www.mzb.com.cn/res/Home/0904/1/%E8%97%8F%E6%97%8F%E5%A9%9A%E5%A7%BB.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Polyandry in India]] still exists among minorities, and also in [[Bhutan]], and the northern parts of [[Nepal]]. Polyandry has been practised in several parts of India, such as [[Rajasthan]], [[Ladakh]] and [[Zanskar]], in the [[Jaunsar-Bawar]] region in [[Uttarakhand]], among the [[Toda (tribe)|Toda]] of [[South India]].<ref name="Gielen1993" /><ref name="Palm">{{cite news |title=Polyandry Practice Fascinates Prince |first=Dee |last=Whittington |newspaper=[[The Palm Beach Post]] |page=50 |date=December 12, 1976 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=blc0AAAAIBAJ&pg=2638,6668094&dq=polyandry+sri+lanka&hl=en |access-date=October 14, 2010}}</ref>

It also occurs or has occurred in [[Nigeria]], the Nymba,<ref name="Palm" /> {{Clarify|reason=see Talk:Polyandry#Nymba|date=November 2014}}  Irigwe <ref>Sangree, W. H. (1980). The persistence of polyandry in lrigwe, Nigeria. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 11(3), 335–343.</ref> and some pre-contact [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] societies,<ref>Goldman I., 1970, ''Ancient Polynesian Society''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press'</ref>though probably only among higher caste women.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=40332354 |pages=261–270 |last1=Thomas |first1=N. |title=Complementarity and History Misrecognizing Gender in the Pacific |volume=57 |issue=4 |journal=Oceania |year=1987|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1987.tb02221.x }}</ref> It is also encountered in some regions of Yunnan and Sichuan regions of China, among the [[Mosuo people]] in [[China]] (who also practice polygyny as well), and in some sub-Saharan African such as the [[Maasai people]] in [[Kenya]] and northern [[Tanzania]]<ref>''The Last of the Maasai''. Mohamed Amin, Duncan Willetts, John Eames. 1987. Pp. 86–87. Camerapix Publishers International. {{ISBN|1-874041-32-6}}</ref> and American indigenous communities. The [[Guanches]], the first known inhabitants of the [[Canary Islands]], practiced polyandry until their disappearance.<ref>{{cite journal |date=October 1891 |title=On Polyandry |journal=[[Popular Science]] |publisher=Bonnier Corporation |volume=39 |issue=52 |pages=804 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CEDAAAAMBAJ&q=polyandry+Guanches&pg=PA801 }}</ref> The [[Zoe (tribe)|Zo'e tribe]] in the state of [[Pará]] on the [[Cuminapanema River]], [[Brazil]], also practice polyandry.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Starkweather |first=Kathrine E. |degree=Master's |title=''Exploration into Human Polyandry: An Evolutionary Examination of the Non-Classical Cases'' |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=anthrotheses |year=2010 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska–Lincoln]] |access-date=October 14, 2010 |archive-date=June 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611172207/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=anthrotheses |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Africa===
*In the Lake Region of Central Africa, "Polygyny ... was uncommon. Polyandry, on the other hand, was quite common."<ref>Warren R. Dawson (ed.): ''The Frazer Lectures, 1922–1932''. Macmillan & Co, 1932. p. 33.</ref>
* Among the Irigwe of Northern Nigeria, women have traditionally acquired numerous spouses called "co-husbands".
* In August 2013, two [[Kenya]]n men entered into an agreement to marry a woman with whom they had both been having an affair. Kenyan law does not explicitly forbid polyandry, although it is not a common custom.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23840824|title=Kenyan trio in 'wife-sharing' deal|publisher=BBC|date=26 August 2013|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-date=11 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811224427/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23840824|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Asia===
{{See also|Polyandry in India|Polyandry in Tibet}}
*In the reign of [[Urukagina]] of Lagash, "Dyandry, the marriage of one woman to two men, is abolished."<ref>J. Bottero, E. Cassin & J. Vercoutter (eds.) (translated by R. F. Tannenbaum): ''The Near East: the Early Civilizations''. New York, 1967. p. 82.</ref>
*M. [[Nicolas Notovitch|Notovitck]] mentioned polyandry in [[Ladakh]] or Little 'Tibet' in his record of his journey to Tibet. ("[[The Life of Issa|The Unknown life of Jesus Christ]]" by [[Virchand Gandhi]]).
*Polyandry was widely (and to some extent still is) practised in Lahaul-Spiti situated in isolation in the high Himalayas in India.
*In Arabia (southern) "All the kindred have their property in common ...; all have one wife" whom they share.<ref>Strabōn : ''Geographia'' 16:4:25, C 783. Translated in Robertson Smith: ''Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia'', p. 158; quoted in [https://books.google.com/books?id=HWAbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq= Edward Westermarck: ''The History of Human Marriage''. New York: Allerton Books Co., 1922. vol. 3, p. 154.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018042907/https://books.google.com/books?id=HWAbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154&dq= |date=2015-10-18 }}</ref>
*The Hoa-tun ([[Hephthalite]]s, White Huns) "living to the north of the Great Wall ... practiced polyandry."<ref>[http://www.taiwandna.com/ChineseXinjiangPage.html Xinjiang] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529002250/http://www.taiwandna.com/ChineseXinjiangPage.html |date=May 29, 2009 }}</ref> Among the Hephthalites, "the practice of several husbands to one wife, or polyandry, was always the rule, which is agreed on by all commentators. That this was plain was evidenced by the custom among the women of wearing a hat containing a number of horns, one for each of the subsequent husbands, all of whom were also brothers to the husband. Indeed, if a husband had no natural brothers, he would adopt another man to be his brother so that he would be allowed to marry."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rick-heli.info/silkroad/eph.html|title=The Hephthalites of Central Asia|website=Rick-heli.info|access-date=6 April 2018|archive-date=10 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310060957/http://www.rick-heli.info/silkroad/eph.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*"Polyandry is very widespread among the [[Sherpa people|Sherpas]]."<ref>René von Nebesky-Wojkowitz (translated by Michael Bullock) :one research done by one organization about Fraternal Polyandry in Nepal and its detail data find [http://volunteercharitywork.org/polyandry_research.php here] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110803141335/http://volunteercharitywork.org/polyandry_research.php |date=2011-08-03 }} ''Where the Gods are Mountains''. New York: Reynal & Co. p. 152.</ref>
*In Bhutan in 1914, polyandry was "the prevailing domestic custom".<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023234531/cu31924023234531_djvu.txt L. W. Shakespear : ''History of Upper Assam, Upper Burmah and North-eastern Frontier''. London: Macmillan & Co., 1914.] p. 92.</ref> Nowadays polyandry is rare, but still found for instance among the Brokpas of the Merak-Sakten region.<ref>"Feature: All in the Family", Kuensel 27 August 2007; {{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/feature-all-in-the-family/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-12-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511100949/http://www.kuenselonline.com/feature-all-in-the-family/ |archive-date=2015-05-11 }}</ref>
*In several villages in [[Nyarixung]] Township, [[Xigaze Prefecture|Xigaze]], Tibet, up to 90% of families practiced polyandry in 2008.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suozhen |title=西藏一妻多夫婚姻研究 |date=2009 |publisher=China University of Political Science and Law |url=http://xuewen.cnki.net/ArticleCatalog.aspx?filename=2009087442.nh&dbtype=CMFD&dbname=CMFD2009 |access-date=31 July 2018 |language=zh |archive-date=31 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731153758/http://xuewen.cnki.net/ArticleCatalog.aspx?filename=2009087442.nh&dbtype=CMFD&dbname=CMFD2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Among the [[Nivkh people|Gilyak]]s of Sakhalin Island "polyandry is also practiced."<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/russiannihilisme00buelrich/russiannihilisme00buelrich_djvu.txt ''Russian Nihilism and Exile Life in Siberia''. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Co., 1883.] p. 365.</ref>
*Fraternal polyandry was permitted in Sri Lanka under Kandyan Marriage law, often described using the euphemism eka-ge-kama (literally "eating in one house").<ref>{{cite web |last=Hussein |first=Asiff |title=Traditional Sinhalese Marriage Laws and Customs |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit/marry.htm |access-date=28 April 2012 |archive-date=21 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521061007/http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit/marry.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{disputed inline|date=September 2019|talk=Sri Lanka}} Associated Polyandry, or polyandry that begins as monogamy, with the second husband entering the relationship later, is also practiced<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lavenda |first1=Robert H. |last2=Schultz |first2=Emily A |title=Additional Varieties Polyandry |url=http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780195189766/student_resources/Supp_chap_mats/Chap13/Additional_Varieties_Polyandry/?view=usa |work=Anthropology: What Does It Mean To Be Human? |access-date=28 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005175758/http://www.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780195189766/student_resources/Supp_chap_mats/Chap13/Additional_Varieties_Polyandry/?view=usa |archive-date=5 October 2008 }}</ref> and is sometimes initiated by the wife.<ref>{{cite web |last=Levine |first=NE |title=Conclusion |url=https://urresearch.rochester.edu/fileDownloadForInstitutionalItem.action?itemId=6274&itemFileId=10010 |work=Asian and African Systems of Polyandry |access-date=28 April 2012 |archive-date=16 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216001112/https://urresearch.rochester.edu/fileDownloadForInstitutionalItem.action?itemId=6274&itemFileId=10010 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Polyandry was common in Sri Lanka, until it was banned by the British in 1859.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

===Europe===
[[File:Sepulchral inscription of Allia Potestas (1st–4th century CE) - 200505.jpg|thumb|Sepulcral inscription for Allia Potestas, ''Museo Epigrafico'', ''Terme di Diocleziano'', Rome]]
*Reporting on the mating patterns in ancient [[Greece]], specifically [[Sparta]], [[Plutarch]] writes: "Thus if an older man with a young wife should take a liking to one of the well-bred young men and approve of him, he might well introduce him to her so as to fill her with noble sperm and then adopt the child as his own. Conversely a respectable man who admired someone else’s wife noted for her lovely children and her good sense, might gain the husband’s permission to sleep with her thereby planting in fruitful soil, so to speak, and producing fine children who would be linked to fine ancestors by blood and family."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://vico.wikispaces.com/Sparta63|title=Sparta63|website=Vico.wikispaces.com|access-date=6 April 2018|archive-date=28 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728011840/https://vico.wikispaces.com/Sparta63|url-status=live}}</ref>
*"According to Julius Caesar, it was customary among the ancient Britons for brothers, and sometimes for fathers and sons, to have their wives in common."<ref>[http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/1/9/3/11934/11934.htm Henry Theophilus Finck :''Primitive Love and Love-Stories''. 1899.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625021451/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/1/9/3/11934/11934.htm |date=2010-06-25 }}</ref>
*"Polyandry prevailed among the Lacedaemonians according to Polybius."<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924021847060/cu31924021847060_djvu.txt John Ferguson McLennon : ''Studies in Ancient History''. Macmillan & Co., 1886.] p. xxv</ref> (Polybius vii.7.732, following Timæus)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2078&chapter=157846&layout=html&Itemid=27 |title=Henry Sumner Maine : ''Dissertations on Early Law and Custom''. London: John Murray, 1883. Chapter IV, Note B. |access-date=2009-12-11 |archive-date=2011-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211125743/http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2078&chapter=157846&layout=html&Itemid=27 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*"The matrons of Rome flocked in great crowds to the Senate, begging with tears and entreaties that one woman should be married to two men."<ref>Macrobius (translated by Percival V. Davies): ''The Saturnalia''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969, p. 53 (1:6:22)</ref>
*The gravestone of [[Allia Potestas]], a woman from [[Perusia]], describes how she lived peacefully with two lovers, one of whom immortalized her in this famous epigraphic eulogy, dating (probably) from the second century.<ref name="horsfall85">Horsfall, N:''CIL VI 37965 = CLE 1988 (Epitaph of Allia Potestas): A Commentary'', ZPE 61: 1985</ref>

===North America===
* [[Aleut people]] in the 19th century.<ref>Katherine E. Starkweather & Raymond
Hames. "[http://www.unl.edu/rhames/Starkweather-Hames-Polyandry-published.pdf A Survey of Non-Classical Polyandry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228165115/http://www.unl.edu/rhames/Starkweather-Hames-Polyandry-published.pdf |date=2013-02-28 }}". Human Nature An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective ISSN 1045-6767 Volume 23 Number 2 Hum Nat (2012) 23:149–172 DOI 10.1007/s12110-012-9144-x 12 Jun 2012.</ref>
* During the most abusive times of the slave economy in [[Saint-Domingue]] during the [[Haitian Revolution]], mortality was so high that women practised polyandry.
* [[Inuit]]<ref>Starkweather, Katherine E. and Raymond Hames. [https://www.academia.edu/1785593/A_Survey_of_Non-Classical_Polyandry "A Survey of Non-Classical Polyandry."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106101913/http://www.academia.edu/1785593/A_Survey_of_Non-Classical_Polyandry |date=2016-11-06 }} 12 June 2012. Retrieved 28 Dec 2013.</ref>

===Oceania===
* Among the [[Kanak people|Kanak]] of [[New Caledonia]], "every woman is the property of several husbands. It is this collection of husbands, having one wife in common, that...live together in a hut, with their common wife."<ref>Dr. Jacobs: ''Untrodden Fields of Anthropology''. New York: Falstaff Press, 1937. vol. 2, p. 219.</ref>
* [[Marquesan]]s had "a society in which households were polyandrous".<ref>Roslyn Poignant: ''Oceanic Mythology''. Paul Hamlyn, London, 1967, p. 69.</ref>
* [[Friedrich Ratzel]] in ''The History of Mankind''<ref>Ratzel, Friedrich. ''The History of Mankind''. (London: MacMillan, 1896).{{cite web|url=http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/courtship-weddings.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-04-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727043227/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/courtship-weddings.htm |archive-date=2012-07-27 }}</ref> reported in 1896 that in the [[New Hebrides]] there was a kind of convention in cases of widowhood, that two widowers shall live with one widow.

===South America===
*"The [[Bororo]]s ... among them...there are also cases of polyandry."<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924029884099/cu31924029884099_djvu.txt ''Races of Man : an Outline of Anthropology''. London: Walter Scott Press, 1901.] p. 566.</ref>
*"The Tupi-Kawahib also practice fraternal polyandry."<ref>C. Lévi-Strauss (translated by John Russell): ''Tristes Tropiques''. New York: Criterion Books, 1961, p. 352.</ref>
*"...up to 70 percent of Amazonian cultures may have believed in the principle of multiple paternity"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101110161930.htm|title=Multiple fathers prevalent in Amazonian cultures, study finds|website=Sciencedaily.com|access-date=6 April 2018|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809212333/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101110161930.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Mapuche polygamy|Mapuche polyandry]] is rare but not unheard of.<ref name=Milla2018>{{Cite thesis|title=Poligamia mapuche / Pu domo ñi Duam (un asunto de mujeres): Politización y despolitización de una práctica en relación a la posición de las mujeres al interior de la sociedad mapuche|last=Millaleo Hernández|first=Ana Gabriel|degree=PhD|year=2018|publisher=[[University of Chile]]|url=http://repositorio.conicyt.cl/bitstream/handle/10533/220808/TesisDocAnaMillaleoCONICYT.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|place=Santiago de Chile|language=Spanish|access-date=2021-01-30|archive-date=2019-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711025315/http://repositorio.conicyt.cl/bitstream/handle/10533/220808/TesisDocAnaMillaleoCONICYT.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|url-status=live}}</ref> The men are often brothers.<ref name=Milla2018/>

==Religious attitudes==
{{Religious text primary|section|date=September 2015}}

===Hinduism ===
[[Image:Pandavas with Draupadi OR ayudhapurushas facing Madhu Kaitabha.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Draupadi]] with her five husbands – the [[Pandavas]]. The central figure is [[Yudhishthira]]; the two to his left are [[Bhima]] and [[Arjuna]] . [[Nakula]] and [[Sahadeva]], the twins, are to his right. Their wife, at far right, is Draupadi. [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]], [[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Hindu Temple]].]]
There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient [[Hindu]] epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. [[Draupadi]] married the five [[Pandava]] brothers, as this is what she chose in a previous life. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life.<ref>{{cite book |title=The position of women in Hindu civilization, from prehistoric times to the present day |last=Altekar |first=Anant Sadashiv |year=1959 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-0324-4 |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA112 |access-date=October 14, 2010 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050741/https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in the same epic, when questioned by [[Kunti]] to give an example of polyandry, [[Yudhishthira]] cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven [[Saptarishi]]s) and [[Hiranyaksha]]'s sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers), thereby implying a more open attitude toward polyandry in [[Vedic]] society.<ref name="sacred-texts">{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01199.htm|title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Vaivahika Parva: Section CLXLVIII|website=Sacred-texts.com|access-date=6 April 2018|archive-date=19 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419174401/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01199.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Judaism===
The Hebrew Bible contains no examples of women married to more than one man,<ref>Coogan, Michael D., ''A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context'', Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 264, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2rxBAQAAIAAJ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102034034/https://books.google.com/books?id=2rxBAQAAIAAJ |date=2015-11-02 }}</ref><ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey W., ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Volume 1, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1980, p. 262, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zkla5Gl_66oC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151205165035/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zkla5Gl_66oC |date=2015-12-05 }}</ref> but its description of [[adultery]] clearly implies that polyandry is unacceptable<ref>Fuchs, Esther, ''Sexual Politics in the Biblical Narrative: Reading the Hebrew Bible as a Woman'', Continuum International, 2000, p. 122, [https://books.google.com/books?id=xyvZT6PRsP0C] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030103524/https://books.google.com/books?id=xyvZT6PRsP0C |date=2015-10-30 }}</ref><ref>Satlow, Michael L., ''Jewish Marriage in Antiquity'', Princeton University Press, 2001, p. 189, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-tCwHpLFKTYC]</ref> and the practice is unknown in Jewish tradition.<ref>Witte, John & Ellison, Eliza; ''Covenant Marriage In Comparative Perspective'', Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2005, p. 56, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9zY2vQ7NPPoC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015182548/https://books.google.com/books?id=9zY2vQ7NPPoC |date=2015-10-15 }}</ref><ref>''Marriage, Sex And Family in Judaism'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, p. 90, [https://books.google.com/books?id=JFny1k_bv5cC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123175340/https://books.google.com/books?id=JFny1k_bv5cC |date=2015-11-23 }}</ref> In addition, the children from other than the first husband are considered illegitimate (i.e., [[mamzer|mamzers]]), unless he has already divorced her or died,<ref>{{cite book |title=Principles of Conduct: Aspects of Biblical Ethics |last=Murray |first=John |year=1991 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-1144-8 |pages=250–256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=phoqAAaGMpUC&pg=PA250 |access-date=October 14, 2010 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921050741/https://books.google.com/books?id=phoqAAaGMpUC&pg=PA250 |url-status=live }}</ref> being a product of an adulterous relationship.

===Christianity===
Most [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations in the [[Western world]] strongly advocate [[monogamy|monogamous]] marriage, and a passage from the Pauline epistles<ref>{{bibleverse||1 Corinthians|7|NRSV}}</ref> can be interpreted as forbidding polyandry.

===Latter-Day Saints===
[[Joseph Smith]] and [[Brigham Young]], and other early Latter-day Saints, practiced [[Mormonism and polygamy|polygamous marriages]] with several women who were already married to other men. The practice was officially ended with the [[1890 Manifesto]]. Polyandrous marriages did exist, albeit in significantly less numbers, in early LDS history.<ref>{{cite book|pages=41–49, 242|title=Mormon Polygamy: A History|author=Richard S. Van Wagoner |isbn=0941214796|edition=Second|year=1989|publisher=Signature Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Richard S. Van Wagoner|title=Mormon Polyandry in Nauvoo|periodical=Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought|url=https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V18N03_69.pdf|date=Fall 1985|access-date=2017-08-29|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304120422/https://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/sbi/articles/Dialogue_V18N03_69.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Islam===
Although [[Islamic marital law]] allows men to have up to four wives, polyandry is not allowed in Islam.<ref name="Rehman2007">{{cite journal|last1=Rehman|first1=J.|title=The Sharia, Islamic Family Laws and International Human Rights Law: Examining the Theory and Practice of Polygamy and Talaq|journal=International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family|volume=21|issue=1|year=2007|page=114|issn=1360-9939|doi=10.1093/lawfam/ebl023|quote=Polyandry is not permitted, so that Muslim women cannot have more than one husband at the same time}}</ref><ref name="wing_2008">{{cite journal|last1=Wing|first1=AK|title=Twenty-First Century Loving: Nationality, Gender, and Religion in the Muslim World|journal=Fordham Law Review|date=2008|volume=76|issue=6|page=2900|quote=Muslim women can only marry one man; no polyandry is allowed.}}</ref>

Polyandrous marriages were practiced in pre-Islamic Arabian cultures, but were outlawed during the [[Spread of Islam|rise of Islam]]. [[Nikah Ijtimah]] was a pagan tradition of polyandry in older Arab regions which was condemned and abolished during the rise of Islam.<ref name="Rehman2007"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |last=Ahmed |first=Mufti M. Mukarram |year=2005 |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |isbn=978-81-261-2339-1 |page=383 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkrQ8AbgD1sC&pg=PA383 |access-date=October 14, 2010}}</ref>

==In biology==
{{main|Polyandry in nature}}
Polyandrous behavior [[Polyandry in nature|exists in the animal kingdom]], occurring for example in certain insects, fish, birds, and mammals.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Legal status of polygamy]]
*[[Matrilineality]]
*[[Polyandry in India]]
*[[Polyandry in Tibet]]
*[[Sacred prostitution]]
*[[Sexual conflict]]
*[[Sexy son hypothesis]]
*[[Sperm competition]]
Types of mating, marriage and lifestyle:
*[[Bigamy]]
*[[Cuckold]]
*[[Eusociality]]
*[[Group marriage]]
*[[Monogamy]]
*[[Non-monogamy]]
*[[Open marriage]]
*[[Polyamory]]
*[[Polygamy]]
*[[Polygynandry]]
*[[Polygyny]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Levine, Nancy, ''The Dynamics of Polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. {{ISBN|0-226-47569-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-226-47569-1}}
* [[Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark|Peter, Prince of Greece]], ''A Study of Polyandry,'' The Hague, Mouton, 1963.
* {{cite journal |last1=Beall |first1=Cynthia M. |last2=Goldstein |first2=Melvyn C. |year=1981 |title=Tibetan Fraternal Polyandry: A Test of Sociobiological Theory |doi=10.1525/aa.1982.84.4.02a00170 |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=898–901 |doi-access=free }}
* Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender Roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In L. L. Adler (Ed.), ''International handbook on gender roles'' (pp. 413–437). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
*{{cite journal |jstor=3629185 |pages=64–74 |last1=Goldstein |first1=M. C. |title=Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet |volume=27 |issue=1 |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |year=1971|doi=10.1086/soutjanth.27.1.3629185 |s2cid=146900571 }}
* Crook, J., & Crook, S. 1994. "Explaining Tibetan polyandry: Socio-cultural, demographic, and biological perspectives". In J. Crook, & H. Osmaston (Eds.), ''Himayalan Buddhist Villages'' (pp. 735–786). Bristol, UK: University of Bristol.
*{{cite journal |jstor=3629185 |pages=64–74 |last1=Goldstein |first1=M. C. |title=Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet |volume=27 |issue=1 |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |year=1971|doi=10.1086/soutjanth.27.1.3629185 |s2cid=146900571 }}
*{{cite journal |jstor=4602366 |pages=223–233 |last1=Goldstein |first1=M. C. |title=Fraternal Polyandry and Fertility in a High Himalayan Valley in Northwest Nepal |volume=4 |issue=3 |journal=Human Ecology |year=1976 |doi=10.1007/bf01534287|s2cid=153817518 }}
* [[Thierry Lodé|Lodé, Thierry]] (2006) ''La Guerre des sexes chez les animaux''. Paris: Eds O. Jacob. {{ISBN|2-7381-1901-8}}
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s12110-998-1004-3 |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/easmith/Polyandry-HN1998.pdf |title=Is Tibetan polyandry adaptive? |year=1998 |last1=Smith |first1=Eric Alden |journal=Human Nature |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=225–261|pmid=26197483 |s2cid=3022928 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Trevithick |first1=Alan |year=1997 |title=On a Panhuman Preference for Monandry: Is Polyandry an Exception? |journal=Journal of Comparative Family Studies |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=154–81}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Polyandry |volume=22 |short=x}}
* [http://anecdotesofananth.blogspot.in/2014/03/bharathi-kanda-puthumai-pen.html Another example for polyandry in India]

{{Close plural relationships}}
{{Types of marriages|state=autocollapse}}

[[Category:Polyandry| ]]
[[Category:Mating systems]]
[[Category:Heterosexuality]]