Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

London

2023-10-10T21:26:58Z

Yajantkumar: Minor spelling edit

{{short description|Capital city of England and the United Kingdom}}
{{about|the capital city of England and the United Kingdom}}

{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = London
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/3/2/1
| total_width = 290
| align = center
| caption_align = center
| image1 = London Skyline (125508655).jpeg
| caption1 = [[River Thames]] and [[Tower Bridge]] with [[The Shard]] (left), [[Tower of London]] (right) and [[City of London]] (right)
| image2 = London Eye at sunset 2013-07-19.jpg
| caption2 = [[London Eye]]
| image3 = London, Trafalgar Square, Nelson's Column -- 2016 -- 4851.jpg
| caption3 = [[Nelson's Column]]
| image4 = St_Paul_dome.jpeg
| caption4 = [[St Paul's]]
| image5 = Open_Happiness_Piccadilly_Circus_Blue-Pink_Hour_120917-1126-jikatu.jpg
| caption5 = [[Piccadilly Circus]]
| image6 = Canary_Wharf_from_Limehouse_London_June_2016_HDR.jpg
| caption6 = [[Canary Wharf]]
| image7 = Palace of Westminster, London - Feb 2007.jpg
| caption7 = [[Palace of Westminster]] with [[Big Ben]] (right)
}}
| settlement_type = [[Capital city]]
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within the United Kingdom##Location within England##Location within Europe
| pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_map = UK#England#Europe#Earth
| coordinates = {{coord|51|30|26|N|0|7|39|W|region:GB-ENG|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Sovereign state]]
| subdivision_name = United Kingdom
| subdivision_type1 = {{nowrap|[[Countries of the United Kingdom|Country]]}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[Regions of England|Region]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial counties]]
| subdivision_type4 = [[Districts of England|Local government districts]]
| subdivision_name1 = England
| subdivision_name2 = [[Greater London|London (Greater London)]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Greater London|Greater London (ceremonial county)]] [[City of London]]
| subdivision_name4 = [[London boroughs|32 London boroughs]] and the City of London
| established_title = Settled by [[Roman Empire|Romans]]
| established_date = AD {{start date and age|47}}<ref name="auto1">[http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/no1poultry_molas_2007/ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013]. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.</ref> ''as [[Londinium]]''
| government_type = [[Directly elected mayors in England and Wales|Executive mayoralty]] and [[deliberative assembly]]
| governing_body = [[Greater London Authority]] '''• '''[[Mayor of London|Mayor]] [[Sadiq Khan]] ([[Labour Party (UK)|L]]) '''• '''[[London Assembly]]
| total_type = Total<ref group=upper-alpha name=total/>
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 1572.03
| area_metro_km2 = 8382
| area_urban_km2 = 1737.9
| area_blank1_title = [[City of London]]
| area_blank1_km2 = 2.89
| area_blank2_title = [[London boroughs|32 London boroughs {{nobold|(total)}}]]
| area_blank2_km2 = 1569.14
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name = Elevation>
{{Cite web |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast/map/gcpvj0v07 |title=London weather map |publisher=The Met Office |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803055103/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast/map/gcpvj0v07 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 August 2018}}</ref>
| elevation_m = 11
| population_total = 8,799,800<ref name="Census2021june2022">{{Cite web |title=Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021 |website=ons.gov.uk |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/populationandhouseholdestimatesenglandandwales/census2021 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |access-date=15 October 2022 }}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2021 except where stated
| population_density_km2 = 5,598
| population_blank1_title = [[City of London]]
| population_blank1 = 8,600<ref name="Census2021june2022"/>
| population_urban = 9,787,426
| population_urban_footnotes =  (2011)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/articles/747.aspx|title=2011 Census – Built-up areas|publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]|access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref>
| population_metro = 14,800,000 ([[London metropolitan area]])
| population_metro_footnotes =  (2023)<ref name="CityPopulation.de show">{{Cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/|title=Major agglomerations of the world|website=CityPopulation.de|access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref>
| population_demonyms = Londoner
| demographics_type1 = GVA {{nobold|(2021)}}
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/nominalregionalgrossvalueaddedbalancedperheadandincomecomponents |title= Regional economic activity by gross domestic product, UK: 1998 to 2021 |first=Trevor |last=Fenton |website=ons.gov.uk}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = Total
| demographics1_info1 = [[GBP|£]]487 billion
| demographics1_title2 = Per capita
| demographics1_info2 = £55,412
| blank3_name = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2019)
| blank3_info = 0.976<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sub-national HDI |title=Area Database – Global Data Lab |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org}}</ref> – very high
| postal_code_type = [[Postcodes in the United Kingdom|Postcode areas]]
| postal_code = {{collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|title = 22 areas
|{{postcode|E}}, {{postcode|EC}}, {{postcode|N}}, {{postcode|NW}}, {{postcode|SE}}, {{postcode|SW}}, {{postcode|W}}, {{postcode|WC}}, {{postcode|BR}},
{{postcode|CM}},
{{postcode|CR}}, {{postcode|DA}}, {{postcode|EN}}, {{postcode|HA}}, {{postcode|IG}}, {{postcode|KT}}, {{postcode|RM}}, {{postcode|SM}},{{postcode|UB}}, {{postcode|WD}},
{{postcode|TN}}, {{postcode|TW}}
}}
| leader_title = London Assembly
| leader_name = [[London Assembly constituencies|14 constituencies]]
| leader_title1 = [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]]
| leader_name1 = [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in London|73 constituencies]]
| timezone = [[Greenwich Mean Time]]
| utc_offset = ±00:00{{!}}UTC
| timezone_DST = [[British Summer Time]]
| utc_offset_DST = +1
| blank_name_sec1 = Budget
| blank_info_sec1 = £19.376 billion (${{To USD|19.376|GBR|year=2019|round=yes}} billion)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/mayors_final_budget_2021-22.pdf|title=The Greater London Authority Consolidated Budget and Component Budgets for 2021–22}}</ref>
| blank2_name_sec2 = Police
| blank2_info_sec2 = [[Metropolitan Police|Metropolitan]] ('''county''' of Greater London) [[City of London Police|City of London]] (City of London square mile)
| blank4_name_sec2 = Fire
| blank4_info_sec2 = [[London Fire Brigade|London]]
| blank3_name_sec2 = Ambulance
| blank3_info_sec2 = [[London Ambulance Service|London]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[International airport]]s
| blank3_info_sec1 = Inside London: [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|LHR]]) [[London City Airport|City]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|LCY]]) Outside London: [[Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|LGW]]) [[Stansted Airport|Stansted]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|STN]]) [[Luton Airport|Luton]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|LTN]]) [[London Southend Airport|Southend]] ([[International Air Transport Association airport code|SEN]])
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Rapid transit|Rapid transit system]]
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[London Underground]]
| blank6_name_sec2 = [[GeoTLD]]
| blank6_info_sec2 = [[.london]]
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}

'''London''' ({{IPAc-en|'|l|ʌ|n|d|ə|n|audio=En-gb-London.ogg}}) is the capital and [[List of urban areas in the United Kingdom|largest city]] of [[England]] and the [[United Kingdom]], with a population of around 8.8 million.<ref name="Census2021june2022"/><ref group="note">London is not a city in the usual UK sense of having [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] granted by the Crown.</ref> It stands on the [[River Thames]] in south-east England at the head of a {{convert|50|mi|adj=on}} [[estuary]] down to the [[North Sea]] and has been a major settlement for nearly two millennia.<ref name="london_001">{{Cite web |url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Permanent/RomanLondon.htm |date=n.d. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080322235536/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Permanent/RomanLondon.htm |title=Roman London |publisher=[[Museum of London]] |archive-date=22 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[City of London]], its ancient core and [[financial centre]], was founded by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] as ''[[Londinium]]'' and retains its medieval boundaries.<ref group="note">See also: [[Independent city#National capitals|Independent city § National capitals]]</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-23518687 |title=London Government Act: Essex, Kent, Surrey and Middlesex 50 years on |work=BBC News |first=Joshua |last=Fowler |date=5 July 2013}}</ref> The [[City of Westminster]], to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national [[Government of the United Kingdom|government]] and [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|parliament]]. Since the [[19th-century London|19th century]],<ref name="Mills2">{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=AD |title=Dictionary of London Place Names |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2010 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UWKcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 152] |quote=Of course until relatively recent times the name London referred only to the City of London with even ''Westminster'' remaining a separate entity. But when the County of London was created in 1888, the name often came to be rather loosely used for this much larger area, which was also sometimes referred to as ''Greater London'' from about this date. However, in 1965 '''Greater London''' was newly defined as a much enlarged area.}}</ref> the name "London" also refers to the [[metropolis]] around this core, historically split among the [[Counties of England|counties]] of [[Middlesex]], [[Essex]], [[Surrey]], [[Kent]], and [[Hertfordshire]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 April 2014 |title=The baffling map of England's counties |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27140505|access-date=25 September 2021}}</ref> which since 1965 has largely comprised [[Greater London]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=London Government Act 1963 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1963/33/contents |access-date=26 September 2021 |website=legislation.gov.uk}}</ref> which is governed by [[#Local government|33 local authorities]] and the [[Greater London Authority]].<ref group="note">The Greater London Authority consists of the [[Mayor of London]] and the [[London Assembly]]. The London Mayor is distinguished from the [[Lord Mayor of London]], who heads the [[City of London Corporation]] running the [[City of London]].</ref><ref name="politics_uk2">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Bill |title=Politics UK |last2=Kavanagh |first2=Dennis |last3=Moran |first3=Michael |last4=Norton |first4=Philip |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-2411-8 |location=Harlow |page=868}}</ref>

As one of the world's major [[global cities]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Power City Index 2020 |url=http://www.mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/ius2/gpci2/ |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=Institute for Urban Strategies – The Mori Memorial Foundation}}; {{Cite news |author=Adewunmi |first=Bim |date=10 March 2013 |title=London: The Everything Capital of the World |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/shortcuts/2013/mar/10/london-capital-of-world-divorce-breakfast}}; {{Cite web |title=What's The Capital of the World? |url=http://moreintelligentlife.co.uk/content/ideas/john-parker/what-capital-world?page=full |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922132807/http://moreintelligentlife.co.uk/content/ideas/john-parker/what-capital-world?page=full |archive-date=22 September 2013 |access-date=4 July 2013 |publisher=More Intelligent Life}}</ref> London exerts a strong influence on [[Art of London|its arts]], entertainment, [[Fashion capital|fashion]], commerce and finance, [[Education in London|education]], [[Healthcare in London|health care]], [[Media in London|media]], science and technology, [[Tourism in London|tourism]], [[Transport in London|transport]], and communications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leading 200 science cities |url=https://www.natureindex.com/supplements/nature-index-2021-science-cities/tables/overall|access-date=10 June 2022 |publisher=Nature}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=14 August 2014 |title=The World's Most Influential Cities 2014 |url=https://www.forbes.com/pictures/edgl45ghmd/no-1-london |magazine=Forbes |access-date=25 March 2021}}; {{Cite news |last=Dearden |first=Lizzie |date=8 October 2014 |title=London is 'the most desirable city in the world to work in', study finds |work=The Independent |location=London |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/london-is-the-most-desirable-city-in-the-world-to-work-in-study-finds-9779868.html |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref> Its GDP (€801.66 billion in 2017) makes it the largest [[urban economy]] in Europe,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leading European cities by gross domestic product in 2017/18 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/923781/european-cities-by-gdp/ |access-date=7 September 2021 |publisher=Statista}}</ref> and it is one of the [[Global Financial Centres Index|major financial centres in the world]]. With Europe's largest concentration of [[List of universities and higher education colleges in London|higher education institutions]],<ref name="london2">{{Cite press release |date=20 August 2008 |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/media/press_releases_mayoral/number-international-students-london-continues-grow |title=Number of international students in London continues to grow |publisher=Greater London Authority |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124154712/http://www.london.gov.uk/media/press_releases_mayoral/number-international-students-london-continues-grow |archive-date=24 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> it is home to some of the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world—[[Imperial College London]] in [[natural sciences|natural]] and [[applied science]]s, the [[London School of Economics]] in [[social science]]s, and the comprehensive [[University College London]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings |title=Times Higher Education World University Rankings |date=19 September 2018}}; {{Cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/imperial-college-london |title=Top Universities: Imperial College London}}; {{Cite web |title=Top Universities: LSE |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/london-school-economics-political-science-lse/undergrad |access-date=21 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2022 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2022 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> London is the [[List of cities by international visitors|most visited city in Europe]] and has the [[List of busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|busiest city airport system]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why London Is The World's Busiest City For Air Travel|date=16 August 2021 |url=https://simpleflying.com/london-busiest-air-travel-city/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |publisher=Simple Flying}}</ref> The [[London Underground]] is the oldest [[rapid transit]] system in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=London Underground |url=https://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/culture-and-heritage/londons-transport-a-history/london-underground |access-date=6 May 2022 |website=Transport for London |language=en-GB}}</ref>

London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.<ref name=london_006>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cilt.org.uk/faqs/langspoken.htm |title=Languages spoken in the UK population |publisher=National Centre for Language |date=16 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924084621/http://www.cilt.org.uk/faqs/langspoken.htm |archive-date=24 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.cilt.org.uk/faqs/langspoken.htm |title=CILT, the National Centre for Languages |access-date=16 August 2007 |archive-date=13 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213180755/http://www.cilt.org.uk/faqs/langspoken.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The mid-2018 population of Greater London of about 9 million<ref name="ons-pop-estimates">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatesforukenglandandwalesscotlandandnorthernireland |title=Estimates of the population for the UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland |date=28 September 2018 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] |access-date=15 August 2019}}</ref> made it Europe's [[List of European cities by population within city limits|third-most populous city]],<ref name="largest_city_eu">{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=384 |title=Largest EU City. Over 7 million residents in 2001 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108101256/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=384 |archive-date=8 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> accounting for 13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.london.gov.uk/datastore/applications/focus-london-population-and-migration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016225915/http://data.london.gov.uk/datastore/applications/focus-london-population-and-migration |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 October 2010 |title=Focus on London – Population and Migration | London DataStore |publisher=Greater London Authority |access-date=10 February 2012}}</ref> and over 16% of the population of England. The [[Greater London Built-up Area]] is the [[List of urban areas in Europe|fourth-most populous]] in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants at the 2011 census.<ref name="Demographia">{{Cite web |title=Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition |url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |publisher=[[Demographia]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207210003/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2020 |date=April 2019 |access-date=13 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="urbanpopulation">{{Cite web |date=28 June 2013 |title=2011 Census – Built-up areas |url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/articles/747.aspx |access-date=29 March 2021 |website=nomisweb.co.uk |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]}}</ref> The [[London metropolitan area]] is the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe|third-most populous]] in Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016,{{refn |According to the [[Eurostat|European Statistical Agency]] (Eurostat), London had the largest [[Larger Urban Zones|Larger Urban Zone]] in the EU. Eurostat uses the sum of the populations of the contiguous urban core and the surrounding commuting zone as its definition.|group=note}}<ref name="appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu show">{{Cite web |url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=met_pjanaggr3&lang=en |title=Metropolitan Area Populations |publisher=Eurostat |date=18 June 2019 |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="gla-plan-2015">{{Cite web |date=15 October 2015 |title=The London Plan (March 2015) |url=https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/planning/london-plan/current-london-plan/london-plan-chapter-two-londons-places/policy-22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222082331/https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/planning/london-plan/current-london-plan/london-plan-chapter-two-londons-places/policy-22 |archive-date=22 December 2016 |access-date=24 March 2021 |publisher=Greater London Authority}}</ref> granting London the status of a [[megacity]].

London has four [[World Heritage Site]]s: the [[Tower of London]]; [[Kew Gardens]]; the combined [[Palace of Westminster]], [[Westminster Abbey]], and [[St Margaret's, Westminster|St Margaret's Church]]; and also the historic settlement in [[Greenwich]], where the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], defines the [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|prime meridian]] (0° [[longitude]]) and [[Greenwich Mean Time]].<ref name=london_005>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/gb |title=Lists: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland – Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |access-date=26 November 2008}}</ref> Other landmarks include [[Buckingham Palace]], the [[London Eye]], [[Piccadilly Circus]], [[St Paul's Cathedral]], [[Tower Bridge]], and [[Trafalgar Square]]. London has [[List of museums in London|many museums]], galleries, libraries, and cultural venues, including the [[British Museum]], [[National Gallery]], [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]], [[Tate Modern]], [[British Library]], and numerous [[West End theatre|West End]] theatres.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blackman |first=Bob |url=http://www.whatsonstage.com/index.php?pg=207&story=E8821201275286&title=West+End+Must+Innovate+to+Renovate%2C+Says+Report |title=West End Must Innovate to Renovate, Says Report |access-date=15 November 2010 |work=What's on Stage |date=25 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430190446/http://www.whatsonstage.com/index.php?pg=207&story=E8821201275286&title=West+End+Must+Innovate+to+Renovate%2C+Says+Report |archive-date=30 April 2011 |location=London |url-status=dead}}</ref> Important [[Sport in London|sporting events held in London]] include the [[FA Cup Final]], the [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon Tennis Championships]], and the [[London Marathon]]. [[2012 Summer Olympics|In 2012]], London became the first city to host three [[Summer Olympic Games]].<ref name="IOC">{{Cite press release |date=6 July 2005 |title=IOC elects London as the Host City of the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012 |url=http://www.olympic.org/media?calendartab=1&articleid=52922 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017100349/http://www.olympic.org/media?calendartab=1&articleid=52922 |archive-date=17 October 2011 |access-date=3 June 2006 |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]]}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Toponymy==
{{main|Etymology of London}}
''London'' is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in the [[Latinisation of names|Latinised]] form {{lang|la|[[Londinium]]}}.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=Anthony David |title=A Dictionary of London Place Names |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780192801067 |pages=139|oclc=45406491}}</ref> Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: [[Latin]] (usually {{lang|la|Londinium}}), [[Old English]] (usually {{lang|ang|Lunden}}), and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (usually {{lang|cy|Llundein}}), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from [[Common Brittonic|Common Brythonic]]; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as {{lang|cel-x-proto|*Londonjon}} or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as {{lang|la|Londinium}} and borrowed into Old English.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=Bynon |first1=Theodora |year=2016 |title=London's Name |journal= Transactions of the Philological Society |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=281–97 |doi=10.1111/1467-968X.12064}}</ref>

Until 1889, the name "London" applied officially only to the [[City of London]], but since then it has also referred to the [[County of London]] and to [[Greater London]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=David |title=A Dictionary of London Place Names |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780192801067 |pages=140 |oclc=45406491}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of London}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of London}}

===Prehistory===
In 1993, remains of a [[Bronze Age]] bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream from [[Vauxhall Bridge]].<ref name="Denison">{{Cite journal |last=Denison |first=Simon |title=First 'London Bridge' in River Thames at Vauxhall |journal=British Archaeology |date=July 1999 |issue=46 |url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba46/ba46news.html |access-date=15 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427021948/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba46/ba46news.html |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Two of the timbers were [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to 1750–1285 BC.<ref name="Denison"/> In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,<ref>{{Cite web |title=London's Oldest Prehistoric Structure |url=http://www.bajrfed.co.uk/bajrpress/londons-oldest-prehistoric-structure/ |publisher=BAJR |access-date=19 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707053946/http://www.bajrfed.co.uk/bajrpress/londons-oldest-prehistoric-structure/ |archive-date=7 July 2018 |url-status=live |date=3 April 2015}}</ref> were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.<ref name="Milne">{{Cite web |last=Milne |first=Gustav |title=London's Oldest Foreshore Structure! |url=http://www.thamesdiscovery.org/frog-blog/london-s-oldest-find-discovered-at-vauxhall |website=Frog Blog |publisher=Thames Discovery Programme |access-date=15 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430002236/http://www.thamesdiscovery.org/frog-blog/london-s-oldest-find-discovered-at-vauxhall |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground [[River Effra]] flows into the Thames.<ref name="Milne"/>

===Roman London===
{{main|Londinium}}
[[File:Reconstruction_drawing_of_Londinium_in_120_AD,_Museum_of_London_(34881481351).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction drawing of [[Londinium]] in 120 AD]]
Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] around 47 AD,<ref name="auto1"/> about four years after their invasion of 43 AD.<ref name="roman">{{Cite book |title=Roman London |last=Perring |first=Dominic |year=1991 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-203-23133-3 |page=1}}</ref> This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the [[Iceni]] tribe led by [[Boudica|Queen Boudica]] stormed it and burnt it to the ground.<ref name="london_010">{{Cite web |title=British History Timeline - Roman Britain |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/romanbritain_timeline_noflash.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430191143/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/romanbritain_timeline_noflash.shtml |archive-date=30 April 2011 |access-date=7 June 2008 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>

The next planned incarnation of [[Londinium]] prospered, superseding [[Colchester]] as the principal city of the [[Roman Britain|Roman province]] of [[Britannia]] in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.<ref>{{Cite book |title=London Civic Theatre: City Drama and Pageantry from Roman Times to 1558 |first=Anne |last=Lancashire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QajvxgbH59QC&pg=PA19 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |page=19 |isbn=978-0-521-63278-2}}</ref>

===Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London===

[[File:Siege of London (MS 1168).jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] siege of London in 1471 is attacked by a [[House of York|Yorkist]] sally.]]

With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of [[Londinium]] was effectively abandoned, although [[Roman civilisation]] continued around [[St Martin-in-the-Fields]] until about 450.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The last days of Londinium |url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Past/MissingLink/Themes/TML_themes_Londinium.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108092449/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Past/MissingLink/Themes/TML_themes_Londinium.htm |archive-date=8 January 2009 |access-date=31 March 2013 |website=[[Museum of London]]}}</ref> From about 500, an [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlement known as [[Anglo-Saxon London|Lundenwic]] developed slightly west of the old Roman city.<ref name=london_011>{{Cite web |url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Past/MissingLink/Themes/TML_themes_Lundenwic.htm |title=The early years of Lundenwic |publisher=The [[Museum of London]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043903/http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/EventsExhibitions/Past/MissingLink/Themes/TML_themes_Lundenwic.htm |archive-date=10 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated [[Viking]] assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.<ref name="Viking Attacks">{{Cite web |url=https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/viking_attacklist.html?showall=1 |title=Viking Attacks |access-date=19 January 2016 |last1=Wheeler |first1=Kip |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101055729/https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/viking_attacklist.html?showall=1 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Vikings]] applied [[Danelaw]] over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London to [[Chester]] as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the [[Vikings|Viking]] incursions formally agreed by the [[Danes|Danish]] [[warlord]], [[Guthrum]] and the [[Kingdom of the West Saxons|West Saxon]] king [[Alfred the Great]] in 886. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' records that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of [[Lundenwic]] and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.<ref name="blackwell">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Vince |first=Alan |year=2001 |title=London |editor=Lapidge, Michael |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor4=Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1}}</ref>

By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England. [[Westminster Abbey]], rebuilt in [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style by King [[Edward the Confessor]], was one of the grandest churches in Europe. [[Winchester]] had been the capital of [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon England]], but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of [[Frank Stenton]]: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a [[national capital]]."<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Frank Stenton |last=Stenton |first=Frank |year=1971 |title=Anglo-Saxon England |pages=538–539 |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5}}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Westminster Abbey by Canaletto, 1749.jpg|thumb|[[Westminster Abbey]], as seen in this painting (by [[Canaletto]], 1749), is a [[World Heritage Site]] and one of London's oldest and most important buildings.]]
After winning the [[Battle of Hastings]], [[William the Conqueror|William, Duke of Normandy]] was crowned [[King of England]] in newly completed [[Westminster Abbey]] on Christmas Day 1066.<ref name="london_015">{{Cite web |last=Ibeji |first=Mike |date=17 February 2011 |title=History – 1066 – King William |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_06.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922053048/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_06.shtml |archive-date=22 September 2009 |access-date=29 March 2021 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> William built the [[Tower of London]], the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants.<ref name=london_016>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/architecture_02.shtml |title=A History of British Architecture — White Tower |last=Tinniswood |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Tinniswood |publisher=BBC |access-date=5 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213124332/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/architecture_02.shtml |archive-date=13 February 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1097, [[William II of England|William II]] began building [[Westminster Hall]], close by the abbey of the same name. It became the basis of a new [[Palace of Westminster]].<ref name=london_017>{{Cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/history/building.cfm |title=UK Parliament — Parliament: The building |date=9 November 2007 |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311032051/http://www.parliament.uk/about/history/building.cfm |archive-date=11 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at [[Westminster]], although the royal treasury came to rest in the [[Tower of London|Tower]]. While the [[Westminster|City of Westminster]] developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the [[City of London]], remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the [[City of London Corporation|Corporation of London]]. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.<ref name=london_019>{{Cite book |last1=Schofield |first1=John |last2=Vince |first2=Alan|author2-link=Alan Vince |title=Medieval Towns: The Archaeology of British Towns in Their European Setting |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8264-6002-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qu7QLC7g7VgC&pg=PA26 |page=26}}</ref> With the [[Black Death]] in the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ibeji |first=Mike |date=10 March 2011 |title=BBC – History – British History in depth: Black Death |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430191039/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml |archive-date=30 April 2011 |access-date=3 November 2008 |publisher=BBC|language=en-GB}}</ref> London was the focus of the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381.<ref name=london_020>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/richard_ii_king.shtml |title=Richard II (1367–1400) |publisher=BBC |access-date=12 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430191132/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/richard_ii_king.shtml |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

London was a centre of England's [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)|Jewish population]] before their [[Edict of Expulsion|expulsion]] by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.<ref name="Jacobs">{{Cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |year=1906 |title=England |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england |website=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] }}</ref> In 1264 during the [[Second Barons' War]], [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]]'s rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.<ref name=Mundill2010>{{Citation |work=Continuum |ol=24816680M |isbn=978-1-84725-186-2 |location=London |title=The King's Jews |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsjewsmoneyma00mund |first=Robin R. |last=Mundill |lccn=2010282921 |oclc=466343661 |year=2010 |pages=88–99}}</ref>

===Early modern===
[[File:London - John Norden's map of 1593.jpg|thumb|Map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.]]
During the [[Tudor period]], the [[English Reformation|Reformation]] produced a gradual shift to [[Protestantism]]. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.<ref name="pevsner">{{Cite book |last=Pevsner |first=Nikolaus |title=London – The Cities of London and Westminster |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |edition=2nd |volume=1 |publication-date=1 January 1962 |pages=48 |asin=B0000CLHU5}}</ref> In 1475, the [[Hanseatic League]] set up a main trading base (''[[kontor]]'') of England in London, called the ''Stalhof'' or ''[[Steelyard]]''. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of [[Lübeck]], [[Bremen]] and [[Hamburg]] sold the property to [[South Eastern Railway, UK|South Eastern Railway]].<ref name=EB>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Steelyard, Merchants of the}}</ref> [[Woollen]] cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the [[Low Countries]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pounds |first=Normal J. G. |title=An Historical Geography of Europe 450 B.C.–A.D. 1330 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1973 |isbn=9781139163552 |pages=430 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139163552}}</ref>

Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of [[Northwestern Europe|north-west Europe]]. The commercial route to Italy and the [[Mediterranean]] was normally through [[Antwerp]] and over the [[Alps]]; any ships passing through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] to or from England were likely to be Italian or [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusan]]. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramsay |first=George Daniel |title=The Queen's Merchants and the Revolt of the Netherlands (The End of the Antwerp Mart, Vol 2) |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |year=1986 |isbn=9780719018497 |pages=1 & 62–63}}</ref> The [[Royal Exchange, London|Royal Exchange]] was founded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burgon |first=John William |title=The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange: Including Notices of Many of His Contemporaries. With Illustrations, Volume 2 |publisher=R. Jennings |year=1839 |isbn=978-1277223903 |location=London |pages=80–81}}</ref> [[Mercantilism]] grew and monopoly traders such as the [[East India Company]] were founded as trade expanded to the [[New World]]. London became the main [[North Sea]] port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.<ref name=pevsner/>

In the 16th century, [[William Shakespeare]] and his contemporaries lived in London during [[English Renaissance theatre]]. Shakespeare's [[Globe Theatre]] was constructed in 1599 in [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]]. Stage performances came to a halt in London when [[Puritan]] authorities [[London theatre closure 1642|shut down the theatres]] in the 1640s and 1650s.<ref>{{cite news |title=From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered |url=https://www.thestage.co.uk/long-reads/from-pandemics-to-puritans-when-theatre-shut-down-through-history-and-how-it-recovered |access-date=22 June 2022 |website=The Stage.co.uk}}</ref> The ban on theatre was lifted during [[Stuart Restoration|the Restoration]] in 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre, [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Drury Lane]], opened in 1663 in what is now the [[West End theatre|West End]] theatre district.<ref>{{cite news |title= London's 10 oldest theatres|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/galleries/Londons-oldest-theatres/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/galleries/Londons-oldest-theatres/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=27 June 2022 |work=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt on [[James I of England|James I]] in Westminster, in the [[Gunpowder Plot]] of 5 November 1605.<ref name=london_023>{{Cite book |title=James I |last=Durston |first=Christopher |year=1993 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-07779-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jamesi0000durs/page/59 59] |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesi0000durs/page/59}}</ref> In 1637, the government of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the [[Liberties of London]], coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's "The Great Refusal", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the [[City of London|City]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doolittle |first1=Ian |year=2014 |title='The Great Refusal': Why Does the City of London Corporation Only Govern the Square Mile? |journal=The London Journal |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=21–36 |doi=10.1179/0305803413Z.00000000038 |s2cid=159791907}}</ref>

In the [[English Civil War]], the majority of Londoners supported the [[Roundhead|Parliamentary]] cause. After an initial advance by the [[Cavaliers|Royalists]] in 1642, culminating in the battles of [[Battle of Brentford (1642)|Brentford]] and [[Battle of Turnham Green|Turnham Green]], London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the [[Lines of Communication (London)|Lines of Communication]]. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Flintham |first=David |title=London |url=http://www.fortified-places.com/london/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116190923/http://www.fortified-places.com/london/ |archive-date=16 January 2009 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Fortified Places}}</ref>
The fortifications failed their only test when the [[New Model Army]] entered London in 1647,<ref>Harrington, Peter (2003). ''English Civil War Fortifications 1642–51'', Volume 9 of Fortress, 9, Osprey Publishing, {{ISBN|1-84176-604-6}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dKwKIiqAnlkC&pg=PA57 p. 57]</ref> and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Flintham |first=David |title=London |url=http://www.fortified-places.com/london/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116190923/http://www.fortified-places.com/london/|archive-date=16 January 2009 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Fortified Places}}{{Cite book |title=The English Civil War: A contemporary account (v. 1) |publisher=Caliban Books |others=Wencelaus Hollar (Illustrator), Christopher Hill (Introduction) |isbn=978-1850660316 |editor-last=Razzell |editor-first=Peter |publication-date=1 January 1996 |editor-last2=Razzell |editor-first2=Edward}}{{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Samuel R. |title=History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 |date=18 December 2016 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1334658464 |volume=3 |publication-date=16 July 2017 |pages=218}}</ref>

[[File:Great Fire London.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Fire of London]] destroyed many parts of the city in 1666.]]
London was [[Bubonic plague|plagued]] by disease in the early 17th century,<ref name=london_024>{{Cite web |url=http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |title=A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348–1665 |publisher=Urban Rim |date=4 December 2009 |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508010316/http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |archive-date=8 May 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> culminating in the [[Great Plague of London|Great Plague]] of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.<ref name=london_024/>

The [[Great Fire of London]] broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.<ref name="Samuel Pepys' Diary">{{Cite book |last=Pepys |first=Samuel |author-link=Samuel Pepys |title=The Diary of Samuel Pepys |volume=45: August/September 1666 |date=2 September 1666 |publisher=Univ of California Press |orig-year=1893 |editor=[[Mynors Bright]] (decipherer) |editor2=[[Henry B. Wheatley]] |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4167/pg4167.html |isbn=978-0-520-22167-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813025236/http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4167/pg4167.html |archive-date=13 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath [[Robert Hooke]].<ref name="london_026">{{Cite web |last=Schofield |first=John |date=17 February 2011 |title=BBC – History – British History in depth: London After the Great Fire |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/after_fire_01.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410000142/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/after_fire_02.shtml |archive-date=10 April 2009 |access-date=29 March 2021 |publisher=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 1708 [[Christopher Wren]]'s masterpiece, [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was completed. During the [[Georgian era]], new districts such as [[Mayfair]] were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in [[South London]]. In the east, the [[Port of London]] expanded downstream. London's development as an international [[financial centre]] matured for much of the 18th century.<ref name='Finance Hub'>{{cite news |title=Amsterdam and London as financial centers in the eighteenth century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/financial-history-review/article/abs/amsterdam-and-london-as-financial-centers-in-the-eighteenth-century1/8B23F8D271B1BCD05594064523600E85 |access-date=4 July 2022 |work=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

In 1762, [[George III of Great Britain|George III]] acquired [[Buckingham Palace|Buckingham House]], which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,<ref>''Hell on Earth, or the Town in an Uproar'' (anon., London 1729). Jarndyce Autumn Miscellany catalogue, London: 2021.</ref> and the [[Bow Street Runners]] were established in 1750 as a professional police force.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2001 |title=PBS – Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street|url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/demonbarber/madding/thieftaker.html |access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher=PBS}}</ref> Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harris |first=Rhian |date=5 October 2012 |title=History – The Foundling Hospital|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/foundling_01.shtml |access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

[[coffeehouse|Coffee-houses]] became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing [[literacy]] and development of the [[printing press]] made news widely available, with [[Fleet Street]] becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the [[Royal Navy]] became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. The repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yor4DAAAQBAJ |title=Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium |last=Coispeau |first=Olivier |date=2016 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-310-884-4}}</ref>

===Late modern and contemporary===
With the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain, an unprecedented growth in [[urbanisation]] took place, and the number of [[High Street]]s (the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew.<ref name="Sales">{{cite news |last1=White |first1=Matthew |title=The rise of cities in the 18th century |url=https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-rise-of-cities-in-the-18th-century |access-date=11 June 2022 |agency=British Library}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |title=Trends in urbanisation |year=1993|author=Christopher Watson|editor1=K.B. Wildey |editor2=Wm H. Robinson |conference=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Urban Pests |citeseerx=10.1.1.522.7409}}</ref> London was the world's [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city]] from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).<ref name="london_030">{{Cite web |title=London: The greatest city |url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/i-m/london4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419104109/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/i-m/london4.html |archive-date=19 April 2009 |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=Channel 4}}</ref> In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such as [[Harding, Howell & Co.]]—one of the first [[department store]]s—located on [[Pall Mall, London|Pall Mall]], the streets had scores of [[Hawker (trade)|street seller]]s.<ref name="Sales"/> London's overcrowded conditions led to [[cholera]] epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Brown, Robert W. |url=http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/london_19c.html |title=London in the Nineteenth Century |publisher=University of North Carolina at Pembroke |access-date=13 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230164544/http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/london_19c.html |archive-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> Rising [[traffic congestion]] led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the [[London County Council]] was created out of county areas surrounding the capital.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pennybacker |first1=Susan D. |title=Vision for London, 1889–1914 |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=18}}</ref>

From the early years of the 20th century onwards, [[Tea in the United Kingdom#Tea rooms|teashops]] were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with [[J. Lyons and Co.|Lyons]], who opened the first of their [[Chain store|chain]] of teashops in [[Piccadilly]] in 1894, leading the way.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bawden and battenberg: the Lyons teashop lithographs |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/jul/12/bawden-battenberg-lyons-teashops-lithographs |access-date=27 June 2022 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> The tearooms, such as the [[Criterion Restaurant|Criterion]] in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taking Tea and Talking Politics: The Role of Tearooms|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/research/inclusive-heritage/womens-history/suffrage/taking-tea-and-talking-politics/ |access-date=27 June 2022 |work=Historic England}}</ref> The city was the target of many attacks during the [[suffragette bombing and arson campaign]], between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as [[Westminster Abbey]] and [[St Paul's Cathedral]] bombed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Suffragettes, violence and militancy |url=https://www.bl.uk/votes-for-women/articles/suffragettes-violence-and-militancy |website=British Library |access-date=9 October 2021}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 220
| image1 = British recruits August 1914 Q53234.jpg
| caption1 = British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914, during [[World War I]]
| image2 = LondonBombedWWII full.jpg
| caption2 = A bombed-out London street during [[the Blitz]], [[World War II]]
}}

{{anchor|German air attacks}}London was [[German strategic bombing during World War I|bombed by the Germans]] in the [[First World War]], and during the [[Second World War]], [[the Blitz]] and other bombings by the German ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2016 |title=Bomb-Damage Maps Reveal London's World War II Devastation |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/history/bomb-damage-maps-reveal-londons-world-war-ii-devastation.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430155359/http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/history/bomb-damage-maps-reveal-londons-world-war-ii-devastation.aspx |archive-date=30 April 2017 |access-date=18 June 2017 |website=nationalgeographic.com.au}}</ref> The tomb of [[the Unknown Warrior]], an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nam.ac.uk/press/buried-among-kings-story-unknown-warrior |title=Buried Among Kings: The Story of the Unknown Warrior |website=www.nam.ac.uk |publisher=National Army Museum |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref> [[The Cenotaph]], located in [[Whitehall]], was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the [[National Service of Remembrance]] held annually on [[Remembrance Sunday]], the closest Sunday to 11 November.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vaughan-Barratt |first1=Nick |title=Remembrance |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/aboutthebbc/entries/0c66fc02-abf2-31e0-9867-cc306b16d3c9 |website=BBC Blogs |date=4 November 2009 |publisher=BBC |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref>

The [[1948 Summer Olympics]] were held at the original [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]], while London was still recovering from the war.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ronk |first=Liz |date=27 July 2013 |title=LIFE at the 1948 London Olympics |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://time.com/3877686/1948-london-summer-olympics-life-photos/|url-status=dead |access-date=18 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530005852/http://time.com/3877686/1948-london-summer-olympics-life-photos/ |archive-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hibbert |first1=Christopher |title=The London Encyclopaedia |last2=Weinreb |first2=Ben |last3=Keay |first3=Julia |last4=Keay |first4=John |publisher=[[Pan Macmillan]] |others=Photographs by Matthew Weinreb |year=2010 |isbn=9781405049252 |edition=3rd |page=428}}</ref> making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, the [[Festival of Britain]] was held on the [[South Bank]].<ref>{{Cite news |year=2008 |title=1951: King George opens Festival of Britain |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/3/newsid_2481000/2481099.stm |access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> The [[Great Smog]] of 1952 led to the [[Clean Air Act 1956]], which ended the "[[pea soup fog]]s" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the "Big Smoke".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Breen |first=Matt |title=Most Googled: why is London called the 'Big Smoke'? |url=https://www.timeout.com/london/blog/most-googled-why-is-london-called-the-big-smoke-011317 |access-date=29 November 2022 |website=[[Time Out London]] |date=13 January 2017 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide [[youth culture]], exemplified by the [[Swinging London]] sub-culture associated with the [[King's Road]], [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]] and [[Carnaby Street]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Swinging City: A Cultural Geography of London 1950–1974 | publisher=Routledge | author=Rycroft, Simon | year=2016 | pages=87 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5O1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT87 | chapter=Mapping Swinging London| isbn=9781317047346 }}</ref> The role of trendsetter revived in the [[punk rock|punk]] era.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Bracken |first=Gregory B. |title=Walking Tour London: Sketches of the city's architectural treasures... Journey Through London's Urban Landscapes |publisher=Marshall Cavendish International |year=2011 |isbn=9789814435369 |page=10}}</ref> In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a new [[Greater London Council]] was created.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-35716693 |title=The rise and fall of the GLC |last=Webber |first=Esther |date=31 March 2016 |website=BBC Newsmaccess-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> During [[The Troubles]] in Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]].<ref name=bombings/> These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with the [[Old Bailey bombing]].<ref name=bombings>>{{Cite web |last=Godoy |first=Maria |date=7 July 2005 |title=Timeline: London's Explosive History |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4734400 |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=NPR}}</ref> Racial inequality was highlighted by the [[1981 Brixton riot]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4854556.stm |title=The legacy of the Brixton riots |last=John |first=Cindi |date=5 April 2006 |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref>

Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-31082941 |title=London's population hits 8.6m record high |work=BBC News |date=2 February 2015 |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref> The principal ports for London moved downstream to [[Port of Felixstowe|Felixstowe]] and [[Port of Tilbury|Tilbury]], with the [[London Docklands]] area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the [[Canary Wharf]] development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jan/28/canary-wharf-timeline-london-building-docklands-thatcher |title=Canary Wharf timeline: from the Thatcher years to Qatari control |last=Zolfagharifard |first=Ellie |date=14 February 2014 |website=The Guardian |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref> Located about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of central London, the [[Thames Barrier]] was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the [[North Sea]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kendrick |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Kendrick |date=1988 |title=The Thames Barrier |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=16 |issue=1–2 |pages=57–68|doi=10.1016/0169-2046(88)90034-5 }}</ref>

The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the [[Greater London Authority]].<ref>{{Cite news |year=2008 |title=1986: Greater London Council abolished |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/31/newsid_2530000/2530803.stm |access-date=20 June 2017}}</ref> To mark the 21st century, the [[Millennium Dome]], [[London Eye]] and [[Millennium Bridge (London)|Millennium Bridge]] were constructed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.building.co.uk/millennium-projects-10-years-of-good-luck/5001637.article |title=Millennium projects: 10 years of good luck |last=Ijeh |first=Ike |date=25 June 2010 |website=building.co.uk |access-date=20 June 2017}}</ref> On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the [[2012 Summer Olympics]], as the first city to stage the [[Olympic Games]] three times.<ref name="IOC"/> On 7 July 2005, three [[London Underground]] trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a [[7 July 2005 London bombings|series of terrorist attacks]].<ref name=bombings/>

In 2008, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as [[Nylonkong]], hailing them as the world's three most influential [[global cities]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=International Handbook of Globalization and World Cities |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781785360688 |editor-last=Derudder |editor-first=Ben |page=422 |editor-last2=Hoyler |editor-first2=Michael |editor-last3=Taylor |editor-first3=Peter J. |editor-last4=Witlox |editor-first4=Frank}}</ref> In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.<ref name="gla-pop-2015">{{Cite web |title=Population Growth in London, 1939–2015 |url=http://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/population-change-1939-2015/resource/0a026346-960e-49e6-b968-a386d2cfe55f |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219160246/http://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/population-change-1939-2015/resource/0a026346-960e-49e6-b968-a386d2cfe55f |archive-date=19 February 2015 |url-status=dead |website=London Datastore |publisher=Greater London Authority |access-date=7 July 2015}} [https://londondatastore-upload.s3.amazonaws.com/dataset/population-change-1939-2015/historical%20population%201939-2015.pdf Alt URL]</ref> During the [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|Brexit referendum]] in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the [[European Union]], but most London constituencies voted for remaining.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chandler |first=Mark |date=24 June 2016 |title='Wouldn't you prefer to be President Sadiq?' Thousands call on Sadiq Khan to declare London's independence and join EU |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/wouldnt-you-prefer-to-be-president-sadiq-thousands-back-campaign-for-sadiq-khan-to-declare-londons-a3280141.html |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[Evening Standard]]}}</ref> However, Britain's [[Brexit|exit from the EU]] in early 2021 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.<ref>{{cite web |title=London as a Financial Center Since Brexit: Evidence from the 2022 BIS Triennial Survey {{!}} Global Development Policy Center |url=https://www.bu.edu/gdp/2022/12/16/london-as-a-financial-center-since-brexit-evidence-from-the-2022-bis-triennial-survey/ |website=www.bu.edu}}</ref>

On 6 May 2023, the [[Coronation of Charles III and Camilla|coronation of Charles III]] and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at [[Westminster Abbey]], London.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Coronation Weekend |url=https://www.royal.uk/coronation-weekend |website=Royal.uk}}</ref>

==Administration==
===Local government===
{{main|Local government in London|History of local government in London|List of heads of London government}}
[[File:City coat of arms, Holborn Viaduct (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Coat of arms of the City of London|Arms of the Corporation of the City of London]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/lcr/fsca/fsca19.htm|title=The Heraldic Dragon|website=Sacred-texts.com|access-date=23 July 2015|archive-date=28 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528185311/http://www.sacred-texts.com/lcr/fsca/fsca19.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the [[Greater London Authority]] (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.<ref name="london_032">{{Cite web |title=Who runs London – Find Out Who Runs London and How |url=http://www.londoncouncils.gov.uk/who-runs-london|access-date=28 March 2021 |website=[[London Councils]] }}</ref> The GLA consists of two elected components: the [[mayor of London]], who has [[executive powers]], and the [[London Assembly]], which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional arm [[Transport for London]] (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.<ref name="london_goverance">{{cite web |title=The essential guide to London local government |url=https://www.londoncouncils.gov.uk/who-runs-london/essential-guide-london-local-government |publisher=London Councils |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref> The headquarters of the GLA is [[City Hall, Newham|City Hall]], Newham. The mayor since 2016 has been [[Sadiq Khan]], the first [[Muslim]] mayor of a major Western capital.<ref>{{Cite news |title=London Elections 2016: Results |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2016/london/results |access-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> The mayor's [[statutory planning]] strategy is published as the [[London Plan]], which was most recently revised in 2011.<ref name="london_plan">{{Cite web |title=The London Plan |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning/londonplan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508220051/http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning/londonplan |archive-date=8 May 2012 |access-date=25 May 2012 |website=[[Greater London Authority]] }}</ref>

The local authorities are the councils of the 32 [[London borough]]s and the [[City of London Corporation]].<ref name="london_035">{{Cite web |title=London Government Directory – London Borough Councils |url=http://directory.londoncouncils.gov.uk/ |access-date=29 March 2017 |website=[[London Councils]] }}</ref> They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation, [[social work|social services]], local roads and refuse collection.<ref>{{cite web |title=London Government |url=https://www.politics.co.uk/reference/london-government/ |publisher=politics.co.uk |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref> Certain functions, such as [[Waste disposal authorities in London|waste management]], are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=Local Government Financial Statistics England No.21 (2011) |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7462/1911067.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428000713/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7462/1911067.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2018}}</ref>

The [[London Fire Brigade]] is the [[statute|statutory]] [[Fire service in the UK|fire and rescue service]] for Greater London, run by the [[London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority]]. It is the third largest fire service in the world.<ref name="LFB">{{Cite web |url=http://www.london-fire.gov.uk/WhoWeAre.asp |title=Who we are |publisher=London Fire Brigade |access-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429034538/http://www.london-fire.gov.uk/WhoWeAre.asp |archive-date=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[National Health Service]] [[Emergency medical services|ambulance services]] are provided by the [[London Ambulance Service|London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust]], the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.<ref name="LAS">{{Cite web |url=http://www.londonambulance.nhs.uk/about_us.aspx |title=About us |publisher=London Ambulance Service NHS Trust |access-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427031902/http://www.londonambulance.nhs.uk/about_us.aspx |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[London Air Ambulance]] charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. [[Her Majesty's Coastguard]] and the [[Royal National Lifeboat Institution]] operate on the [[River Thames]], which is under the jurisdiction of the [[Port of London Authority]] from [[Teddington Lock]] to the sea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Port of London Act 1968 (as amended) |url=http://www.pla.co.uk/Port-of-London-Act-1968 |access-date=29 March 2021 |website=[[Port of London Authority]]}}</ref>

===National government===
[[File:10 Downing Street. MOD 45155532 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|190px|[[10 Downing Street]], official residence of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]]]
London is the seat of the [[Government of the United Kingdom]]. Many government departments, as well as the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister's]] residence at [[10 Downing Street]], are based close to the [[Palace of Westminster]], particularly along [[Whitehall]].<ref name="london_036">{{Cite web |title=Prime Minister's Office, 10 Downing Street |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/prime-ministers-office-10-downing-street |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=uk.gov}}</ref> There are 73 members of [[British House of Commons|Parliament]] (MPs) from London; {{as of|2019|December}}, 49 are from the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], 21 are [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]], and three are [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].<ref>{{Cite news |year=2019 |title=Constituencies A-Z – Election 2019 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies |url-status=dead|access-date=30 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216195058/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies |archive-date=16 December 2019}}</ref> The ministerial post of [[minister for London]] was created in 1994 and as of 2020 is held by [[Paul Scully]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minister for London |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-london |website=gov.uk |publisher=UK Government |access-date=30 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

===Policing and crime===
{{main|Crime in London}}
Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the [[City of London]], is provided by the [[Metropolitan Police]] ("The Met"), overseen by the mayor through the [[Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime]] (MOPAC).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://policeauthority.org/Metropolitan/ |title=MPA: Metropolitan Police Authority |publisher=Metropolitan Police Authority |date=22 May 2012 |access-date=4 May 2013}}</ref> The Met is also referred to as [[Scotland Yard]] after the location of its original headquarters in a road called [[Great Scotland Yard]] in Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – the [[City of London Police]].<ref name="Policing">{{Cite web |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/policing.jsp |title=Policing |publisher=Greater London Authority |access-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121173357/http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/policing.jsp |archive-date=21 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> First worn by Met police officers in 1863, the [[custodian helmet]] has been called a "cultural icon" and a "symbol of British law enforcement".<ref>{{cite news |title=Just how practical is a traditional Bobby's helmet? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-30932319 |access-date=11 April 2023 |agency=BBC}}</ref> Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue [[Police box|police telephone box]] (basis for the [[TARDIS]] in ''[[Doctor Who]]'') was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK.<ref>{{cite news |title=Police lose fight to ground Tardis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2002/oct/23/bbc.broadcasting1 |access-date=15 April 2023 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

[[File:SIS building (26327425611).jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.1|right|Headquarters of [[MI6]], the UK's foreign intelligence service, at the [[SIS Building]]. Scenes featuring [[James Bond]] (the fictional MI6 agent) have been filmed here.]]
The [[British Transport Police]] are responsible for police services on [[National Rail]], [[London Underground]], [[Docklands Light Railway]] and [[Tramlink]] services.<ref name="BTP">{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=About Us |url=https://www.btp.police.uk/police-forces/british-transport-police/areas/about-us/about-us/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=[[British Transport Police]]}}</ref>
The [[Ministry of Defence Police]] is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |title=Ministry of Defence – Our Purpose |url=http://www.mod.police.uk/index.html |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Defence Police]] |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506183729/http://www.mod.police.uk/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service ([[MI5]]) is headquartered in [[Thames House]] on the north bank of the River Thames, and the foreign intelligence service ([[MI6]]) is headquartered in the [[SIS Building]] on the south bank.<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrew|first=Christopher|title=The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5|page=[https://archive.org/details/defenceofrealmau0000andr/page/134 134]|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2009|isbn=978-0-713-99885-6|url=https://archive.org/details/defenceofrealmau0000andr/page/134}}</ref>

Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally at [[Local authority#England|Local Authority]] and [[Ward (England)|Ward]] level.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 March 2021 |title=Recorded Crime: Geographic Breakdown – Metropolitan Police Service |url=https://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/recorded_crime_summary |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=[[Greater London Authority]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.itv.com/news/london/2016-01-24/london-murder-rate-up-14-over-the-past-year/ |title=London murder rate up 14% over the past year |publisher=ITV News |date=24 January 2016 |access-date=16 February 2016}}</ref>
Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Crerar |first1=Pippa |last2=Gayle |first2=Damien |date=10 April 2018 |title=Sadiq Khan Holds City Hall Summit on How To Tackle Violent Crime |url=http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/apr/10/sadiq-khan-holds-city-hall-summit-on-how-to-tackle-violent |access-date=25 March 2021 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> However, the murder rate in London is much lower than [[List of cities by homicide rate|other major cities]] around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=London homicides 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/862984/murders-in-london/ |access-date=15 April 2023 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of London}}

===Scope===
[[File:London by Sentinel-2.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|Satellite view of London in June 2018]]
London, also known as [[Greater London]], is one of nine [[regions of England]] and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. The [[City of London]] at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the [[City of London Corporation|Corporation of London]] resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its [[suburbs]], causing "London" to be defined several ways.<ref name="chancery">{{Cite book |last1=Beavan |first1=Charles |last2=Bickersteth |first2=Harry |title=Reports of Cases in Chancery, Argued and Determined in the Rolls Court |publisher=Saunders and Benning |year=1865 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportscasesinc14romigoog}}</ref>

Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the [[London postal district|London post town]], in which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses.<ref name=london_042>{{Cite book |last=Stationery Office |title=The Inner London Letter Post |publisher=H.M.S.O |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-10-251580-0 |page=128}}</ref> The London telephone [[area code]] (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has been [[List of Greater London boundary changes|aligned to the M25 motorway]] in places.<ref name=london_044>{{Cite web |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si1993/Uksi_19930441_en_1.htm |title=The Essex, Greater London and Hertfordshire (County and London Borough Boundaries) Order |year=1993 |publisher=Office of Public Sector Information |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107231348/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si1993/Uksi_19930441_en_1.htm |archive-date=7 January 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Further urban expansion is now prevented by the [[Metropolitan Green Belt]], although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined [[Greater London Urban Area]]. Beyond this is the vast [[London commuter belt]].<ref name=london_041>{{Cite web |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/plansd/london_regional_200104.pdf |title=London in its Regional Setting |publisher=London Assembly |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527193714/http://www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/plansd/london_regional_200104.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Greater London is split for some purposes into [[Inner London]] and [[Outer London]],<ref name=london_045>{{Cite book |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/RevisedStatutes/Acts/ukpga/1963/cukpga_19630033_en_1 |title=London Government Act 1963 |year=1996 |publisher=Office of Public Sector Information |access-date=6 May 2008 |isbn=978-0-16-053895-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817142118/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/RevisedStatutes/Acts/ukpga/1963/cukpga_19630033_en_1 |archive-date=17 August 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and by the River Thames into [[North London|North]] and [[South London|South]], with an informal [[central London]] area. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the original [[Eleanor Cross]] at [[Charing Cross]] near the junction of [[Trafalgar Square]] and [[Whitehall]], are about {{Coord|51|30|26|N|00|07|39|W|type:city(7,000,000)_region:GB}}.<ref name=london_039>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/08/15/charingcross_feature.shtml |title=London — Features — Where is the Centre of London? |publisher=BBC |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817141948/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/08/15/charingcross_feature.shtml |archive-date=17 August 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Status===
Within London, both the City of London and the [[City of Westminster]] have [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are [[Ceremonial counties of England|counties for the purposes of lieutenancies]].<ref name=london_049>{{Cite web |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/ukpga_19970023_en_1 |title=Lieutenancies Act 1997 |publisher=OPSI |access-date=7 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522210452/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/ukpga_19970023_en_1 |archive-date=22 May 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The area of [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England#Greater London|Greater London]] includes areas that are part of the [[Historic counties of England|historic counties]] of [[Middlesex]], [[Kent]], [[Surrey]], [[Essex]] and [[Hertfordshire]].<ref name="london_050">{{Cite book |last=Barlow |first=I.M. |title=Metropolitan Government |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1991 |isbn=9780415020992 |location=London |page=346}}</ref> London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in written form.{{refn|According to the ''Collins English Dictionary'' definition of 'the seat of government',<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sinclair |first1=J.M. |title=Collins English dictionary. |date=1994 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |location=Glasgow |isbn=978-0004706788 |edition=3rd updated}}</ref> London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. According to the ''Oxford English Reference Dictionary'' definition of 'the most important town' and many other authorities.<ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Pearsall |editor1-first=Judy |editor2-last=Trumble |editor2-first=Bill |title=The Oxford English Reference Dictionary |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-0198606529 |edition=2nd, rev}}</ref>|group=note}}

Its status as a capital was established by [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]], which means its status as ''de facto'' capital is a part of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|UK's uncodified constitution]]. The capital of England was moved to London from [[Winchester]] as the [[Palace of Westminster]] developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the [[Noble court|royal court]], and thus the political capital of the nation.<ref name=london_060>{{Cite journal |last=Schofield |first=John |title=When London became a European capital |date=June 1999 |journal=British Archaeology |publisher=Council for British Archaeology |issue=45 |issn=1357-4442 |url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba45/ba45regs.html |access-date=6 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425074539/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba45/ba45regs.html |archive-date=25 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> More recently, Greater London has been defined as a [[Regions of England|region of England]] and in this context is known as ''London''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/gol/factgol/London/?a=42496 |title=Government Offices for the English Regions, Fact Files: London |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=4 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124102915/http://www.gos.gov.uk/gol/factgol/London/?a=42496 |archive-date=24 January 2008}}</ref>

===Topography===
[[File:London from Primrose Hill May 2013.jpg|thumb|London from [[Primrose Hill]]]]
Greater London encompasses a total area of {{convert|1583|km2|sqmi|order=flip}} an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of {{convert|4542|PD/km2|PD/sqmi|order=flip}}. The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of {{convert|8382|km2|sqmi|order=flip}} has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of {{convert|1510|PD/km2|PD/sqmi|order=flip}}.<ref name=Metrop>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dgcl.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/lu_pour_vous/les_grandes_metropol/downloadFile/attachedFile/metropolislondres.pdf?nocache=1254397828.63 |title=Metropolis: 027 London, World Association of the Major Metropolises |access-date=3 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427084411/http://www.dgcl.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/lu_pour_vous/les_grandes_metropol/downloadFile/attachedFile/metropolislondres.pdf?nocache=1254397828.63 |archive-date=27 April 2011}}</ref>

Modern London stands on the [[River Thames|Thames]], its primary geographical feature, a [[Navigability|navigable]] river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The [[Thames Valley]] is a [[floodplain|flood plain]] surrounded by gently rolling hills including [[Parliament Hill, London|Parliament Hill]], [[Addington Hills]], and [[Primrose Hill]]. Historically London grew up at the [[lowest bridging point]] on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive [[marsh]]lands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.<ref name=london_065>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9qvtYYhRtAC&pg=PR11 |title=London: A History |first=Francis |last=Sheppard |page=10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-285369-1 |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref>

Since the [[Victorian era]] the Thames has been extensively [[Thames Embankment|embanked]], and many of its London [[Tributaries of the River Thames|tributaries]] now flow [[Subterranean rivers of London|underground]]. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.<ref name=london_066>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/natural_forces/flooding/?version=1&lang=_e |title=Flooding |publisher=UK [[Environment Agency]] |access-date=19 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060215080725/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/natural_forces/flooding/?version=1&lang=_e |archive-date=15 February 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in [[Tide|high water]] level caused by [[climate change]] and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result of [[post-glacial rebound]].<ref name=london_067>{{Cite web |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/natural_forces/sealevels/?version=1&lang=_e |title="Sea Levels" – UK Environment Agency |publisher=[[Environment Agency]] |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523225152/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/1190084/natural_forces/sealevels/?version=1&lang=_e |archive-date=23 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Climate===
{{main|Climate of London}}
{{climate chart
|London, England
|width=80%
|2.68|8.42|58.83
|2.65|8.98|44.96
|4.14|11.73|38.78
|6.03|15.00|42.31
|9.08|18.37|45.91
|12.03|21.57|47.25
|14.18|23.89|45.80
|14.06|23.40|52.78
|11.62|20.22|49.61
|8.78|15.81|65.07
|5.26|11.47|66.63
|3.08|8.79|57.05
|float=right
|clear=none
}}

London has a temperate [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: ''Cfb''). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at [[Kew]]. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is {{Convert|189|mm|in|order=flip|abbr=}} in November 1755 and the least is {{Convert|0|mm|in|order=flip|abbr=}} in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had {{Convert|0|mm|in|order=flip|abbr=}} in April 1893.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/weather-april.html |title=Weather April |website=trevorharley.com}}</ref> The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of {{Convert|969|mm|in|order=flip|abbr=}} and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of {{Convert|308|mm|in|order=flip|abbr=}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://old.wetterzentrale.de/klima/pkewgar.html |title=Niederschlagsmonatssummen KEW GARDENS 1697–1987 |access-date=16 May 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224100657/http://old.wetterzentrale.de/klima/pkewgar.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall of [[New York City]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Average Annual Precipitation by City in the US – Current Results |url=https://www.currentresults.com/Weather/US/average-annual-precipitation-by-city.php|access-date=25 March 2021 |website=currentresults.com}}</ref> Despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. However, London is vulnerable to [[climate change in the United Kingdom]], and there is increasing concern among [[hydrology|hydrological]] experts that London households may run out of water before 2050.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/london-water-drought-climate-change-b2079811.html?amp|title=London could run out of water in 25 years as cities worldwide face rising risk of drought, report warns|author=Saphora Smith|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 May 2022|accessdate=5 June 2022}}</ref>

Temperature extremes in London range from {{convert|40.2|°C|°F|1}} at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to {{convert|-17.4|°C|°F}} at Northolt on 13 December 1981.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://starlingsroost.ddns.net/weather/ukobs/mintemp_map.php?date=1981-12-13 |title=Minimum Temperatures observed on 13th Dec 1981 at 06Z (SYNOP)/09Z (MIDAS/BUFR) UTC (529 reports)|access-date=30 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/search |title=Search | Climate Data Online (CDO) | National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) |access-date=1 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729134639/https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/search |archive-date=29 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Records for [[atmospheric pressure]] have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is {{convert|1049.8|mbar|inHg}} on 20 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51180211 |title=London breaks a high-pressure record |date=20 January 2020 |work=BBC News |access-date=13 February 2020}}</ref>

Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above {{convert|25|°C|°F|1}} and 4.2 days above {{convert|30.0|°C|°F|1}}. During the [[2003 European heat wave]], prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The impact of the 2003 heat wave on daily mortality in England and Wales and the use of rapid weekly mortality estimates |journal=Eurosurveillance |volume=10 |issue=7 |date=1 July 2005 |first1=H |last1=Johnson |first2=RS |last2=Kovats |first3=G |last3=McGregor |first4=J |last4=Stedman |first5=M |last5=Gibbs |first6=H |last6=Walton6 |pages=15–16 |doi=10.2807/esm.10.07.00558-en |pmid=16088043 |url=http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=558|doi-access=free}}</ref> A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above {{convert|32.2|°C|°F|1}} in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Taylor |first=Brian |year=2002 |title=1976. The Incredible Heatwave. |url=https://www.theweatheroutlook.com/twoother/twocontent.aspx?type=libgen&id=1432 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080712080114/https://www.theweatheroutlook.com/twoother/twocontent.aspx?type=libgen&id=1432 |archive-date=12 July 2008 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=TheWeatherOutlook}}</ref> A previous temperature of {{convert|37.8|°C|°F}} in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.<ref name="metoffice.gov.uk">{{Cite web |year=1911 |title=Monthly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/i/7/aug1911.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113123406/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/i/7/aug1911.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2017 |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=Wyman and Sons, Ltd.}}</ref> Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2018 |title=UK Droughts: SPI |url=https://eip.ceh.ac.uk/apps/droughts/ |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology]]}}</ref> However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/philip-eden/Longest-drought-for-2-years.htm |title=Philip Eden: Longest drought for 2 years – weatheronline.co.uk |website=weatheronline.co.uk |access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref>

Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable [[urban heat island]] effect,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://legacy.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/climate-change/docs/UHI_summary_report.pdf |title=London's Urban Heat Island: A Summary for Decision Makers |publisher=Greater London Authority |date=October 2006 |access-date=29 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816015955/http://legacy.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/climate-change/docs/UHI_summary_report.pdf |archive-date=16 August 2012}}</ref> making the centre of London at times {{convert|5|C-change|0}} warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eden |first=Philip |date=9 June 2004 |title=Ever Warmer as Temperatures Rival France |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1463994/Ever-warmer-as-temperatures-rival-France.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326104750/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1463994/Ever-warmer-as-temperatures-rival-France.html |archive-date=26 March 2020}}</ref>

{{London weatherbox}}

===Areas===
{{main|List of areas of London|London boroughs}}
Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as [[Mayfair]], [[Southwark]], [[Wembley]], and [[Whitechapel]]. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or [[Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London|former boroughs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/ad-harvey/london%E2%80%99s-boroughs|title=London's Boroughs|publisher=History Today|access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref>

[[File:London (44761485915).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[West End theatre]] district in 2016]]
Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32 [[London borough]]s in addition to the ancient City of London.<ref name=london_071>{{Cite web |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/boroughs.jsp |title=London boroughs — London Life, GLA |publisher=London Government |access-date=3 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213025156/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/boroughs.jsp |archive-date=13 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The City of London is the main financial district,<ref name=london_073>{{Cite web |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |title=London as a financial centre |publisher=Mayor of London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106051217/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |archive-date=6 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Canary Wharf]] has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the [[London Docklands|Docklands]] to the east.

The [[West End of London|West End]] is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1608619.stm |title=West End still drawing crowds |work=BBC News |access-date=6 June 2008 |date=22 October 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511121403/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1608619.stm |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[West (London sub region)|West London]] includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2006/apr/17/tax.g2 |title=Super Rich |date=17 April 2006 |work=The Guardian |access-date=7 June 2008 |location=London |first=James |last=Meek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501134745/http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2006/apr/17/tax.g2 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The average price for properties in [[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea|Kensington and Chelsea]] is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/planningandconservation/planningpolicy/idoc.ashx?docid=bf56bda1-575c-435b-92ac-9a71625c1746&version=-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010131732/https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/planningandconservation/planningpolicy/idoc.ashx?docid=bf56bda1-575c-435b-92ac-9a71625c1746&version=-1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 October 2016 |title=Information on latest house prices in the Royal Borough |publisher=Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/aug/08/housing-london-jump-19-per-cent-year |title=Average house prices in London jump 19 percent in a year |first=Rupert |last=Jones |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=8 August 2014 |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref>

The [[East End of London|East End]] is the area closest to the original [[Port of London]], known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.<ref name="East End">{{Cite news |url=http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8487518/site/newsweek/ |date=6 July 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829024354/http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8487518/site/newsweek/ |archive-date=29 August 2006 |title=Tomorrow's East End |work=Newsweek |author=Flynn, Emily |location=New York |url-status=dead}}</ref> The surrounding [[North East (London sub region)|East London]] area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, [[brownfield land|brownfield]] sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the [[Thames Gateway]] including the [[London Riverside]] and [[Lower Lea Valley]], which was developed into the [[Olympic Park, London|Olympic Park]] for the [[London 2012 Olympic bid|2012 Olympics and Paralympics]].<ref name="East End"/>

===Architecture===
{{main|Architecture of London|List of tallest buildings and structures in London|List of demolished buildings and structures in London}}
[[File:Aerial Tower of London.jpg|thumb|The [[Tower of London]], a medieval castle, dating in part to 1078|alt=|left]]
London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the [[National Gallery]], are constructed from [[Portland stone]]. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white [[stucco]] or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]] of 1666, these being a few trace [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] remains, the [[Tower of London]] and a few scattered [[Tudor architecture|Tudor]] survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period [[Hampton Court Palace]].<ref>{{cite book| author = Summerson, John | year = 1969| title = Great Palaces (Hampton Court. pp. 12–23)| publisher = Hamlyn| isbn = 9780600016823| url = https://archive.org/details/greatpalaces0000unse| author-link = John Summerson}}</ref>

Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by [[Christopher Wren]], neoclassical financial institutions such as the [[Royal Exchange, London|Royal Exchange]] and the [[Bank of England]], to the early 20th century [[Old Bailey]] courthouse and the 1960s [[Barbican Estate]]. The 1939 [[Battersea Power Station]] by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of [[Victorian architecture]], most notably [[St Pancras railway station|St. Pancras]] and [[Paddington railway station|Paddington]].<ref name=london_078>{{Cite web |url=http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Paddington_Station.html |title=Paddington Station |publisher=Great Buildings |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525164017/http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Paddington_Station.html |archive-date=25 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The density of London varies, with high employment density in the [[Central London|central area]] and [[Canary Wharf]], high residential densities in [[inner London]], and lower densities in [[Outer London]].

[[File:Buckingham Palace from side, London, UK - Diliff.jpg|thumb|The east wing public façade of [[Buckingham Palace]] was built between 1847 and 1850; it was remodelled to its present form in 1913.]]
[[File:Trafalgar Square by Christian Reimer.jpg|thumb|[[Trafalgar Square]] and its fountains, with [[Nelson's Column]] on the right]]

[[The Monument]] in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the [[Great Fire of London]], which originated nearby. [[Marble Arch]] and [[Wellington Arch]], at the north and south ends of [[Park Lane (road)|Park Lane]], respectively, have royal connections, as do the [[Albert Memorial]] and [[Royal Albert Hall]] in [[Kensington]]. [[Nelson's Column]] (built to commemorate [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Admiral Horatio Nelson]]) is a nationally recognised monument in [[Trafalgar Square]], one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellow [[London stock brick]].<ref name=london_077>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=A1&xml=/property/2008/03/27/lpgreen127.xml |title=Eco homes: Wooden it be lovely... ? |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=12 October 2008 |location=London |first=Sarah |last=Lonsdale |date=27 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308205754/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=A1&xml=/property/2008/03/27/lpgreen127.xml |archive-date=8 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as [[30 St Mary Axe]] (dubbed "The Gherkin"), [[Tower 42]], the [[Broadgate Tower]] and [[One Canada Square]], are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and [[Canary Wharf]]. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct [[protected view]]s of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] and other historic buildings.<ref name=Protected/> This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937.<ref name=Protected>{{cite news |title=Protected views and tall buildings |url=https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/services/planning/planning-policy/protected-views-and-tall-buildings |access-date=28 June 2022 |website=City of London.gov.uk}}</ref> Nevertheless, there are [[Tall buildings in London|a number of tall skyscrapers]] in central London, including the 95-storey [[Shard London Bridge]], the [[List of tallest buildings in the United Kingdom|tallest building in the United Kingdom]] and Western Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=Take a tour of The Shard's viewing platform |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-20979547 |access-date=16 June 2023 |agency=BBC}}</ref>

Other notable modern buildings include [[The Scalpel]], [[20 Fenchurch Street]] (dubbed "The Walkie-Talkie"), the former [[City Hall, London (Southwark)|City Hall]] in [[Southwark]], the [[Art Deco]] [[BBC Broadcasting House]] plus the [[Postmodernism|Postmodernist]] [[British Library]] in [[Somers Town, London|Somers Town]]/[[Kings Cross, London|Kings Cross]] and [[No 1 Poultry]] by [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]]. The [[BT Tower]] stands at {{convert|620|ft|0}} and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly the [[Millennium Dome]], by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called [[The O2 Arena|the O2 Arena]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/2788214/The-lemon-Dome-that-was-transformed-into-O2s-concert-crown.html |title=The Lemon Dome That Was Transformed into O2's Concert Crown |last=White |first=Dominic |date=15 April 2008|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=19 June 2022}}</ref>

{{Wide image|Palace of Westminster from the dome on Methodist Central Hall (cropped).jpg|900px|The [[Houses of Parliament]] and [[Big Ben|Elizabeth Tower]] (Big Ben) on the right foreground, the [[London Eye]] on the left foreground and [[The Shard]] with [[Canary Wharf]] in the background; seen in September 2014}}

===Natural history===
The [[London Natural History Society]] suggests that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the [[Tideway|tidal Thames]] supports 120 species of fish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lnhs.org.uk/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212143739/http://www.lnhs.org.uk/Index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 February 2007 |title=Wildlife in London, England: LNHS Home page |website=lnhs.org.uk}}</ref> They state that over 60 species of bird nest in [[central London]] and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's [[wetland]] areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 [[List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Greater London|Sites of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSIs), two [[national nature reserve (United Kingdom)|national nature reserve]]s and 76 [[List of local nature reserves in Greater London|local nature reserve]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=London Natural History Society – Home |url=https://lnhs.org.uk/ |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=lnhs.org.uk}}</ref>

[[Amphibians]] are common in the capital, including [[smooth newt]]s living by the [[Tate Modern]], and [[common frog]]s, [[common toad]]s, [[palmate newt]]s and [[great crested newt]]s. On the other hand, native reptiles such as [[slowworm]]s, [[common lizard]]s, [[barred grass snake]]s and [[Vipera berus|adders]], are mostly only seen in [[Outer London]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tuffrey |first=Laurie |date=27 July 2012 |title=London's Amphibians and Reptile Populations Mapped |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jul/27/london-amphibian-reptile-map |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102204944/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jul/27/london-amphibian-reptile-map |archive-date=2 January 2021 |access-date=25 March 2021 |work=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Flickr - Duncan~ - Fox Trot.jpg|thumb|left|A fox on Ayres Street, [[Southwark]], [[South London]]]]
Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 [[red fox]]es, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found in [[Greater London]] are [[European hedgehog|hedgehog]], [[brown rat]], mice, [[European rabbit|rabbit]], [[shrew]], [[vole]], and [[grey squirrel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mammals|url=https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/richmond-park/richmond-park-attractions/wildlife/mammals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307135419/https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/richmond-park/richmond-park-attractions/wildlife/mammals |archive-date=7 March 2020 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[The Royal Parks]]}}</ref> In wilder areas of Outer London, such as [[Epping Forest]], a wide variety of mammals are found, including [[European hare]], [[European badger|badger]], [[field vole|field]], [[bank vole|bank]] and [[European water vole|water vole]], [[wood mouse]], [[yellow-necked mouse]], [[European mole|mole]], shrew, and [[least weasel|weasel]], in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead [[Eurasian otter|otter]] was found at The Highway, in [[Wapping]], about a mile from the [[Tower Bridge]], which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/news/topstories/946018.londons_first_wild_otter_found/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401110428/http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/news/topstories/946018.londons_first_wild_otter_found/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 April 2010 |title=London's first wild otter found |first=Peter |last=Law |website=This Is Local London}}</ref> Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: [[soprano pipistrelle|soprano]], [[nathusius' pipistrelle|Nathusius']] and [[common pipistrelle]]s, [[common noctule]], [[serotine]], [[barbastelle]], [[Daubenton's bat|Daubenton's]], [[brown long-eared bat|brown long-eared]], [[Natterer's bat|Natterer's]] and [[Leisler's bat|Leisler's]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/green-spaces/epping-forest/wildlife-and-nature/Pages/Mammals.aspx |title=Mammals |website=cityoflondon.gov.uk |access-date=16 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318070552/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/green-spaces/epping-forest/wildlife-and-nature/Pages/Mammals.aspx |archive-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Herds of [[Red deer|red]] and [[fallow deer]] roam freely within much of [[Richmond Park|Richmond]] and [[Bushy Park]]. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.<ref name="Deer cull begins">{{Cite news |author=Bishop |first=Rachael |date=5 November 2012 |title=Richmond Park Deer Cull Begins |work=Sutton & Croydon Guardian |location=London |url=http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/local/wandsworthnews/10026864.Richmond_Park_deer_cull_begins/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307135458/https://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/10026864.richmond-park-deer-cull-begins/ |archive-date=7 March 2020}}</ref> Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of [[melanistic]], black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near [[Theydon Bois]]. [[Reeve's muntjac|Muntjac deer]] are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 February 2014 |title=In Pictures: London's Urban Deer|work=Evening Standard|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/in-pictures-londons-urban-deer-9149902.html|url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301073242/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/in-pictures-london-s-urban-deer-9149902.html |archive-date=1 March 2021}}</ref>

==Demography==
{{main|Demography of London}}
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:right;"
|+2021 Census - Population of London by country of birth<ref>{{cite web |title=Census 2021 Bulk Data Download - TS012 Country of birth (detailed) |publisher=Durham University |url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2021/bulk}}</ref>
|-
!colspan=2|Country of Birth !! Population !! Percent
|-
!tyle=text-align:left; colspan=2|{{flag|United Kingdom}} || 5,223,986 || 59.4
|-
!style=text-align:left; colspan=2|Non-United Kingdom || 3,575,739 || 40.6
|-
| rowspan=11 | ||style=text-align:left;|{{flag|India}} || 322,644 || 3.7
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Romania}} || 175,991 || 2.0
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Poland}} || 149,397 || 1.7
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Bangladesh}} || 138,895 || 1.6
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Pakistan}} || 129,774 || 1.5
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Italy}} || 126,059 || 1.4
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Nigeria}} || 117,145 || 1.3
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Ireland}} || 96,566 || 1.1
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|Sri Lanka}} || 80,379 || 0.9
|-
| style=text-align:left;|{{flag|France}} || 77,715 || 0.9
|-
| style=text-align:left;|Others || 2,161,174 || 24.6
|-
!colspan=2|Total || 8,799,725 || 100.0
|}

[[File:Greater London population density map, 2011 census.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Population density map]]

The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population were [[Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom|foreign-born]],<ref name=Census2021/> making it the city with the [[foreign born#Cities with largest foreign born populations|largest immigrant population]], in terms of absolute numbers.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} About 69% of children born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.<ref>"[https://www.ft.com/content/41b5b302-b7e5-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62 Most London babies have foreign-born parent] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161100/https://www.ft.com/content/41b5b302-b7e5-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62 |date=25 June 2018}}". ''[[Financial Times]]''. 1 December 2016.</ref>

The population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter.<ref>[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/chd-we-figure-1.xls "2011 Census. London population"]. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 27 May 2015</ref> London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011,<ref name="urbanpopulation"/> while its wider [[London metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.<ref name=metro_area_1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html |title=The Principal Agglomerations of the World |website=City Population |access-date=3 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704112702/http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html |archive-date=4 July 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Eurostat]], London is the second [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe|most populous]] metropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.<ref name="Immigration">{{Cite web |last=Leppard |first=David |date=10 April 2005 |title=Immigration Rise Increases Segregation in British Cities |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article379434.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211185641/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article379434.ece |archive-date=11 February 2008 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

The region covers {{convert|1579|km2|sqmi|order=flip}}, giving a population density of {{convert|5177|PD/km2|PD/sqmi|order=flip}}<ref name=Metrop/> more than ten times that of any other [[ITL (UK)|British region]].<ref name=london_087>{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/regional_snapshot/RS_Lon.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624195152/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/regional_snapshot/RS_Lon.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008 |title=Population density of London: by London borough, 2006 |publisher=UK Statistics Authority |url-status=live}}</ref> In population terms, London is the 19th [[World's largest cities|largest city]] and the 18th [[List of metropolitan areas by population|largest metropolitan]] region.<ref name=Billionaires>{{Cite news |title='Rich List' counts more than 100 UK billionaires |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-27360032 |access-date=11 May 2014 |work=BBC News |date=11 May 2014}}</ref>

===Age structure and median age===
Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=20 April 2020 |title=The Age Distribution of the Population |url=https://www.trustforlondon.org.uk/data/londons-population-age/ |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702033916/https://www.trustforlondon.org.uk/data/population-age-groups/ |archive-date=2 July 2020 |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[Trust for London]]}}</ref>

The [[median age]] of London's residents in 2018 was 36.5, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.<ref name=":1"/>

===Ethnic groups===
{{main|Ethnic groups in London}}
{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
| header_align = center
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 250
| header = Maps of Greater London showing percentage distribution of selected ethnic groups according to the 2021 Census
| image1 = White London 2021.png
| alt1 = White
| caption1 = [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]] (53.8%)
| image2 = Asian London 2021.png
| alt2 = Asian
| caption2 = [[British Asian|Asian]] (20.8%)
| image3 = Black London 2021.png
| alt3 = Black
| caption3 = [[Black British people|Black]] (13.5%)
}}

According to the [[Office for National Statistics]], based on [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 Census]] estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were [[White people|White]], with 44.9% [[White British]], 2.2% [[Irish migration to Great Britain|White Irish]], 0.1% [[Gypsy (term)|gypsy]]/[[Irish traveller]] and 12.1% classified as [[Other White]].<ref name=2011censusdemo>[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rft-table-ks201ew.xls "2011 Census: Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales"]. [[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]. Retrieved 3 July 2014</ref> Meanwhile, 20.9% of Londoners were of [[British Asian|Asian]] or mixed-Asian descent, with 19.7% being of full Asian descents and 1.2% being of mixed-Asian heritage. [[British Indian|Indians]] accounted for 6.6% of the population, followed by [[British Pakistanis|Pakistanis]] and [[British Bangladeshi|Bangladeshis]] at 2.7% each. [[British Chinese|Chinese]] people accounted for 1.5%, and [[British Arabs|Arabs]] for 1.3%. A further 4.9% were classified as "Other Asian".<ref name=2011censusdemo/>

15.6% of London's population were of [[Black British|Black]] or mixed-Black descent. 13.3% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.3%. [[Black British|Black Africans]] accounted for 7.0% of London's population; 4.2% identified as [[British African-Caribbean community|Black Caribbean]], and 2.1% as "Other Black". 5.0% were of [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|mixed race]].<ref name=2011censusdemo/> The history of [[History of African presence in London|African presence]] extends back to the [[Roman Britain|Roman period]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The surprising diversity of Roman London|url=https://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/discover/surprising-diversity-roman-london-docklands|access-date=22 February 2022|website=Museum of London|language=en}}</ref>

As of 2007, one fifth of primary school students across London were from ethnic minorities.<ref name=london_094>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |title=One fifth of children from ethnic minorities |author=Paton, Graeme |date=1 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=7 June 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094854/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |archive-date=6 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4% were White, 19.8% Asian, 19% Black, 10.8% Mixed and 4% another ethnic group.<ref>{{Cite web |author=ONS |url=https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/livelinks/12297.xlsx |title=LC2109EWls – Ethnic group by age |publisher=nomisweb.co.uk |access-date=26 March 2015}}</ref> In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.<ref name=london_090>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jan/21/britishidentity1 |title=Every race, colour, nation and religion on earth |work=The Guardian |location=London |access-date=6 May 2008 |first=Leo |last=Benedictus |date=21 January 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501134732/http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jan/21/britishidentity1 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Figures from the [[Office for National Statistics]] show that {{as of|2021|alt=in 2021}}, London's foreign-born population was 3,346,000 (35%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997.<ref>{{cite news |title=Migrants in the UK: An Overview|url=https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/migrants-in-the-uk-an-overview/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |work=Migration Observatory}}</ref>

The 2011 census showed that 36.7% of [[Greater London]]'s population were born outside the UK.<ref name=london_092>{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/H-A.asp |title=Census 2001: London |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |access-date=3 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511142104/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/H-A.asp |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Estimates by the [[Office for National Statistics]] indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London from July 2009 to June 2010 were born in India, Poland, Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria.<ref name=Estimates>{{Cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/population-by-country-of-birth-and-nationality-jul09-jun10.zip |title=Table 1.4: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, July 2009 to June 2010 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506152443/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/population-by-country-of-birth-and-nationality-jul09-jun10.zip |archive-date=6 May 2011 |url-status=dead}} The figure given was the central estimate. See the source for 95% [[confidence interval]]s.</ref> In the 2021 census 40.6% of London residents were foreign-born.<ref name=Census2021>{{cite news |title=International migration, England and Wales: Census 2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/internationalmigrationenglandandwales/census2021#:~:text=London%20has%20remained%20the%20region,had%20a%20non%2DUK%20passport |access-date=3 December 2022 |publisher=ONS}}</ref> The ethnic demographics of the 2021 census were reported as 53.8% White, with White British reported at 36.8%, Asian or Asian British at 20.8%, Black or Black British at 13.5%, mixed 5.7% and other at 6.3%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/d2f0a39a-75b6-4995-b4bd-a5b68ff79027#get-data |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in London}}
{{see also|List of churches in London}}

According to the [[2011 UK Census|2011 Census]], the largest religious groupings were [[British Christianity|Christians]] (48.4%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%), [[British Muslims|Muslims]] (12.4%), no response (8.5%), [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hindus]] (5.0%), Jews (1.8%), [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikhs]] (1.5%), [[Buddhism in the United Kingdom|Buddhists]] (1.0%) and other (0.6%).<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262 |title=2011 Census, Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=11 December 2012 |access-date=4 May 2013}}</ref>

London has traditionally been Christian, and has a [[List of churches in London|large number of churches]], particularly in the City of London. The well-known [[St Paul's Cathedral]] in the City and [[Southwark Cathedral]] south of the river are [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] administrative centres,<ref name="london_096">{{Cite web |date=7 April 2008 |title=About Saint Paul's |url= http://www.stpauls.co.uk/page.aspx?theLang=001lngdef&pointerid=97320F44yHMK9hndcXZBD5sVH4m52Yc0 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080407082352/http://www.stpauls.co.uk/page.aspx?theLang=001lngdef&pointerid=97320F44yHMK9hndcXZBD5sVH4m52Yc0 |archive-date=7 April 2008 |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=Dean and Chapter St Paul's}}</ref> while the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], principal bishop of the [[Church of England]] and worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], has his main residence at [[Lambeth Palace]] in the [[London Borough of Lambeth]].<ref name="london_097">{{Cite web |title=Lambeth Palace Library |url=http://www.lambethpalacelibrary.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430174131/http://www.lambethpalacelibrary.org/ |archive-date=30 April 2011 |access-date=27 April 2008 |website=[[Lambeth Palace Library]]}}</ref>

{{multiple image
|direction = vertical
|image1 = St Paul's Cathedral from The south east.jpg|caption1=[[St Paul's Cathedral]], the seat of the [[Bishop of London]]
|image2 = London Temple.jpg|caption2=The [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London]] is the second-largest [[Hindu temple]] in England and Europe.
}}
Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between [[St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's]] and [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name=london_098>{{Cite web |url= http://www.westminster-abbey.org/ |title=Westminster Abbey |publisher=Dean and Chapter of Westminster |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110505083817/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/ |archive-date=5 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby [[Westminster Cathedral]], the largest [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral in [[England and Wales]].<ref name=london_099>{{Cite web |url= http://www.westminstercathedral.org.uk/home.html |title=Westminster Cathedral |publisher=Westminster Cathedral |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080327041736/http://www.westminstercathedral.org.uk/home.html |archive-date=27 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.<ref name=london_100>{{Cite web |url= http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/statistics/2007provisionalattendance.pdf |title=Church of England Statistics |publisher=Church of England |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110516202652/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/statistics/2007provisionalattendance.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2011 }}</ref>

Notable mosques include the [[East London Mosque]] in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the [[London Central Mosque]] on the edge of [[Regent's Park]]<ref name=london_101>{{Cite web |url= http://www.iccuk.org/index.php?article=1&PHPSESSID=rbt2vceqs1bpn9567k0kiv9hu5 |title=London Central Mosque Trust Ltd |publisher=London Central Mosque Trust Ltd. & The Islamic Cultural Centre |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110426193641/http://www.iccuk.org/index.php?article=1&PHPSESSID=rbt2vceqs1bpn9567k0kiv9hu5 |archive-date=26 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Baitul Futuh]] of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]]. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy [[Middle-East]]ern Arab Muslims based themselves around [[Mayfair]], Kensington and [[Knightsbridge]] in West London.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 January 2010 |title=Sikh-Britons Second Wealthiest: Government Report |url= http://www.sikhchic.com/history/sikhbritons_second_wealthiest_government_report |website=sikhchic.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Gareth |date=14 March 2013 |title=Comment: British Sikhs Are the Best Example of Cultural Integration |url= http://www.politics.co.uk/comment-analysis/2013/03/14/comment-british-sikhs-are-the-best-example-of-cultural-integ |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=politics.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="london_102">{{Cite web |author=Bill |first=Peter |date=30 May 2008 |title=The $300 Billion Arabs Are Coming |url= https://www.standard.co.uk/news/the-300-billion-arabs-are-coming-6890813.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430181240/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23488244-the-300-billion-arabs-are-coming.do |archive-date=30 April 2011 |access-date=25 March 2021 |work=Evening Standard |location= London}}</ref> There are large [[Bengali Muslim]] communities in the eastern boroughs of [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]] and [[London Borough of Newham|Newham]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2003 |title=Census 2001 Key Statistics, Local Authorities in England and Wales |publisher= Office for National Statistics |url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm:77-211026 |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150825013919/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm:77-211026 |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>

Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs of [[London Borough of Harrow|Harrow]] and [[London Borough of Brent|Brent]], the latter hosting what was until 2006<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/west_midlands/5276644.stm |title=Opening for biggest Hindu temple |work=BBC News |date=23 August 2006 |access-date=28 August 2006}}</ref> Europe's largest [[Hindu temple]], [[Neasden Temple]].<ref name=london_103>{{Cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/05/19/hindu_london_feature.shtml |title=Hindu London |date=6 June 2005 |work=BBC London |access-date=3 June 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060218161357/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/05/19/hindu_london_feature.shtml |archive-date=18 February 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including the [[BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London]]. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.<ref name=london_104>{{Cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2898761.stm |title=£17 m Sikh temple opens |date=30 March 2003 |work=BBC News |access-date=7 June 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071003094649/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2898761.stm |archive-date=3 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The majority of [[British Jews]] live in London, with notable Jewish communities in [[Stamford Hill]], [[Stanmore]], [[Golders Green]], [[Finchley]], [[Hampstead]], [[Hendon]] and [[Edgware]], all in [[North London]]. [[Bevis Marks Synagogue]] in the [[City of London]] is affiliated to London's historic [[Sephardic]] Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years. [[Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue]] has the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe.<ref name=london_106>{{Cite web |url= http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Israel/Partnerships/Regions/Kavimut/Britain+Communities/Stanmore+11.htm |publisher=The Jewish Agency for Israel |title=Stanmore |access-date=12 October 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110426075317/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Israel/Partnerships/Regions/Kavimut/Britain+Communities/Stanmore+11.htm |archive-date=26 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[London Jewish Forum]] was set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.<ref name=london_107>{{Cite news |last=Paul |first=Jonny |date=10 December 2006 |url= https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/1178443551.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Dec+10%2C+2006&author=JONNY+PAUL%2C+Jerusalem+Post+correspondent&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=05&desc=Livingstone+apologizes+to+UK+Jews |title=Livingstone apologizes to UK's Jews |work=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110427064159/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1164881856232&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Accents===
[[File:St Mary-le-Bow - geograph.org.uk - 3756403.jpg|thumb|upright|Traditionally, anyone born within earshot of the bells of [[St Mary-le-Bow]] church was considered to be a true [[Cockney]].<ref>{{cite news |title=London noise 'mutes Bow Bells to endanger Cockneys' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18570802 |access-date=7 August 2023 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]]
[[Cockney]] is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken by [[Working class|working-class]] and [[Lower middle class|lower-middle class]] Londoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2012 |title=Cockney |url=https://public.oed.com/blog/cockney/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |website=Oxford English Dictionary |language=en}}</ref> Some features of Cockney include, [[Th-fronting|''Th''-fronting]] (pronouncing "th" as "f"), "th" inside a word is pronounced with a "v" , [[H-dropping|''H''-dropping]], and, like most English accents, a Cockney accent [[Rhoticity in English|drops the "r"]] after a vowel.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McArthur |first1=Thomas |title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> John Camden Hotten, in his ''Slang Dictionary'' of 1859, makes reference to Cockney "use of a peculiar slang language" ([[Rhyming slang|Cockney rhyming slang]]) when describing the [[costermonger]]s of the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in the [[home counties]].<ref>{{cite news |title='Extreme' form of Cockney dialect in decline, says report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/10/extreme-form-of-cockney-dialect-in-decline-says-report-1953 |access-date=28 June 2023 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

[[Estuary English]] is an intermediate accent between Cockney and [[Received Pronunciation]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estuary English Q and A – JCW |url=http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/ee-faqs-jcw.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111062912/http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/ee-faqs-jcw.htm |archive-date=11 January 2010 |access-date=16 August 2010 |publisher=University College London}}</ref> It is widely spoken by people of all classes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estuary English |url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |publisher=University College London}}</ref>

[[Multicultural London English]] (MLE) is a [[multiethnolect]] becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is MLE? – Language and Linguistic Science, University of York |url=https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/what-is-mle/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |publisher=University of York}}</ref>

[[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard for [[British English]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wells|first1=John|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|date=2008|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0|edition=3rd|page=xix, para 2.1}}</ref> It has no specific geographical correlate,<ref>{{Cite web |title=English language - Varieties of English |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/English-language |access-date=16 April 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English language – Characteristics of Modern English|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/English-language |access-date=16 April 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> It is mainly spoken by [[Upper class|upper-class]] and [[Upper middle class|upper-middle class]] Londoners.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Received Pronunciation |url=https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/themes/received-pronunciation |access-date=16 April 2021|website=The British Library}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of London}}
[[File:City_of_London_skyscrapers_HDR_-_2023-03-18.jpg|thumb|The [[City of London]], one of the largest financial centres in the world<ref>[http://www.cityam.com/224938/london-top-world "London tops 2015 global financial centre rankings and knocks New York into second place"]. Cityam.com. Retrieved 12 November 2015.</ref>]]
London's [[gross regional product]] in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter of [[Economy of the United Kingdom|UK GDP]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/bulletins/regionaleconomicactivitybygrossdomesticproductuk/1998to2019/pdf |title=Regional economic activity by gross domestic product, UK: 1998 to 2019, UK- Office for National Statistics |first=Trevor |last=Fenton |website=ons.gov.uk}}</ref> London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lowe |first=Felix |date=18 February 2008 |title=Highgate Trumps Chelsea as Priciest Postcode |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/constructionandproperty/2784634/Highgate-trumps-Chelsea-as-priciest-postcode.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102203419/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/constructionandproperty/2784634/Highgate-trumps-Chelsea-as-priciest-postcode.html |archive-date=2 January 2021 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> London is the world's most expensive office market according to world property journal (2015) report.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.worldpropertyjournal.com/real-estate-news/united-kingdom/london-real-estate-news/london-office-rental-rates-2015-most-expensive-office-markets-cushman-wakefield-annual-office-space-across-the-world-global-rankings-george-roberts-james-young-john-siu-8910.php |title=Top 10 Most Expensive Office Markets in the World Revealed |access-date=27 September 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2015}} the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://money.cnn.com/2015/01/13/real_estate/london-real-estate-brazil/index.html |title=London homes are worth $2 trillion |last=Frater |first=James |publisher=CNN |access-date=27 September 2015 |date=13 January 2015}}</ref> The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/uk-european-cities.html |title=City Mayors: UK and European cities compared |website=citymayors.com}}</ref> On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.globalpropertyguide.com/Europe/United-Kingdom/square-meter-prices |title=Price per Square Meter United Kingdom – British Cost per Square Meter |author=Global Property Guide |website=Global Property Guide}}</ref>

===City of London===

[[File:Paternoster Square.jpg|thumb|The [[London Stock Exchange]] at [[Paternoster Square]] and [[Temple Bar, London|Temple Bar]]]]
[[File:Fotografi av Royal Exchange. London, England - Hallwylska museet - 105857.tif|thumb|The [[Royal Exchange, London|Royal Exchange]] in 1886]]

London's finance industry is based in the [[City of London]] and [[Canary Wharf]], the two major [[Central business district|business districts]]. London is one of the pre-eminent [[financial centre]]s of the world as the most important location for international finance.<ref name="economist1">{{Cite news |date=29 November 2007 |title=The City of London's tumble – After the fall |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |location=London |url=https://www.economist.com/finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_TDNDRPTT |url-status=dead |access-date=15 May 2009 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121208172611/http://www.economist.com/finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_TDNDRPTT |archive-date=8 December 2012}}</ref> London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.<ref name='Finance Hub'/> The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.<ref name="auto2"/> This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/6.html|title=Letter VI – On the Presbyterians. Letters on the English.|last=Voltaire|first=François Marie Arouet de.|date=1909–1914|website=www.bartleby.com|publisher=The Harvard Classics|orig-year=1734|access-date=22 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Origin of Religious Tolerance: Voltaire |url=https://www.independent.org/news/article.asp?id=2095 |access-date=28 June 2023 |work=Independent Institute}}</ref>
[[File:London.bankofengland.arp.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of England]], established in 1694, is the model on which most modern central banks are based.]]
By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.<ref>{{cite news |title=London - Finance |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/London/Finance |access-date=4 July 2022 |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> Still, {{as of|2016|lc=y}} London tops the world rankings on the [[Global Financial Centres Index]] (GFCI),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/20/GFCI20_26Sep2016.pdf |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928122804/http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/20/GFCI20_26Sep2016.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2017 |url-status=dead |access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hales |first1=Mike |last2=Mendoza Peña |first2=Andrés |last3=Peterson |first3=Erik R.|last4=Dessibourg |first4=Nicole |title=2018 Global Cities Report – Learning from the East: Insights from China's Urban Success|url=https://atkearney.com/2018-global-cities-report |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232225/https://www.atkearney.com/2018-global-cities-report |archive-date=20 June 2018 |access-date=20 June 2018 |website=[[A.T. Kearney]]}}</ref>

London's largest industry is finance, and its [[financial export]]s make it a large contributor to the UK's [[balance of payments]]. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 September 2016 |title=London's core role in euros under spotlight after Brexit vote |work=[[Reuters]] |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-global-markets-bis-britain-idUKKCN11O0C4 |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]]. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gardiner |first=Beth |date=20 January 2010 |title=The London Banking Center Is Beginning to Feel Like Itself Again. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/21/business/global/21rglofinuk.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125173353/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/21/business/global/21rglofinuk.html |archive-date=25 January 2010}}</ref> Along with [[professional services]] headquarters, the City of London is home to the [[Bank of England]], [[London Stock Exchange]], and [[Lloyd's of London]] insurance market.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mantle|first=Jonathan|title=For Whom the Bell Tolls|url=https://archive.org/details/forwhombelltolls0000mant|url-access=registration|year=1992|publisher=Sinclair-Stevenson |location=London, SW7|isbn=9781856191524 }}</ref>

Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (the [[FTSE 100]]) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of [[Fortune 500]] companies have offices in London.<ref name="london_113">{{Cite web|date=9 June 2009|title=London Stock Exchange|url=http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609022757/http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/|archive-date=9 June 2009|access-date=27 April 2008|website=[[London Stock Exchange]]}}</ref> In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, Sir [[Adrian Cadbury]], chairman of his family's confectionery company [[Cadbury]], produced the [[Cadbury Report]], a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of [[corporate governance]] around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gittelson |first1=Steven |title=Adrian Cadbury, a leader in corporate governance, dies at 86 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/adrian-cadbury-a-leader-in-corporate-governance-dies-at-86/2015/09/04/e87dd2fe-532e-11e5-8c19-0b6825aa4a3a_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=23 July 2022 |date=4 September 2015}}</ref>

===Media and technology===
{{main|Media in London}}
[[File:20191017 BBC Studios London, BBC Radio Theatre, New Broadcasting House photo by Amy Karle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Broadcasting House]] in central London, headquarters of the BBC]]
Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.<ref name="london_114">{{Cite web |url= http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/2CAE66FB-2DD5-41A5-B916-8FFC37276059/0/BC_RS_lpuk_0511_FR.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060525075622/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/2CAE66FB-2DD5-41A5-B916-8FFC37276059/0/BC_RS_lpuk_0511_FR.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 May 2006 |title=London's Place in the UK Economy, 2005–6 |date=November 2005 |website=Oxford Economic Forecasting on behalf of the Corporation of London |page=19 |access-date=19 June 2006}}</ref> The [[BBC]], the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many [[List of newspapers in the United Kingdom|national newspapers]], including ''[[The Times]]'', founded in 1785, are edited in London; the term [[Fleet Street]] (where most national newspapers operated) remains a [[metonym]] for the British national press. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/17/uk-retail-major-cities-idUKLNE71G00420110217 |title=London tops world cities spending league |access-date=29 April 2011 |work=Reuters |date=17 February 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110220031529/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/17/uk-retail-major-cities-idUKLNE71G00420110217 |archive-date=20 February 2011 |url-status=live |first=Mark |last=Potter }}</ref>{{update inline|date=July 2023}} The [[Port of London]] is the second largest in the UK, handling 45 million [[tonne]]s of cargo each year.<ref name="handling"/>

A growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in [[East London Tech City]], also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive a [[geoTLD]].<ref>{{Cite press release |date=10 June 2013 |title=London gets go ahead for new '.london' internet domain |url= http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/press-releases/2013/130610-london-gets-go-ahead-for-new-london-internet-domain |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130614213446/http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/press-releases/2013/130610-london-gets-go-ahead-for-new-london-internet-domain |archive-date=14 June 2013 |access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher= [[London & Partners]]}}</ref> In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by ''[[fDi Intelligence]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McReynolds |first=Cathy |date=17 February 2014 |title=European Cities and Regions of the Future 2014/15 |work=fDiIntelligence.com |location=London |url= http://www.fdiintelligence.com/Locations/Europe/European-Cities-and-Regions-of-the-Future-2014-15 |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> A museum in [[Bletchley Park]], where [[Alan Turing]] was based during World War II, is in [[Bletchley]], {{convert|40|mi|adj=off}} north of central London, as is [[The National Museum of Computing]].<ref>{{cite news |title=UK computer history gets new home |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/6291422.stm|date=11 July 2007|access-date=4 July 2022 |work=BBC}}</ref>

The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by [[National Grid plc]], [[SGN (company)|SGN]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gas distributors |url= https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/gas/distribution-networks/gb-gas-distribution-network |publisher=Ofgem |access-date=19 January 2016 |date=20 June 2013 }}</ref> and [[UK Power Networks]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Electricity distributor |url= http://www2.nationalgrid.com/uk/Our-company/electricity/Distribution-Network-Operator-Companies/ |publisher=National Grid |access-date=19 January 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140914184550/http://www2.nationalgrid.com/uk/Our-company/electricity/Distribution-Network-Operator-Companies/ |archive-date=14 September 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{main|Tourism in London}}
{{Multiple image
|direction=vertical
|image1=British Museum from NE 2 (cropped).JPG
|caption1=The [[British Museum]]
|image2=Galería Nacional, Londres, Inglaterra, 2014-08-07, DD 036.JPG|
|caption2=The [[National Gallery]]
}}
London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2015 |title=MasterCard Intelligence {{!}} MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index Report 2015|url=http://www.masterintelligence.com/content/intelligence/en/research/reports/2015/mastercard-global-destination-cities-index-report-2015.html |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207062023/http://www.masterintelligence.com/content/intelligence/en/research/reports/2015/mastercard-global-destination-cities-index-report-2015.html |archive-date=7 December 2015}}</ref> It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hedrick-Wong |first1=Yuwa |last2=Choong |first2=Desmond |year=2015 |title=MasterCard – 2015 Global Destination Cities Index |url=https://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/MasterCard-GDCI-2015-Final-Report1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195105/https://newsroom.mastercard.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/MasterCard-GDCI-2015-Final-Report1.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref> Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |title=A Tourism Vision for London |url=https://files.londonandpartners.com/l-and-p/assets/london_tourism_vision_aug_2017.pdf |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[London and Partners]] |pages=6–7}}</ref> The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2015 |title=VisitBritain |url=https://www.visitbritain.org/visitor-economy-facts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806112308/https://www.visitbritain.org/visitor-economy-facts |archive-date=6 August 2015 |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2016}} London was the world top city destination as ranked by [[TripAdvisor]] users.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 March 2016 |title=London named No.1 city destination on TripAdvisor |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-35840394 |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref>

In 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue)<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-35730578 |title=British Museum tops UK visitor attractions list |date=7 March 2016 |access-date=19 January 2017 |work=BBC News}}</ref>
#[[British Museum]]: 6,820,686
#[[National Gallery]]: 5,908,254
#[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] (South Kensington): 5,284,023
#[[Southbank Centre]]: 5,102,883
#[[Tate Modern]]: 4,712,581
#[[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (South Kensington): 3,432,325
#[[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]]: 3,356,212
#[[Somerset House]]: 3,235,104
#[[Tower of London]]: 2,785,249
#[[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]]: 2,145,486

The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2015 |title=London Sees Growth in Hotel Development, as New Properties Open Across Capital for 2016 |url=http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/press-releases/2015/20151118-london-sees-growth-in-hotel-development-as-new-properties-open-across-capital-for-2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722000653/http://www.londonandpartners.com/media-centre/press-releases/2015/20151118-london-sees-growth-in-hotel-development-as-new-properties-open-across-capital-for-2016 |archive-date=22 July 2017 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[London & Partners]]}}</ref>

==Transport==
{{main|Transport in London|Infrastructure in London}}
Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,<ref name=london_121>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/ |title=Transport for London |publisher=Transport for London |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104235448/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/ |archive-date=4 January 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the [[London Overground]] network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by [[Transport for London]] (TfL).<ref name="london_goverance"/>

The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the [[London Passenger Transport Board]] or ''[[London Transport (brand)|London Transport]]'' was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the [[Mayor of London]].<ref name=stat_tfl>{{Cite web |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/help/faq.jsp#transport |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019055413/http://www.london.gov.uk/help/faq.jsp |archive-date=19 October 2007 |title=How do I find out about transport in London? |publisher=Greater London Authority |access-date=5 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Aviation===
{{main|Airports of London}}
[[File:Heathrow Terminal 5C Iwelumo-1.jpg|thumb|[[Heathrow Airport]] is the busiest airport in Europe as well as the second busiest in the world for international passenger traffic ([[Heathrow Terminal 5|Terminal 5]]C is pictured).]]
London is a major international air transport hub with the [[World's busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|busiest city airspace in the world]]. Eight airports use the word ''London'' in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, [[Airports of London|various other airports]] also serve London, catering primarily to [[general aviation]] flights.
*[[Heathrow Airport]], in [[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]], West London, was for many years the [[World's busiest airport|busiest airport in the world]] for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, [[British Airways]].<ref name="london_135">{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Heathrow Airport Travel Report 2019|url=https://www.heathrow.com/content/dam/heathrow/web/common/documents/company/heathrow-2-0-sustainability/futher-reading/Heathrow-Airport-Travel-Report-2019.pdf|access-date=25 March 2021|website=[[Heathrow Airport]]|publisher=LHR Airports Limited|page=38}}</ref> In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.<ref name=london_137>{{cite web |url=http://www.heathrow-airport-uk.info/heathrow-airport-terminal-5.htm |title=Heathrow Airport Terminal 5 |publisher=TMC Ltd |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430195211/http://www.heathrow-airport-uk.info/heathrow-airport-terminal-5.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Gatwick Airport]], south of London in [[West Sussex]], handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of [[easyJet]], the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Airline Data Annual Reports 2017|url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airlines/Datasets/UK-Airline-data/2017/Airline-data-annual-reports-2017/|access-date=25 March 2021|website=[[Civil Aviation Authority]]}}</ref>
*[[Stansted Airport]], north-east of London in [[Essex]], has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base of [[Ryanair]], the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanstedairport.com/about-us/london-stansted-airport-and-mag/facts-and-figures/ |title=Facts and Figures – Stansted Airport |website=stanstedairport.com}}</ref>
*[[Luton Airport]], to the north of London in [[Bedfordshire]], is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet and [[Wizz Air]]) for short-haul flights.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.london-luton.co.uk/en/ |title=London Luton Airport |year=1969 |publisher=London Luton Airport |access-date=27 April 2008 |isbn=978-0-11-510256-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501023741/http://www.london-luton.co.uk/en |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[London City Airport]], the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in [[London Borough of Newham|Newham]], East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable [[business jet]] traffic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londoncityairport.com/Default.aspx |title=London City Airport — Corporate Information |publisher=London City Airport Ltd. |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423115236/http://www.londoncityairport.com/Default.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Southend Airport]], east of London in [[Essex]], is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.<ref>{{cite web |title=Londoners love our airport |date=18 May 2018 |first=Adam |last=Cornell |url-status=live |url=http://www.echo-news.co.uk/news/16234556.Londoners_love_our_airport/?ref=rss |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612091241/http://www.echo-news.co.uk/news/16234556.Londoners_love_our_airport/?ref=rss |archive-date=12 June 2019 |access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |title=Airport data 2017 – UK Civil Aviation Authority |url=http://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airports/Datasets/UK-Airport-data/Airport-data-2017/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226130311/https://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airports/Datasets/UK-Airport-data/Airport-data-2017/ |archive-date=26 February 2021 |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[Civil Aviation Authority]]}}</ref>

===Rail===
====Underground and DLR====
[[File:Baker Street tube station MMB 19 S Stock.jpg|thumb|The [[London Underground]] is the world's oldest and third-longest [[rapid transit]] system.]]
Opened in 1863, the [[London Underground]], commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longest [[rapid transit|metro]] system in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-20641351 |title=Oyster card celebrates 150th Tube anniversary |work=BBC News |date=10 December 2012 |access-date=10 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what-largest-metro-system-world-1361 |title=What is the largest metro system in the world? |date=5 September 2015 |work=City Metric |access-date=12 June 2018 |location=London |archive-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612085224/https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what-largest-metro-system-world-1361 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The system serves [[List of London Underground stations|272 stations]], and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the [[City and South London Railway]], which opened in 1890.<ref>{{cite news |title=A brief history of the Underground |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/culture-and-heritage/londons-transport-a-history/london-underground/a-brief-history-of-the-underground |access-date=23 January 2023 |publisher=Transport for London}}</ref>

Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.<ref name=london_124>{{Cite press release |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/static/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/7103.html |title=Tube breaks record for passenger numbers |publisher=Transport for London |date=27 December 2007 |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427025251/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/static/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/7103.html |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the [[2012 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The London 2012 legacy |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/25869.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018211357/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/25869.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 October 2012 |publisher=Transport for London |access-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> The [[Docklands Light Railway|Docklands Light Railway (DLR)]], which opened in 1987, is a second, more [[medium-capacity rail transport system|local metro system]] using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the [[London Docklands|Docklands]], [[Greenwich]] and [[Lewisham]].

====Suburban====
There are [[List of London railway stations|368 railway stations]] in the [[London fare zones|London Travelcard Zones]] on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into [[London station group|eighteen terminal stations]], with the exception of the [[Thameslink (route)|Thameslink]] trains connecting [[Bedford]] in the north and [[Brighton]] in the south via [[London Luton Airport|Luton]] and [[Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]] airports.<ref name="london_127">{{Cite web |url=http://www.firstcapitalconnect.co.uk/Main.php?sEvent=HomePage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130091433/http://www.firstcapitalconnect.co.uk/Main.php?sEvent=HomePage |archive-date=30 January 2010 |title=First Capital Connect |publisher=First Capital Connect |access-date=27 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—[[London Waterloo station|Waterloo]], with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes [[London Waterloo East railway station|Waterloo East]] station) each year.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/server/show/nav.1529 |title=Rail Station Usage |publisher=Office of Rail Regulation |access-date=24 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705115621/http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/server/show/nav.1529 |archive-date=5 July 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{rws|Clapham Junction}} is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.<ref>{{cite news |title=Council looks at extension of London Underground's Northern line to Clapham Junction |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/london-underground-northern-line-clapham-junction-wandsworth-borough-council-b1056869.html |access-date=15 April 2023 |work=Evening Standard}}</ref>

With the need for more rail capacity, the [[Elizabeth line|Elizabeth Line]] (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/crossrail-elizabeth-line-opening-date-announced-may-24-london-tube-tfl-transport-for-london-b997837.html |title=Crossrail opening date finally announced |date=4 May 2022 |access-date=4 May 2022}}</ref> It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the [[Home Counties]] with a branch to [[Heathrow Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=Regional Map |url=http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/maps/regional-map |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[Crossrail]] }}</ref> It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lister |first=Richard |date=2 January 2012 |title=Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled |work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051 |access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref>

====Inter-city and international====
[[File:St Pancras Railway Station 2012-06-23.jpg|thumb|[[St Pancras railway station|St Pancras International]] is the main terminal for high-speed [[Eurostar]] and [[High Speed 1]] services, as well as commuter suburban Thameslink and inter-city [[East Midlands Railway]] services.]]

London is the centre of the [[National Rail]] network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2014 |title=Rail |url=http://londonfirst.co.uk/our-focus/londons-transport-infrastructure/rail/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407083946/http://londonfirst.co.uk/our-focus/londons-transport-infrastructure/rail/ |archive-date=7 April 2014 |access-date=5 April 2014 |website=London First}}</ref> [[London King's Cross railway station|King's Cross station]] and [[Euston railway station|Euston station]], both in London, are the starting points of the [[East Coast Main Line]] and the [[West Coast Main Line]] – the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smithers |first=Andrew |date=8 December 2020 |title=Great Britain National Rail Train Operators |url=https://www.nationalrail.co.uk/TOCs%20AS%20v46%20Dec%202020.pdf |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[National Rail]] |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423051734/https://www.nationalrail.co.uk/TOCs%20AS%20v46%20Dec%202020.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Flying Scotsman (train)|The Flying Scotsman]]'' is an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service, [[LNER Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman|''Flying Scotsman'']], was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Flying Scotsman: How the first 100mph locomotive became the most famous train in the world |url=https://www.countrylife.co.uk/out-and-about/the-flying-scotsman-how-the-first-100mph-locomotive-became-the-most-famous-train-in-the-world-252287|access-date=22 April 2023 |magazine=[[Country Life (magazine)|Country Life]]}}</ref>

Some international railway services to [[Continental Europe]] were operated during the 20th century as [[boat train]]s. The opening of the [[Channel Tunnel]] in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing [[Eurostar]] services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link [[St Pancras railway station|St. Pancras International]] with [[Lille]], [[Calais]], Paris, [[Disneyland Paris]], Brussels, [[Amsterdam]] and other European tourist destinations via the [[High Speed 1]] rail link and the [[Channel Tunnel]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 November 2007 |title=Eurostar arrives in Paris on time |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/7093761.stm |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The first [[Southeastern (train operating company)|high-speed domestic]] trains started in June 2009 linking [[Kent]] to London.<ref name="Southeastern Highspeed">{{Cite web |url=http://www.southeasternrailway.co.uk/highspeed/ |title=Highspeed |publisher=Southeastern |access-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501110057/http://www.southeasternrailway.co.uk/highspeed/ |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> There are plans for a [[High Speed 2|second high speed line]] linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=11 February 2021|title=Phase 2a Act to bring HS2 to the north|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/phase-2a-act-to-bring-hs2-to-the-north|access-date=28 July 2022|website=gov.uk|language=en}}</ref>

===Buses, coaches and trams===
[[File:GOOD MORNING BORIS - Flickr - secret coach park.jpg|thumb|left|A [[New Routemaster]] (which replaced the [[AEC Routemaster]]) entered service in 2012. The red double-decker bus is an emblematic symbol of London.]]
London's [[London Buses|bus network]] runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.<ref name="Buses">{{Cite web |title=What we do – Buses |url= http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/about-tfl/what-we-do/buses |publisher= Transport for London |access-date=5 April 2014}}</ref> In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2020 |title=Annual bus statistics: England 2019/20 |url= https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/929992/annual-bus-statistics-year-ending-march-2020.pdf |access-date=25 March 2021 |publisher=Department for Transport |page=2}}</ref> Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 March 2021 |title=Government support for the bus industry and concessionary travel (England) (BUS05) |url= https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/bus05-subsidies-and-concessions |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=GOV.UK |type=BUS0501: Operating revenue for local bus services by revenue type, by metropolitan area status: England (ODS, 34.7KB)}}</ref> London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world<ref name="london_131">{{Cite web |date=20 June 2017 |title=Most Accessible Cities Around The World |url= https://www.sunrisemedical.com.au/blog/world-accessible-cities |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=Sunrise Medical}}</ref> and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2016 |title=Leading the way – Travelling with a sensory impairment in London |url= https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/leading_the_way_march_2016.pdf |access-date=26 March 2021 |publisher=[[Greater London Authority]]}}</ref>

London's coach hub is [[Victoria Coach Station]], opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and subsequently purchased by London Transport which then became [[Transport for London]], Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Victoria Coach Station to remain major coach hub |url= https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2019/august/victoria-coach-station-to-remain-major-coach-hub |date=23 August 2019 |access-date=11 June 2022 |publisher= Transport for London}}</ref>

London has a modern tram network, known as [[Tramlink]]. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Tram-endous boost for travellers |publisher= Transport for London |url= https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/news-articles/tram-endous-boost-for-travellers |access-date=26 March 2021 |date=4 April 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160513142204/https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/news-articles/tram-endous-boost-for-travellers |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 May 2016}}</ref> Since June 2008, [[Transport for London]] has completely owned and operated Tramlink.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 June 2008 |title=Statement of Accounts for the Year Ended 31 March 2008 |url= https://content.tfl.gov.uk/6-Statement-of-Acounts-2008.pdf |access-date=26 March 2021 |publisher= Transport for London |page=67}}</ref>

===Cable car===
London's first and to date only cable car is the [[London Cable Car]], which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and links [[Greenwich Peninsula]] with the [[Royal Docks]] in the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18619936 |work=BBC News |title=Thames cable car opens for passengers|date=28 June 2012|accessdate=2 July 2023}}</ref>

===Cycling===
{{main|Cycling in London}}
[[File:Belgrave Road, Victoria, London - Boris Bikes - Santander Cycles by Elliott Brown.jpg|thumb|Santander Cycle Hire, near [[Victoria, London|Victoria]] in Central London]]
In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2016 |title=Travel in London Report 9 |url=http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-report-9.pdf |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=[[Transport for London]] |page=143}}</ref> meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom: Greater London: Boroughs – Population Statistics, Charts and Map |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/greaterlondon/ |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=citypopulation.de}}</ref> Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a [[Bicycle-sharing system|bicycle hire scheme]] in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2016 |title=Travel in London Report 9 |url=http://content.tfl.gov.uk/travel-in-london-report-9.pdf |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=Travel in London |pages=146–147}}</ref>

===Port and river boats===
The [[Port of London]], once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.<ref name="handling">{{Cite web |date=10 June 2010 |title=Provisional Port Statistics 2009 |url=http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/maritime/ports/provportstats2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110203090417/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/maritime/ports/provportstats2009 |archive-date=3 February 2011 |access-date=26 April 2011 |website=[[Department for Transport]] }}</ref> Most of this cargo passes through the [[Port of Tilbury]], outside the boundary of Greater London.<ref name="handling"/>

London has river boat services on the Thames known as [[Thames Clippers]], which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steves |first=Rick|title=Rick Steves England |date=17 March 2020 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |isbn=978-1-64171-237-8 |language=en}}</ref> At major piers including [[Canary Wharf Pier|Canary Wharf]], [[London Bridge City Pier|London Bridge City]], Battersea Power Station and [[London Eye Pier|London Eye]] (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=Commute Through London – Uber Boat by Thames Clippers |url=https://www.thamesclippers.com/commuters/commute-by-river |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=thamesclippers.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> The [[Woolwich Ferry]], with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the [[North Circular Road, London|North]] and [[South Circular Road, London|South Circular]] Roads.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 April 2013 |title=Woolwich Ferries celebrate 50 years of service |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/27762.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922034512/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/27762.aspx |archive-date=22 September 2013 |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=[[Transport of London]]}}</ref>

===Roads===

Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The [[London Inner Ring Road|inner ring road]] (around the city centre), the [[A406 road|North]] and [[A205 road|South Circular]] roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the [[M25 motorway|M25]], just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into [[inner London]]. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at {{convert|117|mi|adj=off}} long.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=Highways Agency |date=25 June 2018 |url=http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/our-network/key-roads/m25/ |access-date=25 June 2018 |title=M25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180626030215/http://www.highways.gov.uk/our-road-network/our-network/key-roads/m25/ |archive-date= 26 June 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[A1 road (Great Britain)|A1]] and [[M1 motorway|M1]] connect London to [[Leeds]], and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] and [[Edinburgh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sabre-roads.org.uk/roadlists/f99/1.shtml|title=SABRE - Road Lists - The First 99 - A1|website=Sabre-roads.org.uk|access-date=14 June 2023|archive-date=15 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115121242/https://www.sabre-roads.org.uk/roadlists/f99/1.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Black London Cab.jpg|thumb|right|The [[hackney carriage]] (black cab) is a common sight on London streets. Although traditionally black, this is not a requirement with some painted in other colours or bearing advertising.]]
The [[Austin Motor Company]] began making [[hackney carriage]]s (London taxis) in 1929, and models include [[Austin FX3]] from 1948, [[Austin FX4]] from 1958, with more recent models [[TXII]] and [[TX4]] manufactured by [[London Taxis International]]. The BBC states, "ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions".<ref name="London traditions"/>

London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at {{convert|10.6|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mulholland |first1=Hélène |title=Boris Johnson mulls 'intelligent' congestion charge system for London |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/16/boris-johnson-congestion-charge |website=The Guardian |date=16 March 2009}}</ref> In 2003, a [[London congestion charge|congestion charge]] was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/london-congestion-charge-what-worked-what-didnt-what-next-92478 |title=London congestion charge: what worked, what didn't, what next |last=Badstuber |first=Nicole |website=The Conversation |date=2 March 2018 |language=en |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/projects/congestion/ |title=Central London Congestion Charging, England |website=Verdict Traffic |language=en-GB |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars.<ref>Table 3 in Santos, Georgina; Button, Kenneth; Noll, Roger G. "London Congestion Charging/Comments." Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs.15287084 (2008): 177,177–234.</ref>

==Education==
{{main|Education in London}}

===Tertiary education===
{{See also|List of universities and higher education colleges in London}}
[[File:University College London -quadrant-11Sept2006 (1).jpg|thumb|[[University College London]] (UCL), established by Royal Charter in 1836, is one of the founding colleges of the [[University of London]].]]
[[File:Main entrance, Imperial College, London (geograph 5751173).jpg|thumb|[[Imperial College London]], a technical research university in [[South Kensington]]]]
London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.<ref name="london2"/> According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2015 |title=QS World University Rankings® 2015/16 |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2015#sorting=rank+region=+country=+faculty=+stars=false+search= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914234029/https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2015#sorting=rank+region=+country=+faculty=+stars=false+search= |archive-date=14 September 2015 |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=Top Universities}}</ref> and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malthouse |first=Kit |date=1 January 1990 |title=Capital offer |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2013-14/world-ranking/analysis/capital-offer |access-date=27 March 2021|website=timeshighereducation.com}}</ref> A 2014 [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] report termed London the global capital of higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pdf.pwc.co.uk/cities-of-opportunity-2014-london.pdf |title=Pricewaterhousecoopers |access-date=26 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143014/http://pdf.pwc.co.uk/cities-of-opportunity-2014-london.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022 ''[[QS World University Rankings]]'', [[Imperial College London]] is ranked No. 6 in the world, [[University College London]] (UCL) is ranked 8th, and [[King's College London]] (KCL) is ranked 37th.<ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in the [[Research Excellence Framework]] ranking 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=REF 2021: Quality ratings hit new high in expanded assessment |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/ref-2021-research-excellence-framework-results-announced |access-date=19 September 2022 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref> The [[London School of Economics]] has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.<ref name="london_156">{{Cite news |last=Hipwell |first=Deirdre |date=23 September 2007 |title=London School of Economics and Political Science |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/sunday_times_university_guide/article2496158.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=27 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202225123/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/sunday_times_university_guide/article2496158.ece |archive-date=2 December 2008}}</ref> The [[London Business School]] is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref name="ft">{{Cite news |url=http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |title=FT Global MBA Rankings |work=Financial Times |access-date=25 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504135153/http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |archive-date=4 May 2011 |url-status=live |location=London}}</ref> The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2020/performing-arts |title=Performing Arts |date=25 February 2020 |website=Top Universities}}</ref>): the [[Royal College of Music]] (ranking 2nd in the world), the [[Royal Academy of Music]] (ranking 4th) and the [[Guildhall School of Music and Drama]] (ranking 6th).<ref>{{cite news |title=2022 QS World University Rankings by Subject: Performing Arts |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2022/performing-arts |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=Top Universities.com}}</ref>

With {{HESA student population|INSTID=LON}} students in London and around 48,000 in [[University of London Worldwide]],<ref name=External>{{Cite web |url=https://london.ac.uk/sites/default/files/governance/university-of-london-financial-statement-2018-19.pdf |title=Financial Statements 2018–19 |publisher=University of London |access-date=1 March 2020 |page=8}}</ref> the federal [[University of London]] is the largest contact teaching university in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2007|title=Table 0a – All Students by Institution, Mode of Study, Level of Study, Gender and Domicile 2005/06 |url=https://www.hesa.ac.uk/dox/dataTables/studentsAndQualifiers/download/institution0506.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928044330/http://www.hesa.ac.uk/dox/dataTables/studentsAndQualifiers/download/institution0506.xls |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=HESA}}</ref> It includes five multi-faculty universities – [[City, University of London|City]], King's College London, [[Queen Mary, University of London|Queen Mary]], [[Royal Holloway]] and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including [[Birkbeck College|Birkbeck]], the [[Courtauld Institute of Art]], [[Goldsmiths, University of London|Goldsmiths]], the [[London Business School]], the London School of Economics, the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]], the [[Royal Academy of Music]], the [[Central School of Speech and Drama]], the [[Royal Veterinary College]] and the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Member institutions |url=https://london.ac.uk/ways-study/study-campus-london/member-institutions |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=University of London |language=en}}</ref>

Universities in London outside the University of London system include [[Brunel University]], [[Imperial College London]],{{refn|Imperial College London was a constituent college of the University of London between 1908 and 2007. Degrees during this time were awarded by the federal university; however, the college now issues its own degrees.|group=note}} [[Kingston University]], [[London Metropolitan University]], [[University of East London]], [[University of West London]], [[University of Westminster]], [[London South Bank University]], [[Middlesex University]], and [[University of the Arts London]] (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/may/01/universityguide.highereducation42 |title=University of the Arts London |date=1 May 2008 |work=The Guardian |access-date=27 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501135123/http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2008/may/01/universityguide.highereducation42 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live |location=London}}</ref> In addition, there are three international universities – [[Regent's College|Regent's University London]], [[Richmond, The American International University in London]] and [[Schiller International University]].

London is home to [[United Hospitals|five major medical schools]] – [[Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry]] (part of [[Queen Mary, University of London|Queen Mary]]), [[King's College London School of Medicine]] (the largest medical school in Europe), [[Imperial College School of Medicine]], [[UCL Medical School]] and [[St George's, University of London]] – and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight [[academic health science centre]]s are based in the city – [[Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust|Imperial College Healthcare]], [[King's Health Partners]] and [[UCL Partners]] (the largest such centre in Europe).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/aug/07/health.highereducation |title=NHS hospitals to forge £2bn research link-up with university |last=Carvel |first=John |date=7 August 2008 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501140334/http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/aug/07/health.highereducation |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live |location=London}}</ref> Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in [[White City, London|White City]]. Founded by pioneering nurse [[Florence Nightingale]] at [[St Thomas' Hospital]] in 1860, the [[Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery|first nursing school]] is now part of King's College London.<ref>{{cite news |title=Florence Nightingale: The Mother of Nursing |work=National Institutes of Health|year=2015 |pmc=4557413 |last1=Karimi |first1=H. |last2=Masoudi Alavi |first2=N. |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e29475 |pmid=26339672 }}</ref> It was at King's in 1952 where a team led by [[Rosalind Franklin]] captured ''[[Photo 51]]'', the critical evidence in identifying the structure of [[DNA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/anat-flash.html |title=Anatomy of Photo 51 |last=Krock |first=Lexi |work=NOVA online |publisher=PBS |date=22 April 2003 |access-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729050654/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/anat-flash.html |archive-date=29 July 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are a number of business schools in London, including the [[London School of Business and Finance]], [[Cass Business School]] (part of [[City University London]]), [[Hult International Business School]], [[ESCP Europe]], [[European Business School London]], [[Imperial College Business School]], the [[London Business School]] and the [[UCL School of Management]].

[[File:Central School Eton Avenue.jpg|thumb|Opened in 1906, the [[Royal Central School of Speech and Drama]] is a member of [[Conservatoires UK]] and the [[Federation of Drama Schools]].]]
London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the [[Central School of Ballet]], [[London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art]] (LAMDA), [[London College of Contemporary Arts]] (LCCA), [[London Contemporary Dance School]], [[The Circus Space|National Centre for Circus Arts]], [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] (RADA; president Sir [[Kenneth Branagh]]), [[Rambert Dance Company|Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance]], the [[Royal College of Art]], [[Sylvia Young Theatre School]] and [[Trinity Laban]]. The [[BRIT School]] in the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.croydonadvertiser.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife/11-famous-former-pupils-you-432659|title=11 of the most famous people who studied at Croydon's BRIT School|last=Truelove|first=Sam|date=13 October 2016|work=Croydon Advertiser|access-date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

===Primary and secondary education===
{{see also|Centre for School Design}}
The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the [[London boroughs]] or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include [[Ashbourne College]], [[Bethnal Green Academy]], [[Brampton Manor Academy]], [[City and Islington College]], [[City of Westminster College]], [[David Game College]], [[Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College]], [[Leyton Sixth Form College]], [[London Academy of Excellence]], [[Tower Hamlets College]], and [[Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre]]. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as [[City of London School]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[St Paul's School (London)|St Paul's School]], [[Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School]], [[University College School]], [[The John Lyon School]], [[Highgate School]] and [[Westminster School]].

===Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies===
[[File:Tourists taking pictures at Prime Meridian monument, Greenwich Observatory, London.jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|Tourists queuing to take pictures on the line of the historic [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|prime meridian]] at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]. The observatory has played a major role in the history of navigation and astronomy.]]
Founded in 1675, the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] in [[Greenwich]] was established to address the problem of calculating [[longitude]] for navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royal [[Nevil Maskelyne]]'s ''[[Nautical Almanac]]'' which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as the [[prime meridian]] (0° longitude) in 1884.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ridpath |first1=Ian |title=A Dictionary of Astronomy |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=198}}</ref>

Important scientific [[learned societies]] based in London include the [[Royal Society]]—the UK's national [[academy of sciences]] and the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Royal Society|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society|access-date=23 July 2022|last=Hunter|first=Michael}}</ref> and the [[Royal Institution]], founded in 1799. Since 1825, the [[Royal Institution Christmas Lectures]] have presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included aerospace engineer [[Frank Whittle]], naturalist [[David Attenborough]] and evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]].<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Christmas Lectures|url=http://www.rigb.org/christmas-lectures/history|publisher=The Royal Institution|access-date=22 April 2015}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of London}}

===Leisure and entertainment===
{{see also|List of annual events in London|West End theatre}}
Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mayor of London – Spending Time: Londons Leisure Economy |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/economic_unit/spending_time.jsp |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20031219084151/http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/economic_unit/spending_time.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2003 |website=london.gov.uk |access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> at 25.6 events per 1000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chadha |first1=Aayush |title=UK Event Data – In Review |url=https://www.tickx.co.uk/article/772 |website=tickx.co.uk |access-date=11 December 2017 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201232544/https://www.tickx.co.uk/article/772 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city is one of the four [[fashion capital]]s of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,<ref>{{Cite web |title=20 facts about London's culture {{!}} London City Hall |url=https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/arts-culture/promoting-arts-culture/20-facts-about-london-s-culture |website=www.london.gov.uk |access-date=30 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151001092404/https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/arts-culture/promoting-arts-culture/20-facts-about-london-s-culture |archive-date=1 October 2015}}</ref> and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Study puts London ahead of New York as centre for theatre |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/54e31212-17f1-11e4-b842-00144feabdc0.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/54e31212-17f1-11e4-b842-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |work=Financial Times |location= London |date=30 July 2014 |access-date=30 September 2015 |first=James |last=Pickford}}</ref>

[[File:Harrods at Night, London - Nov 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Harrods]] department store in [[Knightsbridge]]]]
Within the [[City of Westminster]] in London, the entertainment district of the [[West End of London|West End]] has its focus around [[Leicester Square]], where London and world film [[premiere]]s are held, and [[Piccadilly Circus]], with its giant electronic advertisements.<ref name="london_160">{{Cite web |url=http://www.piccadillylights.co.uk/ |title=Piccadilly Lights |publisher=Land Securities |access-date=3 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426103109/http://www.piccadillylights.co.uk/ |archive-date=26 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> London's [[West End theatre|theatre district]] is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's [[Chinatown, London|Chinatown]] district (in [[Soho]]), and just to the east is [[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden]], an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]], whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AWaZ1LAFAZEC Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical] ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially successful composer in history"</ref> [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[The Mousetrap]]'', the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Mousetrap at 60: why is this the world's longest-running play? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2012/nov/20/mousetrap-60-years-agatha-christie |access-date=20 July 2022 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> The [[Laurence Olivier Awards]]–named after [[Laurence Olivier]]–are given annually by the [[Society of London Theatre]]. The [[Royal Ballet]], [[English National Ballet]], [[Royal Opera, London|Royal Opera]], and [[English National Opera]] are based in London and perform at the [[Royal Opera House]], the [[London Coliseum]], [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]], and the [[Royal Albert Hall]], as well as touring the country.<ref name="London's Concerts">{{Cite web |url=http://www.yourlondon.gov.uk/visiting/topic.jsp?topicid=6482&search_title=Theatres+and+concert+halls |title=Theatres and concert halls |publisher=Your London |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080124185332/http://www.yourlondon.gov.uk/visiting/topic.jsp?topicid=6482&search_title=Theatres%2Band%2Bconcert%2Bhalls |archive-date=24 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Islington]]'s {{convert|1|mi|km}} long Upper Street, extending northwards from [[Angel, London|Angel]], has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.<ref name=london_161>{{Cite web |title=2001: Public houses |work=BBC History |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/local_history/city/street_03.shtml?publichouses |access-date=4 June 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110430191354/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/local_history/city/street_03.shtml?publichouses |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Europe's busiest shopping area is [[Oxford Street]], a shopping street nearly {{convert|1|mi|km}} long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers and [[department stores]], including [[Selfridges]] [[Flagship store#Retailing|flagship store]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.london.gov.uk/londoner/06sep/p7a.jsp |publisher=[[The Londoner]] |title=Oxford Street gets its own dedicated local police team |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204913/http://www.london.gov.uk/londoner/06sep/p7a.jsp |date=September 2006 |access-date=19 June 2007 |archive-date=30 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Knightsbridge]], home to the equally renowned [[Harrods]] department store, lies to the south-west. Opened in 1760 with its flagship store on [[Regent Street]] since 1881, [[Hamleys]] is the oldest [[toy store]] in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Guinness Book of Records 1994|page=134|author=Peter Matthews, Michelle Dunkley McCarthy|publisher=Facts on File|year= 1994}}</ref> [[Madame Tussauds]] wax museum opened in [[Baker Street]] in 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Andrew |last2=Graham |first2=Anne |title=Destination London. The Expansion of the Visitor Economy |date=2019 |publisher=University of Westminster Press |page=6}}</ref>

[[File:Notting_hill_carnival.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Scene of the annual [[Notting Hill Carnival]], 2014]]
London is home to designers [[John Galliano]], [[Stella McCartney]], [[Manolo Blahnik]], and [[Jimmy Choo]], among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion. [[Mary Quant]] designed the [[miniskirt]] in her [[King's Road]] boutique in [[Swinging Sixties|Swinging Sixties London]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Royal Mail's British design classic stamps |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2009/jan/13/stamps-british-design-classics |date=13 January 2009 |access-date=1 October 2022 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of [[Brick Lane]] and the [[Chinese food|Chinese]] restaurants of [[Chinatown, London|Chinatown]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chinatownlondon.org/ |title=Chinatown — Official website |publisher=Chinatown London |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115502/http://www.chinatownlondon.org/ |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> There are [[Chinese takeaway]]s throughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provide [[English cuisine#Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine|Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Sukhadwala | first=Sejal | title=How Long Have Londoners Been Eating Chinese Food For? | website=Londonist | date=12 April 2017 | url=https://londonist.com/london/how-london-got-a-taste-for-chinese-food | access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref> Around 1860, the first [[fish and chips]] shop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, in [[Bow, London|Bow]].<ref name="London traditions">{{cite news |title=Chipping away at the history of fish and chips |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20130409-chipping-away-at-the-history-of-fish-and-chips |access-date=19 June 2022 |work=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fish & chips: Drinks & dishes you might not have realised were invented in London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/galleries/drinks-and-dishes-invented-in-london/fish-and-chips/ |access-date=19 June 2022 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref> The [[full English breakfast]] dates from the Victorian era, and many [[Cafe (British)|cafe]]s in London serve a full English breakfast throughout the day.<ref>{{cite news |title=History Of The Traditional English Breakfast |url=https://englishbreakfastsociety.com/full-english-breakfast.html |access-date=23 July 2022 |work=English Breakfast Society}}</ref> London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, including [[Restaurant Gordon Ramsay]] in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Gordon Ramsay celebrates having three Michelin stars for 21 years |url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/celebrity/gordon-ramsay-celebrates-having-three-26251935 |access-date=22 July 2022 |work=Daily Record}}</ref> Many hotels in London provide a traditional [[afternoon tea]] service, such as the [[Hotel Café Royal#Restoration and conversion|Oscar Wilde Lounge]] at the [[Hotel Café Royal]] in Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example an ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Alice in Wonderland]]'' themed afternoon tea served at the [[Egerton House Hotel]], and ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'' themed afternoon tea at [[One Aldwych]] in Covent Garden.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afternoon Tea At Oscar Wilde's Favorite Bar |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanneshurvell/2017/11/29/afternoon-tea-at-oscar-wildes-favorite-bar/ |access-date=3 July 2022 |work=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=17 themed afternoon teas perfect for Mother's Day |url=https://www.you.co.uk/themed-afternoon-teas/ |access-date=14 July 2022 |work=You}}</ref> The nation's most popular [[biscuit]] to [[Dunking (biscuit)|dunk]] in tea, [[chocolate digestive]]s have been manufactured by [[McVitie's]] at their [[Harlesden]] factory in north-west London since 1925.<ref>{{cite news |title=Inside the Factory: BBC documentary goes behind the scenes of west London factory churning out 80 million biscuits a day |url=https://www.mylondon.news/news/west-london-news/inside-factory-bbc-documentary-goes-13415002 |access-date=20 August 2022 |work=My London}}</ref>

[[File:Restaurante The Swan, Londres, Inglaterra, 2014-08-11, DD 113.jpg|thumb|[[Shakespeare's Globe]] is a modern reconstruction of the Globe Theatre on the south bank of the Thames.]]
There is a variety of [[List of annual events in London|annual events]], beginning with the relatively new [[New Year's Day Parade]], a fireworks display at the [[London Eye]]; the world's second largest [[street party]], the [[Notting Hill Carnival]], is held on the late [[August Bank Holiday]] each year. Traditional parades include November's [[Lord Mayor's Show]], a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new [[Lord Mayor of the City of London]] with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's [[Trooping the Colour]], a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] and [[British Army|British]] armies to celebrate the [[Queen's Official Birthday]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4820.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620233221/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page4820.asp |archive-date=20 June 2008 |title=One Queen, Two Birthdays |publisher=Royal Government |access-date=27 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Boishakhi Mela]] is a [[Bengali New Year]] festival celebrated by the [[British Bangladeshi]] community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.eastlondonlines.co.uk/2018/05/celebrate-the-bengali-new-year-this-summer-in-tower-hamlets/ |publisher=East London Lines |last=Andreou |first=Roza |title=Celebrate the Bengali New Year this summer in Tower Hamlets |date=25 May 2018}}</ref> First held in 1862, the [[Chelsea Flower Show|RHS Chelsea Flower Show]] (run by the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]) takes place in May every year.<ref>{{cite news |title=RHS Chelsea Flower Show |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/04_april/17/chelseapack.pdf |access-date=7 July 2022 |work=BBC}}</ref>

===LGBT scene===
{{main|LGBT culture in London}}
The first [[gay bar]] in London in the modern sense was [[The Cave of the Golden Calf]], established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just off [[Regent Street]], in 1912 and became a haunt for the wealthy, aristocratic and bohemian.<ref>{{Cite book|title=London and the Culture of Homosexuality, 1885–1914 (Cambridge Studies in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture)|author=Matt Cook|isbn=978-0521089807|date=6 November 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/londoncultureofh00matt}}</ref>
[[File:Comptons-Of-Soho.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Comptons of Soho]] during [[Pride in London|London Pride]] in 2010]]
While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, after [[Sexual Offences Act 1967|homosexuality was decriminalised]] in England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970s [[Soho]] (and in particular [[Old Compton Street]]) became the centre of the [[LGBT culture in London|London LGBT community]].<ref name="Olson"/> [[G-A-Y]], previously based at the [[London Astoria|Astoria]], and now [[Heaven (nightclub)|Heaven]], is a long-running night club.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2019 |title=Forty years of sheer Heaven at the London superclub |url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/nov/30/40-years-of-sheer-heaven-london-gay-superclub |access-date=25 August 2022 |work=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence of [[glam rock]] in the UK in the early 1970s, via [[Marc Bolan]] and [[David Bowie]], saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musical ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'', which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 September 2015 |title=We Live in the World 'Rocky Horror' Created |language=en-US |work=Flavorwire |url=http://flavorwire.com/539534/we-live-in-the-world-rocky-horror-created |access-date=22 May 2017}}</ref> The [[Blitz Kids]] (which included [[Boy George]]) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz in [[Covent Garden]], helping launch the [[New Romantic]] subcultural movement in the late 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theblitzkids.com/site_archive/theblitzkids/menuboy.html |title=Boy George |publisher=The Blitz Kids |access-date=30 June 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830193512/http://theblitzkids.com/site_archive/theblitzkids/menuboy.html |archive-date=30 August 2011 }}</ref> Today, the annual [[Pride in London|London Pride Parade]] and the [[London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival]] are held in the city.<ref name="Olson">Olson, Donald. ''London for Dummies'' (Volume 136 of Dummies Travel). [[John Wiley & Sons]], 2 February 2010. 6th Edition. {{ISBN|0470619651}}, 9780470619650. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vrayaSsuQbUC&pg=PA67 67].</ref>

===Literature, film and television===
{{main|London in fiction|London in film|List of television shows set in London|London Television Archive}}
[[File:Sherlock Holmes Museum.jpg|left|thumb|[[Sherlock Holmes Museum]] in [[Baker Street]], bearing the number 221B]]

London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s late 14th-century ''[[The Canterbury Tales|Canterbury Tales]]'' set out for [[Canterbury]] from London. [[William Shakespeare]] spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary [[Ben Jonson]] was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'', was set in the city.<ref name="London in Literature"/> ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'' (1722) by [[Daniel Defoe]] is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 [[Great Plague of London|Great Plague]].<ref name="London in Literature"/>

The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly [[Hampstead]] and (since the early 20th century) [[Bloomsbury]]. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist [[Samuel Pepys]], noted for his eyewitness account of the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]]; [[Charles Dickens]], whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of early [[Victorian era|Victorian]] London; and [[Virginia Woolf]], regarded as one of the foremost [[modernist literature|modernist]] literary figures of the 20th century.<ref name="London in Literature">{{Cite web |url=http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/speccoll/guides/london/londoninliterature.shtml |title=London in Literature |publisher=Bryn Mawr College |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427043832/http://www.brynmawr.edu/library/speccoll/guides/london/londoninliterature.shtml |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s [[Sherlock Holmes]] stories.<ref name="London in Literature"/> [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] mixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote the ''[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde]]'', a [[Gothic fiction|gothic]] novella set in Victorian London.<ref>{{cite news |title=Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde |url=https://www.britishlibrary.cn/en/works/jekyllandhyde/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |publisher=British Library}}</ref> In 1898, [[H. G. Wells]]' sci-fi novel ''[[The War of the Worlds]]'' sees London (and the south of England) invaded by Martians.<ref>{{cite news |title=The War of the Worlds |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Worlds-novel-by-Wells#ref343460 |access-date=2 August 2022 |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] wrote ''Calendar of the London Seasons'' in 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city include [[Peter Ackroyd]], author of a "biography" of London, and [[Iain Sinclair]], who writes in the genre of [[psychogeography]]. In the 1940s, [[George Orwell]] wrote essays in the ''[[Evening Standard|London Evening Standard]]'', most notably "[[A Nice Cup of Tea]]" (method for making tea) and "[[The Moon Under Water]]" (an ideal [[pub]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Orwell in the Evening Standard |url=https://orwellsociety.com/orwell-in-the-evening-standard/ |access-date=27 June 2022 |work=Orwell Society}}</ref> The WWII [[Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II|evacuation of children from London]] is depicted in [[C. S. Lewis]]' first Narnia book ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' (1950). On Christmas Eve 1925, [[Winnie-the-Pooh]] debuted in London's ''[[The Evening News (London newspaper)|Evening News]]'', with the character based on a stuffed toy [[A. A. Milne]] bought for his son [[Christopher Robin Milne|Christopher Robin]] in Harrods.<ref>{{cite news |title=Winnie-the-Pooh goes to Harrods in new authorised AA Milne prequel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/jul/23/winnie-the-pooh-goes-to-harrods-in-new-authorised-aa-milne-prequel |access-date=23 April 2023 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> In 1958, author [[Michael Bond]] created [[Paddington Bear]], a refugee found in [[London Paddington station]]. A screen adaptation, ''[[Paddington (film)|Paddington]]'' (2014), features the calypso song "[[London is the Place for Me]]".<ref>{{cite web|website=Paddington.com|url=http://www.paddington.com/global/about/timeline/|title=About|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817131744/http://paddington.com/global/about/timeline/|archive-date=17 August 2016}}</ref>

[[File:London July 2010 (4818942309).jpg|thumb|Opened in 1937, the [[Odeon Luxe Leicester Square|Odeon cinema]] in [[Leicester Square]] hosts numerous European and world film premieres.]]

London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include [[Pinewood Studios|Pinewood]], [[Elstree Studios|Elstree]], [[Ealing Studios|Ealing]], [[Shepperton Studios|Shepperton]], [[Twickenham Studios|Twickenham]], and [[Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden|Leavesden]], with the ''[[James Bond]]'' and ''[[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter]]'' series among many notable films produced here.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Harry Potter economy |url=https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2009/12/17/the-harry-potter-economy |access-date=8 July 2022 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref name="filmlondon">{{Cite web |url=http://filmlondon.org.uk/studio-contacts |title=Film London – studio contacts |website=Filmlondon.org.uk |access-date=27 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810011712/http://filmlondon.org.uk/studio-contacts |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Working Title Films]] has its headquarters in London. A [[post-production]] community is centred in [[Soho]], and London houses six of the world's largest [[visual effects]] companies, such as [[Framestore]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The UK's VFX Industry: In Profile|url=https://www.ukscreenalliance.co.uk/subpages/the-uks-vfx-industry-in-profile/ |access-date=7 July 2022 |work=UK Screen Alliance}}</ref> [[The Imaginarium]], a digital performance-capture studio, was founded by [[Andy Serkis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Who We Are |url=http://www.theimaginariumstudios.com/who-we-are |website=The Imaginarium Studios |access-date=5 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031092554/http://www.theimaginariumstudios.com/who-we-are |archive-date=31 October 2012}}</ref> London has been the setting for films including ''[[Oliver Twist (1948 film)|Oliver Twist]]'' (1948), ''[[Scrooge (1951 film)|Scrooge]]'' (1951), ''[[Peter Pan (1953 film)|Peter Pan]]'' (1953), ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]'' (1961), ''[[My Fair Lady (film)|My Fair Lady]]'' (1964), ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'' (1964), ''[[Blowup]]'' (1966), ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' (1971), ''[[The Long Good Friday]]'' (1980), ''[[The Great Mouse Detective]]'' (1986), ''[[Notting Hill (film)|Notting Hill]]'' (1999), ''[[Love Actually]]'' (2003), ''[[V for Vendetta (film)|V for Vendetta]]'' (2005), ''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street]]'' (2008) and ''[[The King's Speech]]'' (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Michael Caine]], [[Julie Andrews]], [[Peter Sellers]], [[David Lean]], [[Julie Christie]], [[Gary Oldman]], [[Emma Thompson]], [[Guy Ritchie]], [[Christopher Nolan]], [[Alan Rickman]], [[Jude Law]], [[Helena Bonham Carter]], [[Idris Elba]], [[Tom Hardy]], [[Daniel Radcliffe]], [[Keira Knightley]], [[Daniel Kaluuya]] and [[Daniel Day-Lewis]]. Post-war [[Ealing comedies]] featured [[Alec Guinness]], from the 1950s [[Hammer Film Productions|Hammer Horror]]s starred [[Christopher Lee]], films by [[Michael Powell]] included the London-set early [[Slasher film|slasher]] ''[[Peeping Tom (1960 film)|Peeping Tom]]'' (1960), the 1970s comedy troupe [[Monty Python]] had film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990s [[Richard Curtis]]'s rom-coms have featured [[Hugh Grant]]. The largest cinema chain in the country, [[Odeon Cinemas]] was founded in London in 1928 by [[Oscar Deutsch]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Feature: The legacy of Oscar Deutsch's cinemas|url=https://www.theguardian.com/arts/critic/feature/0,1169,717532,00.html|work=The Guardian|access-date=8 July 2022}}</ref> The [[British Academy Film Awards]] (BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with the [[BAFTA Fellowship]] the Academy's highest accolade.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://heritage.bafta.org/moment/1971/the-fellowship-baftas-top-prize/60 |publisher=BAFTA |access-date=19 June 2023 |title=The Fellowship: BAFTA's top prize |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513071405/https://heritage.bafta.org/moment/1971/the-fellowship-baftas-top-prize/60 |url-status=live}}</ref> Founded in 1957, the [[BFI London Film Festival]] takes place over two weeks every October.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/global/kate-winslet-saoirse-ronan-london-film-festival-1234748238/|title=Saoirse Ronan, Kate Winslet Drama 'Ammonite' to Close BFI London Film Festival|date=26 August 2020|access-date=8 July 2022}}</ref>

London is a major centre for television production, with studios including [[Television Centre, London|Television Centre]], [[ITV Studios]], [[Sky Campus]] and [[Fountain Studios]]; the latter hosted the original talent shows, ''[[Pop Idol]]'', ''[[The X Factor (British TV series)|The X Factor]]'', and ''[[Britain's Got Talent]]'', before each format was exported around the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=The scribbled note that changed TV |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/oct/26/x-factor-cowell-fuller |access-date=4 October 2019 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://variety.com/2015/tv/spotlight/itv-simon-cowell-talks-strong-ties-with-brit-broadcaster-1201467913/|title=ITV: Simon Cowell Talks Strong Ties With Brit Broadcaster|publisher=Variety|date=7 April 2015}}</ref> Formerly a franchise of ITV, [[Thames Television]] featured comedians such as [[Benny Hill]] and [[Rowan Atkinson]] (''[[Mr. Bean]]'' was first screened by Thames), while [[Talkback (production company)|Talkback]] produced ''[[Da Ali G Show]]'' which featured [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] as [[Ali G]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Da Ali G Show (TV Series) |url=https://www.radiotimes.com/programme/b-zteorv/da-ali-g-show/ |access-date=8 July 2022 |work=Radio Times}}</ref> Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera ''[[EastEnders]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=EastEnders Episode 1, 19/02/1985|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b053l8b7 |access-date=28 June 2023|agency=BBC}}</ref>

===Museums, art galleries and libraries===
[[File:Kensington Museums aerial 2011 b.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Albertopolis]]. The [[Albert Memorial]], [[Royal Albert Hall]], [[Royal Geographical Society]], and [[Royal College of Art]] are visible near the top; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] and [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] at the lower end; [[Imperial College London|Imperial College]], [[Royal College of Music]], and [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]] lying in between.]]

London is [[List of museums in London|home to many museums]], galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major [[tourist attraction]]s as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the [[British Museum]] in [[Bloomsbury]], in 1753.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Life and Curiosity of Hans Sloane|url=https://www.bl.uk/events/the-life-and-curiosity-of-hans-sloane |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=The British Library}}</ref> Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the [[National Gallery]] was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in [[Trafalgar Square]].<ref>{{citation |last= Liscombe |first= R. W.|year= 1980|title= William Wilkins, 1778–1839 |place= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|pages=180–82 }}</ref>

The [[British Library]] is the second [[List of largest libraries|largest library in the world]], and the [[national library]] of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sen Nag |first=Oishimaya |date=5 March 2018 |title=The Largest Libraries In The World |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/5-largest-libraries-in-the-world.html |access-date=30 March 2021 |website=World Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref> There are many other research libraries, including the [[Wellcome Library]] and [[Dana Library and Research Centre|Dana Centre]], as well as [[academic library|university libraries]], including the [[British Library of Political and Economic Science]] at [[London School of Economics|LSE]], the [[Imperial College London Abdus Salam Library|Abdus Salam Library]] at [[Imperial College London|Imperial]], the [[Maughan Library]] at [[King's College London|King's]], and the [[Senate House Libraries]] at the [[University of London]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayley |first=Sian |date=21 February 2019 |title=Best libraries in London: The V&A, British Library, Wellcome Trust, BFI and more |work=Evening Standard |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/futurelondon/culturecity/best-libraries-in-london-wellcome-trust-british-library-canada-water-victoria-and-albert-guildhall-a4072696.html |access-date=26 March 2021}}</ref>

In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of [[South Kensington]] was developed as "[[Albertopolis]]", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]], and the [[London Science Museum|Science Museum]]. The [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cullinan (Director) |first=Nicholas |title=Organisation – National Portrait Gallery |url=http://www.npg.org.uk/about/organisation.php |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=National Portrait Gallery}}</ref> The national gallery of British art is at [[Tate Britain]], originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved to [[Tate Modern]], a new gallery housed in the former [[Bankside Power Station]] which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via the [[Millennium Bridge, London|Millennium Bridge]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Millennium Bridge |url=https://www.visitlondon.com/things-to-do/place/442404-millennium-bridge |access-date=27 July 2022 |work=Visit London}}</ref>

===Music===
[[File:Royal Albert Hall.001 - London.JPG|The [[Royal Albert Hall]] hosts concerts and musical events, including [[BBC Proms|The Proms]] which are held every summer, as well as cinema screenings of films accompanied with live orchestral music.|thumb]]
London is one of the major classical and [[popular music]] capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as [[Universal Music Group|Universal Music Group International]] and [[Warner Music Group]], and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the [[Barbican Arts Centre]] (principal base of the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] and the [[London Symphony Chorus]]), the [[Southbank Centre]] ([[London Philharmonic Orchestra]] and the [[Philharmonia Orchestra]]), [[Cadogan Hall]] ([[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]]) and the [[Royal Albert Hall]] ([[The Proms]]).<ref name="London's Concerts"/> The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with the [[BBC Proms#Last Night of the Proms|Last Night of the Proms]]. London's two main opera houses are the [[Royal Opera House]] and the [[London Coliseum]] (home to the [[English National Opera]]).<ref name="London's Concerts"/> The UK's largest [[pipe organ]] is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells of [[St Clement Danes]] feature in the 1744 [[nursery rhyme]] "[[Oranges and Lemons]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Layman's Magazine of the Living Church, Issues 1-20 |date=1940 |publisher=Morehouse-Gorham |page=5}}</ref> Several [[conservatoire]]s are within the city: [[Royal Academy of Music]], [[Royal College of Music]], [[Guildhall School of Music and Drama]] and [[Trinity College of Music|Trinity Laban]]. The record label [[EMI]] was formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company, [[Alan Blumlein]], created [[stereo sound]] that year.<ref>{{cite news|title=Early stereo recordings restored|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7537782.stm|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=28 March 2023|date=1 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807025132/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7537782.stm|archive-date=7 August 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Abbey Rd Studios.jpg|thumb|left|[[Abbey Road Studios]] in [[Abbey Road, London|Abbey Road]]]]
London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, [[The O2 Arena|the O2 Arena]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=2015 Year End Worldwide Ticket Sales – Top 200 Area Venues |url=http://www.pollstarpro.com/files/charts2015/2015YearEndWorldwideTicketSalesTop200ArenaVenues.pdf |url-status=dead|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517203229/http://www.pollstarpro.com/files/charts2015/2015YearEndWorldwideTicketSalesTop200ArenaVenues.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2016 |access-date=26 March 2021}}</ref> and [[Wembley Arena]], as well as many mid-sized venues, such as [[Brixton Academy]], the [[Hammersmith Apollo]] and the [[Shepherd's Bush Empire]].<ref name="London's Concerts"/> Several [[music festivals]], including the [[Wireless Festival]], [[Lovebox Festival|Lovebox]] and [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]]'s [[British Summer Time (concerts)|British Summer Time]], are held in London.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Keens |first1=Oliver |last2=Levine |first2=Nick |date=11 March 2021 |title=The best music festivals in London 2021 |url=https://www.timeout.com/london/music-festivals/the-best-music-festivals-in-london?package_page=48331 |access-date=26 March 2021 |work=Time Out London}}</ref>

The city is home to the original [[Hard Rock Cafe]] and the [[Abbey Road Studios]], where [[the Beatles]] recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like [[Elton John]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[David Bowie]], [[the Rolling Stones]], [[the Kinks]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[the Who]], [[Cliff Richard]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Iron Maiden]], [[Deep Purple]], [[T. Rex (band)|T. Rex]], [[the Police]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[Dire Straits]], [[Cat Stevens]], [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[the Cure]], [[Madness (band)|Madness]], [[Culture Club]], [[Dusty Springfield]], [[Phil Collins]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]] and [[Sade (band)|Sade]], derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tow |first1=Stephen |title=London, Reign Over Me How England's Capital Built Classic Rock|date=2020 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2006/04/06/garycrowley_londontop40_feature.shtml |title=London's top 40 artists |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 September 2008 |isbn=978-0-89820-135-2}}</ref>

London was instrumental in the development of [[punk music]], with figures such as the [[Sex Pistols]], [[the Clash]] and fashion designer [[Vivienne Westwood]] all based in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2015 |title=PUNK – Paris Photo Special Feature |url=https://www.michaelhoppengallery.com/news/55/#:~:text=After%20a%20brief%20stint%20managing,the%20radical%20punk%20clothing%20style. |access-date=25 March 2021 |website=Michael Hoppen Gallery |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Whatley |first=Jack |title=In Pictures: The 'Anarchy In The U.K. Tour' of 1976, the infamous tour that never really toured |url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/in-pictures-the-anarchy-in-the-u-k-tour-of-1976-the-infamous-tour-that-never-really-toured/|access-date=25 March 2021|website=Far Out Magazine |date=14 March 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref> Other artists to emerge from the London music scene include [[George Michael]], [[Kate Bush]], [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], [[Siouxsie and the Banshees]], [[Bush (British band)|Bush]], the [[Spice Girls]], [[Jamiroquai]], [[Blur (band)|Blur]], [[the Prodigy]], [[Gorillaz]], [[Mumford & Sons]], [[Coldplay]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Adele]], [[Sam Smith (singer)|Sam Smith]], [[Ed Sheeran]], [[Ellie Goulding]], [[Dua Lipa]] and [[Florence and the Machine]].<ref name="Scene">{{Cite web |url=http://www.londonbc.co.uk/history-of-music-in-london.html |title=History of music in London |publisher=The London Music Scene |access-date=2 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427023619/http://www.londonbc.co.uk/history-of-music-in-london.html |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Artists from London played a prominent role in the development of [[synth-pop]], including [[Gary Numan]], [[Depeche Mode]], the [[Pet Shop Boys]] and [[Eurythmics]]; the latter's "[[Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)]]" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPdJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |page=23 |title=Dawn of the DAW: The Studio as Musical Instrument |last=Bell |first=Adam Patrick |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190296629}}</ref> Artists from London with a Caribbean influence include [[Hot Chocolate (band)|Hot Chocolate]], [[Billy Ocean]], [[Soul II Soul]] and [[Eddy Grant]], with the latter fusing [[reggae]], soul and samba with rock and pop.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1983/08/02/eddy-grants-electric-rock-38/74a1753f-17b5-451b-b873-e1fd9f9237b0/|title=Eddy Grant's Electric Rock|author=Himes, Geoffrey|date=2 August 1983|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=19 March 2021}}</ref> London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres [[UK garage]], [[drum and bass]], [[dubstep]] and [[grime (music)|grime]] evolved in the city from the foreign genres of [[House music|house]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]], and reggae, alongside local [[drum and bass]]. Music station [[BBC Radio 1Xtra]] was set up to support the rise of local [[urban contemporary]] music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. The [[British Phonographic Industry]]'s annual popular music awards, the [[Brit Awards]], are held in London.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brits.co.uk/history/shows/1977|title=Brit Awards History|website=Brit Awards|language=en|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

==Recreation==
===Parks and open spaces===
{{main|Parks and open spaces in London|Royal Parks of London}}
{{see also|List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Greater London|List of local nature reserves in Greater London}}

[[File:Hyde Park London from the air.jpg|thumb|[[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] (with [[Kensington Gardens]] in foreground) has been a popular public space since it opened in 1637.]]
A 2013 report by the [[City of London Corporation]] said that London is the "greenest city" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McGlone |first=Conor |date=9 July 2013 |title=London 'greenest city' in Europe |url=https://www.edie.net/news/6/London--greenest-city--in-Europe-/ |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=edie.net |language=en}}</ref> The largest parks in the [[Central London|central area of London]] are three of the eight [[Royal Parks of London|Royal Parks]], namely [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] and its neighbour [[Kensington Gardens]] in the west, and [[Regent's Park]] to the north.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/kensington_gardens/ |title=Kensington Gardens |year=2008 |publisher=The Royal Parks |access-date=26 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527231143/http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/kensington_gardens/ |archive-date=27 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hyde Park in particular is popular for [[#Sport|sports]] and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains [[London Zoo]], the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near [[Madame Tussauds]] Wax Museum.<ref name=Tussauds>{{Cite web |title=Madame Tussauds, London |url=http://www.tourist-information-uk.com/madame-tussauds.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427094710/http://www.tourist-information-uk.com/madame-tussauds.htm |archive-date=27 April 2011 |access-date=26 March 2021 |publisher=Madame Tussauds}}</ref> [[Primrose Hill]] is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=David |title=Dictionary of London Place Names |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9780192801067 |oclc=45406491}}</ref>

Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, [[Green Park]] and [[St. James's Park]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2008 |title=Green Park |url=http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/green_park/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904010152/http://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/green_park/about.cfm|archive-date=4 September 2009 |access-date=26 March 2021 |publisher=The Royal Parks}}</ref> A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including [[Hampstead Heath]] and the remaining Royal Parks of [[Greenwich Park]] to the southeast, and [[Bushy Park]] and [[Richmond Park]] (the largest) to the southwest. [[Hampton Court Park]] is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the [[Historic Royal Palaces]], unlike the eight [[Royal Parks of London|Royal Parks]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.richmond.gov.uk/home/services/leisure_and_culture/parks_and_open_spaces/park_details.htm?parkId=268 |title=Park details – Hampton Court |publisher=London Borough of Richmond upon Thames |access-date=26 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826172424/http://www.richmond.gov.uk/home/services/leisure_and_culture/parks_and_open_spaces/park_details.htm?parkId=268 |archive-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>

Close to Richmond Park is [[Kew Gardens]], which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] list of [[List of World Heritage Sites of the United Kingdom|World Heritage Sites]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/k16kewhistory.pdf |title=Kew, History & Heritage |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=24 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829192523/http://www.kew.org/ksheets/pdfs/k16kewhistory.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2008}}</ref> There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, including [[Victoria Park, London|Victoria Park]] in the [[East End]] and [[Battersea Park]] in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including [[Hampstead Heath]] and [[Epping Forest]],<ref name=Epping>{{Cite web |url=http://217.154.230.195/NR/rdonlyres/A3CB6563-4D0D-4C35-AC7F-818C28306E79/0/OS_EF_Dogs.pdf |title=Epping Forest You & Your Dog |website=brochure |publisher=City of London |access-date=13 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110704191340/http://217.154.230.195/NR/rdonlyres/A3CB6563-4D0D-4C35-AC7F-818C28306E79/0/OS_EF_Dogs.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2011}}</ref> both controlled by the [[City of London Corporation]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Ramblers |url=http://www.ramblers.org.uk/info/parks/name/c/corporationoflondon.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029232404/http://www.ramblers.org.uk/info/parks/name/c/corporationoflondon.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 October 2008 |title=Corporation of London Open Spaces |publisher=Ramblers |access-date=12 December 2011}}</ref> Hampstead Heath incorporates [[Kenwood House]], a former [[stately home]] and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.00100200800k00800f |title=Kenwood House |publisher=English Heritage |access-date=26 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305202033/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.00100200800k00800f |archive-date=5 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.<ref name=Epping/> Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks, [[Thorpe Park]] near Staines-upon-Thames, [[Chessington World of Adventures]] in Chessington and [[Legoland Windsor Resort|Legoland Windsor]], are located within {{convert|20|mi}} of London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amusement and theme park attendance in UK 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/632696/attendance-at-theme-and-amusement-parks-in-united-kingdom-uk/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Statista |language=en |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Walking===
[[File:Horse Ride, Wimbledon Common - geograph.org.uk - 692221.jpg|thumb|The Horse Ride is a [[tree tunnel]] (route overhung by trees) on the western side of [[Wimbledon Common]].]]
[[Walking in London|Walking is a popular recreational activity in London]]. Areas that provide for walks include [[Wimbledon Common]], [[Epping Forest]], [[Hampton Court Park]], [[Hampstead Heath]], the eight [[Royal Parks]], canals and disused railway tracks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://www.innerlondonramblers.org.uk/ideasforwalks.html |title=Inner London Ramblers – Walk Ideas |first=Phil |last=Marson |website=innerlondonramblers.org.uk}}</ref> Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the [[Thames Path]], some {{convert|28|mi|km}} of which is within [[Greater London]], and The [[Wandle Trail]] along the [[River Wandle]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sustrans.org.uk/ncn/map/route/wandle-trail |title=Wandle Trail – Map |website=Sustrans}}</ref>

Other [[long-distance path]]s, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the [[Capital Ring]], the [[Green Chain Walk]], [[London Outer Orbital Path]] ("Loop"), [[Jubilee Walkway]], [[Lea Valley Walk]], and the [[Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk]].<ref name=":0" />

==Sport==
{{main|Sport in London}}
{{see also|Football in London|Rugby union in London}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header =
| width = 215
| image1 = Wembley Stadium interior.jpg
| width1 =
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Wembley Stadium]], home of the England [[England national football team|men]] and [[England women's national football team|women's football team]] and the [[FA Cup Final]], has a seating capacity of 90,000. It is the UK's biggest stadium.<ref name=Wembley>{{Cite web |title=About Wembley Stadium – What we do at Wembley Stadium |url=https://www.wembleystadium.com/about/about-wembley-stadium |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[Wembley Stadium]] connected by EE |language=en |archive-date=26 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326114025/http://www.wembleystadium.com/about/about-wembley-stadium |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| image2 = Centre Court Wimbledon 1.jpg
| width2 =
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Centre Court]] at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]. Held every June and July, Wimbledon is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and the only major played on grass.
| image3 = Twickenham stadium - Cup finals day - geograph.org.uk - 2966637.jpg
| width3 =
| alt3 =
| caption3 = [[Twickenham Stadium|Twickenham]], home of the [[England national rugby union team]], has a capacity of 82,000 seats.
}}
London has hosted the [[Summer Olympic Games|Summer Olympics]] three times: in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]], [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]], and [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012]], making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.<ref name=IOC/> The city was also the host of the [[Commonwealth Games|British Empire Games]] in [[1934 British Empire Games|1934]].<ref name="london_175">{{Cite web |date=28 April 2011 |title=England – Introduction |url=http://www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=ENG |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429043207/http://www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=ENG |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=3 November 2008 |website=[[Commonwealth Games Federation]] }}</ref> In 2017, London hosted the [[2017 World Championships in Athletics|World Championships in Athletics]] for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livingstone |first=Robert |date=11 November 2011 |title=London Defeats Doha to host 2017 International Athletics Championships |url=http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/other_news/1216135963.html |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113180038/http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/other_news/1216135963.html |archive-date=13 November 2011 |access-date=13 December 2011 |website=Gamesbids.com }}</ref>

London's [[Sport in the United Kingdom#Popularity|most popular sport]] is [[association football|football]], and it has seven clubs in the [[Premier League]] in the [[2022–23 Premier League|2022–23 season]]: [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Brentford F.C.|Brentford]], [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]], [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]], [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], and [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]].<ref name="london_176">{{Cite web |title=Barclays Premier League Clubs |url=https://www.premierleague.com/clubs |access-date=29 March 2021 |publisher=[[Premier League]]}}</ref> Other professional men's teams in London are [[AFC Wimbledon]], [[Barnet F.C.|Barnet]], [[Bromley F.C.|Bromley]], [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]], [[Dagenham & Redbridge F.C.|Dagenham & Redbridge]], [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]], [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]], [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] and [[Sutton United F.C.|Sutton United]]. Four London-based teams are in the [[Women's Super League]]: [[Arsenal W.F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Chelsea F.C. Women|Chelsea]], [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Women|Tottenham]] and [[West Ham United F.C. Women|West Ham United]].

Three [[Premiership Rugby]] union teams are based in Greater London: [[Harlequin F.C.|Harlequins]], [[London Irish]] and [[Saracens F.C.|Saracens]].<ref name=london_177>{{Cite web |url=http://www.premiershiprugby.com/clubs/index.php |title=Premiership Rugby: Clubs |publisher=Premier Rugby |access-date=5 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075926/http://www.premiershiprugby.com/clubs/index.php |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ealing Trailfinders Rugby Club|Ealing Trailfinders]], [[London Scottish F.C.|London Sottish]] and [[Richmond F.C.|Richmond]] play in the [[RFU Championship]]; other rugby union clubs in the city include Scottish, [[Rosslyn Park F.C.]], [[Westcombe Park R.F.C.]] and [[Blackheath F.C.]] [[Twickenham Stadium]] in south-west London hosts home matches for the [[England national rugby union team]].<ref name="musiccap">{{Cite press release |publisher=Twickenham Rugby Stadium |title=RFU apply for two additional concerts at Twickenham Stadium in 2007 |url=http://www.rfu.com/microsites/twickenham/index.cfm?StoryID=14822 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625050620/http://www.rfu.com/microsites/twickenham/index.cfm?StoryID=14822 |archive-date=25 June 2008 |date=3 October 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> While [[rugby league]] is more popular in the north of England, there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the [[London Broncos]] in the second-tier [[RFL Championship]] and the third-tier [[League 1 (rugby league)|League 1]] team, the [[London Skolars]].

One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon Tennis Championships]], held at the [[All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club|All England Club]] in the south-western suburb of [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] since 1877.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423182334/http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/index.html |archive-date=23 April 2008 |title=Wimbledon — official website |publisher=The All England Tennis and Croquet Club (AELTC) |access-date=29 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer |work=The New York Times |date=7 May 2008 |first=Christopher |last=Clarey |quote=Federer said[:] 'I love playing with him, especially here at Wimbledon, the most prestigious tournament we have.' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/05/sports/tennis/05wimbledon.html |access-date=17 July 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor=Will Kaufman & Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson |encyclopedia=Britain and the Americas |title=Tennis |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=1 : Culture, Politics, and History |isbn=978-1-85109-431-8 |page=958 |quote=this first tennis championship, which later evolved into the Wimbledon Tournament ... continues as the world's most prestigious event.}}</ref>

London has two [[Test cricket]] grounds, [[Lord's]] (home of [[Middlesex County Cricket Club|Middlesex C.C.C.]]) and [[the Oval]] (home of [[Surrey County Cricket Club|Surrey C.C.C.]]). Lord's has hosted four finals of the [[Cricket World Cup]] and is known as the ''Home of Cricket''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lord's (Cricket Grounds)|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/england/content/ground/57129.html |access-date=26 March 2021 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> [[Alexandra Palace]] in north London hosts the [[PDC World Darts Championship]] and the [[Masters (snooker)|Masters]] [[snooker]] tournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participation [[London Marathon]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.london-marathon.co.uk/site/ |title=Flora London Marathon 2008 |publisher=London Marathon Ltd |access-date=29 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426224024/http://www.london-marathon.co.uk/site/ |archive-date=26 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[University Boat Race]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theboatrace.org/ |title=The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race — Official Website |publisher=The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race |access-date=29 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430162037/http://www.theboatrace.org/ |archive-date=30 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Notable people==
{{main|List of people from London}}

==See also==

*[[Outline of England]]
*[[Outline of London]]{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=upper-alpha|refs=
<ref name=total>[[Greater London|London region (Greater London administrative area)]]</ref>
}}
{{Reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{Cite book |last=Ackroyd |first=Peter |title=London: The Biography |publisher=Vintage |location=London |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-09-942258-7 |page=880 |title-link=London: The Biography }}
*{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=David |title=Dictionary of London Place Names |publisher=Oxford Paperbacks |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-280106-7 |oclc=45406491 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/ London.gov.uk – Greater London Authority]
*[http://www.visitlondon.com/ VisitLondon.com] – official tourism site
*[http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ Museum of London]
*[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/place.aspx?region=1 London] in ''[[British History Online]]'', with links to numerous authoritative online sources
**[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546w3 "London"], ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000)
*{{osmrelation-inline|175342}}
*[https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,london%20map&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=topic,include,London%20(England),1&lang=en_US&offset=0&came_from=sort Old maps of London], from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, [[National Library of Israel]]

{{London history}}
{{London landmarks}}
{{Areas of London}}
{{navboxes|title=[[Outline of London|Other articles related to London]]|list=
{{Governance of Greater London}}
{{Transport in London}}
{{London commuter belt}}
{{Universities and colleges in London}}
{{Megacities}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
}}
{{Subject bar|commons=yes|wikt=yes|n=yes|n-search=Category:London|q=yes|s=yes|b=no|voy=yes|v=yes|d=yes|d-search=Q84}}

[[Category:London| ]]
[[Category:British capitals]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Greater London]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in Southern England]]
[[Category:Staple ports]]
[[Category:Southern England]]
[[Category:1st-century establishments in Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Capital cities in the United Kingdom]]

India national cricket team record by opponent

2023-09-11T17:49:29Z

Yajantkumar: Edit

{{Short description|None}}
{{featured list}}
[[File:Indian cricket team.jpg|thumbnail|275px|The Indian national cricket team at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]] in 2012.|alt=The view of a cricket field. Players wearing blue outfits can be seen.]]
The [[India national cricket team]] represents [[India]] in international [[cricket]] and is a full member of the [[International Cricket Council]] with [[Test cricket|Test]] and [[One Day International]] (ODI) status.<ref>{{cite web|title=ICC Members Countries|url=http://www.icc-cricket.com/the-icc/icc_members/overview.php|publisher=International Cricket Council|access-date=14 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116023632/http://www.icc-cricket.com/the-icc/icc_members/overview.php|archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> They first competed in international cricket in 1932, when they played against [[England national cricket team|England]] in a three-day Test match; England won the match by 158 [[Run (cricket)|runs]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Only Test: England v India at Lord's, Jun 25–28, 1932|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/62605.html|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> India's first Test series as an independent country was against [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|title=India in Australia Test Series, 1947/48 / Results|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/series/60340.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=14 April 2013}}</ref> They secured their first Test win against England in 1952 at [[Madras Cricket Club Ground]].<ref>{{cite web|title=5th Test: India v England at Chennai, Feb 6–10, 1952|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/62729.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref><ref group="upper-alpha">Madras Cricket Club Ground was later renamed [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]].</ref> {{As of|2019|1|7|df=}}, India have played 533 Test matches; they have won 150 matches, lost 165 matches, and 217 matches were [[Draw (cricket)|drawn]] with one being [[Tie (cricket)|tied]].<ref name=test-result>{{cite web|title=Records / Test matches / Team records / Results summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283877.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> India played their first ODI match against England in 1974,<ref>{{cite web|title=1st ODI: England v India at Leeds, Jul 13, 1974|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64951.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> but registered their first win against [[East Africa cricket team|East Africa]] in 1975.<ref>{{cite web|title=6th Match: East Africa v India at Leeds, Jun 11, 1975|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65040.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2018|6|16}}, India have played 968 ODI matches, winning 502 matches and losing 417; 9 matches were tied and 40 matches had [[no result]].<ref name=odi-result>{{cite web|title=Records / One-Day Internationals / Team records / Results summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283878.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> They also won the [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983]] and [[2011 Cricket World Cup]]s,<ref>{{cite web|last=Miller|first=Andrew|title=Dhoni and Gambhir lead India to World Cup glory|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/icc_cricket_1/content/story/509121.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013|date=2 April 2011}}</ref> along with the [[2002 ICC Champions Trophy|2002]] and the [[2013 ICC Champions Trophy]].<ref name="2002ct">{{cite web|title=Final: Sri Lanka v India at Colombo (RPS), Sep 30, 2002|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/66195.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Final: England v India at Birmingham, Jun 23, 2013|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/566948.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref> {{#tag:ref|India were the joint-champion with [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] in the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy.<ref name="2002ct"/>|group="upper-alpha"}} India played their first [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) against [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] in 2006, winning the match by six [[Wicket#Winning by number of wickets|wicket]]s,<ref>{{cite web|title=India tour of South Africa, 2006/07 / Scorecard|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/rsavind/engine/match/255954.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> and won the inaugural [[ICC World Twenty20]] in [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Chevallier|first=Hugh|title=India v Pakistan|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/381687.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2018|6|16}}, they have played 115 T20I matches and won 70 of them; 41 were lost, with one being tied and three having no result.<ref name=t20i-result>{{cite web|title=Records / Twenty20 Internationals / Team records / Results summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283307.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref>

India have faced ten teams in Test cricket, with their most frequent opponent being England, against whom they have played 122 matches.<ref name=test>{{cite web|title=Records / India / Test matches / Result summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=1;id=6;type=team|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008012151/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=1%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam|archive-date=8 October 2012}}</ref> India have registered more wins against Australia than against any other team, with 28.<ref name=test/> In ODI matches, India have played against 19 teams.<ref name=ODI/> They have played against Sri Lanka more frequently in ODI matches, with a winning percentage of 61.56 in 90 out of 158 matches.<ref name=ODI>{{cite web|title=Records / India / One-Day Internationals / Result summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=2;id=6;type=team|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926043204/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=2%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam|archive-date=26 September 2012}}</ref> India have defeated Sri Lanka on 90 occasions, which is their best record in ODIs.<ref name=ODI/> The team have played 13 countries in T20Is, and have played 20 matches with Australia.<ref name=T20I>{{cite web|title=Records / India / Twenty20 Internationals / Result summary|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=3;id=6;type=team|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=30 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003195430/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=3%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam|archive-date=3 October 2013}}</ref> They also have recorded the most victories against Australia , defeating them in eleven matches.<ref name=T20I/>

==Key==

{| class="wikitable"
|+Key for the tables
|-
! Symbol
! Meaning
|-
! scope="row" | Matches
| Number of matches played
|-
! scope="row" | Won
| Number of matches won
|-
! scope="row" | Lost
| Number of matches lost
|-
! scope="row" | Tied
| Number of matches [[Tie (cricket)|tied]]
|-
! scope="row" | Draw
| Number of matches ended in a [[Draw (cricket)|draw]]
|-
! scope="row" | No Result
| Number of matches ended with [[Result (cricket)#No result|no result]]
|-
! scope="row" | Tie+Win
| Number of matches tied and then won in a [[tiebreaker]] such as a [[bowl-out]] or [[Super Over]]
|-
! scope="row" | Tie+Loss
| Number of matches tied and then lost in a tiebreaker such as a bowl-out or Super Over
|-
! scope="row" | %Won
| Percentage of games won to those played<ref group=upper-alpha name=result%>Games that did not have a result are not taken into consideration while calculating the result percentage. Ties are counted as half a win.</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | W/L Ratio
| Ratio of matches won to matches lost<ref group=upper-alpha name=result%/>
|-
! scope="row" | First
| Year of the first match played by India against the country
|-
! scope="row" | Last
| Year of the last match played by India against the country
|}

==Test Cricket==
{{India Test cricket records by opponent}}

==One Day International==
{{India ODI cricket records by opponent}}

==Twenty20 International==
{{India T20I cricket records by opponent}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{India National Cricket Team}}

[[Category:Cricket records and statistics]]

Jammu and Kashmir Yateem Foundation

2023-09-09T07:38:25Z

Yajantkumar: New redirect page

#REDIRECT [[J&K Yateem Foundation]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Anant Maharaj

2023-07-18T11:44:08Z

Yajantkumar:

{{Orphan}}

'''Anant Rai''' Known as '''Anant Maharaj''' is an Indian politician belonging to the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name="Dey 2023 v311">{{cite web | last=Dey | first=Sreyashi | title=Why BJP picked Anant Maharaj, campaigner for Cooch Behar statehood, as 1st RS candidate from Bengal | website=ThePrint | date=13 Jul 2023 | url=https://theprint.in/politics/why-bjp-picked-anant-maharaj-campaigner-for-cooch-behar-statehood-as-1st-rs-candidate-from-bengal/1667784/ | access-date=17 Jul 2023}}</ref> He was elected to the [[Rajya Sabha]] the upper house of the Indian Parliament unopposed from [[West Bengal]].<ref name="NDTV.com 2019 y827">{{cite web | title=S Jaishankar, Derek O'Brien Among 11 To Be Elected To Rajya Sabha Unopposed | website=NDTV.com | date=22 Feb 2019 | url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/s-jaishankar-derek-obrien-among-11-to-be-elected-to-rajya-sabha-unopposed-4214269 | access-date=17 Jul 2023}}</ref><ref name="Ghosh 2023 l047">{{cite web | last=Ghosh | first=Sujay | title=TMC to win all six Rajya Sabha seats unopposed, so will BJP's Anant Maharaj | website=India Today | date=16 Jul 2023 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/six-trinamool-congress-candidates-from-bengal-bjp-anant-maharaj-will-win-rajya-sabha-unopposed-2407161-2023-07-16 | access-date=17 Jul 2023}}</ref><ref name="Dey 2023 v311"/><ref name="Ghosh 2023 j937">{{cite web | last=Ghosh | first=Sujay | title=Anant Maharaj is BJP's Rajya Sabha candidate from West Bengal | website=India Today | date=12 Jul 2023 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bjp-anant-maharaj-rajya-sabha-candidate-west-bengal-2405506-2023-07-12 | access-date=17 Jul 2023}}</ref><ref name="Jaishankar, O’Brien among 11 elected to Rajya Sabha uncontested">{{cite news |last1=The Indian Express |title=Jaishankar, O’Brien among 11 elected to Rajya Sabha uncontested |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/jaishankar-bjp-candidates-elected-rajya-sabha-uncontested-gujarat-8844578/ |access-date=18 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718114039/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/jaishankar-bjp-candidates-elected-rajya-sabha-uncontested-gujarat-8844578/ |archive-date=18 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==About==

{{Empty section}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]

2023 split in the Nationalist Congress Party

2023-07-17T20:56:56Z

Yajantkumar: Added a new contribution to the website.

#REDIRECT [[2023 Nationalist Congress Party split]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

1983 Cricket World Cup Final

2023-04-17T12:46:11Z

Yajantkumar: Hey man im josh moved page 1983 Cricket World Cup Final to 1983 Cricket World Cup final: Change to sentence case (MOS:AT): Case norm; reserve caps for proper names

#REDIRECT [[1983 Cricket World Cup final]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

2014 ICC World Twenty20 Final

2023-04-17T12:34:51Z

Yajantkumar: Hey man im josh moved page 2014 ICC World Twenty20 Final to 2014 ICC World Twenty20 final: Change to sentence case (MOS:AT): Case norm; reserve caps for proper names

#REDIRECT [[2014 ICC World Twenty20 final]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

2017 ICC Champions Trophy Final

2023-04-14T15:40:08Z

Yajantkumar: Hey man im josh moved page 2017 ICC Champions Trophy Final to 2017 ICC Champions Trophy final: Change to sentence case (MOS:AT): Case norm; reserve caps for proper names

#REDIRECT [[2017 ICC Champions Trophy final]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

2013 ICC Champions Trophy Final

2023-04-14T15:40:05Z

Yajantkumar: Hey man im josh moved page 2013 ICC Champions Trophy Final to 2013 ICC Champions Trophy final: Change to sentence case (MOS:AT): Case norm; reserve caps for proper names

#REDIRECT [[2013 ICC Champions Trophy final]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

2002 ICC Champions Trophy Final

2023-04-14T15:39:32Z

Yajantkumar: Hey man im josh moved page 2002 ICC Champions Trophy Final to 2002 ICC Champions Trophy final: Change to sentence case (MOS:AT): Case norm; reserve caps for proper names

#REDIRECT [[2002 ICC Champions Trophy final]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Gillette

2022-11-08T07:00:44Z

Yajantkumar:

{{short description|American razor and personal care brand}}

{{for multi|the stadium|Gillette Stadium|the commune|Gilette|other uses}}
{{Infobox Brand
| name = Gillette
| logo = [[File:Gillette.svg|220px]]
| type = [[Safety razor]]s, shaving supplies, personal care products
| currentowner = [[Procter & Gamble]]
| previousowners = The Gillette Company
| tagline="The Best a Man Can Get" (1989–2019) "[[The Best Men Can Be]]" (since 2019)
| introduced = {{Start date and age|1901|09|28}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Srinivasan|first1=R.|title=Case Studies in Marketing: The Indian Context|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-8120349964|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6C59BAAAQBAJ&q=Gillette+%28brand%29+founded+September+28%2C+1901&pg=PA164|language=en|access-date=2020-10-17|archive-date=2021-09-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005125/https://books.google.com/books?id=6C59BAAAQBAJ&q=Gillette+%28brand%29+founded+September+28%2C+1901&pg=PA164|url-status=live}}</ref>
| origin = [[Boston, Massachusetts]], U.S.
| markets = [[World]]wide
| website = {{official URL}}
}}

'''Gillette''' is an American [[brand]] of [[safety razor]]s and other [[personal care]] products including shaving supplies, owned by the multi-national corporation [[Procter & Gamble]] (P&G). Based in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], United States, it was owned by '''The Gillette Company''', a supplier of products under various brands until that company merged into P&G in 2005. The Gillette Company was founded by [[King C. Gillette]] in 1901 as a safety razor [[manufacturer]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341005/|title=Gillette in His Early Days the Inventor of the Razor and the Company He Build Survived Many Close Shaves with Financial Ruin. But His Fame Never Translated into a Personal Fortune|website=money.cnn.com|access-date=2019-10-23|archive-date=2020-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125151215/https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341005/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Under the leadership of Colman M. Mockler Jr. as CEO from 1975 to 1991,<ref name="Fowler">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/26/obituaries/colman-m-mockler-jr-dies-at-61-gillette-s-top-executive-since-70-s.html|title=Colman M. Mockler Jr. Dies at 61, Gillette's Top Executive Since 70's|last=Fowler|first=Glenn|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-09-18|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904111210/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/26/obituaries/colman-m-mockler-jr-dies-at-61-gillette-s-top-executive-since-70-s.html|url-status=live}}</ref> the company was the target of multiple [[takeover]] attempts, from [[Ronald Perelman]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/01/25/Gillette-chairman-dies-of-heart-attack/8480664779600/|title=Gillette chairman dies of heart attack|website=UPI|language=en|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2020-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809043556/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/01/25/Gillette-chairman-dies-of-heart-attack/8480664779600/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Coniston Partners.<ref name="Fowler"/> In January 2005, Procter & Gamble announced plans to merge with the Gillette Company.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/procter-gamble-acquires-gillette/|title=Procter & Gamble Acquires Gillette|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2020-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803084556/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/procter-gamble-acquires-gillette/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Gillette Company's assets were incorporated into a P&G unit known internally as "Global Gillette". In July 2007, Global Gillette was dissolved and incorporated into Procter & Gamble's other two main divisions, Procter & Gamble Beauty and Procter & Gamble Household Care. Gillette's brands and products were divided between the two accordingly. The Gillette R&D center in Boston, Massachusetts, and the Gillette South Boston Manufacturing Center (known as "Gillette World Shaving Headquarters"), still exist as functional working locations under the Procter & Gamble-owned Gillette brand name.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://news.gillette.com/about/history|title=Gillette history|website=gillette.com|access-date=August 22, 2014|archive-date=August 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804033554/https://news.gillette.com/about/history|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gillette's subsidiaries [[Braun (company)|Braun]] and [[Oral-B]], among others, have also been retained by P&G.

== History ==
=== Inception and early years ===
{{multiple image
| total_width = 450
| image1 = King Camp Gillette.jpg
| image2 = William E Nickerson.jpg
| image3 = John Joyce.jpg
| footer = The key figures of the Gillette Safety Razor Company's first years, from left to right: [[King C. Gillette|King Camp Gillette]], William Emery Nickerson, and John Joyce
}}
[[File:Vintage Advert for the Milady Decollete Gillette Razor - 1916 (5248628800).jpg|thumb|right|1915-16 advert for the ''Milady Décolleté Gillette''; first safety razor marketed exclusively for women]]
The Gillette company and brand originate from the late 19th century when salesman and inventor [[King C. Gillette|King Camp Gillette]] came up with the idea of a [[safety razor]] that used disposable blades. Safety razors at the time were essentially short pieces of a [[straight razor]] clamped to a holder. The blade had to be [[Razor strop|stropped]] before each shave and after a time needed to be [[Sharpening|honed]] by a cutler.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=5}} Gillette's invention was inspired by his mentor at [[Crown Holdings|Crown Cork & Seal Company]], [[William Painter (inventor)|William Painter]], who had invented the [[Crown cork]]. Painter encouraged Gillette to come up with something that, like the Crown cork, could be thrown away once used.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Gillette|1918}}

While Gillette came up with the idea in 1895, developing the concept into a working model and drawings that could be submitted to the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|Patent Office]] took six years. Gillette had trouble finding anyone capable of developing a method to manufacture blades from thin [[Sheet metal|sheet steel]], but finally found William Emery Nickerson, an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] graduate with a degree in chemistry. Gillette and other members of the project founded The American Safety Razor Company on September 28, 1901. The company had issues getting funding until Gillette's old friend John Joyce invested the necessary amount for the company to begin manufacturing.<ref name="smithsonian-blade"/>{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Gillette|1918}} Production began slowly in 1903, but the following year Nickerson succeeded in building a new blade grinding machine that had bottlenecked production. During its first year of operation, the company had sold 51 razors and 168 blades, but the second year saw sales rise to 90,884 razors and 123,648 blades. The company was renamed to the Gillette Safety Razor Company in 1904 and it quickly began to expand outside the United States. In 1905 the company opened a sales office in London and a blade manufacturing plant in Paris, and by 1906 Gillette had a blade plant in Canada, a sales operation in Mexico, and a European distribution network that sold in many nations, including Russia.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=7–8}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZLtCQAAQBAJ&q=American+Safety+Razor+Company|title=The Advertising Age Encyclopedia of Advertising|first1=John|last1=McDonough|first2=Karen|last2=Egolf|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135949068|via=Google Books }}</ref>

=== First World War and the 1920s ===

Due to its premium pricing strategy, the Gillette Safety Razor Company's razor and blade unit sales grew at a modest pace from 1908 to 1916. Disposable razor blades still were not a true mass-market product, and [[wikt:Special:Search/barbershop|barbershops]] and self-shaving with a straight razor were still popular methods of grooming. Among the general U.S. population, a two-day stubble was not uncommon. This changed once the United States declared war on the [[Central Powers]] in 1917; military regulations required every soldier to provide their own shaving kit, and Gillette's compact kit with disposable blades outsold competitors whose razors required stropping. Gillette marketed their razor by designing a military-only case decorated with U.S. Army and Navy insignia and in 1917 the company sold 1.1 million razors.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=18–20}}
[[File:Vintage Gillette Khaki U.S. Army Safety Razor Set, Model 102 Razor, Serial No. G504335, Made In USA For Use By Soldiers In World War I, Marked Property U.S. Army, Circa 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The Khaki Set, the safety razor set produced by Gillette for the U.S. Army during the First World War<ref name="WWI-service-sets">{{Cite web|url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1153449|title=Gillette U.S. Service Razor Set|website=National Museum of American History|access-date=2019-10-27|archive-date=2020-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111170935/https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1153449|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In 1918, the U.S. military began issuing Gillette shaving kits to every U.S. serviceman. Gillette's sales rose to 3.5 million razors and 32 million blades. As a consequence, millions of servicemen got accustomed to daily shaving using Gillette's razor. After the war, Gillette utilized this in their domestic marketing and used advertising to reinforce the habit acquired during the war.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=18–20}}

Gillette's original razor patent was due to expire in November 1921 and to stay ahead of an upcoming competition, the company introduced the New Improved Gillette Safety Razor in spring 1921 and switched to the [[Razor and blades model|razor and blades pricing structure]] the company is known for today. While the New Improved razor was sold for $5 ({{Inflation|US|5|1921|fmt=eq}}) – the selling price of the previous razor – the original razor was renamed to the Old Type and sold in inexpensive packaging as "Brownies" for $1 ({{Inflation|US|1|1921|fmt=eq}}). While some Old Type models were still sold in various kinds of packaging for an average price of $3.50, the Brownie razors made a Gillette much more affordable for the average person and expanded the company's blade market significantly. From 1917 to 1925, Gillette's unit sales increased tenfold. The company also expanded its overseas operations right after the war by opening a manufacturing plant in [[Slough]], near London, to build New Improved razors, and setting up dozens of offices and subsidiaries in Europe and other parts of the world.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=20–21}}

Gillette experienced a setback at the end of the 1920s as its competitor AutoStrop sued for patent infringement. The case was settled out of court with Gillette agreeing to buy out AutoStrop for 310,000 [[Non-voting stock|non-voting shares]]. However, before the deal went through, it was revealed in an audit that Gillette had been overstating its sales and profits by $12 million over a five-year period and giving bonuses to its executives based on these numbers. AutoStrop still agreed to the buyout but instead demanded a large amount of [[preferred stock]] with voting rights. The merger was announced on October 16, 1930, and gave AutoStrop's owner [[Henry Jacques Gaisman|Henry Gaisman]] controlling interest in Gillette.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=29–30}}

=== 1930s and the Second World War ===
[[File:1930's Gillette Razor and Packaging rightcrop.png|thumb|upright=1.1|A 1930s Gillette One-Piece Tech razor and a pack of Blue Blades]]
[[Great Depression|The Great Depression]] weakened Gillette's position in the market significantly. The company had fallen behind its competitors in blade manufacturing technology in the 1920s and had let [[quality control]] slip while over-stretching its production equipment in order to hurry a new Kroman razor and blade to market in 1930. In 1932, Gillette apologized for the reduction in blade quality, withdrew the Kroman blade, and introduced the Blue Blade (initially called the Blue Super Blade) as its replacement.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=29–33}} Other Gillette introductions during the Depression years were the Brushless Shaving Cream and an electric shaver that was soon discontinued due to modest sales.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=34}}

In 1938 Gillette introduced the Thin Blade, which was cheaper and about half the weight of the Blue Blade, even though it cost almost as much to manufacture. The Thin Blade became more popular than the Blue Blade for several years during the Second World War due to high demand of low-cost products and the shortage of carbon steel.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=35}} Beginning in 1939, Gillette began investing significant amounts on advertising in sports events after its advertising in the [[World Series]] increased sales more than double the company had expected.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=36–39}} It eventually sponsored a radio program, the ''[[Gillette Cavalcade of Sports]]'', which would move to television as well as that medium expanded in the late 1940s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Mary |title=A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th-Century Consumer Culture |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0313314810 |access-date=4 September 2020 |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica00cros/page/101/ |pages=101–02}}</ref> While the ''Cavalcade'' aired many of the notable sporting events of the time (the [[Kentucky Derby]], college football bowl games, and baseball, amongst others) it became most famous for its [[professional boxing]] broadcasts.

Though competition hit Gillette hard in the domestic market during the Great Depression, overseas operations helped keep the company afloat. In 1935 more than half of Gillette's earnings came from foreign operations and in 1938 – the worst of the Depression years for Gillette, with a mere 18 percent market share – nearly all of the company's $2.9 million earnings came from outside the United States. AutoStrop's Brazilian factory allowed Gillette to start expanding into the Latin America. In England the Gillette and AutoStrop operations were combined under the Gillette name, where the company built a new blade manufacturing plant in London. In 1937, Gillette's Berlin factory produced 40 percent of Germany's 900 million blades and retained a 65 to 75 percent share of the German blade market.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=34–35}}

The Second World War reduced Gillette's blade production both domestically and internationally. As a result of the war, many markets were closed off, German and Japanese forces [[Nationalization#Expropriation|expropriated]] the company's plants and property, and Gillette's plants in Boston and London were partially converted for weapons production. In 1942, the [[War Production Board]] ordered Gillette to dedicate its entire razor production and most blade production to the U.S. military. By the end of the war, servicemen had been issued 12.5 million razors and 1.5 billion blades. Gillette also assisted the U.S. Army in military intelligence by producing copies of German razor blades for secret agents venturing behind German lines so that their identities wouldn't be compromised by their shaving equipment. The company also manufactured razors that concealed money and escape maps in their handles, and magnetic double-edge blades that [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] could use as a compass.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=39–40}}

=== Recovery from the war and diversification ===

During the post-war years, Gillette began to quickly ramp up production by modernizing its major manufacturing plants in the United States and England, expanding the capacity of several foreign plants, and re-opening plants closed during the war. The company opened a new plant in Switzerland and began manufacturing blades in Mexico City. Sales rose to $50 million in 1946 and in 1947 Gillette sold a billion blades. By 1950, Gillette's share of the U.S. blade market had climbed to 50 percent.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=40–45}} During the 1950s, the company updated and in some cases moved some of its older European factories: the Paris factory, for example, was moved to [[Annecy]].{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=61}}
[[File:Vintage Gillette Red Tip Super Speed DE Safety Razor, Twist-To-Open, Made In USA, Date Code D-1 (1958) (30521266125).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A 1958 Gillette Super Speed razor and a blade dispenser]]
In 1947 Gillette introduced the Gillette Super Speed razor and along with it the Speed-pak blade dispenser the company had developed during the war. The dispenser allowed the blade to be slid out of the dispenser into the razor without danger of touching the sharp edge. It also had a compartment for holding used blades.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Waits|2014|p=466}}

In 1948 Gillette bought the home [[Perm (hairstyle)|permanent]] kit manufacturer The Toni Company{{sfn|McKibben|1998|loc=The legend of the "Which twin has the Toni?" advert between pages 52 and 53}} and later expanded into other feminine products such as shampoos and hair sprays. In 1955 the company bought the ballpoint pen manufacturer [[Paper Mate]]{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=44–45}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341006/index.htm|title=A Permanent Contribution When Gillette bought a hot startup in an effort to diversify, it got something even better: the entrepreneur behind the product|website=money.cnn.com|access-date=August 3, 2020|archive-date=July 2, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702105152/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341006/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and in 1960 they introduced Right Guard aerosol deodorant. Gillette bought the disposable hospital supplies manufacturer Sterilon Corporation in 1962.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=54–55}}

Television advertising played a big part in Gillette's post-war growth in the United States. The company began TV advertising in 1944 and in 1950 it spent $6 million to acquire exclusive sponsorship rights to the World Series for six years. By the mid-1950s, 85 percent of Gillette's advertising budget was used for television advertising. The company also advertised the Toni product line by sponsoring the TV show [[Arthur Godfrey and His Friends]] and the 1958 [[Miss America]] contest and its winner.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=49–52}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/gillette/98674/|title=Gillette Co. | AdAge Encyclopedia of Advertising – Advertising Age|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520022102/http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/gillette/98674/|archive-date=2015-05-20}}</ref>
[[File:Gillette Ad How Are Ya Fixed For Blades.webm|left|thumb|upright=1.1|1950s TV commercial for Gillette's Blue Blades]]
Although Gillette's immediate priority after the war was satisfying U.S. demand and later diversifying its domestic business, the company pursued expansion in foreign markets that showed potential for growth, such as Latin America and Asia. However, the [[Cold War]] restricted Gillette's operations in many parts of the world and closed entire markets the company would have otherwise entered in Russia, China, Eastern Europe, Near East, Cuba, and parts of Asia. More and more countries demanded local ownership for foreign enterprise in exchange for continued operation or entry into their markets. Outside the U.S. and European markets, Gillette spent time and money building manufacturing facilities and distribution networks in anticipation that the markets would eventually be opened up and nationalistic restrictions lifted. Some of Gillette's joint ventures included a 40 percent Gillette 60 percent Malaysian mini-plant operation that began production in 1970, and an Iranian manufacturing plant with 51 percent government ownership. The Iran plant was one of Gillette's largest and most modern factories until the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979 when [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ayatollah Khomeini]] rose into power and American businesses were targeted as enemies of the new government, forcing Gillette to abandon the operation and withdraw from the country.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=61–66}}

=== Super Blue and the Wilkinson shock ===

In 1960, Gillette introduced the Super Blue blade, the company's first coated blade, and the first significantly improved razor blade since the Blue Blade of the 1930s. The new blade was coated with silicone and in Gillette's laboratory testing produced much more comfortable and close shaves by reducing the blade's adhesion to whiskers. Super Blue was a success and sold more than the Blue Blade and Thin Blade combined. By the end of 1961, Gillette's double edge blade market share had risen to 90 percent and the company held a total razor blade market share of 70 percent.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=53–54}}

In 1962, roughly two years after the introduction of the Super Blue blade, [[Wilkinson Sword]] introduced the world's first razor blade made from [[stainless steel]]. According to users, the blade stayed sharp about three times longer than the best carbon steel blades – including Gillette's. Wilkinson's introduction took Gillette by surprise and the company struggled to respond as its smaller rivals, [[Schick (razors)|Schick]] and the [[American Safety Razor Company]], came out with their own stainless steel blade. However, during the development of the silicon coating for the Super Blue blade, Gillette had also discovered the method of producing coated stainless steel blades that Wilkinson Sword was using and managed to patent it before Wilkinson did. The English company was forced to pay royalty to Gillette for each blade it sold.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=56–58}}

Gillette hesitated in bringing its own stainless steel blades to market as Super Blue had been a huge success and replacing it with a longer-lasting blade would have reduced profits. The company eventually brought the Gillette Stainless blade to the market in August 1963, about a year after Wilkinson's stainless blades. As a result of the affair, Gillette's share of the double-edge blade market dropped from 90 percent to about 70 percent.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=56–58}}

Two years after the introduction of the Gillette Stainless blades, the company brought out the Super Stainless blades – known in Europe as Super Silver – that were made from an improved steel alloy. Gillette also introduced the Techmatic, a new type of razor that used a continuous spool of stainless blade housed in a plastic cartridge.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=58}}{{sfn|Waits|2014|p=468}}

The success of the coated Super Blue blades marked the start of a period when chemistry became as important as metallurgy in Gillette's blade manufacturing. The Super Blue's coating was a result of teamwork between the Gillette's British and American scientists.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=53}} As a result of the Wilkinson ordeal, Gillette's then-chairman Carl Gilbert increased the company's spending on research and development facilities in the U.S., championed the building of a research facility in [[Rockville, Maryland]], and encouraged further expansion of R&D activities in England.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=59}}

=== Trac II: The move to cartridge razors ===
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Gillette Atra patent illustration.png
| image2 = Vintage Gillette Deluxe Trac II Razor, Circa 1972 (14571948670).jpg
| footer = Patent drawing of the abandoned Atra razor and a picture of a Deluxe model Trac II razor
}}
The development of Gillette's first twin-blade razor began in early 1964 in the company's Reading laboratories in England when a new employee, Norman C. Welsh, experimented with tandem blades and discovered what he called the "hysteresis effect"; a blade pulling the whisker out of the hair follicle before cutting it, and enabling a second blade to cut the whisker even shorter before it retracted back into the follicle. For six years afterwards, Welsh and his colleagues worked on a means of utilizing the hysteresis effect, almost exclusively concentrating on what would later be known as the Atra twin-blade system. The Atra razor featured two blades set in a plastic cartridge with edges that faced each other. Using the razor required the user to move it in an up-and-down scrubbing motion, and whiskers were cut on both the up and down strokes. Another twin-blade system with blades set in tandem, codenamed "Rex", also existed, but it had too many technical problems and was behind Atra in development.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=67–68}}

In consumer tests, the Atra razor had outperformed existing razor systems, but Gillette's marketing executives feared the razor would meet resistance among shavers due to the unfamiliar scrubbing motion required to use it. Even though the Atra project was so far along in mid-1970 that packaging and production machinery was nearly ready for a full market introduction, Gillette decided to start a development drive to finish Rex instead as it did not require learning a new way to shave. The project succeeded, Atra was abandoned, and Gillette announced the first twin-blade razor – now renamed to Trac II – in the fall of 1971. The Trac II captured the premium shaving market and came out in time to counter Wilkinson Sword's Bonded Blade system that utilized single-blade cartridges.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=67–69}}

=== The challenge of disposables ===

In 1974, the French [[Société Bic]] introduced the world's first [[Razor#Disposable safety razors|disposable razor]]. The razor was first brought to the market in Greece, where it sold well, after which it was introduced to Italy and many other European countries. Gillette hurried to develop their own disposable before Bic could bring their razor to the United States. Gillette designed a single-blade razor similar to Bic's but soon abandoned the concept in favor of a razor that was essentially a Trac II cartridge molded into a blue plastic handle. Gillette introduced this disposable as the Good News in 1976, about a year before Bic's razor reached the United States, and managed to establish market leadership once Bic and other competitors came to market. Good News was released under various names in Europe and was equally and sometimes even more successful than Bic's razor. Gillette quickly brought its razor to markets Bic hadn't yet reached, such as Latin America where the razor was known as Prestobarba.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=97–98}}

In Latin America, Gillette used a so-called [[Cannibalization (marketing)|cannibalization strategy]] by selling the razor in several [[Market segmentation|market segments]]: along with the heavily advertised Prestobarba, the razor was also sold under different names – such as Permasharp II in Mexico and Probak II in Brazil – and sold for at least 10 to 15 percent less. The less expensive variants were differentiated from the blue Prestobarba by manufacturing them from yellow plastic with handle less ergonomically comfortable, and in addition, they were not advertised or eventually has [[counterpropaganda|negative marketing]]<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dkTE_S0mr3c Vitor Belfort e Lutadores UFC: Vai Amarelar] - Advertising where the Probak II product from Gillette's low-cost disposable razors line is treated with [[counterpropaganda|negative marketing]] in order to promote the Prestobarba brand, a product sold at a higher price by Gillette.</ref> aimed at promoting the sale of the most profitable products in Gillette's razors line. The strategy was successful and later market arrivals were unable to gain a major foothold. Once the approach proved to be a successful one, Gillette's subsidiaries in Russia, Poland, and multiple Asian and Near Eastern markets began utilizing the same strategy.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=336–37}}

While Gillette managed to retain market leadership against Bic and other competitors, the popularity of disposable razors, their higher production cost compared to cartridges, and price competition eroded the company's profits. Gillette had at first hoped that disposables would take no more than 10 percent of the total razor and blades market, but by 1980, disposables accounted for more than 27 percent of the world shaving market in terms of unit sales, and 22 percent of total revenue.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=98–99}}<ref>[https://www.casrilanka.com/casl/images/stories/EDBA/03%20gillette%20and%20the%20mengcos%20wet%20shaving%20market%20%20business%20case%20%20team%2003%202018.pdf Gillette and the men's wet-shaving market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809060100/https://www.casrilanka.com/casl/images/stories/EDBA/03%20gillette%20and%20the%20mengcos%20wet%20shaving%20market%20%20business%20case%20%20team%2003%202018.pdf }}, p. 2</ref> John W. Symons began steering Gillette into a different direction after becoming the director of Gillette's European Sales Group in 1979. Despite Gillette's strong sales and a large share of the European razor and blades market – 70 percent, which was higher than in the United States – cash flow was declining. In Symons's view, the issue was Gillette's attempt to compete with Bic in the disposables market, which was eating into the sales of its more profitable cartridge razors. Symons reduced the marketing budget of disposables in Europe and hired the advertising agency [[BBDO]]'s London branch to create an ad campaign to make Gillette's blade and razor systems – such as Contour – more desirable in the eyes of men. The new marketing strategy, combined with cutting costs and centralizing production increased profits. In 1985, Gillette's profits in the European market were $96 million, while two years previously they were $77 million.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|pp=114–17}}

[[File:Gillette old.png|thumb|The logo of Gillette used from 1989 to 2008.]]
In 1980, Gillette introduced Atra – known in Europe as Contour – a twin-blade razor with a pivoting head. The razor became a best-seller in the United States during its first year and eventually became a market leader in Europe.{{sfn|McKibben|1998|p=96}}

=== Acquisitions and takeover attempts ===

In 1984, Gillette agreed to acquire Oral-B Laboratories from dental care company Cooper Laboratories for $188.5 million in cash.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette Will Buy Cooper's Oral-B |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/05/business/gillette-will-buy-cooper-s-oral-b.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=February 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215023524/http://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/05/business/gillette-will-buy-cooper-s-oral-b.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Revlon|Revlon Group]]'s [[Ronald Perelman]] offered to purchase 86.1 percent of Gillette for $3.8 billion in 1986, valuing the company at $4.1 billion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cole |first1=Robert J. |title=Gillette Soars $10 as Wall Street Expects Fight with Revlon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/15/business/gillette-soars-10-as-wall-street-expects-fight-with-revlon.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=February 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203100708/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/15/business/gillette-soars-10-as-wall-street-expects-fight-with-revlon.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Gillette also bought back Revlon's stake in the company for $558 million.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Belkin |first1=Lisa |title=Gillette Deals Ends Revlon Bid |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/25/business/gillette-deal-ends-revlon-bid.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=June 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616154927/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/25/business/gillette-deal-ends-revlon-bid.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Revlon made two additional unsolicited requests to purchase Gillette for $4.66 billion and $5.4 billion in June and August 1987, respectively, both of which were rejected by Gillette's board of directors.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ziegler |first1=Baart |title=Gillette Rejects Revlon Bid |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1987/06/19/gillette-rejects-revlon-bid/4b12edb7-aa24-4bb4-98d8-6f1b3abf4282/ |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005136/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1987/06/19/gillette-rejects-revlon-bid/4b12edb7-aa24-4bb4-98d8-6f1b3abf4282/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jahn |first1=George |title=Gillette Rejects Third Takeover Bid By Revlon |url=https://apnews.com/article/335a5be71a7949e885901d8989fa411e |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=Associated Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cowan |first1=Alison Leigh |title=Revlon Asks to Bid For Gillette |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/18/business/revlon-asks-to-bid-for-gillette.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=November 5, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105015858/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/18/business/revlon-asks-to-bid-for-gillette.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1988, Coniston Partners acquired approximately 6 percent of Gillette.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cole |first1=Robert J. |title=Battle Begins For Control Of Gillette |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/12/business/battle-begins-for-control-of-gillette.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=January 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130084630/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/12/business/battle-begins-for-control-of-gillette.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Hoping to acquire four directors' seats and pressure Gillette to sell, Coniston forced a proxy vote in April. The companies filed suits against one another, resulting in a settlement in August. Gillette repurchased approximately 16 million shares for $720 million and Coniston agreed not to purchase many Gillette shares, participate in proxy contests, or otherwise seek control of the company for three years.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kennedy |first1=Dana |title=Gillette and Coniston Reach Settlement Over Proxy Fight |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1988/08/02/gillette-and-coniston-reach-settlement-over-proxy-fight/18a77f86-e0f2-451b-9a3b-67e5539350a4/ |access-date=February 9, 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005129/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1988/08/02/gillette-and-coniston-reach-settlement-over-proxy-fight/18a77f86-e0f2-451b-9a3b-67e5539350a4/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cowan |first1=Alison Leigh |title=Gillette and Coniston Drop Suits |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/02/business/gillette-and-coniston-drop-suits.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=May 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525081026/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/02/business/gillette-and-coniston-drop-suits.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1989, [[Warren Buffett]]'s [[Berkshire Hathaway]] purchased $600 million worth of Gillette convertible preferred shares. Buffett filled a vacant seat on the company's board and agreed not to sell his stake "except in a change of control or if insurance regulators force a sale of the stock in the event Gillette's financial condition falters", reducing the chances of a takeover.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cowan |first1=Alison Leigh |title=Gillette Sells 11% Stake To Buffett |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/21/business/gillette-sells-11-stake-to-buffett.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=December 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219212823/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/21/business/gillette-sells-11-stake-to-buffett.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During late 1989 and early 1990, Gillette launched the new product Sensor with a $175 million marketing campaign in 19 countries in North America and Western Europe.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramirez |first1=Anthony |title=Gillette Challenge to the Disposables |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/04/business/gillette-challenge-to-the-disposables.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807154809/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/04/business/gillette-challenge-to-the-disposables.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramirez |first1=Anthony |title=A Radical New Style for Stodgy Old Gillette |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/25/business/a-radical-new-style-for-stodgy-old-gillette.html |access-date=February 9, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=September 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904035425/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/25/business/a-radical-new-style-for-stodgy-old-gillette.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Early to mid-1990s===
In 1990, Gillette attempted to purchase [[Wilkinson Sword]]'s U.S. and non-European operations. The [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] prevented the sale of Wilkinson's U.S. assets to prevent a significant reduction in competition by eliminating one of the top four blade suppliers when Gillette already controlled approximately half of the nation's razor market.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rowley |first1=James |title=Justice Plans Antitrust Lawsuit to Halt Gillette-Wilkinson Deal |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1990/01/10/justice-plans-antitrust-lawsuit-to-halt-gillette-wilkinson-deal/2bd28be9-dacb-45de-90b8-e7764507050d/ |access-date=February 11, 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-date=August 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827232817/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1990/01/10/justice-plans-antitrust-lawsuit-to-halt-gillette-wilkinson-deal/2bd28be9-dacb-45de-90b8-e7764507050d/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Labaton |first1=Stephen |title=Gillette In Accord on Antitrust Suit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/27/business/gillette-in-accord-on-antitrust-suit.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=May 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525203457/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/27/business/gillette-in-accord-on-antitrust-suit.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Gillette launched the Series line of men's grooming products, including scented shaving gels, deodorants, and skin-care items, in 1992.<ref>{{cite news |title=Company News; Gillette Displays New Line Of Male Skin-Care Products |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/23/business/company-news-gillette-displays-new-line-of-male-skin-care-products.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=The New York Times |agency=Associated Press |archive-date=May 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526055826/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/23/business/company-news-gillette-displays-new-line-of-male-skin-care-products.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette Bets Cool Cash on Upscale Toiletry Launch |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1992-09-21-9203260281-story.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=Chicago Tribune |via=Bloomberg Business News |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005146/https://www.chicagotribune.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The company's SensorExcel launched in Europe and Canada in 1993,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vainblat |first1=Galina |title=Gillette aims new razor at carving market share Analysts question need for product |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-07-06-1993187133-story.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |archive-date=June 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622112634/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-07-06-1993187133-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> followed by the United Kingdom and United States in 1994.<ref>{{cite news |title=New Shaving System: Gillette Co. has launched... |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-10-14-fi-50228-story.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=Los Angeles Times |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005125/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-10-14-fi-50228-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1996, Gillette launched several new products for women and teenage boys, including the SensorExcel for Women, a moisturizer, a shaving gel, and a body spray.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shoebridge |first1=Neil |title=Gillette takes a gamble on women and teenage boys |url=https://www.afr.com/companies/gillette-takes-a-gamble-on-women-and-teenage-boys-19961007-kaztx |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=[[Australian Financial Review]] |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005142/https://www.afr.com/companies/gillette-takes-a-gamble-on-women-and-teenage-boys-19961007-kaztx |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Beginning of the Razor Wars===
The company launched the new shaving system [[Gillette Mach3]] in 1998, challenging the twin-blade system which dominated the market by introducing a third blade. Gillette promoted the product, which took five years to develop and was protected by 35 patents, with a $300 million marketing campaign.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Canedy |first1=Dana |title=Gillette Unveils Its Mach3 Razor as Stock Backs Off |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/15/business/gillette-unveils-its-mach-3-razor-as-stock-backs-off.html |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=May 27, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527081820/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/15/business/gillette-unveils-its-mach-3-razor-as-stock-backs-off.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette spends $750 million to make Mach3 Huge covert operation for new production line of three-blade razor |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-08-17-1998229063-story.html |access-date=February 24, 2021 |work=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |archive-date=June 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621013551/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-08-17-1998229063-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mach3 and replacement cartridges cost 35 percent more than the SensorExcel razor.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette sets Mach3 launch |url=https://money.cnn.com/1998/04/14/companies/gillette/ |access-date=February 11, 2021 |work=[[CNN Money]] |archive-date=July 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727193353/https://money.cnn.com/1998/04/14/companies/gillette/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1999, Gillette was worth US$43 billion, and the [[brand equity|brand value]] of Gillette was estimated to be worth US$16 billion. This equated to 37% of the company's value.<ref>Jane Pavitt (2000). ''Brand New''. {{ISBN|069107061X}}{{page needed}}</ref> In 2000, Gillette's board fired CEO Michael Hawley; he was replaced by former [[Nabisco]] CEO [[James M. Kilts]] in early 2001.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herper |first1=Matthew |title=Focus On The Forbes 500s: Gillette Fires CEO |journal=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/2000/10/20/1020gillette.html?sh=5ef277987053 |access-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005120/https://www.forbes.com/simple-data/native-ad/?feedId=6064abdac0d80c00429c1be2&pos=ntv-content |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette taps Nabisco CEO |url=https://money.cnn.com/2001/01/22/companies/gillette/ |access-date=February 24, 2021 |work=[[CNN Money]] |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225014830/https://money.cnn.com/2001/01/22/companies/gillette/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2003, Schick-Wilkinson Sword introduced the Quattro, a four-blade shaving system, increasing the company's market share to 17 percent. Gillette claimed the Quattro infringed on the Mach3 patents.<ref name="Teather">{{cite news |last1=Teather |first1=David |title=It's Mach3 versus Quattro as Gillette crosses swords with Schick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2003/aug/15/1 |access-date=February 24, 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-date=August 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826031917/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2003/aug/15/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Gillette's efforts were unsuccessful, but the company maintained approximately two-thirds of the global wet-razor market as of mid-2005.<ref>{{cite journal |title=It's a cut-throat market |journal=[[Marketing Week]] |url=https://www.marketingweek.com/its-a-cut-throat-market/ |access-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-date=August 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826025937/https://www.marketingweek.com/its-a-cut-throat-market/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Procter & Gamble acquisition to present===
In 2005, [[Procter & Gamble]] announced plans to acquire Gillette for more than $50 billion, which would position P&G as the world's largest consumer products company.<ref>{{cite news |title=P&G Agrees to Buy Gillette In a $54 Billion Stock Deal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110693197048439468 |access-date=March 5, 2021 |work=The Wall Street Journal |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411025811/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110693197048439468 |url-status=live }}</ref> The deal was approved by the [[Federal Trade Commission]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=P&G Cleared For Gillette Buy |journal=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/2005/09/30/procter-gamble-gillette-cx_jl_0930video2.html?sh=6839b3a1160a |access-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005135/https://geo.moatads.com/n.js?e=35&ol=0&qn=%604%7BZEYwoqI%24%5BK%2BdLLU)%2CMm~tB%23a.%5BMhS%3A15.sn_003etW6~P6Jn)s)wC%24GL3jX%7BQqDOJ%3Eoy)G3p%2FhFjrR8whh%2B%7D%407%25w_2C%3FP%3ElK%3DbH%2FH%40%26%2Bc%5B5IUOG(%2CWV%7BGrV~1HmDkP8D4rUDtmxT%3Bwv%40V374BKm55%3D%261fp%5BoU5tWhX%3C%3Ce%24%26~1%3Axkr%5BUe31k5X%5BG%5E%5B)%2C2iVSX%3C_Y%7B!7IQ3HbmUZzCFm%5Du!x2l.uBlTVU%2F.%3Dh%3FtDJq%409BG&tf=1_nMzjG---CSa7H-1SJH-bW7qhB-LRwqH-nMzjG-&vi=111111&rc=1%2C1%2C0%2C3%2C3326192205%2C1%2C4%2C0%2Cprobably%2Cprobably&rb=1-KvUj1TPl77BJmR4uHVjPGlx1P1tMeAYh8VIp1Vf7AbESGfrl5%2FmliBNlAlwWxmRnpyWz&sc=1&os=1-GQ%3D%3D&qp=10000&is=BBBBB2BBEYBvGl2BBCBBtUTBBRmsqbKW8BsrBu0rCFE48CRBeeBS2hWTMBBQeQBBn2soYggyUig0CBlWZ0uBBCCCCCCOgRBBiOfnE6Bkg7OxBb8MxOtJYHCBdm5kBhBBC9Y8oBXckXBR76iUUsJBCBBBBBBBBBWBSqj3BBBZeGV2BBBCMciUBBBjgEBBBBBB94UMgTdJMtEcpMBBBQBBBniOccBBBBBB47kNwxBbBBBBBBBBBhcjG6BBJM2L4Bk8BwCBQmIoRBBCzBz1BBCTClBBrbGBC4ehueB57NG9aJeRzBqEKiuwBBBB&iv=8&qt=0&gz=0&hh=0&hn=0&tw=Q)3E3iA&qc=10&qd=10&qf=1010&qe=19971&qh=1100&qg=900&qm=0&qa=1600&qb=1000&qi=1600&qj=1000&to=000&po=1-0020002000002120&vy=ot%24b%5Bh%40%22oD%7BMx5%3C1%3B(8.%7CLK2_v%5Eq%2BGs1%7B%2CyB%3AU!%2FoD%7BMx5%3C1%3B(Oy%2CUy%3CD&qr=0&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F30%2Fprocter-gamble-gillette-cx_jl_0930video2.html%3Fsh%3D370d3e19160a&pcode=forbesprebidheader122641196143&ql=%3B%5BpwxnRd%7Dt%3Aal9EU%22y%2F.D%5B5%2F%5BGI%3Fi6%5EB61%2F%3DSqcMr1%7B%2CTu9LJJ(a.P%2B)s1(uA&qo=0&i=FORBES2&hp=1&zMoatGNID=7175&zMoatAU1=fdc.forbes&zMoatAU2=article-blue&zMoatAU3=standard&zMoatAU4=default&zMoatAU5=standard&wf=0&ra=1&pxm=3&sgs=3&vb=5&cm=9&kq=1&hq=0&hs=0&hu=0&hr=0&ht=1&dnt=0&bq=0&f=0&j=&t=1630543894520&de=87036814710&m=0&ar=503c7d4-clean&iw=92fc004&q=4&cb=0&ym=0&cu=1630543894520&ll=50&lm=0&ln=1&r=0&em=0&en=0&d=17094022%3A2347912927%3A5125792545%3A138344987118&zMoatSlotId=ntv-contentd&zMoatMMV=slotWaiting&zMoatMGV=slotWaiting&zMoatMSafety=safe&zMoatMData=1&zMoatCURL=forbes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F30%2Fprocter-gamble-gillette-cx_jl_0930video2.html&zMoatDev=Desktop&zMoatMMV_MAX=slotWaiting&zMoatMGV_MAX=slotWaiting&zMoatOrigSlicer1=105791542&zMoatOrigSlicer2=21919662559&zMoatSize=1x1&zMoatESChannel=investing%2Cmoney&zMoatESSection=investing%3Amarkets%2Cmoney%3Amarkets&zGSRS=1&zGSRC=1&gu=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F30%2Fprocter-gamble-gillette-cx_jl_0930video2.html%3Fsh%3D370d3e19160a&id=1&ii=4&dfp=0%2C1&la=21919662559&bd=fdc.forbes%2Farticle_blue%2Fstandard%2Fdefault%2Fstandard&gw=forbes274355&fd=1&zMoatPos=ntv_contentd&zMoatZone=fdc.forbes%2Farticle_blue%2Fstandard%2Fdefault%2Fstandard&zMoatSpecialSlot=No%20Special%20Slot%20Defined&ac=1&it=500&ti=0&ih=1&pe=1%3A862%3A862%3A0%3A2594&tz=ntv-contentd&iq=slotWaiting&tt=slotWaiting&tu=1&tp=safe&jk=-1&jm=-1&fs=194337&na=1400132816&cs=0&callback=MoatDataJsonpRequest_48759512 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2005/09/ftc-consent-order-remedies-likely-anticompetitive-effects-procter|title=FTC Consent Order Remedies Likely Anticompetitive Effects of Procter & Gambles Acquisition of Gillette|publisher=[[Federal Trade Commission]]|access-date=March 6, 2021|archive-date=February 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212054838/https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2005/09/ftc-consent-order-remedies-likely-anticompetitive-effects-procter|url-status=live}}</ref> Gillette introduced the world's first 5-blade razor, called the Fusion, during 2005–2006, marking the company's first launch after the P&G acquisition.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette unveils 5-bladed razor |url=https://money.cnn.com/2005/09/14/news/fortune500/gillette/ |access-date=March 5, 2021 |work=CNN Money |publisher=CNN |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227120935/https://money.cnn.com/2005/09/14/news/fortune500/gillette/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2010, the Fusion was the world's highest selling blade and razor brand, reaching $1 billion in annual sales faster than any prior P&G product.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wohl |first1=Jessica |title=Art of Shaving says new Gillette blade sales solid |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-procter-artofshaving-exclusive-idUSTRE64C3LE20100513 |access-date=March 4, 2021 |publisher=Reuters |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106110630/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-procter-artofshaving-exclusive-idUSTRE64C3LE20100513 |url-status=live }}</ref> Gillette's Fusion ProSeries skincare line, launched in 2010, included a thermal facial scrub, a face wash, a lotion, and a moisturizer with [[sunscreen]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Matthew W. |title=Gillette Launching Men's Fusion ProSeries |journal=[[Women's Wear Daily]] |url=https://wwd.com/business-news/retail/gillette-launching-mens-fusion-proseries-2537127/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124191308/https://wwd.com/business-news/retail/gillette-launching-mens-fusion-proseries-2537127/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Rosie |title=P&G launches Gillette Fusion ProGlide Series |journal=[[Marketing Week]] |url=https://www.marketingweek.com/pg-launches-gillette-fusion-proglide-series/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=December 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201121915/https://www.marketingweek.com/pg-launches-gillette-fusion-proglide-series/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Gillette Fusion ProGlide Styler for facial hair grooming was introduced in 2012, with [[André 3000]], [[Gael García Bernal]], and [[Adrien Brody]] serving as brand ambassadors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Peter |title=The New Shaver to Consider Using Today |journal=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]] |url=https://www.esquire.com/style/grooming/advice/a12804/gilette-fusion-proglide-styler-review-021412/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119024432/https://www.esquire.com/style/grooming/advice/a12804/gilette-fusion-proglide-styler-review-021412/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette taps Benjamin, Brody and Bernal for ProGlide Styler ads |url=https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/alltherage/2012/01/gillette-taps-brody-benjamin-and-bernal-as-facial-hair-ambassadors.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |archive-date=February 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225130500/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/alltherage/2012/01/gillette-taps-brody-benjamin-and-bernal-as-facial-hair-ambassadors.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2015, the company launched a subscription service called Gillette Shave Club{{NoteTag|Rebranded as Gillette On Demand in 2017.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Green |first1=Dennis |title=Gillette just made an unprecedented change to be more like its competitors |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gillette-launches-on-demand-razor-subscription-2017-5 |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=[[Business Insider]] |date=May 9, 2017 |archive-date=September 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918105336/https://www.businessinsider.com/gillette-launches-on-demand-razor-subscription-2017-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Thomas |first1=Lauren |title=Gillette one ups Dollar Shave Club with on-demand razor ordering service where you text to order |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/09/gillette-one-ups-dollar-shave-club-with-on-demand-razor-ordering-service-where-you-text-to-order.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |publisher=[[CNBC]] |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125190640/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/09/gillette-one-ups-dollar-shave-club-with-on-demand-razor-ordering-service-where-you-text-to-order.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}} and later filed a lawsuit against [[Dollar Shave Club]] for patent infringement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette files patent lawsuit against Dollar Shave Club |url=https://www.denverpost.com/2015/12/17/gillette-files-patent-lawsuit-against-dollar-shave-club/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=[[The Denver Post]] |archive-date=April 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430004751/http://www.denverpost.com/2015/12/17/gillette-files-patent-lawsuit-against-dollar-shave-club/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Harwell |first1=Drew |title=Gillette's lawsuit could tilt the battle for America's beards |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/business/wp/2015/12/18/gillettes-lawsuit-could-tilt-the-battle-for-americas-beards/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post |archive-date=December 19, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219173859/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/business/wp/2015/12/18/gillettes-lawsuit-could-tilt-the-battle-for-americas-beards/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Dollar Shave Club lawsuit was criticized for revealing flaws in Gillette's own patents<ref name="cnbclawsuit">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/18/heres-how-dollar-shave-can-beat-gillettes-lawsuit.html|title=The nick in Gillette suit against upstart Dollar Shave Club|work=CNBC|last=Spiegel|first=David|access-date=6 March 2021|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918231940/https://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/18/heres-how-dollar-shave-can-beat-gillettes-lawsuit.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and as a perceived attempt to drive away an upstart competitor; the lawsuit was dropped two months later after Dollar Shave Club filed a countersuit.<ref name="w3">{{cite web|url=https://w3-lab.com/gillettes-ad-dollar-shave-club/|title=How Gillette's Ad Helped Dollar Shave Club|work=W3 Labs|last=Milosavljević|first=Marija|access-date=6 March 2021|archive-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120165357/https://w3-lab.com/gillettes-ad-dollar-shave-club/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, the company partnered with [[TerraCycle]] to create a U.S. recycling program for blades, razors, and packaging for any brand.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Adele |title=You can now send Gillette your old razors to have them recycled |journal=[[Fast Company]] |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90320841/you-can-now-send-gillette-your-old-razors-to-have-them-recycled |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410235612/https://www.fastcompany.com/90320841/you-can-now-send-gillette-your-old-razors-to-have-them-recycled |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, Gillette announced a commitment to reduce the use of virgin (unrecycled) plastics by 50 percent by 2030 and maintain zero waste to landfill status across all plants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Deonna |title=Gillette plans to shave use of virgin (unrecycled) plastics by 50% by 2030 |url=https://www.greenbiz.com/article/gillette-plans-shave-use-virgin-plastics-50-2030 |website=GreenBiz |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=February 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212075013/https://www.greenbiz.com/article/gillette-plans-shave-use-virgin-plastics-50-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Product history ==
{{More citations needed section}}

=== Double-edged safety razors ===
[[File:1930's Gillette Razor and Packaging.tif|thumb|Gillette razor and packaging, circa 1930s]]
The first [[safety razor]] using the new [[disposable]] blade went on sale in 1903.<ref name=":0" /> Gillette maintained a limited range of models of this new type razor until 1921 when the original Gillette patent expired.<ref name=":1" /> In anticipation of the event, Gillette introduced a redesigned razor and offered it at a variety of prices in different cases and finishes, including the long-running “aristocrat". Gillette continued to sell the original razor but instead of pricing it at $5, it was priced at $1, making a Gillette razor truly affordable to every man regardless of economic class. In 1932 the Gillette Blue Blade, so-named because it was dipped in blue lacquer, was introduced. It became one of the most recognizable blades in the world. In 1934 the "twist to open" (TTO) design was instituted, which featured butterfly-like doors that made blade changing much easier than it had been, wherein the razor head had to be detached from the handle.

Razor handles continued to advance to allow consumers to achieve a closer shave. In 1947, the new (TTO) model, the ''"Super Speed"'', was introduced. This was updated in 1955, with different versions being produced to shave more closely – the degree of closeness being marked by the color of the handle tip.

In 1955, the first ''adjustable'' razor was produced. This allowed for an adjustment of the blade to increase the closeness of the shave. The model, in various versions, remained in production until 1988.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vintage Gillette Adjustable Double Edge Razors|url=http://www.gilletteadjustable.com|publisher=GilletteAdjustable.com|access-date=12 March 2017|archive-date=24 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224055051/http://www.gilletteadjustable.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Vintage Gillette Safety Razor, Old Type Set, Made In USA, Circa 1920s (19844414006).jpg|thumb|"Old type" Gillette safety razor, made between 1921 and 1928]]

The Super Speed razor was again redesigned in 1966 and given a black resin coated metal handle. It remained in production until 1988. A companion model the, ''"Knack"'', with a longer plastic handle, was produced from 1966 to 1975. In Europe, the Knack was sold as "Slim Twist" and "G2000" from 1978 to 1988, a later version known as "G1000" was made in England and available until 1998. A modern version of the Tech, with a plastic thin handle, is still produced and sold in several countries under the names 7 O'clock, Gillette, Nacet, Minora, Rubie, and Economica.

=== Discontinued products ===
* '''Techmatic''' was a single blade razor introduced in the mid-1960s. It featured a disposable cartridge with a razor band which was advanced by means of a lever. This exposed an unused portion of the band and was the equivalent of five blades. This product line also included the Adjustable Techmatic.
* '''Trac II''' was the world's first two-blade razor, debuting in 1971.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/12/11/18134456/best-razor-gillette-harrys-dollar-shave-club|title=The absurd quest to make the "best" razor|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|work=Vox|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2020-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031110841/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/12/11/18134456/best-razor-gillette-harrys-dollar-shave-club|url-status=live}}</ref> Gillette claimed that the second blade cut the number of strokes required and reduced facial irritation. This product line also included the Trac II Plus.
* '''Atra''' (known as the ''Contour'', ''Slalom'', ''Vector'' in some markets) was introduced in 1977<ref name=":1" /> and was the first razor to feature a pivoting head, which Gillette claimed made it easier for men to shave their necks. This product line also included the Atra Plus, which featured a lubricating strip, dubbed ''Lubra-Soft''.
* '''Good News!''' was the first disposable, double-blade razor, released in 1976.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cutler |first1=Rodney |title=The Grooming Awards Hall of Fame: Gillette Good News |url=https://www.esquire.com/style/grooming/a3382/goodnews1007/ |access-date=January 7, 2021 |work=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]] |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224233437/https://www.esquire.com/style/grooming/a3382/goodnews1007/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tobias |first1=Andrew |title=Gillette's New Ploy: Throwing Away the Razors to Sell the Blades |publisher=New York Media, LLC |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uQCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 |access-date=January 7, 2021 |volume=9 |issue=28 |page=55 |issn=0028-7369 |journal=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005119/https://books.google.com/books?id=5uQCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref> Varieties included the "Original", the "Good News! Plus", and the "Good News! Pivot Plus".
* '''Custom Plus''' was a series of disposable razors that came in many varieties: the "Fixed Disposable razor", the "Pivot Disposable razor", the "Custom Plus 3 Sensitive Disposable", and the "Custom Plus 3 Soothing Disposable". '''Fusion Power Phenom''' was released in February 2008. It had a blue and silver color scheme.<ref name="Gillette">{{cite press release|url=http://www.pginvestor.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=104574&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1106705&highlight= |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907022615/http://www.pginvestor.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=104574&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1106705&highlight= |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |title=Gillette Unveils Newest Members of Its Gillette Young Guns Lineup |publisher=Gillette |access-date=February 15, 2008 }}</ref> Other discontinued variants include the Fusion Power Gamer.
* '''Body''' was a 3 blade razor in care of the man's body introduced in 2014. However, the Gillette Body was discontinued in 2018.

=== Current products ===
* '''Gillette Sensor''' debuted in 1990,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-manufacturing-respect-idUSTRE7BD1WR20111214|title=Manufacturing can thrive but struggles for respect|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-09-18|language=en|archive-date=2020-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809070223/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-manufacturing-respect-idUSTRE7BD1WR20111214|url-status=live}}</ref> and was the first razor to have spring-loaded blades. Gillette claimed the blades receded into the cartridge head, when they make contact with skin, helping to prevent cuts and allowing for a closer shave.<ref name="Boston">{{cite news |title=Gillette Ups the Razor Ante. Again. |url=https://www.boston.com/news/omg/2014/04/29/gillette-ups-the-razor-ante-again |access-date=January 7, 2021 |work=[[Boston.com]] |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128132545/https://www.boston.com/news/omg/2014/04/29/gillette-ups-the-razor-ante-again |url-status=live }}</ref> This product line also includes the Sensor Excel,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shoebridge |first1=Neil |title=Gillette's better-blade plan has profits rising smoothly |url=https://www.afr.com/companies/gillettes-better-blade-plan-has-profits-rising-smoothly-19951023-kayh8 |access-date=January 7, 2021 |work=[[Australian Financial Review]] |archive-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129072822/https://www.afr.com/companies/gillettes-better-blade-plan-has-profits-rising-smoothly-19951023-kayh8 |url-status=live }}</ref> the Sensor 3, and the Sensor 3 Cool.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Selwood|first1=Daniel|title=Gillette counters falling sales with packaging overhaul|url=https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/marketing/gillette-counters-falling-sales-with-packaging-overhaul/563566.article|journal=[[The Grocer]]|access-date=January 20, 2021|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129193020/https://www.thegrocer.co.uk/marketing/gillette-counters-falling-sales-with-packaging-overhaul/563566.article|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Utroske|first1=Deanna|title=P&G launches 5 new Gillette razors to keep pace with men's grooming preferences|url=https://www.cosmeticsdesign.com/Article/2018/03/27/P-G-launches-5-new-Gillette-razors-to-keep-pace-with-men-s-grooming-preferences|access-date=January 20, 2021|website=Cosmetics Design|archive-date=October 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029142440/https://www.cosmeticsdesign.com/Article/2018/03/27/P-G-launches-5-new-Gillette-razors-to-keep-pace-with-men-s-grooming-preferences|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Blue II''' is a line of disposable razors, rebranding the old brand '''Good News!'''. In Latin America, it was marketed as the ''Prestobarba''. Another product in the line is the Blue 3, a line of three-blade disposable razors, cheaper than Sensor 3.
* '''[[Gillette Mach 3|Mach3]]''' – the first three-blade razor, introduced in 1998,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/12/11/18134456/best-razor-gillette-harrys-dollar-shave-club|title=The absurd quest to make the "best" razor|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|website=Vox|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2020-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031110841/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/12/11/18134456/best-razor-gillette-harrys-dollar-shave-club|url-status=live}}</ref> which Gillette claims reduces irritation and requires fewer strokes. In 2016,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2016/07/25/p-g-upgrades-gillette-razor-for-first-time-in.html|title=P&G upgrades Gillette razor for first time in nearly a decade|last=Brunsman|first=Barrett|website=Cincinnati Business Courier|access-date=2019-09-18|archive-date=2016-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726144900/http://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2016/07/25/p-g-upgrades-gillette-razor-for-first-time-in.html|url-status=live}}</ref> P&G upgraded the Gillette Mach3 razor: This product comes in disposable, sensitive and "turbo" variants as well.<ref name="TrendSpotter">{{cite web |last1=Day |first1=Eliza |title=10 Best Razors for Men Who Like a Close Shave |url=https://www.thetrendspotter.net/best-razors-for-men/ |website=The Trend Spotter |access-date=January 7, 2021 |archive-date=31 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231041325/https://www.thetrendspotter.net/best-razors-for-men/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BestManualRazor">{{cite news |title=The Best Men's Razors (for Any Face) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-manual-razor/ |access-date=January 7, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |first1=Dan |last1=Koeppel |first2=Justin |last2=Redman |archive-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104185040/https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-manual-razor/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''Venus''' is a division of razors for women created in 2000. Products include Venus Divine, Venus Vibrance, Venus Embrace, Venus Breeze, Venus Spa Breeze and Venus ProSkin Moisture Rich.
* '''Gillette Fusion''' is a five-bladed razor released in 2006. The Fusion has five blades on the front and a single sixth blade on the rear for precision trimming.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Null|first1=Christopher|title=Gillette Fusion Power Phantom|url=https://www.wired.com/2007/10/hh-gillette-fusion-power/|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|access-date=January 21, 2021|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129011651/https://www.wired.com/2007/10/hh-gillette-fusion-power/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gillette Fusion Power Phantom|url=https://www.thrillist.com/node/18240|access-date=January 21, 2021|website=[[Thrillist]]|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129102549/https://www.thrillist.com/node/18240|url-status=live}}</ref> Its marketing campaign was fronted by the sports stars [[Roger Federer]], [[Thierry Henry]], and [[Tiger Woods]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Gillette Ups the Razor Ante. Again.|work=[[Boston.com]]|url=https://www.boston.com/news/omg/2014/04/29/gillette-ups-the-razor-ante-again|access-date=January 7, 2021|archive-date=January 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128132545/https://www.boston.com/news/omg/2014/04/29/gillette-ups-the-razor-ante-again|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gilbert|first1=Sarah|title=Did Gillette's Fusion ad doom Tiger Woods?|url=https://www.aol.com/2009/12/10/could-gillettes-fusion-ad-have-doomed-tiger-woods/|access-date=January 21, 2021|publisher=[[AOL]]|archive-date=January 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128194238/https://www.aol.com/2009/12/10/could-gillettes-fusion-ad-have-doomed-tiger-woods/|url-status=live}}</ref> Razors in this product line include Fusion Power, Fusion ProGlide Shield, Fusion ProGlide, Fusion ProGlide Power,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Byron|first1=Ellen|title=P&G Razor Launches in Recession's Shadow|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704337004575059760286648800|access-date=January 21, 2021|archive-date=January 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128104117/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704337004575059760286648800|url-status=live}}</ref> and Fusion ProGlide with FlexBall Technology.<ref name="Gillette"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/05/01/gillette-hopes-for-a-swivel-in-sales-from-new-razor.html|title=Gillette hopes for a swivel in sales from new razor|last=Eisen|first=Sara|website=CNBC|language=en|access-date=2019-10-23|archive-date=2020-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125030533/https://www.cnbc.com/2014/05/01/gillette-hopes-for-a-swivel-in-sales-from-new-razor.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ProGlide FlexBall has a handle that allows the razor cartridge to pivot.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2014/04/gillettes-razor-everything-wrong-with-america.html|title=Gillette's New Razor Is Everything That's Wrong With American Innovation|website=Intelligencer|language=en-us|access-date=2019-10-23|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025212/http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2014/04/gillettes-razor-everything-wrong-with-america.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Gillette All-Purpose Styler''', released in 2012, is a waterproof beard trimmer that can cut four different lengths.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Foster |first1=Megan |title=The best 22 grooming gifts for dad |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/shopping/gift-guides/best-grooming-gifts-dad-fathers-day-n1214801 |publisher=NBC News |accessdate=May 5, 2021 |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510203231/https://www.nbcnews.com/shopping/gift-guides/best-grooming-gifts-dad-fathers-day-n1214801 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''Treo''' is the first razor designed for caregivers to shave seniors and people with disabilities, was introduced in 2017.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brunsman |first1=Barrett J. |title=P&G rolls out first-of-its-kind razor |journal=Cincinnati Business Courier |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2017/10/17/p-g-rolls-out-razor-designed-for-those-who-can-t.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005142/https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2017/10/17/p-g-rolls-out-razor-designed-for-those-who-can-t.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The product was named one of the best inventions of 2018 by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'',<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Cooney |first1=Samantha |title=Best Inventions: A Razor Built for Assisted Shaving: Gillette Treo |magazine=Time |url=https://time.com/collection/best-inventions-2018/5454217/gillette-treo/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=March 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312045941/https://time.com/collection/best-inventions-2018/5454217/gillette-treo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and later exhibited at the [[Consumer Electronics Show]] (CES) in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Takahashi |first1=Dean |title=How tech is catering to the elderly and caregivers |url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/01/13/how-the-tech-industry-is-paying-attention-to-elderly-consumers-and-caregivers/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=[[VentureBeat]] |archive-date=March 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302201955/https://venturebeat.com/2020/01/13/how-the-tech-industry-is-paying-attention-to-elderly-consumers-and-caregivers/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brunsman |first1=Barrett J. |title=P&G begins selling first razor for people who can't shave themselves |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2019/08/09/p-g-begins-selling-first-razor-for-people-who-can.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=Cincinnati Business Courier |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005120/https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2019/08/09/p-g-begins-selling-first-razor-for-people-who-can.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''SkinGuard''' is a razor designed for people with sensitive skin, introduced during 2018–2019.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brunsman |first1=Barrett J. |title=I Tried It: P&G's new razor the best from Gillette yet |journal=[[Cincinnati Business Courier]] |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2018/12/18/i-tried-it-p-g-s-new-razor-the-best-from-gillette.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |quote=Procter & Gamble Co.’s new Gillette SkinGuard razor for men with sensitive skin has begun hitting store shelves and will continue rolling out in the U.S. and Europe into early 2019, backed by a heavy investment in advertising. |archive-date=December 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230000343/https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2018/12/18/i-tried-it-p-g-s-new-razor-the-best-from-gillette.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In 2019, the company launched the first heated razor, mimicking a hot towel shave.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Meyersohn |first1=Nathaniel |title=Gillette is selling a $200 luxury razor that heats up to 122 degrees |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/02/tech/gillette-heated-razor/index.html |access-date=March 4, 2021 |work=[[CNN Business]] |publisher=CNN |archive-date=January 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108232238/https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/02/tech/gillette-heated-razor/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The prototype was showcased at CES and later named one of the best inventions of 2019 by ''Time''.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Lang |first1=Cady |title=Best Inventions: A Closer Shave: Heated Razor by GilletteLabs |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=https://time.com/collection/best-inventions-2019/5733057/heated-razor-by-gillettelabs/ |access-date=March 4, 2021 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122171004/https://time.com/collection/best-inventions-2019/5733057/heated-razor-by-gillettelabs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The heated razor received mixed reviews, with reviewers, including professional barbers, describing the design as flawed and the $200 price tag as overpriced.<ref name="heatedreview1">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/blog/gillette-heated-razor/|title=We Tried the Gillette Heated Razor. It's Not So Hot.|work=[[The New York Times]]|last=Koeppel|first=Dan|access-date=6 March 2021|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202104745/https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/blog/gillette-heated-razor/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="heatedreview2">{{cite web|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2019/05/12/need-spark-gillette-brings-heat/kqHHYFA5NFy4FkVxipqTyH/story.html|title=In need of a spark, Gillette brings the heat|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|last=Bray|first=Hiawatha|access-date=6 March 2021|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102052711/https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2019/05/12/need-spark-gillette-brings-heat/kqHHYFA5NFy4FkVxipqTyH/story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''King C. Gillette Beard Care Line''' came out in May 2020 named for the company’s founder and offers beard care products including a Complete Men's Beard Kit, a double-sided safety razor, shave gel, beard and face wash, balm and oil.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Naveen |title=18 beard grooming products that experts love |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/21/cnn-underscored/best-beard-grooming-kits/index.html |access-date=May 5, 2021 |publisher=CNN |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511115623/https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/21/cnn-underscored/best-beard-grooming-kits/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''Planet KIND Skincare Line''' launched in February 2021 as a new sustainable shaving and skincare brand, featuring a razor, shave cream, moisturizer and face wash. The razor is constructed from 60 percent recycled plastic and refills are designed with five blades that can each be used for up to a month. Planet KIND partnered with recycling company TerraCycle to design a program through which you can recycle the razor and blades.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Malin |first1=Zoe |title=New & Notable: Latest products from Nike, Old Navy and more |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/shopping/new-notable/new-products-nike-old-navy-gillette-n1263027 |access-date=May 5, 2021 |publisher=NBC News |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510203231/https://www.nbcnews.com/shopping/new-notable/new-products-nike-old-navy-gillette-n1263027 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Gillette razor.jpg|Gillette Blue II razor, circa 2007
File:Gillette Mach3 razor from Indonesia, 2015-08-03.jpg|Gillette Mach3 razor, circa 2015
File:Gillette Fusion Proglide Power Silvertouch.jpg|Gillette Fusion ProGlide Power
</gallery>

== Criticism and controversy ==

The desire to release ever more expensive products, each claiming to be the "best ever", has led Gillette to make disputed claims for its products. In 2005, an [[injunction]] was brought by rival [[Wilkinson Sword]] which was granted by the [[United States District Court for the District of Connecticut|Connecticut District Court]] which determined that Gillette's claims were both "unsubstantiated and inaccurate" and that the [[product demonstration]]s in Gillette's advertising were "greatly exaggerated" and "literally false". While advertising in the United States had to be rewritten, the court's ruling does not apply in other countries.<ref>[http://www.gizmag.co.uk/go/4097 "Truth in advertising"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226165653/https://newatlas.com/go/4097/ }}, Gizmag; accessed August 22, 2014.</ref>

[[Procter & Gamble]] (P&G) shaving products have been under investigation by the UK [[Office of Fair Trading]] as part of an inquiry into alleged collusion between manufacturers and retailers in setting prices.

Gillette was fined by [[Autorité de la concurrence]] in France in 2016 for [[price fixing]] on personal hygiene products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.connexionfrance.com/court-appeal-price-fixing-fine-upheld-consumer-companies-gillette-loreal-procter-gamble-sc-johnson-18567-view-article.html |title=Huge price-fixing fine is upheld |publisher=The Connexion |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170209165431/http://www.connexionfrance.com/court-appeal-price-fixing-fine-upheld-consumer-companies-gillette-loreal-procter-gamble-sc-johnson-18567-view-article.html |archive-date=9 February 2017 }}</ref>

In January 2019, Gillette began a new marketing campaign, "[[The Best Men Can Be]]", to mark the 30th anniversary of the "Best a Man Can Get" slogan. The campaign was introduced with a long-form commercial entitled "We Believe", and aims to promote positive [[Value (ethics)|values]] among men – condemning acts of [[bullying]], [[sexism]], [[sexual assault]], and [[toxic masculinity]]. While the campaign received praise for its acknowledgement of current [[social movement]]s and for promoting positive values of [[masculinity]], it also faced a negative response – including from [[Conservatism in the United States|right-wing]] critics<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/01/gillette-ad-conservative-message-on-masculinity/|title=Gillette's Ad Is More Conservative Than Critics Think|website=National Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-17|archive-date=2020-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223064137/https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/01/gillette-ad-conservative-message-on-masculinity/|url-status=live}}</ref> – being called [[left-wing]] propaganda, accusatory towards its customers, and [[misandrist]] and there were calls for boycotts of Gillette.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-16/gillette-toxic-masculinity-advertisement-courts-talk-of-boycotts/10718004|title=Gillette faces talks of boycott over ad campaign railing against toxic masculinity|website=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-01-16|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108033639/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-16/gillette-toxic-masculinity-advertisement-courts-talk-of-boycotts/10718004|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/gillette-metoo-commercial-criticizes-men-2019-1|title=Gillette chastises men in a new commercial highlighting the #MeToo movement – and some are furious|last=Green|first=Dennis|work=[[Business Insider]]|access-date=2019-01-14|archive-date=2020-10-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031063114/https://www.businessinsider.com/gillette-metoo-commercial-criticizes-men-2019-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.boston.com/news/business/2019/01/14/gillette-ad-men-me-too|title=Gillette released an ad asking men to 'act the right way.' Then came the backlash.|work=Boston.com|access-date=2019-01-15|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-12-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225224206/https://www.boston.com/news/business/2019/01/14/gillette-ad-men-me-too|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="adweek-bestmencanbe" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/gillette-s-a-man-responsibility/316231/|title=Gillette's new take on 'Best a Man Can Get' in commercial that invokes #MeToo|work=[[Advertising Age]]|language=en|access-date=2019-01-15|archive-date=2020-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224075350/https://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/gillette-s-a-man-responsibility/316231|url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2019, P&G wrote-down Gillette business by $8 billion, a move which company executives attributed to currency exchange, new competitors in the market, and increased popularity of growing beards. Share prices increased following the write-down.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/30/procter-gamble-writes-down-gillette-business-but-remains-confident-in-its-future.html|title=Procter & Gamble writes down Gillette business but remains confident in its future|website=[[CNBC]]|access-date=23 February 2021|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218122859/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/30/procter-gamble-writes-down-gillette-business-but-remains-confident-in-its-future.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Marketing==
[[File:1922 Gillette razor and blades advert, color.jpg|thumb|1922 advertisement for various New Improved and Old Type razor models]]

Gillette first introduced its long-time slogan, "The Best a Man Can Get", during a [[Super Bowl commercial|commercial]] first aired during [[Super Bowl XXIII]] in 1989.<ref name="adweek-bestmencanbe">{{Cite web|url=https://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/gillette-asks-how-we-define-masculinity-in-the-metoo-era-as-the-best-a-man-can-get-turns-30/|title=Gillette Asks How We Define Masculinity in the #MeToo Era as 'The Best a Man Can Get' Turns 30|website=Adweek|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-15|archive-date=2020-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224042329/https://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/gillette-asks-how-we-define-masculinity-in-the-metoo-era-as-the-best-a-man-can-get-turns-30/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The company has sponsored [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lefton |first1=Terry |title=Gillette exits role as MLB's oldest sponsor |journal=New York Business Journal |page=April 12, 2018 |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/newyork/news/2018/04/12/gillette-exits-role-as-mlb-s-oldest-sponsor.html |access-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005157/https://www.bizjournals.com/newyork/news/2018/04/12/gillette-exits-role-as-mlb-s-oldest-sponsor.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[2010 Gillette Fusion ProGlide 500]], and the [[Olympic Games]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bearne |first1=Suzanne |title=Gillette kicks off Olympics coaching campaign |url=https://www.marketingweek.com/gillette-kicks-off-olympics-coaching-campaign/ |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[Marketing Week]] |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005130/https://www.marketingweek.com/gillette-kicks-off-olympics-coaching-campaign/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brayson |first1=Johnny |title=This Olympics Commercial Has A Powerful Message |url=https://www.bustle.com/articles/176805-the-athletes-in-gillettes-olympics-commercial-show-the-unseen-side-of-glory |website=[[Bustle (magazine)|Bustle]] |publisher=August 4, 2016 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-date=September 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928040456/http://www.bustle.com/articles/176805-the-athletes-in-gillettes-olympics-commercial-show-the-unseen-side-of-glory |url-status=live }}</ref> and has naming rights to [[Gillette Stadium]] in [[Foxborough, Massachusetts]], home venue for the [[National Football League]]'s [[New England Patriots]].<ref>{{cite news |title=CMGI Field is now Gillette Stadium |url=https://money.cnn.com/2002/08/05/news/companies/gillette/ |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[CNN Money]] |publisher=[[CNN]] |archive-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202201905/https://money.cnn.com/2002/08/05/news/companies/gillette/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gillette naming rights extended |url=http://espn.go.com/blog/boston/new-england-patriots/post/_/id/4683840/gillette-naming-rights-extended-through-2031 |publisher=[[ESPN]] |access-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202108/http://espn.go.com/blog/boston/new-england-patriots/post/_/id/4683840/gillette-naming-rights-extended-through-2031 |url-status=live }}</ref> Athletes such as [[Roger Federer]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Murray |first1=Tom |last2=Rogers |first2=Taylor Nicole |title=Roger Federer is the world's highest-paid athlete for the first time ever. Here's how he earned $106 million last year. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/the-incredible-life-of-roger-federer-2017-1 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[Business Insider]] |quote=In 2007, he was signed by Gillette, starring in a number of ads for the company. |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127221013/https://www.businessinsider.com/the-incredible-life-of-roger-federer-2017-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tiger Woods]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette will not renew Tiger Woods |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-53762620101223 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |publisher=Reuters |archive-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202223935/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-53762620101223 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shoaib Malik]],<ref name="Sport">{{cite book |last1=Thangaraj |first1=Stanley |last2=Burdsey |first2=Daniel |last3=Dudrah |first3=Rajinder |title=Sport and South Asian Diasporas: Playing through Time and Space |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |page=29 |isbn=978-1317684299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKbbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |quote=For instance, in an ad for Gillette razors, both Dravid and Malik seem reserved and dignified. This popular campaign, in which Gillette filmed identical segments of celebrity athletes strutting in black outfits, shaving, and giving each other knowing glances, presents both Dravid and Malik as antic-free and suave. |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005128/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKbbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Derek Jeter]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reidy |first1=Chris |title=Gillette pays tribute to Derek Jeter |url=https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2011/07/11/gillette-pays-tribute-to-derek-jeter |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[Boston.com]] |quote=New York Yankee star Jeter has long been a pitch-man for Gillette, the Boston-based razor-blade brand. |archive-date=February 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203072117/https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2011/07/11/gillette-pays-tribute-to-derek-jeter |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Thierry Henry]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Parsons |first1=Russell |title=Gillette stands by Henry despite handball |url=https://www.marketingweek.com/gillette-stands-by-henry-despite-handball/ |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[Marketing Week]] |archive-date=February 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203172029/https://www.marketingweek.com/gillette-stands-by-henry-despite-handball/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kenan Sofuoğlu]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Güncelleme |first1=Son |title=Dünya Şampiyonu Türk Sporcu, Gıllette Fusıon'un Reklam Filminde Yer Aldı |url=https://www.haberler.com/dunya-sampiyonu-turk-sporcu-gillette-fusion-un-haberi/ |website=Haberler.com |publisher=March 19, 2008 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |language=Turkish |archive-date=February 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207213225/https://www.haberler.com/dunya-sampiyonu-turk-sporcu-gillette-fusion-un-haberi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Park Ji-sung]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Castles |first1=Duncan |title=Park Ji-sung's philosophy is simple – there is no 'I' in football |url=https://www.thenational.ae/sport/park-ji-sung-s-philosophy-is-simple-there-is-no-i-in-football-1.587869?videoId=5771275459001 |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005128/https://www.thenationalnews.com/sport/park-ji-sung-s-philosophy-is-simple-there-is-no-i-in-football-1.587869?videoId=5771275459001 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Rahul Dravid]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Debarati S. |title=Rahul Dravid recounts his first shave with his father at a Gillette event in Mumbai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/mumbai/rahul-dravid-recounts-his-first-shave-with-his-father-at-a-gillette-event-in-mumbai/articleshow/36775102.cms |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=June 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140623141512/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/mumbai/Rahul-Dravid-recounts-his-first-shave-with-his-father-at-a-Gillette-event-in-Mumbai/articleshow/36775102.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Raheem Sterling]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Delahunty |first1=Stephen |title=Watch: Raheem Sterling helps Gillette launch 'Made of What Matters' campaign |journal=[[PRWeek]] |url=https://www.prweek.com/article/1673495/watch-raheem-sterling-helps-gillette-launch-made-matters-campaign |access-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125105232/https://www.prweek.com/article/1673495/watch-raheem-sterling-helps-gillette-launch-made-matters-campaign |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Karl-Anthony Towns]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amay |first1=Joane |title=NBA All-Star Karl-Anthony Towns Gives Us an Inside Look Into His Style Game |journal=[[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]] |url=https://www.ebony.com/ebony-magazine/nba-all-star-karl-anthony-towns-gives-us-an-inside-look-into-his-style-game/ |access-date=January 26, 2021 |quote=KAT, a Gillette celebrity brand ambassador, is also known for his off-court style prowess. |archive-date=January 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120080140/https://www.ebony.com/ebony-magazine/nba-all-star-karl-anthony-towns-gives-us-an-inside-look-into-his-style-game/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Michael Clarke (cricketer)|Michael Clarke]] have been sponsored by the company,<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette won't renew contract with Woods |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/gillette-wont-renew-contract-with-woods-20101224-196zp.html |access-date=January 26, 2021 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |quote=The brand, owned by Procter & Gamble Co, used Woods, Roger Federer, Lionel Messi, Australian cricket vice-captain Michael Clarke and dozens of other athletes as part of its three-year "Gillette Champions" marketing campaign. |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005122/https://www.smh.com.au/world/gillette-wont-renew-contract-with-woods-20101224-196zp.html |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as video gaming personality [[Dr Disrespect]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/twitch-streamer-drdisrespect-signs-caa-1175330|title=CAA Signs Twitch Streamer DrDisrespect (Exclusive)|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|language=en|access-date=January 15, 2019|first=Natalie|last=Jarvey|archive-date=January 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111041802/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/twitch-streamer-drdisrespect-signs-caa-1175330|url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2009, Gillette became the subject of a proposed boycott in Ireland due to its endorsement by French soccer player Thierry Henry; his undetected handball foul during a [[2009 Republic of Ireland v France football matches|FIFA World Cup qualifying match]] contributed to a game-winning goal by France, eliminating Ireland from contention.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/nov/19/thierry-henry-france-football-worldcup|title=Hands-on Thierry Henry becomes public enemy numéro un|last=Ronay|first=Barney|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-01-15|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=2020-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811165149/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2009/nov/19/thierry-henry-france-football-worldcup|url-status=live}}</ref> The following month, expanding upon the controversy, media outlets observed a "[[Sports-related curses|curse]]" associated with top athletes who endorse Gillette, also citing Tiger Woods (who became the subject of an [[Tiger Woods#Infidelity scandal and fallout|infidelity scandal]] in late-2009), and Roger Federer losing in an upset to [[Nikolay Davydenko]] during the [[2009 ATP World Tour Finals]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/more-sports/the-kennett-curse-has-nothing-on-these-long-running-sporting-curses-from-around-the-world/news-story/1bf831664b7fa58817919571a5362f0a|title='Kennett Curse' has nothing on these|website=Courier Mail|language=en|access-date=2019-01-15|archive-date=2020-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226165840/https://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/more-sports/the-kennett-curse-has-nothing-on-these-long-running-sporting-curses-from-around-the-world/news-story/1bf831664b7fa58817919571a5362f0a?nk=79da522e77482a3515dec614badc8ce5-1609001920|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since its opening in 2002, Gillette has held [[naming rights]] to [[Gillette Stadium]] in nearby [[Foxborough, Massachusetts|Foxborough]], home of the [[New England Patriots]] of the [[National Football League]]. The original agreement lasted through 2017; in 2010, P&G negotiated a 15-year extension, lasting through 2031.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.boston.com/sports/extra-points/2010/09/22/naming-rights_d|title=Naming-rights deal extended through 2031|work=Boston.com|access-date=2019-01-15|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129082927/https://www.boston.com/sports/extra-points/2010/09/22/naming-rights_d|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the 1990s, the company has used a marketing list to send a [[Product sample|free sample]] of a Gillette razor in promotional packages to men in celebration of their 18th birthday. The campaign has occasionally resulted in the samples accidentally being sent to recipients outside of the demographic, such as a 50-year-old woman (exacerbated by the package containing the slogan "Welcome to Manhood").<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/16/business/media/gillette-razors-marketing-mistakes.html|title=Welcome to Manhood, Gillette Told the 50-Year-Old Woman|last=Maheshwari|first=Sapna|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-01-15|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109030819/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/16/business/media/gillette-razors-marketing-mistakes.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/nation-and-world/retails-new-niche-aging-baby-boomers-20180831|title=Retail's new niche: Aging baby boomers|website=The Gazette|access-date=2019-01-15|archive-date=2020-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810222112/https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/nation-and-world/retails-new-niche-aging-baby-boomers-20180831|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, Gillette and [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]] partnered to form the [[esports]] group Gillette Gaming Alliance, as well as the Bits for Blades campaign which gave Twitch Bits (the site's [[digital currency]]) to those who purchased Gillette products online. The 2019 team had eleven streamers, each representing a different country,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brunsman |first1=Barrett J. |title=P&G drafts video game team to boost brand with esports fans |journal=Cincinnati Business Courier |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2019/03/28/p-g-drafts-video-game-team-to-boost-brand-with.html |access-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005144/https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/news/2019/03/28/p-g-drafts-video-game-team-to-boost-brand-with.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the 2020 team had five streamers including [[DrLupo]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Takahashi |first1=Dean |title=Gillette and Twitch round up esports influencers in gaming alliance |url=https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/11/gillette-and-twitch-round-up-esports-influencers-in-gaming-alliance/ |access-date=March 9, 2021 |work=VentureBeat |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126092736/https://venturebeat.com/2020/02/11/gillette-and-twitch-round-up-esports-influencers-in-gaming-alliance/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stam |first1=Aleda |title=How brands are getting into the Twitch game |journal=[[PRWeek]] |url=https://www.prweek.com/article/1698820/brands-getting-twitch-game |access-date=March 9, 2021 |quote=When Gillette renewed its Gillette Gaming Alliance this year, the brand continued its Bits for Blades program, where Twitch users who buy Gillette products can enter a unique promo code at checkout and receive Twitch Bits in return. |archive-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115184432/https://www.prweek.com/article/1698820/brands-getting-twitch-game |url-status=live }}</ref> During 2020–2021, Gillette enlisted NFL players [[Saquon Barkley]], [[Ashtyn Davis]], [[Jalen Hurts]], [[Cole Kmet]], and [[Tua Tagovailoa]] as brand ambassadors.<ref>{{cite journal |title=NFL Playbook: Tracking How Brands Are Marketing Around an Uncertain Season |journal=[[Ad Age]] |url=https://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/nfl-playbook-tracking-how-brands-are-marketing-around-uncertain-season/2279041 |access-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-date=March 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302112016/https://adage.com/article/cmo-strategy/nfl-playbook-tracking-how-brands-are-marketing-around-uncertain-season/2279041 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/tampabay/news/2021/01/25/super-bowl-lv-in-tampa-hospitality-reality.html|title=Super Bowl LV in Tampa: Hospitality reality|journal=Tampa Bay Business Journal|first=Terry|last=Lefton|quote=Gillette is hoping to do something on social media with its quintet of NFL endorsers: New York Giants running back Saquon Barkley, New York Jet safety Ashtyn Davis, Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Jalen Hurts, Chicago Bears tight end Cole Kmet and Miami Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa.|access-date=March 13, 2021|archive-date=January 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126001008/https://www.bizjournals.com/tampabay/news/2021/01/25/super-bowl-lv-in-tampa-hospitality-reality.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== In science ==
In [[laser]] research and development, Gillette razor blades are used as a [[List of unusual units of measurement|non-standard measurement]] as a rough estimate of a particular laser beam's penetrative ability; a "four-Gillette laser", for example, can burn through four blades.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/12/st_3st_lasers/|title=Three Smart Things About Lasers|author=Rachel Zurer|magazine=Wired|access-date=May 21, 2015|archive-date=November 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111210611/http://www.wired.com/2011/12/st_3st_lasers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== In music ==
Science isn't the only unusual setting far removed from hygiene in which a Gillette razor blade has been used. It was used as a tool to achieve a certain sound by the [[England|English]] [[Rock music|rock]] band [[The Kinks]]. Kinks member [[Dave Davies]] became "really bored with this guitar sound – or lack of an interesting sound" so he purchased "a little green amplifier{{nbsp}}...an Elpico" from a radio spares shop in [[Muswell Hill]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dave's Guitars and the Green Amp |url=http://www.davedavies.com/guitars/guitars2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425162920/http://www.davedavies.com/guitars/guitars2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-04-25 |website=davedavies.com}}</ref> and "twiddled around with it", including "taking the wires going to the speaker and putting a jack plug on there and plugging it straight into my [[Vox AC30|AC30]]" (a larger amplifier), but did not get the sound he wanted until he got frustrated and "got a single-sided Gillette razorblade and cut round the cone [from the center to the edge]{{nbsp}}... so it was all shredded but still on there, still intact. I played and I thought it was amazing."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hunter |first=Dave |title=The Kinks Guitar Sound |url=http://www.davedavies.com/articles/tgm_0199-01.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712032915/http://www.davedavies.com/articles/tgm_0199-01.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-07-12 |website=Voxes, Vees And Razorblades |publisher=The Guitar Magazine |via=davedavies.com}}</ref> The sound was replicated in the studio by having the Elpico plugged into the Vox AC30. It was this sound, courtesy of a Gillette razor blade that became a mainstay on many of The Kinks early recordings, including "[[You Really Got Me]]" and "[[All Day and All of the Night]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Erlewine |first=Stephen Thomas |title=The Kinks |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-kinks-mn0000100160 |website=Biography |publisher=All Music |access-date=2019-07-29 |archive-date=2012-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602040246/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-kinks-mn0000100160 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Operations in Canada ==
In late 1988, Gillette announced plans to eliminate manufacturing operations in Montreal and Toronto. The Canadian unit's executive offices remained in Montreal, with administrative, distribution, marketing, and sales operations continuing in both cities. Approximately 600 employees in Canada were laid off as part of the global restructure,<ref>{{cite news |title=Gillette Plans to Phase Out Canada Plants |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1988-11-24-8802190240-story.html |access-date=October 22, 2020 |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902005124/https://www.chicagotribune.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which followed a $720 million [[share repurchase]] and sought to "rationalize worldwide production".<ref name="Burns">{{cite news |last1=Burns |first1=John F. |title=Canada Girds for Action on Trade Bill |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/24/world/canada-girds-for-action-on-trade-bill.html |access-date=October 22, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=January 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108130228/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/24/world/canada-girds-for-action-on-trade-bill.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2005, Gillette was not producing products in Canada and employed approximately 200 people in Edmonton, Mississauga, and Montreal.<ref>{{cite news |title=P&G cuts mega-deal with Gillette |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/pg-cuts-mega-deal-with-gillette/article4114805/ |access-date=October 29, 2020 |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |first1=Barrie |last1=McKenna |first2=Virginia |last2=Galt |archive-date=October 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029153501/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/pg-cuts-mega-deal-with-gillette/article4114805/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name="smithsonian-blade">{{cite web |title=Gillette Blade |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1212407 |website=National History of American History |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=29 October 2019 |archive-date=29 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029163131/https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1212407 |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book | last = McKibben | first = Gordon | title = Cutting Edge: Gillette's Journey to Global Leadership | year = 1998 | publisher = Harvard Business School Press | isbn = 0875847250 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/cuttingedgegille00mcki }}
* {{Cite book|title=A Safety Razor Compendium: The Book|last=Waits|first=Robert K.|isbn=978-1312293533|language=en}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Gillette |first=King Camp |title=Origin of the Gillette Razor |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ECuyAAAAMAAJ/page/n43 |magazine=The Gillette Blade |location=Boston |publisher=Gillette Safety Razor Company }}

== Further reading ==
* "King C. Gillette, The Man and His Wonderful Shaving Device" by Russell Adams (1978), published by Little Brown & Co. of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
* {{cite journal|title=The Gillette Company|journal= International Directory of Company Histories|volume=68|publisher=St.James Press ([[Gale (publisher)|Thomson Gale]])|editor-first=Tina|editor-last=Grant|isbn=1558625437|orig-year=previous versions of the article in the volume 3 and 20|pages=171–76|first1=Ginger G.|last1=Rodriguez|first2=David E.|last2=Salamie|first3=Kenneth R.|last3=Shepherd|location=Farmington Hills, Michigan}}

== External links ==

* {{official website|http://gillette.com}}
* [http://www.gilletteadjustable.com Vintage Gillette Adjustable Double Edge Razors: A Reference website]

{{Procter & Gamble}}

[[Category:1901 establishments in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:American brands]]
[[Category:American companies established in 1901]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Boston]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1901]]
[[Category:Personal care brands]]
[[Category:Procter & Gamble brands]]
[[Category:Razor brands]]
[[Category:2005 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Fort Point, Boston]]

Sister Nivedita

2022-02-05T11:45:14Z

Yajantkumar: Constructed an original page.

{{short description|Indian social activist, Hindu Nationalist and disciple of leader Vivekananda}}
{{redirect|Margaret Noble|the artist|Margaret Noble (artist)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Sister Nivedita
| image = Sœur Nivedita.jpg
| alt = Image of Sister Nivedita, sitting!
| caption = Sister Nivedita in [[India]]
| religion = {{plainlist|
* [[Hinduism]] (at death)
* [[Catholicism]] (at birth)
}}
| birth_name = Margaret Elizabeth Noble
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1867|10|28}}
| birth_place = [[Dungannon]], [[County Tyrone]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]]
| death_date = {{Death-date and age|13 October 1911|28 October 1867}}
| death_place = [[Darjeeling]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Darjeeling]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]])
| guru = [[Swami Vivekananda]]
| disciple = 
| founder = [[Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School]]
| region = [[Indian philosophy]]
| philosophy = [[Advaita Vedanta]]
| influences = {{flatlist|
* [[Buddha]]
* [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi|Pestalozzi]]
* [[Friedrich Fröbel|Fröbel]]
* [[Ramakrishna]]
* [[Sarada Devi|Devi]]
* [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]]
}}
| influenced = {{flatlist|
* [[E. B. Havell|Havell]]
* [[Abanindranath Tagore|Tagore]]
* [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]]
* [[Nandalal Bose|Bose]]
* [[Asit Kumar Haldar|Haldar]]
* [[Subramania Bharati|Bharati]]
}}
| literary_works = [[Kali the Mother (book)|''Kali the Mother'']], ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'', ''[[An Indian Study of Love and Death]]'', ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'', ''[[Notes of some wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'', ''[[Select essays of Sister Nivedita]]'', ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', ''[[Myths of the Hindus & Buddhists]]'', ''[[Footfalls of Indian History]]'', ''[[Religion and Dharma]]''
}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Sister Nivedita''' ({{IPA-bn|bhagini nibedita}} {{Audio|Sister Nibedita.oga|listen}} born '''Margaret Elizabeth Noble'''; 28 October 1867 – 13 October 1911)<ref name="JonesRyan2007">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA317|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=316–317}}</ref><ref name="Highbeam Hindus want national holiday on 13 October to mark Sister Nivedita's 100th death anniversary">{{cite news |title=Hindus want national holiday on October 13 to mark Sister Nivedita's 100th death anniversary|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2254149551.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329154630/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2254149551.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 March 2015|publisher=Hindustan Times (Highbeam)|access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> was an [[Northern Ireland|Irish]] teacher, author, social activist, school founder and disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barua |first=Ankur |title=The Hindu Cosmopolitanism of Sister Nivedita (Margaret Elizabeth Noble): An Irish Self in Imperial Currents |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/hindu-cosmopolitanism-of-sister-nivedita-margaret-elizabeth-noble-an-irish-self-in-imperial-currents/E4CF78E99A4D134AC7BB1FA82810328F |journal=Harvard Theological Review |language=en |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1017/S0017816019000324 |s2cid=213668994 |issn=0017-8160}}</ref><ref name="CoomaraswamyPerry2011">{{cite book|author1=Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy|author2=Whitall N. (INT) Perry|title=The Wisdom of Ananda Coomaraswamy: Reflections on Indian Art, Life, and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXD_NsQycKYC&pg=PA129|year=2011|publisher=World Wisdom, Inc|isbn=978-1-935493-95-2|pages=129–}}</ref> She spent her childhood and early youth in [[Ireland]]. She was engaged to marry a Welsh youth, but he died soon after their engagement.

Sister Nivedita met [[Swami Vivekananda]] in 1895 in London and travelled to Calcutta (present-day [[Kolkata]]), [[India]] in 1898. [[Swami Vivekananda]] gave her the name ''Nivedita'' (meaning "Dedicated to God") when he initiated her into the vow of ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' on 25 March 1898. In November 1898, she opened a girls' school in the [[Bagbazar]] area of North Calcutta. She wanted to educate girls who were deprived of even basic education. During the plague epidemic in Calcutta in 1899, Nivedita nursed and took care of the poor patients.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nivedita |first=Sister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06EFEAAAQBAJ&dq=Sister+Nivedita+plague&pg=PT3 |title=Kali the Mother |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |language=en}}</ref>

Nivedita had close associations with the newly established [[Ramakrishna Mission]]. Because of her active contribution in the field of [[Indian Nationalism]], she had to publicly dissociate herself from the activities of the [[Ramakrishna Mission]] under the then president, Swami Brahmananda. This had to be done in order to avoid their persecution at the hands of British Authorities in India. She was very close to [[Sarada Devi]], the wife of [[Ramakrishna]] and one of the major influences behind [[Ramakrishna Mission]], and also with all brother disciples of [[Swami Vivekananda]]. She died on 13 October 1911 in [[Darjeeling]]. Her epitaph reads, "Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India".<ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India">{{cite book|author=Compiled|title=Awakening Indians to India (Paperback)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AIU4LzftaPAC&pg=PA370|year=2008|publisher=Chinmaya Mission|isbn=978-81-7597-434-0|pages=370–}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Margaret Elizabeth Noble was born on 28 October 1867 in the town of [[Dungannon]] in [[County Tyrone]], [[Ireland]] to Mary Isabel and Samuel Richmond Noble; she was named for her paternal grandmother.<ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita." />{{rp|91}} The Nobles were of Scottish descent, settled in Ireland for about five centuries.<ref>[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], p. 1</ref> Her father, who was a pastor, taught that service to mankind is the true service to God. The Nobles had six children of whom only Margaret (the eldest), May, and Richmond survived.

When Margaret was one year old, Samuel moved to [[Manchester]], [[England]]; there he enrolled as a theological student of the [[Wesleyan Church]]. Young Margaret stayed with her maternal grandfather, Hamilton, in [[Ireland]].

When she was four years old, she returned to live with her parents at [[Great Torrington]] in [[Devonshire]].<ref name="JonesRyan2007"/> Margaret was her father's favorite child. When Samuel Noble conducted services or visited the poor, she accompanied him.

Margaret's father died in 1877 when she was ten years old. Margaret with her mother and two siblings returned to her grandfather Hamilton's home in Ireland. Margaret's mother, Mary, took up a kindergarten course in London and became a teacher. Later, Mary helped her mother to run a guest-house near [[Belfast]]. Hamilton was one of the first-ranking leaders of the [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalist movement]]. Besides her father's religious temperament, Margaret imbibed the spirit of freedom and love for her country through her grandfather Hamilton.<ref name="Nivedita of India.">{{cite book|title=Nivedita of India|url=http://estudantedavedanta.net/Nivedita_of_India__-Ramakrishan_Mission_Institute_of_Culture.pdf|year=2002|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|location=Kolkata|isbn=81-87332-20-4|edition=1st|page=2}}</ref>

Margaret was educated at Halifax College, run by a member of the [[Congregational church|Congregationalist Church]]. The headmistress of this college taught her about personal sacrifice.<ref name=JonesRyan2007 /> She studied subjects, including physics, arts, music, and literature.

At the age of seventeen in 1884, she first started a career in teaching at a school in [[Keswick, Cumbria|Keswick]]. In 1886, she went to [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]] to teach in an orphanage. A year later, she took up a post at the coal-mining area of [[Wrexham]] in [[North Wales]]. Here, she revived her spirit of service and love for the poor, which she had inherited from her father. At [[Wrexham]], Margaret became engaged to be married to a Welsh youth, who died soon after the engagement. In 1889, Margaret moved to [[Chester]]. By this time, her sister May and brother Richmond were living in [[Liverpool]]. Soon, their mother Mary joined them. Margaret was happy to be reunited with her family. Occasionally, she went to [[Liverpool]] to stay with them.<ref>[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], p. 3</ref>

Margaret resumed her studies in the field of education.<ref>"As a Teacher". Freeindia.org. Retrieved 12 June 2012.</ref> She became acquainted with the ideas of the Swiss education reformer [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] and with the German [[Friedrich Fröbel]]. Both Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the importance of preschool education. They opined that education should begin by gratifying and cultivating the normal aptitude of the child for exercise, play, observation, imitation, and construction. A group of teachers in England was attracted to this novel method of teaching, and they tried to put it into practice. Thus, the 'New Education' was advocated and Margaret, too, became a part of it. Soon, she became a favourite writer and speaker at the Sunday Club and the Liverpool Science Club.<ref name=a3>[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], pp. 3–4</ref>

In 1891, Margaret settled in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] and helped, a Mrs. de Leeuw, to start a new school in London. The new experiment in teaching gave her great joy. After a year, in 1892, Margaret started her own independent school at Kingsleygate. At her school, there were no restrictive set methods and formal learning. Children learned through play. At this time, Margaret learned to be a critic of art from one of her staff teachers, [[Ebenezer Cooke (art education reformer)|Ebenezer Cooke]], a well-known art master and reformer of art education.<ref name=a3/>

As she gained mastery as an educator, she also became a prolific writer in paper and periodicals and a popular speaker. Soon she became a name among the intellectuals of [[London]] and became acquainted with some of the most learned and influential people of her time. Among them were Lady Ripon and Lady Isabel Margesson. They were the founders of a literary coterie, which came to be known as the Sesame Club. ''[[The Times of London]]'' of 26 October 1911, wrote about Margaret, "A trained teacher of exceptional gifts, she was one of a group of educationists who in the early nineties founded the Sesame Club." Famous writers, such as [[W. B. Yeats|W.B. Yeats]], [[Bernard Shaw]] and [[Thomas Huxley]], were some of the regular speakers at the Sesame Club.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sister Nivedita Heritage Museum & Knowledge Centre|url=http://www.sisterniveditahouse.org/nivedita-life|access-date=2021-11-06|website=www.sisterniveditahouse.org}}</ref> Discussions were held here on literature, ethics, politics, and other similar subjects.<ref name=a3/>

In 1892, when the [[Home Rule Bill]] for Ireland was before the Parliament, Margaret spoke fearlessly in favor of it.

== Seeker of Truth ==
Coming from a religious background, Margaret had learned [[Christianity|Christian]] religious doctrines from a young age. From childhood, she had learned to venerate all religious teachings. The infant [[Jesus]] was her object of adoration and worship. However, as she bloomed into womanhood, doubt in the Christian doctrines crept in. She found the teachings were incompatible with Truth. As these doubts became stronger, her faith in [[Christianity]] was shaken. For seven long years, Margaret was unable to settle her mind, and this led to unhappiness. She tried to absorb herself in church service. However, her troubled soul could not find satisfaction, and she longed for Truth.<ref name=cw470>''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. II, p. 470</ref>

Search for truth made Margaret take up the study of [[natural science]]. Later, in a lecture delivered at the Hindu Ladies' Social Club in [[Bombay]] in 1902, she said:

{{blockquote|During the seven years of wavering it occurred to me that in the study of natural science I should surely find the Truth I was seeking. So I began ardently to study how this world was created and all things in it and I discovered that in the laws of Nature at least there was consistency, but it made the doctrines of the Christian religion seem all the more inconsistent. Just then I happened to get a life of [[Buddha]] and in it I found that here also was a child who lived ever so many centuries before the Child Christ, but whose sacrifices were no less self-abnegating than those of the other. This dear child [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]] took a strong hold on me and for the next three years I plunged into the study of the religion of Buddha, and became more and more convinced that the salvation he preached was decidedly more consistent with the Truth than the preachings of the Christian religion.<ref name=cw470/>}}

== Meeting with Swami Vivekananda ==
[[File:Sister Nivedita image.jpg|thumb|150px|Sister Nivedita]]
In November 1895, she met Swami Vivekananda for the first time, who had come from America to visit London and stayed there for three months.<ref>''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I</ref> On a cold afternoon, Swami Vivekananda was explaining [[Vedanta Philosophy: An address before the Graduate Philosophical Society|Vedanta philosophy]] in the drawing room of an aristocratic family in London. Lady Isabel Margesson, a friend of Margaret, invited [[Ebenezer Cooke (art education reformer)|Ebenezer Cooke]], who was part of the teaching staff at Margaret's 'Ruskin School', to this meeting. Margaret went with him, with much curiosity and interest. Margaret did not know this evening would change her life completely.<ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita." /> Margaret described her experience of the occasion. "A majestic personage, clad in a saffron gown and wearing a red waistband, sat there on the floor, cross-legged. As he spoke to the company, he recited Sanskrit verses in his deep, sonorous voice." Margaret had already delved deeply into the teachings of the East, and the novelty was not what she heard on this occasion, but the personality of Swamiji himself. She attended several other lectures by Swami Vivekananda. She asked a lot of questions, and his answers dispelled her doubts and established her faith and reverence for the speaker.

Nivedita wrote in 1904 to a friend about her decision to follow Swami Vivekananda as a result of her meeting him in England in November 1895:

{{blockquote|Suppose he had not come to London that time! Life would have been a headless dream, for I always knew that I was waiting for something. I always said that a call would come. And it did. But if I had known more of life, I doubt whether, when the time came, I should certainly have recognized it.

Fortunately, I knew little and was spared that torture ... Always I had this burning voice within, but nothing to utter. How often and often I sat down, pen in hand, to speak, and there was no speech! And now there is no end to it! As surely I am fitted to my world, so surely is my world in need of me, waiting – ready. The arrow has found its place in the bow. But if he had not come! If he had meditated, on the Himalayan peaks! ... I, for one, had never been here.<ref>[http://www.vivekananda.net/PPlHeKnew/SVDisciples/Nivedita.html "The Swami and the people he knew," Sister Nivedita]</ref>}}

She started taking interest in the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], and her discussions with Swami Vivekananda were an alternate source of peace and benediction. She wrote:
{{blockquote|To not a few of us, the words of Swami Vivekananda came as living water to men perishing of thirst. Many of us had been conscious for years past of that growing uncertainty and despair with regard to Religion, which has beset the intellectual life of Europe for half a century. Belief in the dogmas of Christianity had become impossible to us, and we had no means, such as we now hold, by which to separate the doctrinal shell from the kernel of reality in our faith. To these the Vedanta has given intellectual confirmation and philosophical expression of their own mistrusted intuitions.<ref>''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. II, p. 399</ref>}}

Vivekananda's principles and teachings influenced her and this brought about a visible change in her. Seeing the fire and passion in her, Swami Vivekananda could foresee her future role in India. 25 March 1898, was the holiest and most unforgettable day of Nivedita's (Margaret) life. That was the day on which her guru dedicated her to God and to the service of India.

Vivekananda had toured the [[Indian subcontinent]] extensively, acquiring first-hand knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. In his opinion, [[Education in India|education]] was the panacea for all evils plaguing contemporary Indian society,<ref name="GoelGoel2005">{{cite book|author1=Aruna Goel|author2=S. L. Goel|title=Human Values and Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl4PNMb90mcC&pg=PA243|year=2005|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7629-629-8|page=243}}</ref> especially that of Indian women. Margaret was chosen for the role of educating Indian women. In his letter to Margaret, Vivekananda wrote, "Let me tell you frankly that I am now convinced that you have a great future in the work for India. What was wanted was not a man but a woman, a real lioness, to work for the Indians, women especially."<ref>[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]]</ref>

== Travel to India ==
Responding to Swami Vivekananda's call, Margaret travelled to India, leaving behind her friends and family, including her mother. ''Mombasa'', the ship bringing Margaret to India, reached Calcutta on 28 January 1898.<ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita.">{{cite book|title=Dedicated : a biography of Nivedita.|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/9375211/The-Dedicated-a-Biography-of-Nivedita|year=1999|publisher=Arcana Pub|location=[S.l.]|isbn=0910261164}}</ref> On 22 February, Margaret visited [[Dakshineshwar]] temple, the place where Ramakrishna did his ''sadhana''.<ref name="Nivedita of India." />
Swami Vivekananda devoted the initial few days in teaching her about India and its people, and helping her develop the love for the people; he was broadening her character. He explained India's history, philosophy, literature, the life of the common mass, social traditions, and also the lives of great personalities, both ancient and modern, to her. A few weeks later, two of Swami Vivekananda's women disciples in America, [[Sara Chapman Bull|Sara C. Bull]], wife of famous Norwegian violinist and composer [[Ole Bull]] and [[Josephine MacLeod]] arrived in India. The three became lifelong friends.
On 11 March 1898, Swami Vivekananda organized a public meeting at [[Star Theatre, Calcutta|Star Theatre]] to introduce Sister Nivedita to the people of Calcutta. In his speech, Swami Vivekananda said – "England has sent us another gift in Miss Margaret Noble." In this meeting, Margaret expressed her desire to serve India and its people.<ref name="Nivedita of India."/>
On 17 March she met Sarada Devi who greeted Margaret affectionately as ''Khooki'' (i.e. little girl).<ref name="Nivedita of India."/>

=== Brahmacharya ===
On 25 March 1898, at Nilambar Mukherjee Garden,<ref>Hironmoy N. Mukherjee (2015) ''Swami Vivekananda's Spiritual Daughter: Sister Nivedita''. Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai. p. 19</ref> Swami Vivekananda formally initiated Margaret in the vow of [[Brahmacharya]] (lifelong celibacy) and gave her the name of "Nivedita", the dedicated one.<ref name="Sister's vow of lifelong Brahmacharya">{{cite book|author=M. G. Chitkara|title=Women & Social Transformation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1chAq-ETv7oC&pg=PA416|year=2001|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-251-6|pages=416–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel |last=Rolland |first=Romain |year=1965 |author-link=Romain Rolland |publisher=[[Advaita Ashrama]] |isbn=81-85301-01-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofvivekanand00roll/page/77 77] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofvivekanand00roll/page/77 }}</ref> Swami Vivekananda said to her "Go thou and follow Him, Who was born and gave His life for others five hundred times before He attained the vision of the Buddha."<ref name="Nivedita of India."/>

Though Sister Nivedita expressed her desire to take the ultimate vow of Sannyasa, Swami Vivekananda did not approve of it. Later, after the demise of Swami Vivekananda, on 28 July 1902, Nivedita wrote to the Editor of the ''Statesman'' the following letter:

{{blockquote|... My own position towards this religious treasure is that of the humblest learner, merely a Brahmacharini, or novice, not a Sannyasini or fully professed religious, without any pretentions to Sanskrit learning, and set free by the great kindness of my superiors to pursue my social, literary and educational work and studies, entirely outside their direction and supervision.<ref>''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, p. 530</ref>}}

Swami Vivekananda was anxious to mold Nivedita as a Hindu Brahmacharini. He wanted her to be a Hindu in thoughts and actions. He encouraged her to visit Hindu ladies to observe their way of life.<ref>Hironmoy N. Mukherjee (2015) ''Swami Vivekananda's Spiritual Daughter: Sister Nivedita''. Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai. p. 11</ref> He told her:
{{blockquote|You have to set yourself to Hinduize your thoughts, your needs, your conceptions and your habits. Your life, internal and external, has to become all that an orthodox Brahmana Brahmacharini's ought to be. The method will come to you, if only you desire it sufficiently. But you have to forget your own past and to cause it to be forgotten. You have to lose even its memory.<ref>"His Eastern and Western Disciples", in ''The Life of Swami Vivekananda'', 7th ed., Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2011, Vol.II, p. 323. {{ISBN|978-8175050440}}</ref>}}

== Relationship with Sarada Devi ==
[[File:Sarada Devi and Sister Nivedita.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Sarada Devi (left) and Sister Nivedita|alt=Image of Sarada Devi and Sister Nivedita siting]]
Within a few days of her arrival in India, on 17 March 1898, Margaret met [[Sarada Devi]], wife and spiritual consort of Ramakrishna, who, surpassing all language and cultural barriers, embraced her as "khooki" or "little girl" in Bengali.<ref name="Nivedita of India." /> It was [[St.Patrick]]'s Day, a very holy & special day in Margaret's life, and Nivedita recounted it as her "day of days."<ref>''Adhyatmasadhika Nivedita'', by Pravrajika Gyanadaprana</ref> Until her death in 1911, Nivedita remained one of the closest associates of Sarada Devi. On 13 November 1898, the Holy Mother Sarada Devi came to open Nivedita's newly founded school. After worshiping Ramakrishna, she consecrated the school and blessed it, saying: ‘I pray that the blessings of the Divine Mother may be upon the school and the girls; and the girls trained from the school may become ideal girls.’ Nivedita was delighted and recorded her feelings later as "I cannot imagine a grander omen than her blessings, spoken over the educated Hindu womanhood of the future."<ref>''Nivedita of India'', published by Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture</ref> The first photograph of [[Sarada Devi]] was taken at Nivedita's house.
Nivedita wrote in a letter to her friend Nell Hammond about Sarada Devi after her first few meetings with her, "She really is, under the simplest, most unassuming guise, one of the strongest and greatest of women."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vivekananda.net/LettersOfNivedita.html |title=Letters of Sister Nivedita—Frank Parlato Jr |publisher=Vivekananda.net |access-date=12 June 2012}}</ref>
An excerpt is provided here from the Gospel of Holy Mother, where Sarada Devi's impressions about Nivedita are captured vividly:

{{blockquote|Referring to Nivedita, she [Sarada Devi] said, "What sincere devotion Nivedita had! She never considered anything too much that she might do for me. She would often come to see me at night. Once seeing that light struck my eyes, she put a shade of paper on the lamp. She would prostrate herself before me and, with great tenderness, take the dust off my feet with her handkerchief. I felt that she not even hesitated to touch my feet." The thought of Nivedita opened the floodgate of her mind and she suddenly became grave... The Mother now and then expressed her feelings towards the Sister. She said at last, "The inner soul feels for a sincere devotee."<ref>[http://saradadevi.info/GHM_book/p-10.html Gospel of Holy Mother], p. 10</ref>}}

== Travels ==
Nivedita travelled to many places in India, including [[Kashmir Valley|Kashmir]], with Swami Vivekananda, [[Josephine MacLeod]], and [[Sara Chapman Bull|Sara Bull]]. This helped her in connecting to the Indian masses, Indian culture, and its history. She also went to the United States to raise awareness and get help for her cause. On 11 May 1898, she went with [[Swami Vivekananda]], Sara Bull, Josephine MacLeod, and [[Turiyananda|Swami Turiyananda]], on a journey to the Himalayas. From [[Nainital]], they travelled to [[Almora]]. On 5 June 1898, she wrote a letter to her friend Nell Hammond exclaiming, "''Oh Nell, Nell, India is indeed the Holy Land''."<ref>''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I</ref> In Almora, she first learned the art of meditation. She wrote about this experience, "A mind must be brought to change its centre of gravity... again the open and disinterested state of mind welcomes truth."<ref>Complete Works of Sister Nivedita, volume 1, edited by Sankari Prasad Basu, Nababharat publication, Kolkata, 1992</ref> She also started learning Bengali from [[Swami Swarupananda]]. From Almora, they went to Kashmir valley, where they stayed in [[houseboat]]s. In the summer of 1898, Nivedita travelled to [[Amarnath Temple|Amarnath]] with Swami Vivekananda.<ref name="The Swami and the Sister">{{cite web|title=The Swami and the Sister|url=http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/32/RR_swami_and_the_sister.pdf/|publisher=IIAS|access-date=21 June 2012}}</ref> Later in 1899, she travelled to the United States with Swami Vivekananda<ref name="Banhatti1995">{{cite book|author=G. S Banhatti|title=Life And Philosophy Of Swami Vivekananda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC&pg=PA39|year=1995|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-291-6|pages=39–}}</ref> and stayed in Ridgely Manor in upstate New York.

She later recorded some of her tour and experiences with her master (guru) in the book ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'' and ''Notes on Some Wanderings with Swami Vivekananda''.

She often used to refer to Swami Vivekananda as "The King" and considered herself as his spiritual daughter (''Manaskanya'' in Bengali).<ref>''Letters of Sister Nivedita''</ref>

== Swami Vivekananda's death ==
{{See also|Swami Vivekananda#Death}}
Sister Nivedita saw Swami Vivekananda for the last time on 2 July 1902 at [[Belur Math]].<ref>Linda Prugh (1999) ''Josephine MacLeod and Vivekananda's Mission'', Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai. p.290</ref> Vivekananda was observing the Ekadashi fasting on that day. However, when his disciples took their meal, he himself served them joyfully. After the meal, Vivekananda poured water over Nivedita's hands, and dried them with a towel. Nivedita recorded it in ''The Master As I Saw Him'' in the following words:
{{blockquote|"It is I who should do these things for you, Swamiji! Not you, for me!" was the protest naturally offered. But his answer was startling in its solemnity – "[[Jesus]] washed the feet of His disciples!"
Something checked the answer, "But that was the last time!" as it rose to the lips, and the words remained unuttered. This was well. For here also, the last time had come.<ref>''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, p. 331</ref>}}

Swami Vivekananda died at 9:10 p.m. on 4 July 1902. On that night, Nivedita dreamed [[Sri Ramakrishna]] was leaving his body a second time.<ref name="Ramakrishna-Vivekananda p.139">[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], p. 139</ref> On the next morning, [[Saradananda|Swami Saradananda]] from Belur Math sent a monk with a letter to Sister Nivedita and conveying the message of Vivekananda's death. Instantly everything around Nivedita's eyes became blank. She immediately rushed to the ''Math'' and reached the place around 7{{nbsp}}a.m. and entered the room of Vivekananda. There she found Swamiji's body was laid on the floor. She sat near Vivekananda's head and fanned his body with a hand fan until his body was taken down at 2{{nbsp}}p.m. to the porch leading to the courtyard.<ref name="Ramakrishna-Vivekananda p.139"/><ref name="Nivedita of India." />{{rp|34}}
In the afternoon of 5 July, Swami Vivekananda's body was taken for cremation. Vivekananda's body was wrapped in a saffron cloth. Nivedita wished to take a small portion of that cloth so that she could send it as a memento to [[Josephine MacLeod]]. Understanding the mind of Nivedita Swami Saradananda asked her to cut a small portion of the Swami's cloth. But, Nivedita was unsure whether the act would be proper or not and decided not to take it. When Vivekananda's body was being cremated, she sat all the while looking at the burning pyre. Around six o'clock in the evening, the burning flame was about to go out. Suddenly, Nivedita felt somebody had pulled her sleeve. She turned around and found a small piece of saffron cloth which had somehow come out of the pyre during cremation. Nivedita lifted and took the cloth, considering it as a message from the Swami. In her letter to Josephine MacLeod on 14 September 1902, Nivedita wrote:
{{blockquote|...But your real message came at the burning pyre itself... At 6 o'clock... as if I were twitched by the sleeve, I looked down, and there, safe out of all that burning and blackness, there blew to my feet the very two or three inches I had desired out of the border of the cloth. I took it as a Letter from Him to you, from beyond the grave.<ref>''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, #207, pp. 504–06</ref>}}

== Works of Sister Nivedita ==
[[File:Sister Nivedita reading a book.png|right|thumb|Sister Nivedita, reading a book]]

=== Girls' school in Bagbazar ===
{{See also|Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School}}
Nivedita was planning to open a school for girls who were deprived of even basic education.<ref name="Chaudhuri1992">{{cite book|author=Nupur Chaudhuri|title=Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-jH6LEPVn80C&pg=PA125|year=1992|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20705-0|page=125}}</ref> She toured England and America on a lecture tour designed to raise money to establish a girls' school.<ref name="Rappaport2001 bio"/>

The main reason why Swamiji invited Nivedita to India was to spread education to the women of the country. This is why, when Nivedita informed Vivekananda about her planning, he felt very excited. He organized a meeting at [[Balaram Bose]]'s house on this issue. Many lay devotees of Sri Ramakrishna, including [[Mahendranath Gupta]] (popularly known as Sri M., the chronicler of ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]''), Suresh Dutta, Haramohan etc. attended this meeting. In this meeting, Nivedita explained her plan of the proposed school and requested everyone to send their girls to the school to study. During her speech, Vivekananda entered the room and took a seat behind everyone. Nivedita did not notice it. But, when Nivedita appealed to collect girl students for the school, she suddenly discovered Vivekananda in the room pushing others and prompting – "Ye, get up, get up! It’s not good enough to just become girls’ fathers. All of you must co-operate in the matter of their education as per national ideals. Stand up and commit. Reply to her appeal. Say, 'We all agree. We shall send our girls to you." But no one stood up to support Nivedita's proposal. Finally, Vivekananda forced Haramohan to agree to the proposal and behalf of Haramohan, Vivekananda promised to send his girls to the school.<ref name="Nivedita of India." />{{rp|21–22}}
[[File:Sister Nivedita home morum.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A memorial plaque in the house of Bagbazar where Sister Nivedita started her school]]
On 13 November 1898, on the day of ''[[Kali Puja]]'', at 16 Bosepara Lane in the Bagbazar area of North Calcutta, she started the school.<ref name="Restoration bid for Sister Nivedita's house faces hurdle">{{cite news|title=Restoration bid for Sister Nivedita's house faces hurdle|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-24/kolkata/29809572_1_elderly-couple-heritage-building-house|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911005138/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-24/kolkata/29809572_1_elderly-couple-heritage-building-house|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2011|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The school was inaugurated by Sarada Devi, in the presence of Swami Vivekananda and some of the other disciples of Ramakrishna.<ref name="The School's Ideals">{{cite web|title=The School's Ideals|url=http://sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/grandhistory_inside.html|publisher=RKSM Sister Nivedita Girls School|access-date=9 October 2012}}</ref> Sarada Devi blessed and prayed for the school saying – "I pray that the blessings of the Divine Mother may be upon the school and the girls; and the girls trained from the school may become ideal girls."<ref name="Nivedita of India." />{{rp|22}}Nivedita went from home to home in educating girls, many of whom were in pitiable condition owing to the socio-economic condition of early 20th century India. In many cases, she encountered refusal from the male members of the girl's family. Nivedita had widows and adult women among her students. She taught sewing, elementary rules of hygiene, nursing, etc., apart from regular courses.

Collecting money for the school was not an easy task. She had to earn money from her writings and giving lectures, and later she spent all to meet the expenses of the school.<ref name="Nivedita of India." />{{rp|14}}

She took part in altruistic activities. She worked to improve the lives of Indian women of all castes.

=== Work during plague epidemic ===
During the outbreak of a [[Third plague pandemic#Political impact in colonial India|plague epidemic in Calcutta in 1899]], Nivedita nursed and took care of the patients,<ref name=JonesRyan2007 /><ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India" /> cleaned rubbish from the area, and inspired and motivated many youths to render voluntary service. She inserted appeals for help in the English newspapers and requested for financial support for her plague relief activities.<ref name="Rappaport2001 bio">{{cite book|author=Helen Rappaport|author-link=Helen Rappaport|title=Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpuSzowmIkgC&pg=PA651|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-101-4|pages=651–}}</ref> She also organized the day-to-day activities, inspected the work and personally handed over the written instructions for the preventive measures by moving around.
She was a friend to many intellectuals and artists in the [[Bengal]]i community, including [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], [[Abala Bose]], and [[Abanindranath Tagore]]. Later, she took up the cause of [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]]. [[Sri Aurobindo]] was one of her friends as well.<ref name="Chaudhuri1992" />

=== Cultivation of Indian culture ===
She took an active interest in promoting Indian history, culture, and science. She actively encouraged Dr. [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], the Indian scientist and philosopher, to pursue original scientific research and helped him financially as well in getting due recognition when he was faced with an indifferent attitude from the colonial government. Bose, whom she called "khoka" or the "little one" in Bengali, and his wife Abala Bose, were in very close terms with her. Keeping in view Nivedita's contribution to the scientific research work of Jagadish Chandra, Rabindranath Tagore said: "In the day of his success, Jagadish gained an invaluable energizer and helper in Sister Nivedita, and in any record of his life’s work her name must be given a place of honour." Sister Nivedita was one of the important influences on Jagadish Chandra Bose. She supported him by organizing the financial support and editing his manuscripts and made sure that Bose was able to continue with and share his work.

<ref name="Chatterjee1938">{{cite book|author=Ramananda Chatterjee|title=The Modern review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAkFAAAAMAAJ2|year=1938|publisher=Prabasi Press Private, Ltd.|pages=78–79}}</ref> Her identity as both a westerner by birth and a disciple of Swami Vivekananda enabled her to do several things that might have been difficult for Indians. For example, she promoted pan-Indian nationalism.<ref name="Economic and political weekly">{{cite book|title=Economic and political weekly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veGwAAAAIAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Sameeksha Trust}}</ref><ref name="Krishnaraj2012">{{cite book|author=Maithreyi Krishnaraj|title=Motherhood in India: Glorification Without Empowerment?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZkVq2vHtkC&pg=PT240|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-136-51779-2|page=240}}</ref>

=== Contribution towards Indian nationalism ===
{{See also|Aurobindo|Anushilan samiti}}
Nivedita became a prolific writer and toured India extensively to deliver lectures, especially on Indian culture and religions. She appealed to the youth of India to work selflessly for the cause of their country along the ideals of Swami Vivekananda. Before coming to India, Nivedita expressed a positive view towards continued colonial rule in India, a prevailing sentiment amongst her contemporaries in Europe. However, during the course of her time in India, Nivedita grew disillusioned with colonial rule and grew to support the [[Indian independence movement|nascent independence movement]], concluding that it was necessary for India to gain independence to prosper. In February 1902, lawyer (and future leader of the independence movement) [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] visited Nivedita in Calcutta.<ref>''The Life of Swami Vivekananda'', 7th ed., Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2011, Vol. II, p. 615. {{ISBN|978-8175050440}}</ref>

After Vivekananda's death, being acutely aware of the inconvenience of the newly formed Ramakrishna Mission on account of her political activities, she publicly dissociated herself from it. However, until her last days, she had a very cordial relationship with the brother disciples of Swami Vivekananda like Swami Brahmananda, [[Baburam Maharaj (Swami Premananda)]] and [[Swami Saradananda]], who helped her in her charitable and educational activities in every possible way; she was very close to the holy mother, [[Sarada Devi]].

Nivedita had initially worked with [[Okakura]] of [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and [[Sarala Ghoshal]] who was related to the Tagore family.

She later started working on her own and maintained a direct relationship with many of the young revolutionaries of Bengal, including those of [[Anushilan Samity]], a secret organization. She inspired many youths in taking up the cause of Indian independence through her lectures. She also attacked [[Lord Curzon]] after his speech at the University of Calcutta in 1905 where he mentioned that truth was given a higher place in the moral codes of the West, than in the East. Nivedita undertook her own research and made it public that in the book ''Problems of The Far East'' by Curzon, he had proudly described how he had given false statements about his age and marriage to the President of the Korean Foreign Office to win his favour. This statement when published in newspapers like ''[[Amrita Bazar Patrika]]'' and ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'' caused a furore and forced Curzon to apologize.{{citation needed}}

In 1905, the colonial government, under the direction of Lord Curzon, initiated the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal]] which proved to be a major turning point in the [[Indian independence movement]]. Nivedita played a pioneering role in organizing the movement.<ref name="Sister Nivedita partition of Bengal">{{cite book|author=Bonnie G. Smith|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&pg=RA3-PA52|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514890-9|pages=3–}}</ref> She provided financial and logistical support and leveraged her contacts to get information from government agencies and forewarn independence activists. She met Indian artists like [[Abanindranath Tagore]], [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]] and [[E. B. Havell]] and inspired them to develop a pure Indian school of art. She always inspired and guided the talented students of the Calcutta Art School to move along the forgotten tracks of ancient Indian art like [[Nandalal Bose]], [[Asit Kumar Haldar]] and Surendranath Gangopadhyay. She exerted great influence on the famous Tamil poet, [[Subramania Bharati]], who met her only briefly in 1906. She influenced Bharati to work for the freedom of the women in the country, which he did all through his life. Nivedita had also designed a national flag for India with the thunderbolt as the emblem against a red background.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Margaret Noble to Sister Nivedita, from Wimbledon to Calcutta|url=https://wimbledonsociety.org.uk/museum/wimbledon-stories/margaret-noble/|access-date=2021-11-06|website=The Wimbledon Museum|language=en-GB}}</ref> Nivedita tried her utmost to inculcate the nationalist spirit in the minds of her students through all their daily activities. She introduced singing of the song [[Vande Mataram]] in her school as a prayer. Nivedita provided guarded support to [[Annie Besant]] and was very close to [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] (later Sri Aurobindo), one of the major contributors towards the early nationalist movement. She edited ''Karma Yogin'', the nationalist newspaper of Aurobindo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sister Nivedita - Auroville Wiki|url=https://wiki.auroville.org.in/w/index.php?title=Sister_Nivedita#cite_note-9|access-date=2021-11-06|website=wiki.auroville.org.in}}</ref> The following piece is from an editorial in ''Karma Yogin'', written by Nivedita, which depicts her intense respect for India:

{{blockquote|The whole history of the world shows that the Indian intellect is second to none. This must be proved by the performance of a task beyond the power of others, the seizing of the first place in the intellectual advance of the world. Is there any inherent weakness that would make it impossible for us to do this? Are the countrymen of [[Bhaskaracharya]] and [[Shankaracharya]] inferior to the countrymen of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]? We trust not. It is for us, by the power of our thought, to break down the iron walls of opposition that confront us, and to seize and enjoy the intellectual sovereignty of the world.<ref>[http://www.srichinmoylibrary.com/books/0945/2/11 The Spiritual Daughter Of Swami Vivekananda]. srichinmoylibrary.com</ref>}}

[[File:Blessings to Nivedita.jpg|thumb|Manuscript of "Blessings to Nivedita" a poem written by Swami Vivekananda in his own handwriting<ref name="Swami Vivekananda, poetic visionary">{{cite book|last=Chakrabarti|first=Mohit|title=Swami Vivekananda, poetic visionary|year=1998|publisher=M.D. Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7533-075-9|page=80}}</ref>]]

== Death ==
Nivedita died on 13 October 1911, aged 43, at [[Roy Villa]], [[Darjeeling]].<ref name="Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita’s last abode" /> Today, her memorial is located below the Railway station on the way to the Victoria Falls (of Darjeeling)<ref name="Sister Nivedita's epitaph">{{cite web|title=Sister Nivedita's epitaph|url=http://darjeeling.gov.in/visitors.html|publisher=Darjeeling Government|access-date=9 October 2012}}</ref> with these words inscribed in her epitaph – "Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India".<ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India" /><ref name="Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita’s last abode">{{cite news|title=Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita's last abode|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111028/jsp/siliguri/story_14675895.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031103934/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111028/jsp/siliguri/story_14675895.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 October 2011|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=Telegraph, Calcutta|location=Calcutta, India|first=Avijit|last=Sinha}}</ref> Swami Vivekananda wrote a poem to Sister Nivedita, ''A benediction to Sister Nivedita''. In this poem, Vivekananda condensed all his hopes, aspirations, and good wishes for his disciple,<ref>Sister Nivedita, 118</ref> Nivedita as ''The mistress, servant, friend in one to India's future son''–<ref name="Chakrabarti1998">{{cite book|author=Mohit Chakrabarti|title=Swami Vivekananda, Poetic Visionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvsRcML8Ki4C&pg=PA80|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-7533-075-7|pages=80–}}</ref>
<blockquote><poem>
The mother's heart, the hero's will
The sweetness of the southern breeze,
The sacred charm and strength that dwell
On Aryan altars, flaming, free;
All these be yours and many more
No ancient soul could dream before-
Be thou to India's future son
The mistress, servant, friend in one.
</poem></blockquote>

== Influence ==
[[File:Sister Nivedita 1968 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|160px|Sister Nivedita on a 1968 stamp of India]]
[[File:BRKM Nivedita Bhawan name plaque.jpg|thumb|Name plaque of Nivedita Bhawan at [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]]]
Sister Nivedita remains one of the most influential female figures of India. Her book ''Kali, the Mother'' influenced [[Abanindranath Tagore]] who painted [[Bharat Mata]].<ref name="Not Earth's Girl">{{cite news|title=Not Earth's Girl|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111023/jsp/opinion/story_14651226.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425064334/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111023/jsp/opinion/story_14651226.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 April 2014|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=Telegraph, Calcutta|location=Calcutta, India|first=Arindam|last=Chakrabarti}}</ref> In 2010, the office of the board of [[West Bengal Board of Secondary Education]] in [[Salt Lake City, Kolkata|Salt Lake City]], Kolkata was named after Sister Nivedita.<ref name="Madhyamik to breach million mark">{{cite news|title=Madhyamik to breach million mark|newspaper=Telegraph Calcutta}}</ref> The Sister Nivedita Academy, an institution dedicated to her memory has been established in [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Sister Nivedita Academy">{{cite web|title=Sister Nivedita Academy|url=http://sribharatamatamandir.org/word/?page_id=48|access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref> Several schools and colleges have been named after her. In 1968, the Indian Government issued a postal stamp in her memory. The Nivedita bridge near [[Dakshineswar]], Kolkata is named in her honour.<ref name="Sister Nivedita commemorative stamp">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Color/Blue%20Green/SISTER%20NIVEDITA|title=Sister Nivedita commemorative stamp|publisher=Indian Post|access-date=12 October 2012}}</ref> In 2015, a new Government Degree College at Hastings House, Alipur, Kolkata was named after Sister Nivedita.<ref>{{Cite news |title = Mamata Banerjee lays foundation for Soujanya|url = http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-07-16/news/64495421_1_mamata-banerjee-foundation-stone-hyderabad-house |work=The Economic Times |access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> In 2018, the higher secondary section school building of [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]] at Kolkata named after Sister Nivedita as "Nivedita Bhawan".<ref name=NiveditaBhawan>{{cite web|url=https://media.belurmath.org/inauguration-of-nivedita-bhavan-baranagar-may-2018-1900|title=Inauguration Of Nivedita Bhavan, Baranagar RKM|access-date=17 August 2021|publisher=[[Belur Math]]|website=belurmath.org}}</ref>

== Books ==
[[File:Cradle Tales of Hinduism title page.jpg|thumb|Title page of Sister's 1913 book ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'']]
Her works included ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', which sought to rectify many myths in the Western world about Indian culture and customs, ''[[Kali the Mother (book)|Kali the Mother]]'', ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'' on Swami Vivekananda, ''[[Notes of Some Wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'' on her travels from Nainital, Almora and other places with Swamiji,<ref name="Travel with Swami Vivekananda from Nainital to Almora">{{cite book|author=Adwaita P. Ganguly|title=Life and Times of Netaji Subhas: From Cuttack to Cambridge, 1897–1921|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbdgnHO6NgQC&pg=PA35|publisher=VRC Publications|isbn=978-81-87530-02-2|pages=35–}}</ref> ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'' on the stories from [[Puranas]], [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', ''Civil Ideal and Indian Nationality, Hints on National Education in India'', ''Glimpses of Famine and Flood in East Bengal—1906''.

* [[Kali the Mother (book)|''Kali the Mother'']], Swan Sonnenschein & Co.,. 1900.
* ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', W. Heinemann 1904
* ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'', Longmans 1907
* ''[[An Indian Study of Love and Death]]'', Longmans, Green & Co.,
* ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'', 1910
* ''[[Select essays of Sister Nivedita]]'', 1911 Ganesh & Co.,
* ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', Longmans, Green & Co., 1913
* ''[[Myths of the Hindus & Buddhists]]'', London : George G. Harrap & Co., 1913
* ''[[Notes of some wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'', 1913
* ''[[Footfalls of Indian History]]'', Longmans, Green & Co., 1915
* ''[[Religion and Dharma]]'', Longmans, Green, and Co., 1915
* {{cite book | title=Civic & national ideals. |publisher = Udbodhan Office |year=1929}}

A newly annotated edition of ''The Ancient Abbey of Ajanta'', that was serialized in ''[[Modern Review (Calcutta)|The Modern Review]]'' during 1910 and 1911, was published in 2009 by Lalmati, Kolkata, with annotations, additions, and photographs by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul. Another collection of essays relating to Buddhism has been published by New Age Publishers of Kolkata titled ''Studies in Buddhism'', that has been compiled and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul.

=== ''Biographies'' ===
{{unreferenced section}}
In 1952, Ramakrishna Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School during its Golden Jubilee Celebration, decided to bring out a biography of Sister Nivedita in English and Bengali. Though there were some biographies in English and Bengali before this, they lack in historical facts. The historical account of Sister Nivedita's life in Bengali was written by Pravrajika Muktiprana of Sri Sarada Math and was published in 1959. The materials for the biographies were sourced from Sister Nivedita's own works, letters and diaries, references made to her by some of her contemporaries, and interviews with those who had worked with her and her own students. Later, in 1961, the English version of the book written by Pravrajika Atmaprana was published as ''Sister Nivedita of Ramakrishna-Vivekananda''. Since then, the books had seen several revisions.

''Letters of Sister Nivedita'' were first published in two volumes in 1960. There were more than 800 letters, half of which were written to Miss [[Josephine MacLeod]]. These letters vibrant with her thoughts and feelings cast a lot of light on the versatile genius of Nivedita.

In 1975, Barbara Fox published in London a biography of Sister Nivedita titled ''Long Journey Home''. This work attempts to gauge Nivedita's work from an English woman's point of view.

''Nivedita Lokmata'' in Bengali was published in three volumes by Sankari Prasad Basu in 1968, 1987, and 1988 respectively.

==See also ==
* ''[[Bhagini Nivedita (film)|Bhagini Nivedita]]'', 1962 Bengali film directed by Bijoy Basu

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Cited sources==
*{{cite book|ref=Atmaprana|author=Atmaprana, Pravrajika |year=1992|orig-year=1961|title=Sister Nivedita of Ramakrishna-Vivekananda|publisher=Sister Nivedita Girls' School, Calcutta }}
*''Letters of Sister Nivedita'' [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98907 Vol. 1] [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98908/page/n7 Vol. 2]. Basu, Sankari Prasad (Ed.). 1960. Nababharat Publishers.
*''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita''
*: Volume 1: ''The Master as I Saw Him''; ''Notes of Some Wanderings''; Kedar Nath and Bhadri Narayan; ''Kali the Mother''. {{ISBN|978-81-8040-458-0}}
*: Volume 2: ''The Web of Indian Life''; An Indian Study of Love and Death; ''Studies from an Eastern Home''; Lectures and Articles. {{ASIN|B003XGBYHG}}
*: Volume 3: Indian Art; Cradle Tales of Hinduism; Religion and Dharma; Aggressive Hinduism. {{ISBN|978-1-177-78247-0}}
*: Volume 4: ''Footfalls of Indian History''; Civic Ideal and Indian Nationality; Hints on National Education in India; Lambs Among Wolves. {{ASIN|B0010HSR48}}
*: Volume 5: On Education; On Hindu Life, Thought and Religion; On Political, Economic and Social Problems; Biographical Sketches and Reviews. {{ASIN|B0000D5LXI}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book | last = Bakshi | first = S. R. | year = 2000 | title = Sister Nivedita: Pioneer in Missionaries Work | publisher = Om Publications | location = Faridabad, India | page = 286 | isbn = 978-81-86867-38-9}}
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Basu | editor-first = Sankari Prasad | year = 1982 | title = Letters of Sister Nivedita | publisher = Nababharat Publishers | oclc = 12553314 | location = Calcutta, India}}
* {{Cite book | last = Bhattacharya | first = Alak | year = 2010 | publisher = Northern Book Centre | location = New Delhi | page = 135 | isbn = 978-81-7211-286-8 | title = Nivedita: Synthesis of East and West}}
* {{Cite book | last = Chakravarty | first = Basudha | year = 1975 | title = Sister Nivedita | publisher = [[National Book Trust of India]] | location = New Delhi | page = 84 | oclc = 2345534}}
* {{Cite book | last = Ghosh | first = Biplab Ranjan | year = 2001 | title = Sister Nivedita and the Indian Renaissance | publisher = Progressive | location = Kolkata (Calcutta, India) | page = 120 | isbn = 978-81-86383-48-3}}
* {{Cite book | last = Gupta | first = Indra | year = 2003 | title = India's 50 Most Illustrious Women | publisher = Icon Publications | location = New Delhi | isbn = 978-81-88086-03-0}} Chapter 23 "Sister Nivedita"
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Pruthi| editor-first = Raj| editor2-last = Devi | editor2-first = Rameshwari | editor3-last = Pruthi | editor3-first = Romila | year = 2003 | title = Sister Nivedita: Social Revolutionary | publisher = Pointer | location = Jaipur, India | page = 262 | oclc = 55122190}}
* {{Cite book | author = Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture | year =2002 | title = Nivedita of India | publisher = Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture | location = Kolkata (Calcutta, India) | page = 98 | isbn = 978-81-87332-20-6}}
* {{Cite book | last = Reymond | first = Lizelle | year = 1953 | title = The Dedicated, A Biography of Nivedita | publisher = John Day Company | location = New York | oclc = 1513282}}
* {{Cite book | last = Roy | first = Sohinee | year = 2007 | title = Sister Nivedita: A Passion for India | publisher = Rupa & Co. | location = New Delhi | page = 61 | isbn = 978-81-291-1200-2}}
* Som, Reba (2017). ''Margot: Sister Nivedita of Swami Vivekananda''. Penguin Random House India Private Limited. p. 336. {{ISBN|9386651572}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Sister Nivedita|wikt=no|v=no|n=no|b=no}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026210528/http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/a76.html |title=Sister Nivedita and Vivekananda }}
* [https://archive.org/details/The.Complete.Works.of.Sister.Nivedita ''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'' – 5 Volumes] (Free Download Pdf & Djvu) at [[Archive.org]]
* {{Librivox author |id=17401}}

{{Sister Nivedita}}
{{Swami Vivekananda}}
{{Modern Hindu writers}}
{{Portal bar|Hinduism|India|Religion}}

{{Indian Independence Movement}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nivedita, Sister}}
[[Category:Sister Nivedita| ]]
[[Category:1867 births]]
[[Category:1911 deaths]]
[[Category:People from County Tyrone]]
[[Category:Irish people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Converts to Hinduism from Catholicism]]
[[Category:Irish Hindus]]
[[Category:Hindu writers]]
[[Category:Irish former Christians]]
[[Category:19th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:20th-century Hindus]]
[[Category:Irish women writers]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Disciples and friends of Swami Vivekananda]]
[[Category:Indian Hindu nuns]]
[[Category:Indian women philanthropists]]
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]
[[Category:19th-century Irish writers]]
[[Category:Irish emigrants to India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:People from Darjeeling]]
[[Category:Writers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian women educational theorists]]
[[Category:Monastic disciples of Swami Vivekananda]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:Women writers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Women educators from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Social workers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Women mystics]]
[[Category:19th-century women educators]]
[[Category:20th-century women educators]]