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Vinod Khosla

2026-05-08T04:31:43Z

Yaarzu: Done.

{{Short description|Indian businessman (born 1955)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vinod Khosla
| image = 2024-03-14 SXSW Vinod-Khosla 08741.jpg
| caption = Khosla in 2024
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1955|1|28}}
| birth_place = [[Pune]], [[Bombay State]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education = [[IIT Delhi]] ([[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]]) [[Carnegie Mellon University]] ([[Master of Science|MS]]) [[Stanford Graduate School of Business|Stanford University]] ([[Master of Business Administration|MBA]])
| known for = Co-founder of [[Sun Microsystems]] Founder of [[Khosla Ventures]]
| spouse = [[Neeru Khosla]]
| children = 4
}}
'''Vinod Khosla''' (born 28 January 1955) is an American billionaire businessman and [[venture capitalist]], though he rejects that title and calls himself a venture assistant used on helping entrepreneurs.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last= |date=2013-02-26 |title="Venture Assistance": A Philosophical View Of What Boards Should And Should Not Do |url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/02/26/venture-assistance-a-philosophical-view-of-what-boards-should-and-should-not-do/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> He is a co-founder of [[Sun Microsystems]] and the founder of [[Khosla Ventures]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Karlgaard |first1=Rich |title=Vinod Khosla On AI's Fast Rise, Robotics, Entrepreneurs And Innovation |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richkarlgaard/2023/12/07/vinod-khosla-on-ais-fast-rise-robotics-entrepreneurs-and-innovation/?sh=1a7c30696e8c |work=Forbes |access-date=19 April 2024 |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419200443/https://www.forbes.com/sites/richkarlgaard/2023/12/07/vinod-khosla-on-ais-fast-rise-robotics-entrepreneurs-and-innovation/?sh=1a7c30696e8c |url-status=live }}</ref> Khosla made his wealth from early venture capital investments in areas such as networking, software, and alternative energy technologies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2011 |title=Vinod Khosla says get rid of experts and invent the future you want (video) |url=https://venturebeat.com/2011/08/31/vinod-khosla-says-get-rid-of-experts-and-invent-the-future-you-want-video/ |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://venturebeat.com/2011/08/31/vinod-khosla-says-get-rid-of-experts-and-invent-the-future-you-want-video/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He is considered one of the most successful and influential venture capitalists.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Steinberg |first1=Jon |title=It's Vinod Khoslas World |url=https://www.theinformation.com/articles/its-vinod-khoslas-world |website=The Information |access-date=19 April 2024 |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419200450/https://www.theinformation.com/articles/its-vinod-khoslas-world |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2001, an article in the Red Herring titled “The No. 1 VC on the Planet: Vinod Khosla” stated Khosla created six new jobs for every day he lived in the US and helped create 40 companies producing $150b of market value during his first 24 years in the US which put him in the top one percentile of VC investors.<ref name="herring3">{{Cite journal |last=Om Malik |date=13 February 2001 |title=Vinod's Time |url=http://www.redherring.com/mag/issue91/index.htm |journal=Red Herring |issue=The No. 1 VC on the Planet |pages=42–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030425174834/http://www.redherring.com/mag/issue91/index.htm |archive-date=25 April 2003}}</ref><ref name="McNicholas">{{Cite journal |last=McNicholas |first=Kym |date=September 21, 2011 |title=Vinod Khosla: The Fail Strategy |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kymmcnicholas/2011/09/21/vinod-khosla-the-fail-strategy |journal=Forbes |access-date=September 21, 2011}}</ref>

As of January 2026, ''[[Forbes]]'' estimates his net worth at US$13.4 billion.<ref name="Forbes profile">{{cite web |title=Forbes profile: Vinod Khosla |url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/vinod-khosla/ |work=Forbes |access-date=3 March 2024 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224063546/https://www.forbes.com/profile/vinod-khosla/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Biography ==
Khosla was born on 28 January 1955, to a [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] Indian family in [[Pune]], Maharashtra.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kachru |first=Upendra |title=India Land of a Billion Entrepreneurs |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-5861-8 |location=Delhi |pages=182 |language=en}}</ref> Khosla's father was an officer in the [[Indian Army]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chestone |first=Albert F. |title=What America Means to Me |publisher=Dog Ear Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59858-895-8 |location=Indianapolis, IN |pages=24 |language=en}}</ref> posted to [[New Delhi]], India. His father wanted him to also join the army. He attended [[Mount St Mary's School (New Delhi)]] for elementary school.<ref>{{cite web
| url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/21789982/Vinod-Khosla
| title=Vinod Khosla Biography
| publisher=[[Scribd]]
| date=29 October 2009
| access-date=27 July 2014
| archive-date=5 March 2016
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305084815/https://www.scribd.com/doc/21789982/Vinod-Khosla
| url-status=live
}}</ref> Khosla became interested in entrepreneurship after reading about the founding of [[Intel]] in ''[[Electronic Engineering Times]]'' as a teenager, which led him to pursue technology as a career and found his own business.<ref name="computerhist">{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Vinod,Khosla|title=Vinod Khosla|publisher=Computer History Museum|access-date=19 June 2017|archive-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025036/http://www.computerhistory.org/events/bio/Vinod,Khosla|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Khosla, he was inspired by Intel co-founder [[Andrew Grove]], a Hungarian immigrant who got funding for Intel in Silicon Valley, when it was a startup.<ref name=ecotimes/>

From 1971 to 1976, Khosla attended [[IIT Delhi]] where he earned a bachelor's degree in [[electrical engineering]].<ref name="HarvardCase">{{Citation
| title = Vinod Khosla and Sun Microsystems (A)
| last = Bhide
| first = Amar V.
| date = 14 December 1989
| publisher = [[Harvard Business Publishing]]
| url = http://cb.hbsp.harvard.edu/cb/web/product_detail.seam?E=20605&R=390049-PDF-ENG| archive-url = https://archive.today/20140805011542/http://cb.hbsp.harvard.edu/cb/web/product_detail.seam?E=20605&R=390049-PDF-ENG|url-status = dead| archive-date = 5 August 2014}}</ref> He started the first computer club in any IIT to do computer programming and operated the school's computer center while the operations staff were on strike. He also wrote a paper on [[parallel computing|parallel processing]] as a teenager before the concept was adopted by the IT industry, and helped to start the first biomedical engineering program in India. In 1975, Khosla attempted to start a soy milk company intended to provide a milk alternative to Indian consumers that do not have refrigerators to preserve cow milk.<ref name=ecotimes>{{Cite news |title=Technology is my religion: Vinod Khosla, Founder, Khosla Ventures |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/interviews/technology-is-my-religion-vinod-khosla-founder-khosla-ventures/articleshow/11005402.cms |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=The Economic Times |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/interviews/technology-is-my-religion-vinod-khosla-founder-khosla-ventures/articleshow/11005402.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2007 |title=Why Silicon Valley "gets" clean tech |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-renewable-energy-khosla-idUSL2254281020070223 |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Reuters |language=en |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-renewable-energy-khosla-idUSL2254281020070223 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Khosla's business had no funding and on hearing he would have to wait seven years to get a phone line he decide to try and get to Silicon Valley.<ref>{{cite web |last=Daisyme |first=Peter |date=January 22, 2016 |editor=Dan Bova |title=Don't Let a Startup Failure Hold You Back |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/growing-a-business/dont-let-a-startup-failure-hold-you-back/269844 |access-date=January 22, 2016 |website=Entrepreneur |publisher=Entrepreneur Media, LLC}}</ref>

In 1976 when Khosla was 21 years old, he arrived in the United States with no assets except his admission to Carnegie Mellon. Khosla received a master's degree in [[biomedical engineering]] from [[Carnegie Mellon University]] on a full scholarship.<ref name="HarvardCase"/> He applied to the [[Stanford Business School]]'s MBA program, but was rejected for lack of work experience. He had two full-time jobs while finishing his engineering master's for the two years of work experience, but was rejected a second time. Three weeks into starting at Carnegie Mellon for his MBA, Khosla convinced the Stanford admissions staff to accept him and received his MBA there in 1980.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krasner |first=Barbara |title=Famous immigrant entrepreneurs |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-7660-9241-9 |publisher=[[Enslow Publishing]]|location=New York |oclc=994220359}}</ref>

In 1980 he married [[Neeru Khosla]], his girlfriend since he was 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/katiasavchuk/2015/06/29/neeru-khosla-wife-of-billionaire-venture-capitalist-wants-to-fix-education-with-software/#24f466b66cd1|title=Neeru Khosla, Wife of Billionaire Venture Capitalist, Wants To Fix Education With Software|first=Katia|last=Savchuk|website=forbes.com|access-date=31 August 2018}}</ref><ref name=nyt2000>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/03/business/a-capitalist-venturing-in-the-world-of-computers-and-religion.html|title=A Capitalist Venturing in the World of Computers and Religion|first=Laura M.|last=Holson|work=The New York Times |date=3 January 2000 |access-date=31 August 2018}}</ref> They have four children,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2018/02/vinod-khosla-beach-lawsuit|title=Tech Billionaire Takes "Get Off My Lawn!" Case to the Supreme Court|first=Bess|last=Levin|website=vanityfair.com|date=23 February 2018|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-date=27 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427164322/https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2018/02/vinod-khosla-beach-lawsuit|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/us-canada-news/Indian-American-venture-capitalist-Vinod-Khosla-hosts-dinner-for-Obama/articleshow/20484494.cms|title=Indian-American venture capitalist Vinod Khosla hosts dinner for Obama|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 June 2013|access-date=31 August 2018|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916094406/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/us-canada-news/Indian-American-venture-capitalist-Vinod-Khosla-hosts-dinner-for-Obama/articleshow/20484494.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and have lived at their current residence since 1986. In 2001, Khosla said he makes a point of having dinner with his family at least 25 times a month.<ref name="McNicholas"/><ref name="nyt2000" />

== Career ==
After completing his MBA at Stanford in 1980, Khosla decided to become an entrepreneur. He rejected several employment opportunities to establish his first business venture.<ref name=":0" />

=== Co-founding Sun Microsystems and early investments: 1980-2003 ===
At age 25, Khosla developed a business plan for an electronic design automation company for electrical engineers. He was introduced to employees at Intel and became the first full-time founder and Chief Financial Officer of [[Daisy Systems]], and one of the first companies to go after the computer-aided design software market.<ref name="HarvardCase" /> The company spent 80 percent of its resources on building custom computer hardware that could run its software. As a result, Khosla left the company in order to create a startup that manufactures general purpose computers. Khosla left Daisy Systems before the company's IPO which was one of the most successful IPOs of 1984. In 1981, Khosla co-founded Data Dump with a former Stanford classmate, Scott McNealy, which ended up failing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krasner |first1=Barbara |title=Famous immigrant entrepreneurs |date=2018 |location=New York |isbn=9780766092419}}</ref>

In 1982, Khosla co-founded [[Sun Microsystems]] (SUN is the acronym for the Stanford University Network), along with Stanford classmates [[Andy Bechtolsheim]], who was licensing a computer design for $10,000 to local companies, and [[Scott McNealy]].<ref name=nyt2000/> [[UC Berkeley]] computer science graduate student [[Bill Joy]] later joined the company as co-founder. Sun Microsystems sold servers to the universities they graduated from and other colleges, desktop computers, and created the [[Java (programming language)|Java programming language]]. Sun pioneered open systems technology and RISC processors. Sun's premise was distributed systems. They sold networked servers and workstations, and created NFS, among the first open-sourced commercial software, virtual memory microprocessor based personal desktops, the first RISC based SPARC processors, and Java. Khosla raised $300,000 in seed capital from venture capital firm [[Kleiner Perkins|Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers]]. The original and succinct Sun Business plan free of platitudes and fillers which was also used as a Harvard Business School case study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zayala |first=Eric |date=April 18, 2025 |title=Vinod Khosla - Founder, Khosla Ventures: Entrepreneur Insights |url=https://leadersperception.com/vinod-khosla-founder-khosla-ventures-entrepreneur-insights/ |journal=Leaders Perception |access-date=April 18, 2025}}</ref> Within five years, Sun made $1 billion in annual sales. Khosla also recruited early executives and developers such as [[Eric Schmidt]] and [[Carol Bartz]]. He served as the first chairman and CEO from 1982 to 1984, when he left the company to become a [[venture capitalist]].<ref name="HarvardCase" />

In 1986, Khosla joined the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins as a general partner. At Kleiner Perkins, Khosla managed investments in technologies, such as video games and semiconductors.<ref name="computerhist" />

He helped create [[Nexgen]], sold to [[AMD]] for 28 percent of its market cap, which was the first successful Intel microprocessor clone company. He invested in [[GO Corporation|Go Corporation]], which developed a stylus-operated computer and was seen as one of the largest Silicon Valley startup failures. In 1994, he suggested that [[Excite (web portal)|Excite]] adapt its search engine for the internet and helped finance the special disk drive the company needed to run their search engine starting with a $5K check to test his theory by buying a bigger hard drive. Khosla was also involved in suggesting the advertising model as a source of revenue. During his time at Excite, Khosla convinced Google founders to sell to Excite for $750K which Excite CEO George Bell rejected.<ref name="Siegler">{{cite web |last=Siegler |first=MG |date=September 29, 2010 |title=When Google Wanted To Sell To Excite For Under $1 Million — And They Passed |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/09/29/google-excite/ |access-date=September 29, 2010 |website=TechCrunch |publisher=TechCrunch Media LLC |time=12:50 PM PDT}}</ref><ref name="nyt2000" /> On April 1, 1996, Khosla informed Excite co-founder Joe Kraus that the search engine company's IPO had been canceled, hours before the stock was to start trading however thirty minutes later he called him back to let him know it was an April Fools joke. He mentored the founders until the company was sold to [[@Home Network]] for $7 billion in May 1999, which was his first venture capital deal of that size. Afterwards, Khosla was an early proponent of [[fiber optics]] and the internet for faster communication and started focusing on telecommunication networking companies.<ref name=nyt2000/> In 2001, Khosla expressed disdain for the recently funded optical networking companies stating that what was happening was “greed” similar to the dot-com space. It's been stated that “It was as if he had a cheat code for the broadband future.<ref name="herring3"/>

He incubated [[Juniper Networks]] and suggested that it develop an "Internet router instead of the plain vanilla router mostly used." Khosla invested $275,000, which became his largest return on investment to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-14/vinod-khosla-predicts-us-china-techno-economic-war|title=US and China Will Wage a 20-Year 'Techno-Economic War,' Says Billionaire Khosla|newspaper=Bloomberg |date=14 June 2022|via=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> A $3 million investment in Juniper Networks in the 1990s earned $7 billion for Kleiner Perkins which was a 2500x investment and is considered one of the “best-ever venture investments in U.S. companies in overall dollars” according to ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Venture Firms Bask in a Surge of Blockbuster Profits |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311025531/https://www.wsj.com/articles/venture-firms-bask-in-a-surge-of-blockbuster-profits-11619608939 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |url-status=live |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/venture-firms-bask-in-a-surge-of-blockbuster-profits-11619608939 |last1=Brown |first1=Eliot }}</ref><ref name="Siegler"/><ref name=":6">{{cite web |last=Schonfeld |first=Erick |date=September 12, 2009 |title=Interview: Vinod Khosla Is On The Hunt For Great Technologies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2009/09/12/interview-vinod-khosla-is-on-the-hunt-for-great-technologies/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=TechCrunch }}</ref> He also incubated [[Cerent Corporation]] in 1996, and invested about $8 million which grew 300x to $2.4b which sold to [[Cisco]] for $7.8 billion, and Siara, which sold for $3 billion and was its chief executive officer for its first year.<ref name="herring">{{Cite journal |last=Om Malik |date=13 February 2001 |title=Vinod's Time |url=http://www.redherring.com/mag/issue91/index.htm |journal=Red Herring |issue=The No. 1 VC on the Planet |pages=42–47|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030425174834/http://www.redherring.com/mag/issue91/index.htm |archive-date=25 April 2003 }}</ref> In November 1999, John Doerr stated Khosla “made Kleiner $10 billion in profits” from a group of fabulously successful fiber-optic and internet investments in the 1990s, including Juniper, Cerent, and Excite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vinod Khosla Can See the Future. It Just Got Hazy for a Minute |url=https://www.theinformation.com/articles/vinod-khosla-can-see-the-future-it-just-got-hazy-for-a-minute |access-date=2025-12-15 |website=The Information |language=en}}</ref>

In 2001, it was stated that Khosla had created more multibillion-dollar companies than any other VC save John Doerr. Mr Doerr, Arthur Rock of Arthur Rock & Company, who invested in Intel and Apple, and Donald Valentine of Sequoia Capital, who invested in Intel, are the only other VCs that match his record.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schonfeld |first=Erick |date=September 24, 2010 |title=Khosla Completes The VC Triumvirate At Disrupt |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/09/24/khosla-triumvirate-disrupt/ |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=TechCrunch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= |orig-date=February 19, 2001 |title=The Man With the Golden Touch |url=https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2001/0219/086.html |access-date=November 24, 2025 |work=Forbes |date=June 6, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Khosla">{{cite news |last=Khosla |first=Vinod |date=July 9, 2025 |title=Vinod Khosla on how the anti-green agenda could help climate tech |url=https://www.economist.com/by-invitation/2025/07/09/vinod-khosla-on-how-the-anti-green-agenda-could-help-climate-tech |access-date=November 24, 2025 |newspaper=The Economist }}</ref>

=== Development of Khosla Ventures: 2004-present ===
In 2004, to spend more time with his teenage kids and focus on science-based technology startups, Khosla moved to part-time and eventually left Kleiner Perkins. He founded his own venture capital firm, [[Khosla Ventures]] later that year as a way to invest in more experimental technologies with "social impact"<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.khoslaventures.com/team
| title=Khosla Ventures: Our Team
| website=Khoslaventures.com
| access-date=27 July 2014
| archive-date=27 June 2014
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627063031/http://www.khoslaventures.com/team
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name=economist>{{cite news
| url=https://www.economist.com/technology-quarterly/2011/03/12/betting-on-green
| title=Brain scan: Betting on green
| date=10 March 2011
| publisher=The Economist
| access-date=27 July 2014
| archive-date=30 July 2014
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730144317/http://www.economist.com/node/18304172
| url-status=live
}}</ref> or Khosla Ventures since its formation as stated on their website.<ref name="Khosla"/> The firm was structured to pursue high-risk, first-principles innovation across sectors including [[enterprise software]], consumer platforms, healthcare, artificial intelligence, robotics, [[financial technology]], [[Defense industry|defense]], [[infrastructure]], as well as energy and materials science.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 14, 2025 |title=Cleveland Clinic and Khosla Ventures Announce Strategic Collaboration |url=https://newsroom.clevelandclinic.org/2025/10/14/cleveland-clinic-and-khosla-ventures-announce-strategic-collaboration |access-date=March 23, 2026 |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Temkin |first=Marina |date=2025-05-23 |title=Khosla Ventures among VCs experimenting with AI-infused roll-ups of mature companies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/05/23/khosla-ventures-among-vcs-experimenting-with-ai-infused-roll-ups-of-mature-companies/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> At the time, he had about $1.5 billion from co-founding Sun Microsystems and his work with Kleiner Perkins. The firm is based in [[Menlo Park, California]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2009/09/01/khosla-ventures-raises-11-billion-its-for-more-than-just-clean-tech/|title=Khosla Ventures Raises $1.1 Billion. It's For More Than Just Clean Tech.|first=Erick|last=Schonfeld|date=1 September 2009|access-date=27 February 2022|archive-date=27 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227191634/https://techcrunch.com/2009/09/01/khosla-ventures-raises-11-billion-its-for-more-than-just-clean-tech/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2009, Khosla Ventures III secured $750 million of investor commitments to invest in traditional early-stage and growth-stage companies. Khosla also raised $250 million for Khosla Seed, which will invest in higher-risk opportunities. He opened up Khosla Ventures to outside investors for the first time that same year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pehub.com/khosla-ventures-hits-market-with-next-flagship-fund/|title=Khosla Ventures hits market with next flagship fund|first=Chris|last=Witkowsky|date=10 June 2014|access-date=22 August 2022|archive-date=17 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517140403/https://www.pehub.com/khosla-ventures-hits-market-with-next-flagship-fund/|url-status=live}}</ref> The firm became known for being an early investor in [[Square (financial services)|Square]], [[DoorDash]], and [[Instacart]],<ref name=":7" /> investments in [[alternative energy]] technology,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chapman |first=Lizette |date=13 September 2011 |title=Vinod Khosla: Don't Call Me A Venture Capitalist |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-VCDB-11447 |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-VCDB-11447 |url-status=live }}</ref> and long-horizon investments across fintech, enterprise software, artificial intelligence, healthcare, transportation, and energy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rao |first=Leena |date=2011-06-07 |title=Mobile Payments Startup Square Adds Vinod Khosla To Board |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/06/07/mobile-payments-startup-square-adds-vinod-khosla-to-board/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> He has advocated for breakthroughs in these "clean" energies rather than cutting back on energy consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hay |first=Timothy |date=30 July 2009 |title=Vinod Khosla On Why Clean Technology Is Misunderstood |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-VCDB-2636 |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Wall Street Journal |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-VCDB-2636 |url-status=live }}</ref> He has referred to these early investments as “Cleantech 1.0” which includes investments in [[LanzaTech]], [[Gevo]], [[QuantumScape]], [[Sakti3]], Seeo, Fortera, Mainspring Energy and others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Rachyl |title=Vinod Khosla on climate tech investing: Think bigger, think riskier |url=https://fortune.com/2023/09/28/vinod-khosla-venture-capital-investors-must-take-more-risks-climate-tech/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> The firm incubated carbon recycling and aviation fuel company [[LanzaTech]] and [[QuantumScape]], a solid state battery company worth $16b on its offering and positioned as the best solid state battery company for EV's. According to ''[[Business Insider]]'', Khosla Ventures’ investment in QuantumScape returned more than $1 billion after approximately ten years, reflecting the extended timelines associated with several of the firm’s science-driven investments.<ref name=businessinsider>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Benji |title=Billionaire investor Vinod Khosla shares the 4 most promising sectors he's betting on in the booming climate-tech industry |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/vinod-khosla-interview-strategy-for-investing-in-climate-tech-2020-12 |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212516/https://www.businessinsider.com/vinod-khosla-interview-strategy-for-investing-in-climate-tech-2020-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the same period, Khosla Ventures was also investing in non-climate sectors, including enterprise infrastructure, developer tools, consumer internet, fintech, healthcare, and artificial intelligence.<ref name="businessinsider" /><ref name=":6" /> Khosla believes carbon sequestration is an area that needs significant advancements and is the most feasible.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Benji |title=Elon Musk is giving $100 million to the best tech that sucks up carbon emissions. These 4 startups are leading the way. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/carbon-capture-startups-to-watch-elon-musk-prize-2021-1 |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://www.businessinsider.com/carbon-capture-startups-to-watch-elon-musk-prize-2021-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Primack |first=Dan |title=Vinod Khosla hits back at 60 Minutes for cleantech 'errors' |url=https://fortune.com/2014/01/14/vinod-khosla-hits-back-at-60-minutes-for-cleantech-errors/ |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=Fortune |language=en |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212522/https://fortune.com/2014/01/14/vinod-khosla-hits-back-at-60-minutes-for-cleantech-errors/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Christine |title=Khosla Ventures debuts first opportunity fund |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/01/06/khosla-ventures-debuts-first-opportunity-fund/ |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=TechCrunch |date=6 January 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208220449/https://techcrunch.com/2022/01/06/khosla-ventures-debuts-first-opportunity-fund/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Khosla believes that a dozen dramatic technologies to solve climate change and it is inaccurate to consider [[cleantech]] investing as a bust which he states in his 2020 blog post “A few Critical Climate Technology Breakthroughs Multiplied by “Instigators” is desperately needed”. Recent investments in alternative energy and climate technology include fusion company Commonwealth Fusion, renewable nitrogen fertilizer company Nitricity, public transportation company Glydways, green hydrogen company Verdagy, and direct air capture company Spiritus.<ref>{{cite web |date=2025 |title=Khosla Ventures Portfolio Companies - 156 Investments |url=https://www.vcbacked.co/directory/investors/khosla-ventures |access-date=November 24, 2025 |website=VCBacked}}</ref><ref name=businessinsider/>

[[File:TechCrunch SF 2013 SJP2484 (9723847193).jpg|thumb|TechCrunch SF 2013]]

Beginning in 2010, Khosla Ventures began investing in food and was the first investor in companies like [[Instacart]] and [[DoorDash]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cheng |first=Candy |title=These are the 10 most respected people that built Silicon Valley's foundation |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/the-10-most-revered-venture-capitalists-according-to-industry-experts-2021-7 |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> Fintech was also an area of focus with early investments in Square, Stripe and Affirm, which all resulted in large returns for Khosla Ventures.<ref name="tcvk">{{Cite web |last=Lacy, Sarah |date=3 July 2009 |title=Vinod Khosla, Risk Junkie |url=https://techcrunch.com/2009/06/03/vinod-khosla-risk-junkie/ |publisher=TechCrunch |access-date=22 August 2022 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822225518/https://techcrunch.com/2009/06/03/vinod-khosla-risk-junkie/ |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, Khosla had hired [[Condoleezza Rice]]'s advisory firm to work with portfolio companies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/12/13/khosla-ventures-retains-condoleezza-rice-robert-gates-as-advisors-to-help-portfolio-companies-navigate-international-issues/|title=Khosla Ventures Retains Condoleezza Rice, Robert Gates As Advisors To Help Portfolio Companies Navigate International Issues|first=Leena|last=Rao|date=13 December 2012|access-date=22 August 2022|archive-date=22 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822225353/https://techcrunch.com/2012/12/13/khosla-ventures-retains-condoleezza-rice-robert-gates-as-advisors-to-help-portfolio-companies-navigate-international-issues/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2012, Khosla wrote an article titled "Do We Need Doctors Or Algorithms?" arguing the increasing importance of artificial intelligence in medicine claiming "bionic assistance" will eventually replace most doctors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marshall |first=Matt |date=3 September 2012 |title=Vinod Khosla says technology will replace 80 percent of doctors — sparks indignation |url=https://venturebeat.com/business/vinod-khosla-says-technology-will-replace-80-percent-of-doctors-sparks-indignation/ |access-date=6 December 2023 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008135420/https://venturebeat.com/business/vinod-khosla-says-technology-will-replace-80-percent-of-doctors-sparks-indignation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2012, he also wrote “Do we need teachers?" which was also on the future of AI. He started investing in medicine and robotics, such as companies that use artificial intelligence in medical treatments at that time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Etherington |first=Darrell |date=12 June 2019 |title=Why Vinod Khosla thinks radiologists still practicing in 10 years will be 'causing deaths' |url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/12/why-vinod-khosla-thinks-radiologists-still-practicing-in-10-years-will-be-causing-deaths/ |access-date=6 December 2023 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004213408/https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/12/why-vinod-khosla-thinks-radiologists-still-practicing-in-10-years-will-be-causing-deaths/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, Khosla stated the plan for the rest of his life was to "reinvent societal infrastructure" where he examined which parts of the non-governmental GDP could be reinvented with technology and said he was going to spend the next 20 years working on these innovations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bowles |first1=Nellie |title=Every Generation Gets the Beach Villain It Deserves |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/30/technology/vinod-khosla-beach.html |website=The New York Times |date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Khosla has stated "we need 1,000% change if billions of people in China and India are to enjoy a Western, energy-rich lifestyle." He invests in "black swan" technologies that have a high chance of failure but if successful, would have environmental and societal benefits.<ref name=economist/> In 2019, Khosla presented "Amazing: What KV Founders are Doing," which described 100 portfolio companies reinventing areas such as health, infrastructure, robotics, transportation, augmented reality and artificial intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khoslaventures.com/amazing-what-kv-founders-are-doing/|title=Amazing: What KV Founders are Doing|website=Khosla Ventures|access-date=3 March 2024|archive-date=3 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303112206/https://www.khoslaventures.com/amazing-what-kv-founders-are-doing/|url-status=live|date=May 20, 2019}}</ref> Khosla has stated that he has been unable to identify examples of major technological innovation originating from individuals who were long-established experts within a single field, arguing instead that transformative breakthroughs often come from founders applying cross-disciplinary thinking. He has cited companies such as [[Uber]], [[Airbnb]], [[SpaceX]], [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], and [[OpenAI]] as examples of startups that reshaped established industries.

Khosla Ventures was the first venture capital investor in [[OpenAI]] during a period when it was "almost impossible to diligence" due to the company's corporate structure. The firm invested $50 million in OpenAI's for-profit subsidiary in 2019. It had a 5 percent stake in OpenAI at that time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mathews|first=Jessica|url=https://fortune.com/2023/12/04/khosla-ventures-openai-sam-altman/|title=Vinod Khosla details how much his venture firm had on the line before Sam Altman's reinstatement at OpenAI|website=Fortune.com|date=4 December 2023|access-date=5 August 2024|archive-date=5 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805021437/https://fortune.com/2023/12/04/khosla-ventures-openai-sam-altman/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Khosla offered personal loans to startups after the [[collapse of Silicon Valley Bank]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sam Altman, Vinod Khosla say they'll personally loan cash to startups in the wake of SVB collapse |website=TechCrunch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/03/12/sam-altman-vinod-khosla-say-theyll-personally-loan-cash-to-startups-in-the-wake-of-svb-collapse/ |access-date=4 August 2024 }}</ref>

In response to the [[removal of Sam Altman from OpenAI]], Khosla suggested, on behalf of himself and Khosla Ventures, that Altman be reinstated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vinod Khosla details how much his venture firm had on the line before Sam Altman's reinstatement at OpenAI |website=Fortune |url=https://fortune.com/2023/12/04/khosla-ventures-openai-sam-altman/ |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805015244/https://fortune.com/2023/12/04/khosla-ventures-openai-sam-altman/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vinod Khosla expresses support for Sam Altman's potential return to OpenAI |website=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/vinod-khosla-expresses-support-for-sam-altmans-potential-return-to-openai-18358731.htm |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805021437/https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/vinod-khosla-expresses-support-for-sam-altmans-potential-return-to-openai-18358731.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> He later criticized [[Elon Musk]] for his breach of contract lawsuit against OpenAI and Altman, referring to it as "sour grapes" for failing to stay committed to the company.<ref>{{cite news |title=Silicon Valley Moguls Are Weighing in on Elon Musk's OpenAI Battle |website=Business Insider |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/silicon-valley-moguls-weighing-in-elon-musk-openai-battle-2024-3 |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805022026/https://www.businessinsider.com/silicon-valley-moguls-weighing-in-elon-musk-openai-battle-2024-3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vinod Khosla slams Elon Musk for suing OpenAI: 'sour grapes' |website=San Francisco Business Times |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/inno/stories/news/2024/03/05/vinod-khosla-slams-elon-musk-openai-lawsuit.html |access-date=4 August 2024 }}</ref>

Khosla Ventures manages approximately $15 billion of investor capital as well as investments funded by Khosla himself.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/khosla-ventures-raises-14-billion-to-back-technology-startups-2021-10|title=Khosla Ventures has raised a new $1.4 billion fund to back startup winners like DoorDash, Stripe, and Square|first=Candy|last=Cheng|website=Business Insider|access-date=27 February 2022|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20211026222358/https://www.businessinsider.com/khosla-ventures-raises-14-billion-to-back-technology-startups-2021-10|url-status=live}}</ref> The firm was ranked #1 in the Founders Choice list of over 200 venture capital firms in 2023.<ref name="Khosla"/>

In 2026, Khosla was ranked number 10 in the ''Forbes'' 250 list of America’s Greatest Innovators.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 11, 2026 |editor-last=Knapp |editor-first=Alex |editor2-last=Noer |editor2-first=Michael |title=Forbes 250 America’s Greatest Innovators |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2026/02/11/forbes-250-americas-greatest-innovators/ |access-date=March 23, 2026 |website=Forbes}}</ref>

== Views ==
=== Capitalism ===
Khosla believes in using capitalism as a solution for social change due to its ability to scale, which is something he does not believe is possible with non-profit organizations. He has insisted economical, large-scale solutions will succeed when facing global warming as well. Khosla has stated that machine learning technology will replace many jobs and increase income disparities however will also create enough GDP to provide basic income to everyone.<ref name=economist/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Baker |first1=David R. |title=Faces of Business 2007: Vinod Khosla, venture capitalist |url=https://www.sfgate.com/tech/article/Faces-of-Business-2007-Vinod-Khosla-venture-3299263.php |website=SFGATE |date=31 December 2007 |access-date=7 June 2022 |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607065407/https://www.sfgate.com/tech/article/Faces-of-Business-2007-Vinod-Khosla-venture-3299263.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Politics ===
Khosla has donated to a mix of Democrats and Republicans and supports politicians based on their climate policies. He is a Democrat and has donated to organizations that support left-leaning politics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stangel |first=Luke |date=2 July 2013 |title=How Silicon Valley's top 10 billionaires voted with their political cash (slideshow) |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2013/07/02/how-silicon-valleys-10-biggest.html |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=www.bizjournals.com |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229002520/https://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2013/07/02/how-silicon-valleys-10-biggest.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Khosla hosted [[Barack Obama]] for a fundraising dinner in 2013,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mufson |first=Steven |date=28 November 2014 |title=Billionaire Vinod Khosla's big dreams for biofuels fail to catch fire |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/billionaire-vinod-khoslas-big-dreams-for-biofuels-fail-to-catch-fire/2014/11/27/04899d12-69d7-11e4-9fb4-a622dae742a2_story.html |access-date=8 February 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120113243/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/billionaire-vinod-khoslas-big-dreams-for-biofuels-fail-to-catch-fire/2014/11/27/04899d12-69d7-11e4-9fb4-a622dae742a2_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Joe Biden]] in 2024 at his home in [[Portola Valley]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raab |first1=Eleanor |title=President Biden is met with protesters in Portola Valley, Palo Alto ahead of fundraisers |url=https://www.almanacnews.com/portola-valley/2024/05/10/president-biden-is-met-with-protesters-in-portola-valley-ahead-of-fundraiser/ |access-date=28 May 2024 |date=10 May 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528201700/https://www.almanacnews.com/portola-valley/2024/05/10/president-biden-is-met-with-protesters-in-portola-valley-ahead-of-fundraiser/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Khosla endorsed Democratic candidate [[Hillary Clinton]] in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.<ref>{{cite news | last = Mandelbaum | first = R. | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/robbmandelbaum/2016/09/23/more-business-leaders-sign-on-with-clinton/#4d1ff10750b0n | title = More Business Leaders Sign On With Clinton | work = Forbes | date = 23 September 2016 | archive-date = 10 October 2016 | access-date = 27 January 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161010204503/http://www.forbes.com/sites/robbmandelbaum/2016/09/23/more-business-leaders-sign-on-with-clinton/#4d1ff10750b0n | url-status = live }}</ref>

Khosla was a major proponent of the "Yes on 87" campaign to pass [[California Proposition 87 (2006)|California's Proposition 87]], The Clean Energy Initiative, which failed to pass in November 2006.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

With the [[withdrawal of Joe Biden from the 2024 United States presidential election]], Khosla called for the Democratic Party to hold an open convention for its nominee. He stated that it was "hard for me to support someone with no values, lies, cheats, rapes, demeans women, hates immigrants like me" in social media exchanges after Musk referenced supporting Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news |title=Elon Musk and Vinod Khosla spar about Trump after Biden drops out |website=Fortune |url=https://fortune.com/2024/07/22/elon-musk-spars-with-venture-capitalist-vinod-khosla-over-trump-hates-immigrants-like-me/ |access-date=4 August 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='No values': Bay Area billionaire blasts Trump in exchange with Elon Musk |website=SFGate |url=https://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/bay-area-mogul-blasts-trump-in-exchange-with-musk-19589468.php |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=3 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803215936/https://www.sfgate.com//politics/article/bay-area-mogul-blasts-trump-in-exchange-with-musk-19589468.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Khosla pledged his support for [[Kamala Harris]] in July 2024 and joined "VCs for Kamala", a group of more than 100 tech investors and entrepreneurs signatories for Harris.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kamala Harris gets support of more than 100 VCs and tech execs in online pledge |website=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/07/31/more-than-100-techies-sign-vcs-for-kamala-pledge-backing-vp-harris.html |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=3 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803182841/https://www.cnbc.com/2024/07/31/more-than-100-techies-sign-vcs-for-kamala-pledge-backing-vp-harris.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===China===
In May 2023, Khosla gave a presentation looking back from the year 2040<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lutz |date=July 1, 2025 |title=No on Proposition 87 |url=https://fortune.com/2025/07/01/silicon-valley-investor-vinod-khosla-ai-job-prediction-interview/ |journal=Fortune |access-date=July 1, 2025 |first=Ashley}}</ref> and examining how the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and [[COVID-19 pandemic]] influenced the future. He argued that the Ukraine invasion started an energy transition and COVID-19 lockdowns in China moved global supply chains out of the country, starting one of the most powerful 20-year innovation cycles. Khosla has also stated that America is in a techno-economic war with China which it would lose upon slowing down the pace of AI development, while indicating that [[artificial general intelligence]] should be closed-source for national security.<ref>{{cite web|last=Prakash|first=Prarthana|url=https://fortune.com/2023/05/05/top-venture-capitalist-vinod-khosla-china-take-risks-a-i-race/|title=A top venture capitalist says China's ability to take risks and make more mistakes with A.I. tech could give it an edge against the U.S.|website=Fortune.com|date=5 May 2023|access-date=16 September 2024|archive-date=16 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916063314/https://fortune.com/2023/05/05/top-venture-capitalist-vinod-khosla-china-take-risks-a-i-race/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Gutiérrez McDermid|first=Riley|url=https://www.thestreet.com/technology/recession-vinod-khosla|title=U.S. Faces 20-Year Techno War With China|website=TheStreet.com|date=14 June 2022|access-date=16 September 2024|archive-date=15 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615172502/https://www.thestreet.com/technology/recession-vinod-khosla|url-status=live}}</ref> Khosla has stated the US will continue in this techno-economic war with China for the next 20 years.

Khosla has stated the pursuit of AGI should be closed-source due to his concern over national security in relation to China and compares the topic to the Manhattan Project. He debated the topic with Venture Capitalist Marc Andreessen over X in March 2024.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{Cite journal |date=September 5, 2024 |title=From crisis to care: How 10BedICU turned health emergency into lifesaving innovation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/from-crisis-to-care-how-10bedicu-turned-health-emergency-into-a-lifesaving-innovation/articleshow/113091867.cms |journal=Times of India |access-date=September 5, 2024}}</ref> Journalist Malik Om responded to Khosla's tweets stating “Social Media is the best thing that has happened for him because nothing (and no reporter for sure) can capture his true essence than what he shares on Twitter.”

In April 2024, Khosla wrote an op-ed in the ''[[Financial Times]]'' announcing his support of a bill that would force divestiture of [[TikTok]] from its parent company, [[ByteDance]]. Khosla later wrote an open letter to the United States Senate urging them to pass the bill calling the social media platform a "weapon of war".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kwan|first1=Wei|last2=Tan|first2=Kevin|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/tiktok-china-ai-powered-subversion-weapon-openai-investor-vinod-khosla-2024-4|title=An OpenAI investor says TikTok is China's 'programmable fentanyl,' a CCP-controlled tool used to manipulate US citizens|website=BusinessInsider.com|date=10 April 2024|access-date=16 September 2024|archive-date=16 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916194855/https://www.businessinsider.com/tiktok-china-ai-powered-subversion-weapon-openai-investor-vinod-khosla-2024-4|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Artificial intelligence===
In 2014, Khosla wrote about artificial intelligence and also stated that the value of "humanness" in occupational roles would become more valuable after the expansion of artificial intelligence, and have a "hugely deflationary" effect on the economy over the following 25 years.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=Albergotti|first=Reed|url=https://www.semafor.com/article/03/29/2023/vinod-khosla-on-how-ai-will-free-humanity-from-the-need-to-work|title=Vinod Khosla on how AI will 'free humanity from the need to work'|website=Semafor.com|date=29 March 2023|access-date=17 September 2024|archive-date=17 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917065751/https://www.semafor.com/article/03/29/2023/vinod-khosla-on-how-ai-will-free-humanity-from-the-need-to-work|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|last1=Kwan|first1=Wei|last2=Tan|first2=Kevin|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/openai-investor-vinod-khosla-ai-deflate-economy-25-years-2023-12|title=OpenAI investor Vinod Khosla predicts AI will deflate the economy over the next 25 years|website=BusinessInsider.com|date=25 December 2023|access-date=17 September 2024|archive-date=17 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917165307/https://www.businessinsider.com/openai-investor-vinod-khosla-ai-deflate-economy-25-years-2023-12|url-status=live}}</ref>

While concerns have been raised that artificial intelligence will displace jobs, Khosla argued it will enable humans to do what they are interested in and free humanity from the need to work. He has stated that 80 percent of all jobs will be eliminated with artificial intelligence having broader information and expertise in many industries and its growth will allow for universal basic income.<ref name="nyt2000" /><ref name=":3">{{cite web|last1=Seegobin|first1=Vidal|last2=Burns|first2=Abby|url=https://www.advisory.com/topics/disruptors/2024/01/ai-revolution-in-medicine|title=Silicon Valley legend and early investor in OpenAI — on the coming AI revolution in medicine|website=Advisory.com|date=1 January 2024}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/ai-utopia-or-dystopia-venture-capitalist-vinod-khosla-bd6c037c|title=Will AI Bring Utopia or Dystopia? A Venture Capitalist Picks Utopia|website=WSJ.com|date=21 October 2023|access-date=17 September 2024|archive-date=17 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917162755/https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/ai-utopia-or-dystopia-venture-capitalist-vinod-khosla-bd6c037c|url-status=live}}</ref>

In April 2024, Khosla gave a [[TED (conference)|TED]] talk on his predictions for the future, several of which involved technology and artificial intelligence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Karlgaard|first=Rich|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richkarlgaard/2023/12/07/vinod-khosla-on-ais-fast-rise-robotics-entrepreneurs-and-innovation/?sh=636ff9c96e8c|title=Vinod Khosla On AI's Fast Rise, Robotics, Entrepreneurs And Innovation|website=Forbes.com|date=7 December 2023|access-date=15 September 2024|archive-date=15 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240915172737/https://www.forbes.com/sites/richkarlgaard/2023/12/07/vinod-khosla-on-ais-fast-rise-robotics-entrepreneurs-and-innovation/?sh=636ff9c96e8c|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2024, Khosla wrote "AI: Dystopia or Utopia?" on it being a transformative force capable of creating a world of abundance with both utopian and dystopian possibilities and a positive outcome achievable through thoughtful design.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-10-03/openai-backer-khosla-says-reasonable-to-invest-trillions-in-ai|title=OpenAI Backer Khosla Says It's Reasonable to Invest Trillions in AI|author=Shirin Ghaffary|publisher=Bloomberg|date=3 October 2024}}</ref>

== Philanthropy and affiliations ==
Khosla was honorary chair of the [[DonorsChoose]] San Francisco Bay Area advisory board.{{citation needed|date=April 2010}} In 2000, Khosla was a recipient of the Golden Plate Award of the [[Academy of Achievement|American Academy of Achievement]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|website=achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#business|access-date=24 September 2020|archive-date=15 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215023909/https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#business|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2006, Khosla's wife [[Neeru Khosla|Neeru]] co-founded the [[CK-12 Foundation]], which aims to develop [[open textbook|open-source textbooks]] and lower the cost of education in the US and the rest of the world. His wife, Neeru Khosla, founded and exclusively supports CK12.org, an organization that supports tens of millions of students and teachers per year with free educational content and services and is now on a mission to provide free AI tutors to every child on the planet. As of August 2020, CK12 had over 130 million students and teachers using their resources with registrations increasing by 460% as a result of COVID-19.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/> Khosla and his wife have donated $500,000 to the [[Wikimedia Foundation]].<ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Wikimedia-pegs-future-on-education-not-profit-3271984.php
| title=Wikimedia pegs future on education, not profit
| last=Cadelago
| first=Chris
| date=24 August 2008
| work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]
| access-date=27 July 2014}}</ref>

In 2007, Khosla was an award recipient in the Northern California region for the [[EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award|EY Entrepreneur of the Year]] award.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://finance.yahoo.com/news/ernst-young-entrepreneur-of-iw-1429809172.html|title=Khosla an Award Recipient in the Northern California region for the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award}}</ref> Khosla was a member of the board of trustees of the Blum Center for Developing Economies at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://blumcenter.berkeley.edu/about/people/board/
| title=Trustees of the Blum Center for Developing Economies
| website=Blumcenter.berkeley.edu
| date=1 February 2010
| access-date=27 July 2014
| archive-date=11 August 2014
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811011203/http://blumcenter.berkeley.edu/about/people/board/
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> The center is focused on finding solutions to address the crisis of extreme poverty and disease in the developing world.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://blumcenter.berkeley.edu/about/about-the-center/
|title = Mission
|website = Blumcenter.berkeley.edu
|access-date = 27 July 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140812055814/http://blumcenter.berkeley.edu/about/about-the-center/
|archive-date = 12 August 2014
|url-status = dead}}</ref>

He is also one of the founders of [[TiE]], The Indus Entrepreneurs, and has guest-edited a special issue of ''[[The Economic Times]]'', a business newspaper in India.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=London |first=Chrisitne Whitehouse |date=30 October 2000 |title=The TiE That Binds |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2056255,00.html |access-date=8 February 2022 |magazine=Time |language=en-US |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212523/http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2056255,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, he was awarded [[Champions of the Earth]] by the [[UNEP]] for in the Entrepreneurial Vision category for India. The same year, he was awarded the [[Great Immigrants Award]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2009 Great Immigrants |url=https://www.carnegie.org/awards/great-immigrants/2009-great-immigrants/ |website=Carnegie.org}}</ref> Khosla was an early signatory to the Giving Pledge and sits on the Breakthrough Energy Ventures board.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duxbury |first=Sarah |date=28 April 2011 |title=Vinod Khosla signs billionaire giving pledge |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/news/2011/04/28/vinod-khosla-billionaire-giving-pledge.html |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=www.bizjournals.com}}</ref>

He is involved with organizations that provide microfinancing to small businesses in third-world countries and worked closely with [[Muhammad Yunus]] funding multiple organizations for both profit and non-profit. In 2023, Khosla signed a letter along with over 170 global figures to stop the "persecution" of Yunus.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hossain |first1=Akbar |last2=Ng |first2=Kelly |date=2023-09-01 |title=Muhammad Yunus: Leaders urge Bangladesh to end attacks on Nobel laureate |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-66667433 |access-date=2024-08-11 |language=en-GB |archive-date=9 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240809180750/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-66667433 |url-status=live }}[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-66667433 Muhammad Yunus: Leaders urge Bangladesh to end attacks on Nobel laureate]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bajaj |first=Vikas |date=5 October 2010 |title=Sun Co-Founder Uses Capitalism to Help Poor |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/06/business/global/06khosla.html |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=The New York Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Khosla is on the board of trustees at Carnegie Mellon University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Innovators Forum: Vinod Khosla - Carnegie Mellon University |url=https://www.cmu.edu/homepage/environment/2013/spring/innovators-forum-vinod-khosla.shtml |access-date=8 February 2022 |website=www.cmu.edu |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208212524/https://www.cmu.edu/homepage/environment/2013/spring/innovators-forum-vinod-khosla.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

In April 2021, Khosla made an offer to fund oxygen imports for hospitals in India amid the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Silicon Valley entrepreneur Vinod Khosla offers to fund oxygen imports|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-bytes/silicon-valley-veteran-entrepreneur-investor-vinod-khosla-offers-to-fund-indian-hospitals/articleshow/82240739.cms|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=25 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425075029/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-bytes/silicon-valley-veteran-entrepreneur-investor-vinod-khosla-offers-to-fund-indian-hospitals/articleshow/82240739.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2021|title=Silicon Valley billionaire investor Vinod Khosla offers to fund Indian hospitals for bulk oxygen import|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/silicon-valley-billionaire-investor-vinod-khosla-offers-to-fund-indian-hospitals-for-bulk-oxygen-import/2239796/|access-date=25 April 2021|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|archive-date=25 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425193616/https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/silicon-valley-billionaire-investor-vinod-khosla-offers-to-fund-indian-hospitals-for-bulk-oxygen-import/2239796/|url-status=live}}</ref> He has since made many significant grants to several Covid related relief work projects in India including 10BedICU which has funded and created over 200 10BedICU across nine states.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/>

== Martins Beach dispute ==
Since 2010, Khosla has been engaged in a legal dispute regarding public access to [[Martins Beach]], several miles south of [[Half Moon Bay, California]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name="nyt2000" /> Martins Beach is privately owned; its prior owners historically permitted public access upon payment of a fee. Khosla purchased the property adjacent to the beach and closed the road and business of paid for access and posted “No Trespassing” signs, which became the subject of subsequent litigation.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

In 2017, the California Court of Appeal ruled that Khosla must obtain a Coastal Development Permit before closing the gate on Martins Beach Road, but the ruling did not establish a public right of access.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2017 |title=Court ruling |url=http://www.courts.ca.gov/opinions/documents/A144268.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811183426/http://www.courts.ca.gov/opinions/documents/A144268.PDF |archive-date=11 August 2017 |access-date=11 August 2017 |website=Courts.ca.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Levin |first=Sam |date=10 August 2017 |title=Silicon Valley billionaire loses bid to prevent access to public beach |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/10/martins-beach-california-public-vinod-khosla |access-date=11 August 2017 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Court to billionaire: Open the gate to Martins Beach |work=San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/State-appeals-court-tells-billionaire-he-must-11749183.php |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811012552/http://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/State-appeals-court-tells-billionaire-he-must-11749183.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Xia |first=Rosanna |date=6 March 2018 |title=With Supreme Court challenge, tech billionaire could dismantle beach access rights – and a landmark coastal law |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-martins-beach-supreme-court-20180306-story.html |access-date=6 March 2018 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |archive-date=6 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306151301/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-martins-beach-supreme-court-20180306-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review that decision.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Supreme Court Won't Hear Case Over Martins Beach Access |url=https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2018/10/01/martins-beach-supreme-court-not-hearing-vinod-khosla-appeal/ |access-date=1 October 2018 |work=CBS News}}</ref> In November 2019, the California Court of Appeal held that prior owners’ practice of charging a fee meant the public's use was by permission, not by right. In 2020, the California State Lands Commission and the California Coastal Commission jointly filed a lawsuit seeking to compel public access to Martins Beach under the California Coastal Act and related statutes. That case remains pending.<ref name="Kaur">{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |title=California is suing a Silicon Valley billionaire for blocking public access to a beach |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/07/us/california-lawsuit-vinod-khosla-beach-trnd/index.html |date=7 January 2020 |access-date=8 January 2020 |website=[[CNN]] |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108022052/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/07/us/california-lawsuit-vinod-khosla-beach-trnd/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Works==
* [https://techcrunch.com/2012/01/10/doctors-or-algorithms "Do We Need Doctors or Algorithms." January 10, 2012.]
* [https://techcrunch.com/2012/01/15/teachers-or-algorithms "Will We Need Teachers or Algorithms." January 15, 2012.]
* [https://www.khoslaventures.com/posts/20-percent-doctor-included-speculations-and-musings-of-a-technology-optimist "20 Percent Doctor Included & Dr. Algorithm." September 30, 2016.]
* [https://medium.com/@vkhosla/reinventing-societal-infrastructure-with-technology-f71e0d4f2355 "Reinventing Societal Infrastructure with Technology." April 22, 2018.]
* [https://www.khoslaventures.com/posts/a-few-critical-climate-technology-breakthroughs-multiplied-by-instigators-is-desperately-needed "A few Critical Climate Technology Breakthroughs Multiplied by 'Instigators' is Desperately Needed." July 15, 2020.]
* [https://www.khoslaventures.com/posts/ai-dystopia-or-utopia "AI: Utopia or Dystopia?" September 20, 2024.]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* {{cite web
| url=http://www.fastcompany.com/898665/king-green-investing
| title=The King of Green Investing
| first=Richard
| last=Shaffer
| work=Fast Company
| date=1 July 2008
| publisher=[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]]}}
* {{YouTube|id=I46Mwj82pvI|title=Biofuels: Think Outside The Barrel}} (2006-03-29)

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before = First}}
{{s-ttl|title = CEO of [[Sun Microsystems|Sun Microsystems]]
|years = 1982–1984}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Scott McNealy]]}}
{{s-bef|before = First}}
{{s-ttl|title = Chairman of [[Sun Microsystems|Sun Microsystems]]
|years = 1982–1984}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Scott McNealy]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Sun Microsystems}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khosla, Vinod}}
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[[Category:1955 births]]
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[[Category:Carnegie Mellon University trustees]]
[[Category:Chief executives in technology]]
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[[Category:Intel people]]
[[Category:Kleiner Perkins people]]
[[Category:Lumen Technologies]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States]]
[[Category:Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni]]
[[Category:Sun Microsystems people]]

Dr. Pasupathy

2026-05-06T19:37:37Z

Yaarzu: starting new info

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dr. Pasupathy
| image = Dr. Pasupathy.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Shaji Kailas]]
| producer = V. C. George
| writer = [[Renji Panicker]]
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]]
*[[Rizabawa]]
*[[Parvathy Jayaram|Parvathy]]
*[[Nedumudi Venu]]
*[[Jagathy Sreekumar]]
*[[Kuthiravattom Pappu]]
*[[Jagadish Kumar|Jagadish]]
*[[KPAC Lalitha]]
*[[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]]
}}
| music = [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson Master]]
| narrator = [[M. G. Soman]]
| cinematography = [[Santosh Sivan]]
| editing =
| studio = Saga Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1990|5|4|df=y|ref1=<ref>{{Cite web |title=ഡോക്ടര്‍ പശുപതി (1990) |url=https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?1611 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416014329/https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?1611 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=malayalasangeetham.info |language=ml}}</ref>}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
}}
'''''Dr. Pasupathy''''' is a 1990 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[comedy drama]] film directed by [[Shaji Kailas]], written by [[Renji Panicker]]. The film stars [[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] in the [[title role]] along with, [[Rizabawa]], [[Parvathy Jayaram|Parvathy]], [[Nedumudi Venu]], [[Jagathy Sreekumar]], [[Kuthiravattom Pappu]], [[Jagadish Kumar|Jagadish]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], [[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]] in supporting roles. The film follows Bhairavan, a con artist who is hired by the Panchayat leader of a small village to pose as a veterinary doctor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ഡോക്ടർ പശുപതി |url=https://m3db.com/film/dr-pasupathi-malayalam-movie |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=M3DB.COM |language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 September 2021 |title=Popular villain of the 90s, Malayalam actor Riza Bava passes away |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2021/sep/13/popular-villain-of-the-90s-malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-2358154.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416203337/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2021/sep/13/popular-villain-of-the-90s-malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-2358154.html |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

This film was produced and distributed by V. C. George under the banner of Saga Films, in his second production venture after the 1989 cult classic ''[[Dasharatham]].'' The film features original songs composed by [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]]. The cinematography was done by Watson D'Cruz. [[M. G. Soman]] appeared in a [[Cameo appearance|cameo]] role as the narrator of the film. The film marked the onscreen debut of actor [[Rizabawa]].

The film was released on 4 May 1990 and was a box office success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mansoor |date=13 September 2021 |title=Popular Malayalam actor Rizabawa passes away |url=https://www.siasat.com/popular-malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-2191734/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422084652/https://www.siasat.com/popular-malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-2191734/ |archive-date=22 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The Siasat Daily}}</ref> The film is noted for being directed by Kailas, who later became known for his political thrillers.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Shaji returns to comedy with Madirashi |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/shaji-returns-to-comedy-with-madirashi/articleshow/15338733.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426223819/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/shaji-returns-to-comedy-with-madirashi/articleshow/15338733.cms |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 July 2017 |title=Out of comfort zone: 7 films you won't believe were made by these famous Malayalam directors |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/out-comfort-zone-7-films-you-wont-believe-were-made-these-famous-malayalam-directors-65965 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228213533/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/out-comfort-zone-7-films-you-wont-believe-were-made-these-famous-malayalam-directors-65965 |archive-date=28 February 2021 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=The News Minute}}</ref> The film is written by Renji Panicker, who went on to collaborate with Kailas in many films.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mammootty and Suresh Gopi team up |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-mammootty-and-suresh-gopi-team-up-again/20110711.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126144616/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-mammootty-and-suresh-gopi-team-up-again/20110711.htm |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=Rediff}}</ref> The character UDC Kumari played by Kalpana is considered one of the best comedy characters in Malayalam cinema and eventually developed a [[cult]] following several years after the release of the film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 January 2016 |title=A tribute to actress Kalpana |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Hard-act-to-follow/article14024585.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427212251/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Hard-act-to-follow/article14024585.ece |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=George |first=Vijay |date=14 July 2011 |title=Two of a kind |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/two-of-a-kind/article2226416.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427212225/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/two-of-a-kind/article2226416.ece |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=The Hindu}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The film introduces us to a small village and its funny characters. The narrator informs of its developments and day-to-day activities. Soon, it slowly focus to the problems discussed in the Panchayat office (fights do occur between two factions in a comical way), in which the main problem is the absence of a [[Veterinary medicine|veterinary doctor]]. The leaders of the opposition faction, Nanappan and Uthpalakshan, gives a final ultimatum to the Panchayat president Unnikannan Nair to resign his post if he can't find a vet within days.

Unnikannan Nair's daughter Ammukutty falls love with Pappen. However Unnikannan Nair disapproves due to the rivalry of Pappen's friends for The Panchayat President – Nanappan, Uthpalakshan and 'Society' Balan. Also the animosity between Pappan's Grandfather and Kunjulakshmi, Unnikannan Nair's mother adds fun to the tale. The romantic angle includes 'Society' Balan's romance with U. D. C. Kumari who is also followed by Balan's father and Unnikannan Nair's associate Parameswara Kurup.

While Parameswara Kurup travels to find a vet he encounters an old friend and thief, Bhairavan and encourages him to act. Thus Bhairavan is introduced in the village in his new avatar, Dr. Pasupathy. Unnikannan Nair soon takes a liking to him and arranges Ammukutty's marriage. Heartbroken, Pappen soon leaves the village for work and finds solace and shelter from a friend who is Police Circle Inspector.

Soon when Dr. Pasupathy's 'uncle', his associate in fact Velayudhan Kutty, enters the village to see Bhairavan and joins his scam, it's up to Pappen's friends to call back Pappen to save Ammukutty.

== Cast ==
{{Colbegin}}
*[[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] as Bhairavan<ref name="toi">{{Cite web |last=Rajan |first=Silpa |date=18 February 2022 |title=#FilmyFriday! Dr. Pasupathy: The story of a strange doctor starring Innocent |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/filmyfriday-dr-pasupathy-the-story-of-a-strange-doctor-starring-innocent/articleshow/89656672.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413101509/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/filmyfriday-dr-pasupathy-the-story-of-a-strange-doctor-starring-innocent/articleshow/89656672.cms |archive-date=13 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> /Doctor Pashupati
*[[Rizabawa]] as Pappan<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 September 2021 |title=Malayalam actor Rizabawa passes away at 55 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-at-55/article36432763.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310175843/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-actor-rizabawa-passes-away-at-55/article36432763.ece |archive-date=10 March 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The Hindu}}</ref>
*[[Parvathy Jayaram|Parvathy]] as Ammukkutty<ref name="toi" />
*[[Nedumudi Venu]] as Unnikannan Nair<ref name="toi" />
*[[Paravoor Bharathan]] as Kurup<ref name="toi" />
*[[Jagathy Sreekumar]] as Nanappan
*[[Kuthiravattam Pappu]] as Ulpalakshan
*[[Jagadish]] as Society Balan<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kris |date=24 January 2022 |title=Six years without Kalpana: Why the Malayalam actor can never be replaced |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/six-years-without-kalpana-why-malayalam-actor-can-never-be-replaced-160193 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416010013/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/six-years-without-kalpana-why-malayalam-actor-can-never-be-replaced-160193 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The News Minute}}</ref>
*[[Thikkurisi Sukumaran Nair]]
*[[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]] as UDC Kumari<ref>{{Cite web |last=Menon |first=Mrinalini |date=25 January 2018 |title=From comedy to roles that make you tear up: A look at Kalpana's best films |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/comedy-roles-make-you-tear-look-kalpanas-best-films-75360 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416011016/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/comedy-roles-make-you-tear-look-kalpanas-best-films-75360 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The News Minute}}</ref>
*[[Meena (Malayalam actress)|Meena Joseph]] as Usha
*[[K.P.A.C. Lalitha]] as Unnikkannan Nair's wife
*[[Philomina]] as Unnikkannan Nair's mother/Muthassi
*[[Mammukoya]] as Velayudhan
*[[Vijayaraghavan]] as Police Officer
*[[NL Balakrishnan]] as Police Constable Govindan Nair
*[[Krishnankutty Nair]] as Police Constable Nanu Nair
*[[Zainuddin (actor)|Sainuddin]] as Tea Shop Owner
*[[Kunchan (actor)|Kunchan]]
{{Colend}}

== Themes and influences ==
This film's main character has failed to achieved masculinity as dictated by societal standards.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ahammad A. |first1=Arshad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1tUyEAAAQBAJ&q=aesthetic%20%27othering%27%20sets |title=Literature Theory and the History of Ideas |last2=Rajan |first2=Nada |date=2 June 2021 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |page=170 |isbn=9781527570412 |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428051528/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Literature_Theory_and_the_History_of_Ide/1tUyEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=aesthetic+%27othering%27+sets |archive-date=28 April 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The film features music by [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson Master]]. [[B. A. Chidambaranath|Rajamani]], who composed music for Kailas' ''[[The News (film)|News]]'' (1989), was present for the recording and re-rerecording for this film and ''Sunday 7 PM'' (1990).<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 February 2016 |title=Rajamani the Backbone of Catchy BGM |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2016/feb/16/rajamani-the-backbone-of-catchy-bgm-893062.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416014836/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2016/feb/16/Rajamani-the-Backbone-of-Catchy-BGM-893062.html |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

*"Kanakam Mannil" – M. G. Sreekumar, Sujatha Mohan

== Legacy ==
The film is well known for its comedic track involving Kalpana's character UDC Kumari.<ref>* {{Cite web |last=Krishnan |first=Aishwarya |date=25 January 2016 |title=Kalpana Ranjani dies at 51: Top 7 best performances by National award-winning Malayalam actress |url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/kalpana-ranjani-dies-at-51-7-best-performances-by-national-award-winning-malayalam-actress-889844/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426100251/https://www.india.com/entertainment/kalpana-ranjani-dies-at-51-7-best-performances-by-national-award-winning-malayalam-actress-889844/ |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=India}}
* {{Cite web |date=7 May 2020 |title=എല്ലാരേം പോലാണോ ബാലേട്ടൻ? കല്പനയുടെ യു.ഡി.സിയെ അവതരിപ്പിച്ച് റിമി ടോമി |url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/film/rimi-tomy-recreates-kalpanas-all-time-best-role-udc-in-an-instagram-video-mm-234937.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416202157/https://malayalam.news18.com/news/film/rimi-tomy-recreates-kalpanas-all-time-best-role-udc-in-an-instagram-video-mm-234937.html |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=News 18 |language=ml}}
* {{Cite web |date=26 January 2016 |title=One of our finest artistes: Jagadeesh |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/One-of-our-finest-artistes-Jagadeesh/article14020771.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416014318/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/One-of-our-finest-artistes-Jagadeesh/article14020771.ece |archive-date=16 April 2022 |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=The Hindu}}
* {{Cite web |title=കൽപനയുടെ പ്രധാന ഹാസ്യരംഗങ്ങൾ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/kalpana-famous-film-scenes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426222844/https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/kalpana-famous-film-scenes.html |archive-date=26 April 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=ManoramaOnline}}
* {{Cite web |last=R |first=Prashant V. |date=8 May 2020 |title=എല്ലാരേം പോലാണോ ബാലേട്ടന്‍? കല്പനയുടെ യുഡിസിയായി റിമി ടോമി! വൈറല്‍ വീഡിയോ |url=https://malayalam.filmibeat.com/television/rimi-tomy-imitates-kalpana-s-udc-in-tik-tok-video-061775.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610133322/https://malayalam.filmibeat.com/television/rimi-tomy-imitates-kalpana-s-udc-in-tik-tok-video-061775.html |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=27 April 2022 |website=Filmibeat}}</ref> [[Alphonse Puthren]] listed this film as one among his fifty favorite Malayalam films.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Alphonse Puthren lists his favourite Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, and English movies |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/alphonse-puthren-lists-his-favourite-malayalam-tamil-hindi-and-english-movies/articleshow/88531086.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101010746/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/alphonse-puthren-lists-his-favourite-malayalam-tamil-hindi-and-english-movies/articleshow/88531086.cms |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{Shaji Kailas}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Doctor Pasupathy}}
[[Category:1990 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:1990 films]]
[[Category:1990 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films about con artists]]
[[Category:Films directed by Shaji Kailas]]
[[Category:Films scored by Johnson]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thrissur]]

Pujita Ponnada

2026-05-05T09:24:47Z

Yaarzu:

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{infobox person
| image =
| name = Pujita Ponnada
| spouse(s) =
| education = B.Tech
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1991|10|05|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Visakhapatnam]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|model}}
}}

'''Pujita Ponnada''' is an Indian actress and model who predominantly works in [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] and [[Tamil cinema]]. She is principally noted for her roles in the films ''[[Rangasthalam]]'' (2018) and ''[[Kalki (2019 Telugu film)|Kalki]]'' (2019).<ref name="deccan2">{{cite news|url= https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/090617/cinema-is-a-drug-pujita-ponnada.html|title= Cinema is a drug: Pujita Ponnada |date= 9 June 2017|accessdate= 14 May 2018|newspaper= [[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Pujita Ponnada was born into a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] family in [[Visakhapatnam]] and raised in [[Chennai]].<ref name="deccan2"/>

== Career ==
Pujita Ponnada worked as a software engineer in [[Tata Consultancy Services]] before she started her acting career with short films.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Software engineer turned actor|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/software-engineer-turned-actor-534576|access-date=2019-06-03 |work=The Hans India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/120318/sukumar-is-my-mentor-pujita-ponnada.html|title= Sukumar is my mentor: Pujita Ponnada |date= 12 March 2018|accessdate= 14 May 2018|newspaper= [[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

Pujita Ponnada played roles in films like ''[[Oopiri]]'' (2016), ''[[Rangasthalam]]'' (2018), ''[[Happy Wedding (2018 film)|Happy Wedding]]'' (2018), ''[[Brand Babu]]'' (2018) and ''[[Where Is the Venkatalakshmi]]'' (2019). His forthcoming release ''[[Seven (2019 Indian film)|Seven]]'' (2019). Touted to be an investigative thriller revolving seven characters, the Tamil-Telugu bilingual has six heroines.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Telugu girl Pujita Ponnada upbeat about her upcoming release ‘7’
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/telugu-girl-pujita-ponnada-upbeat-about-her-upcoming-release-7/articleshow/69650554.cms |access-date=2019-06-04 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> Pujita Ponnada plays the female lead in the Telegu romantic drama film, ''Aakasa Veedhullo'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite news |title='Akasha Veedullo’ social media Review: Check out what the online public has to say about Gautham Krishna's debut film.|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/akasha-veedullo-social-media-review-check-out-what-the-public-has-to-say-about-the-hero-cum-director-gautham-krishnas-maiden-film/articleshow/94021546.cms |access-date=2022-09-06 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> Then, she continued to act in Tamil films, ''[[Jolly O Gymkhana (film)|Jolly O Gymkhana]]'' (2024), ''[[Konjam Kadhal Konjam Modhal]]'' (2025), ''[[Desingu Raja 2]]'' (2025) and ''[[Padaiyaanda Maaveeraa]]'' (2025).

==Filmography==
{{Pending films key}}
*

===Feature films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Language
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="3"|2016 ||''[[Oopiri]]'' || rowspan="2"|Gallery manager
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]] || rowspan="2"|Bilingual film; Debut in both languages<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2016-03-02/New-Telugu-girl-on-the-block/210856|title = New Telugu girl on the block|date = 2 March 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Thozha'' || [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|''[[Premam (2016 film)|Premam]]'' || College student || rowspan="7"|Telugu ||
|-
|2017 || ''[[Darsakudu]]'' || Sailu ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2018 || ''[[Rangasthalam]]'' || Padma ||
|-
|''[[Raju Gadu]]'' || Vennela ||
|-
|''[[Happy Wedding (2018 film)|Happy Wedding]]'' || Laveena ||
|-
|''[[Brand Babu]]'' || Pavani ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2019 ||''[[Where Is the Venkatalakshmi]]'' || Gowri ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|''[[Seven (2019 Indian film)|Seven]]'' || rowspan="2"|Bhanu
| Telugu || rowspan="2"|Bilingual film
|-
| Tamil
|-
|''[[Kalki (2019 Telugu film)|Kalki]]'' || [[Sub-Inspector |SI]] Palapitta
| rowspan="9"|Telugu ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020 || ''[[Run (2020 Indian film)|Run]]'' || Shruti || [[Aha (streaming service)| Aha]] film
|-
|''[[Miss India (film)|Miss India]]'' || Padma Naina || Released on [[Netflix]]
|-
| 2021 || ''Money She'' || Madhu
| <ref>{{cite news |last1=EENADU |title=మనిషి నుండి 'జాను' ఫుల్ వీడియో సాంగ్‌ వ‌చ్చేసింది |url=https://m.eenadu.net/cinema/newsarticle/jaanu-full-video-out-now-from-rap-singer-noel--money-she-/0211/121122034 |accessdate=20 July 2021 |work=Eenadu |date=17 June 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720085544/https://m.eenadu.net/cinema/newsarticle/jaanu-full-video-out-now-from-rap-singer-noel--money-she-/0211/121122034 |archivedate=20 July 2021 |language=te}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2022 || ''[[Katha Kanchiki Manam Intiki]]'' || Deeksha
| <ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/katha-kanchiki-manam-intiki-review-an-engaging-ride/articleshow/90741851.cms | title='Katha Kanchiki Manam Intiki' review: An engaging ride - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=9 April 2022 }}</ref>
|-
|''[[Odela Railway Station]]'' || Spoorthi || Released on [[Aha (streaming service)| Aha]]
|-
|''Aakasa Veedhullo'' || Nisha ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |2023 || ''[[Ravanasura (film)|Ravanasura]]'' || [[Sub-Inspector|SI]] Ruhana
| <ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-19|title=Ravi Teja's 'Ravanasura' begins filming|url=https://telanganatoday.com/ravi-tejas-ravanasura-begins-filming|website=Telangana Today}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Jorugaa Husharugaa]]'' || Nitya ||
|-
|2024 || ''[[Jolly O Gymkhana (film)|Jolly O Gymkhana]]'' || Kanniga
| rowspan="3" |Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2025 || ''[[Konjam Kadhal Konjam Modhal]]'' || Vaisali ||
|-
|''[[Desingu Raja 2]]'' || Chandralekha ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=RajNewsTamil |date=2025-05-10 |title=தேசிங்கு ராஜா 2 படத்தின் ரிலீஸ் தேதி அறிவிப்பு! |url=https://www.rajnewstamil.com/released-date-of-desing-raja-2-movie-was-announced-by-movie-crew/ |access-date=2025-06-15 |website=Raj News Tamil |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Hari Hara Veera Mallu]]''|| Jalaja|| Telugu || Cameo appearance in the song "Kollagottinadhiro"
|-
|''[[Padaiyaanda Maaveeraa]]''
| Guru's wife
| rowspan="3" |Tamil
|
|-
| rowspan="1" |2026 || ''[[Yogi Da]]'' || Mallika ||
|-
|TBA
|''Bhagavan''{{dagger}} || {{TBA}} || Filming<ref>{{Cite news|title=Aari introduces his Bhagavan heroine Pujita Ponnada - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/aari-introduces-his-bhagavan-heroine-pujita-ponnada/articleshow/83571087.cms|access-date=2021-06-23|website=The Times of India|date=16 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

===Short films===
* ''Pseudocide'' (2015)
* ''Upma Tinesindi'' (2015)
* ''Unspoken'' (2015)
* ''Boochi'' (2016)
* ''Parichayam'' (2016)
* ''Radha Krishna'' (2016)
* ''A Saturday Evening'' (2016)
* ''Deepika Padukone'' (2018)
* ''Parinayam'' (2019)

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Network
! Notes
!Ref
|-
| 2015
| ''Real Detectives''
| Pujita
| [[ETV Network|ETV]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-07-06 |title=New weekly crime drama Real Detectives started on E TV |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/new-weekly-crime-drama-real-detectives-started-on-e-tv-/articleshow/47960410.cms |access-date=2025-01-15 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|2024
|''[[Harikatha (TV series)|Harikatha]]''
|Lisa
|[[Disney+ Hotstar]]
|
|
|-
|2025
|''Katha Sudha''
| Chinni & Young Tulasi
|[[ETV Win]]
| under segment "Uttaram"; Dual role
|
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|nm7948832}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ponnada, Pujita}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Female models from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Actresses from Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Telugu actresses]]

Saizahawla

2026-05-05T05:21:06Z

Yaarzu: Stub.

{{Short description|Mizo Pasalṭha (c. 1858–1910)}}
{{use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = Pasalṭha
| name = Saihazawla
| honorific_suffix = Hmar
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| birth_date = 1858
| birth_place = Khawruhlian
| spouse = Thangzingpuii
| death_date = 1910
| death_place = Seling
| death_cause = [[Poisoning]]
| burial_place = Seling Lungsen
| burial_label =
| burial_coordinates = 
| allegiance = [[Pâwibâwia]]
| branch =
| branch_label = 
| service_years =
| service_years_label =
| rank =
| rank_label =
| service_number =
| unit =
| commands =
| known_for = Folk Hero of the Lushais
| battles = [[Lushai Expedition]] [[East-West War of the Lushai Hills|{{lang|lus|Chhak leh Thlang Indo|cat=no}}]] [[Lushai Rising]]
| battles_label =
| relations = Chalpuaa (Father) Tuahnuaii (Mother)
| module =
}}
'''Pasalṭha Saizahawla''' (1858–1910) was a Mizo warrior renowned for his strength and prowess as a wrestler and athlete. Saizahawla participated in the [[Lushai Expedition]], the [[East-West War of the Lushai Hills|{{lang|lus|Chhak leh Thlang Indo|cat=no}}]] and the [[Lushai Rising]]. He completed various feats of strength throughout his life and was a pasalṭha of [[Pâwibâwia]].

==Early life==
Saihazawla was born in 1858 to Chalpuaa and Tuahnuii of the [[Hmar people|Hmar]] clan.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=101}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=229}}{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=122}} 1858 is the most agreed-upon year as Saizahawla was born no later than 1860 and around the time of the [[North-South War of the Lushai Hills|{{lang|lus|Chhim leh Hmar Indo|cat=no}}]].{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=122}} Various locations of his birth have been given, such as Zawngin and Kawlkulh. However, most historians agree that he was born and spent most of his time at Khawruhlian under Chief [[Pâwibâwia]].{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=121}} It is reputed that from childhood, Saihazawla carried significant strength.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=101}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=229}} When he was able to support himself standing up it is said he was able to seize the hair of a dog licking him and throw it on the floor. Saizahawla was forced to hide his strength for a while as it was believed that extraordinary individuals became targeted by witchcraft.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=122}} Saihazawla learnt to wrestle at home by himself instead of most other boys who would learn in the [[zawlbuk]]. He wrestled with the boys in the {{lang|lus|zawlbûk}} and became a champion to the point that Pâwibâwia made him his right-hand man during tours.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=101}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=229}}{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=122}} Upon coming of age Saihazawla chose an occupation as a blacksmith and Mizo priest.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=101}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=229}}

==Feats of strength==
Saizahawla made his first feat of strength at Khawruhlian when he moved a big {{lang|lus|chawilung}}. The {{lang|lus|chawilung}} was in front of the {{lang|lus|zawlbûk}} and was so large that no one made an attempt to lift it. Saizahawla used it as a shotput for three nights but once told the stone was a {{lang|lus|chawilung}} acted as he could not lift it.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=127}} This happened once more at the village of {{lang|lus|chawilung}} during the East-West War.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=124}}

During a festival, Pâwibâwia was about to toss a rifle before the attendees of the {{lang|lus|khuangchawi}} feast. The young men tried to snatch the gun from Saizahawla by subduing him with the ten strongest men, but Saizahawla overcame them and claimed the gun.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=128}} Another incident, Saizahawla wrestled with a group of men from Zawlnghak, a village with 1000 houses. Saizahawla wrestled for the whole night and defeated everyone who duelled with him.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=128}}

==Pasalṭha==
===Hmar war===
After his village was raided by a Hmar enemy raiding party, Saihazawla chased after the raiders by himself. The [[Hmar people|Hmar]] raiding party crossed the boundary of [[Kingdom of Manipur|Manipur]] and attacked a man named Ngurdailova in his village and took his head as a trophy. While the villagers chased them they could not catch the party. Saizahawla followed the party and reached the Hmar region. During the chase in the jhum fields, Saihazawla managed to slay a raider and take the head. However, before he could take the head to his village, the rest of the raiding party began to pursue him. He passed the Parvachawm village and spotted a man from Leisenzo village felling trees. He timed the shot as the tree fell to avoid the gunshot, alerting all other members. However, the sound was still registered, and upon questioning, Saizahawla declared that he had shot a tiger. However, the youth of the village declared what happened, and a manhunt was made for Saizahawla. Saizahawla used the darkness of dusk and spoke the Hmar language to pretend to be party of the manhunting party and conitnued to misdirect the individuals before heaidng home with the head of his victim.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=123}} Another account states, Saihazawla did not know the countryside well and decided to hide. On the assumption that the raiders would think he would run to his village, Saihazawla walked towards the opposite direction and hid in a bush.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=101}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=229}} Despite a lengthy search, the raiders could not find Saihazawla. Exhausted from the search, the raiders left, and Saihazawla made his journey home. The journey took three days and one night, he was followed by a tiger, but he continued to encamp with the head of his enemy.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=123}} The village granted him a hero's welcome. Chief [[Pawibawia]], in reward of Saihazawla's bravery, conferred him the privilege of first selection of jhum plots and a house site in the village.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=102}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=230}}{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=124}} Ngurdailova's mother spread a new {{lang|lus|Pawnpui}} for him to sit on and his neck was full of {{lang|lus|arkeziak}} (a white cotton spun necklace/bracelet for headhunters). Pâwibâwia's wife, Rohlupuii tied a {{lang|lus|thihna}} around his neck.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=124}}

Another time, Saihazawla and two of his friends Khawzathanga and Ekchhetea went on a headhunting expedition towards some Hmar villages. At Pherzawl in Manipur, Saihazawla decided to test the fighting power of the village. He entered the zawlbuk where he was unrecognized and waited for everyone to sleep. Going forward with his plan, Saihazawla went to each house and poured water down the barrels of the guns except for three which he would take as trophies.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=102}} Saizahawla's friends decided to tell their chief that the headhunting succeeded, but it was too distant to carry the heads, hence they took the guns. Under the confidence of the lie, they would receive a {{lang|lus|muallam}}, a headhunting festival for successful warriors.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=124}} The festival required proof of hair, scalp or a head in order to be demanded of the village.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=102}} Saihazawla did not respond to the scheme his friends had planned which they assumed for him to be complicit.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=124}}{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=103}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=231}} They also made a promise that if the truth was revealed a fine of one [[gayal|mithun]] would have to be paid.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=103}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=231}}

Saihazawla and his friends arrived, and a festival was prepared; however, Saihazawla did not make an appearance. When a messenger was sent for him, Saihazawla exposed the truth to the village. His friends who demanded a find of one mithun was rebuffed by Saihazawla who stated that each of them received a gun from him worth more than a mithun.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=103}}{{sfn|Zawla|1964|p=231}}{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=125}}

===Lushai Expedition===
{{main|Lushai Expedition}}
During the [[Lushai Expedition]], Pâwibâwia opposed the Northern column from his settlements of Selam and Sesawng in 1872. On 25 January 1872, heavy open fire between Pâwibâwia and the Cachar Column allowed Saizahawla to play a significant role in the conflict, but it was overrun and occupied by the British on 2 February 1872.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=125}}

===East-West War===
The east–west war emerged between the descendents of [[Vuta|Vûta]] and [[Mângpawrha]] with a battle code of direct confrontation. Saizahawla with his friend Vuntawia vowed to not be the first to retreat during a hunt of a wounded tiger. However, when Vungtawia retreated by one step, Saizahawla decided to rais Hmawngkawn on his own without Vungtawia. Saizahawla reached Hmawngkawn and opened fire on the fortified stockade and shouted at them to shoot him as he would honor the battle code of not being a hit and run warrior. Saizawhawla in the confrontation misdirected the villagers to another direction.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=125}}

===Lushai Rising===
{{main|Lushai Rising}}
After the annexation of the Lushai Hills under the [[Chin-Lushai Expedition]], the Eastern Lushais of [[Lalburha]] and Pâwibâwia revolted against the British. Saizahawla participated in the resistance. Saizahawla during a battle laid at the root of the tree and did not open fire. When the British were massacred he ran towards the boat and captured two guns and gave one to his friend Lalzika.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=126}}

===British era===
Once in Aizawl, Saizhawla went to the market where a {{lang|lus|Pawi}} ({{langx|lus|[[Lai people|Lai]]}}) named Thanhranga had also come to collect commodities. Hrangkima, a shop owner, saw both strong men and gave them an iron bar to pull on, and the winner could keep it.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=128}} Both men exerted their strength, with Saizahawla offering to break it in half to share. Thanhranga, however, offered a second try. This time, Saizawhawla won the iron rod with one hand.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=129}}

In traditional Mizo sports, Saihazawla was reputed to be unbeatable. This was especially noted in javelin throw, shotput and wrestling. Despite being a champion, Saihazawla followed a code of honour to not humiliate his opponents. He would tend to carry 1.5 maunds of stones in bags on him. One story retells how Saihazawla pushed down a bamboo grove uprooted during a cyclone by himself despite other groups of villagers failing. In wrestling, Saihazawla also fought animals. He fought a mihthun and a bison which he would throttle with their horns and win. After the British takeover in the [[Chin-Lushai Expedition]], the British would introduce [[tug of war]]. Saihazawla would also master himself the champion of this sport.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=103}}

Superintendent Major [[Granville Henry Loch]] invited seventy chiefs and their best champions to participate in a tug of war competition. Saihazawla was one of the invitees and his team won every round. Some rumours were spread that some teams could not beat Saihazala on his own. In the finals of the tournament, Saihazawla's team were meant to fight with the Indian soldiers, but Loch called it off to not disrepute the military.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=104}} Saizahawla instead made his name known by singlehandedly winning a tug of war with ten Punjabi workers.{{sfn|Nibedon|2013}}

During an altercation with Assamese riflemen, they attempted to steal Saizahawla's cucumber which led him to carry both in the air with one hand each and to leave him be. Another incident recounts at Seling how thirty men asked Saizahawla's help to pull a large log from below but he did it himself.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=129-130}}

==Village roles==
Saizahawla was also a priest and a blacksmith at Khawruhlian. He would not hold sacrifices to heal the adult patients of the village but always interrupted his work for children. As a blacksmith, Saizahawla forged agricultural tools and war weapons.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=127}}

==Death==
Saihazawla, in his later years, migrated from Seling to Khawruhlian. A small village was established by the British to provide labour for public works projects, which Saihazawla, in his old age, contributed to with ease. Saihazawla died via poisoning from Manipuri Hmar tribesmen.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=104}}{{sfn|Goswami|1979|p=171}}{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=130}} His death is estimated to have occurred in 1910. His tombstone is at Seling Lungsen site. Saizahawla had three sons, Thanama, Thanseia and Thansanga with one daughter, Lalzawmi.{{sfn|Remruatkimi|2017|p=130}}

==Legacy==
Saihazawla was one of the Pasalṭha names chosen for the battalions of the Dagger Bridge under the [[Mizo National Front uprising]].{{sfn|Goswami|1979}}{{sfn|Nibedon|2013}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=B.B |date=1979 |title=The Mizo Unrest: A Study of Politicisation of Culture |location=Jaipur |publisher=Aalekh Publishers}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Remruatkimi |first1=C. |title=Saizahawla |journal=Historical Journal of Mizoram |date=2017 |volume=XVIII |issue=1 |url=http://historicaljournalmizoram.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/MHA-2017.pdf |access-date=7 September 2025}}
*{{cite book |last1=Lalbiakthanga |title=The Mizos: A study in racial personality |date=1978 |publisher=United Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqgcAAAAMAAJ |access-date=13 February 2025}}
*{{cite book |last1=Nibedon |first1=Nirmal |title=Mizoram: The Dagger Brigade |date=2013 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |location=Atlanta, Georgia |isbn=978-1-935501-82-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeFKAQAAQBAJ |access-date=13 February 2025}}
*{{cite book |last1=Zawla |first1=K. |title=Mizo Pi Pute leh an thlahte Chanchin |date=1964 |publisher=Gosen Press |location=Aizawl |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.467485/mode/2up |access-date=5 March 2025}}

{{Lushai frontier}}

[[Category:1858 births]]
[[Category:Pasalṭha]]
[[Category:1910 deaths]]

Aska Lok Sabha constituency

2026-04-27T08:11:05Z

Yaarzu: creating post...

{{short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Odisha, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Aska {{Small|OD-19}}
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Odisha/Aska.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Aska Lok Sabha constituency
| state = [[Odisha]]
| established = 1952
| reservation = None
| electors = 16,23,404{{efn|as on 2024}}{{efn|as data published by election commission}}
| incumbent_image =
| mp = [[Anita Subhadarshini]]
| party = {{flagicon image|BJP flag.svg}}[[BJP]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general elections|2024]]
| assembly_cons = [[Polasara Assembly constituency|Polasara]] [[Kabisuryanagar Assembly constituency|Kabisuryanagar]] [[Khalikote Assembly constituency|Khallikote]] [[Aska Assembly constituency|Aska]] [[Surada Assembly constituency|Surada]] [[Sanakhemundi Assembly constituency|Sanakhemundi]] [[Hinjili Assembly constituency|Hinjili]]
}}

'''Aska Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 21 [[Lok Sabha]] [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha|(parliamentary) constituencies]] in [[Odisha]] state in eastern [[India]].

==Assembly Segments==
Presently, after the delimitation of parliamentary constituencies in 2008, the following 7 Legislative Assembly segments constitute Aska Lok Sabha constituency:<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Orissa/orissa.pdf Assembly Constituencies and their Extent]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/delim/paper1to7/Orissa.xls Seats of Odisha]</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!#
!Name
!District
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
! colspan="2" |Leading
{{small|(in 2024)}}
|-
|124
|[[Polasara Assembly constituency|Polasara]]
| rowspan="7" |[[Ganjam district|Ganjam]]
|[[Gokula Nanda Mallik|Gokulananda Mallik]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
|125
|[[Kabisuryanagar Assembly constituency|Kabisuryanagar]]
|[[Pratap Chandra Nayak]]
|-
|126
|[[Khalikote Assembly constituency|Khallikote]] (SC)
|[[Purna Chandra Sethy]]
|-
|128
|[[Aska Assembly constituency|Aska]]
|[[Saroj Kumar Padhi]]
|-
|129
|[[Surada Assembly constituency|Surada]]
|[[Nilamani Bisoyi]]
|-
|130
|[[Sanakhemundi Assembly constituency|Sanakhemundi]]
|[[Ramesh Chandra Jena (politician)|Ramesh Chandra Jena]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|{{party name with color|Biju Janata Dal}}
|-
|131
|[[Hinjili Assembly constituency|Hinjili]]
|[[Naveen Patnaik]]
|{{party name with color|Biju Janata Dal}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

== Elected Members==

{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|2024|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|48.55}}
{{bar percent|2019|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|54.52}}
{{bar percent|2014|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|38.44}}
{{bar percent|2009|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|32.64}}
{{bar percent|2004|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|56.1}}
{{bar percent|2000 (bypoll)|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|70.31}}
{{bar percent|1999|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|74.91}}
{{bar percent|1998|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|53.89}}
{{bar percent|1996|{{party color|Janata Dal}}|54.14}}
{{bar percent|1991|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|47.83}}
{{bar percent|1989|{{party color|Janata Dal}}|60.45}}
{{bar percent|1984|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|60.76}}
{{bar percent|1980|{{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}|49.94}}
{{bar percent|1977|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|41.79}}
}}

Since its formation in 1952, 18 elections have been held till date including one bypoll in 2000.

List of members elected from Aska constituency are

{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2" |Party
|-
! colspan="4"| {{center|''As Ghumusar Constituency''}}
|-
|[[1952 Indian general election|1952]]
|[[Uma Charan Patnaik]]
|{{full party name with color|Independent}}
|-
! colspan="4"| {{center|''1956-1961 : Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
!colspan="4"| {{center|''As Bhanjanagar Constituency''}}
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|[[Mohan Nayak]]
|{{full party name with color|rowspan=2|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|[[Ananta Tripathi Sarma]]
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[Duti Krushna Panda]]
|{{full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
! colspan="4"| {{center|''As Aska Constituency''}}
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ramchandra Rath]]
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[Somanath Rath]]
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[Ananta Narayan Singh Deo]]
|{{full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[Ramchandra Rath]]
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[Biju Patnaik]]
|{{full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|rowspan="2" |[[Naveen Patnaik]]
|{{full party name with color|Biju Janata Dal|rowspan=7}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|-
|2000 (bypoll){{efn|Resignation of [[Naveen Patnaik]]}}
|[[Kumudini Patnaik]]
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[Hari Har Swain]]
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=IndiaVotes PC: Aska 2009 |url=https://www.indiavotes.com/pc/www.indiavotes.com/pc/detailsearch?eid=15&pcname=Aska&submit= |access-date=2025-07-06 |website=IndiaVotes}}</ref>
|[[Nityananda Pradhan]]
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=IndiaVotes PC: Aska 2014 |url=https://www.indiavotes.com/pc/www.indiavotes.com/pc/detailsearch?eid=16&pcname=Aska&submit= |access-date=2025-07-06 |website=IndiaVotes}}</ref>
|[[Ladu Kishore Swain]]
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=IndiaVotes PC: Aska 2019 |url=https://www.indiavotes.com/pc/www.indiavotes.com/pc/detailsearch?eid=17&pcname=Aska&submit= |access-date=2025-07-06 |website=IndiaVotes}}</ref>
|[[Pramila Bisoyi]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Aska lok sabha election results 2024: Aska Winning Candidates List and Vote Share |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/lok-sabha/odisha/aska-constituency-result-18519 |access-date=2025-07-06 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Anita Subhadarshini]]
|{{full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

== Election Results==

=== 2024 ===
Voting were held on 20th May 2024 in 5th phase of Indian General Election. Counting of votes was on 4th June 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=General Election to Legislative Assembly of Odisha 2024 |url=https://elections24.eci.gov.in/election-details-odisa.html |website=[[Election Commission of India|ECI]]}}</ref> In 2024 election, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] candidate [[Anita Subhadarshini]] defeated [[Biju Janata Dal]] candidate Ranjita Sahu by a margin of 99,974 votes.<ref name=":3" />

{{Election box begin |
|title = [[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Ganjam district|Aska]]<ref name="Aska Constituency Lok Sabha Election Result 2024">{{cite news |title=Aska Constituency Lok Sabha Election Result 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/odisha/aska |access-date=25 March 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325140553/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/odisha/aska |archive-date=25 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Aska">{{cite news |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Aska |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S1819.htm |access-date=25 March 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325140635/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S1819.htm |archive-date=25 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Anita Subhadarshini]]|votes=4,94,226|percentage=48.55|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Biju Janata Dal|candidate=Ranjita Sahu|votes=3,94,252|percentage=38.73|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Debakanta Sarma|votes=75,255|percentage=7.39|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=21,941|percentage=2.16|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=99,974|percentage=9.82|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=10,18,539|percentage=62.74|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link no swing|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Biju Janata Dal
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 ===
In 2019 election, [[Biju Janata Dal]] candidate [[Pramila Bisoyi]] defeated [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] candidate [[Anita Subhadarshini]] by a margin of 2,04,707 votes.<ref name=":2" />

{{Election box begin|
|title = [[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Ganjam district|Aska]]<ref name="SP Par Cand">{{cite web |title=List of Contesting Candidates (Phase-II) (PC) |url=http://www.ceoorissa.nic.in/docs/Election/2019/Form7A/Phase2/List%20of%20Contesting%20Candidates%20%282nd%20Phase-PC%20Wise%29.pdf|website=ceoorissa.nic.in |publisher=Office of the Chief Electoral Officer, Odisha |accessdate=15 April 2019}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Biju Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Pramila Bisoyi]]
|votes = 5,52,749
|percentage = 54.52
|change = {{decrease}}5.89
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Anita Subhadarshini]]
|votes = 3,48,042
|percentage = 34.33
|change = {{increase}}26.81
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Rama Krushna Panda
|votes = 59,978
|percentage = 5.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 17,344
|percentage = 1.71
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Purna Chandra Nayak
|votes = 8,549
|percentage = 0.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,04,707
|percentage = 20.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,13,890
|percentage = 65.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing|
|winner = Biju Janata Dal
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
In 2014 election, [[Biju Janata Dal]] candidate [[Ladu Kishore Swain]] defeated [[Indian National Congress]] candidate Srilokanath Rath by a margin of 3,11,997 votes.<ref name=":1" />

{{Election box begin|
|title = [[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Ganjam district|Aska]]<ref name=election2014>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3631-orissa-2014/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2014 to the Legislative Assembly of Orissa |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 6 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Biju Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Ladu Kishore Swain]]
|votes = 5,41,473
|percentage = 60.41
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Srilokanath Rath
|votes = 2,29,476
|percentage = 25.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Mahesh Chandra Mohanty
|votes = 67,361
|percentage = 7.52
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 15,382
|percentage = 1.72
|change = ''-''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Prabhat Kumar Mohanty
|votes = 11,063
|percentage = 1.23
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Bijaya Kumar Mahapatro
|votes = 9,127
|percentage = 1.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 3,11,997
|percentage = 34.81
|change = ''-''
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,96,461
|percentage = 63.63
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors
|reg. electors = 14,08,780
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing|
|winner = Biju Janata Dal
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
In 2009 election, [[Biju Janata Dal]] candidate [[Nityananda Pradhan]] defeated [[Indian National Congress]] candidate [[Ramchandra Rath]] by a margin of 2,32,834 votes.<ref name=":0" />

{{Election box begin|
|title = [[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Ganjam district|Aska]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Biju Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Nityananda Pradhan]]
|votes = 4,19,862
|percentage = 59.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Ramchandra Rath]]
|votes = 1,87,028
|percentage = 26.64
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Shanti Devi
|votes = 42,165
|percentage = 6.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,32,834
|percentage = 33.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,01,880
|percentage = 54.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing|
|winner = Biju Janata Dal
}}
{{Election box end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|19.620277|84.664078|display=title}}
{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Odisha}}
{{Odisha elections}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aska Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Odisha]]
[[Category:Politics of Ganjam district]]

Sanat Kumar Gartia

2026-04-24T14:23:52Z

Yaarzu: Done.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Bijepur Assembly constituency|Bijepur]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| term_end =
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Rita Sahu]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| image =
}}
'''Sanat Kumar Gartia''' is an Indian politician from Odisha. He is a [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Member of the Odisha Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2024]], representing [[Bijepur Assembly constituency]] as a Member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Bijepur Election Result 2024 LIVE Updates Highlights: Assembly Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/bijepur-election-result-2024-live-updates-highlights-assembly-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8916469.html |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Bijepur, Odisha Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: BJP's SANAT KUMAR GARTIA wins Bijepur with 93161 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/bijepur-odisha-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-2548379-2024-06-04 |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election]]
* [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sanat Kumar Gartia}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Odisha-BJP-politician-stub}}

Sumit Walmiki

2026-04-24T12:06:23Z

Yaarzu: New.

{{Short description|Indian field hockey player}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox field hockey player
| name = Sumit Walmiki
| image = File:Sumit Walmiki - South Africa vs India, 2025 Test Matches 2025-12-09 (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Warm-ups - South Africa vs India, 2025
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1996|12|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Sonipat]], [[Haryana]], India<ref>{{cite news|title=Sumit draws inspiration from hockey stars Sardar, Manpreet|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/sports/report-sumit-draws-inspiration-from-hockey-stars-sardar-manpreet-2373397|accessdate=26 November 2017|work=DNA India|date=29 March 2017}}</ref>
| height = 1.69 m<ref>{{cite web |title=SUMIT |url=https://www.worldcup2018.hockey/men/players/sumit__70521__4212 |website=www.worldcup2018.hockey |publisher=[[International Hockey Federation]] |accessdate=26 February 2019}}</ref>
| position = Midfielder
| currentclub =
| clubs1 = Punjab SC
| years1 =
| clubs2 = Petroleum Sports Promotion Board
| years2 =
| clubs3 = ONGC
| years3 =
| clubs4 = Hockey Haryana
| years4 =
| clubs5 = [[Hyderabad Toofans]]
| years5 = 2024–
| nationalyears1 = 2014–2016
| nationalteam1 = [[India men's national under-21 field hockey team|India U21]]
| nationalcaps1 = 12
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| nationalyears2 = 2017–
| nationalteam2 = [[India men's national field hockey team|India]]
| nationalcaps2 = 172
| nationalgoals2 = 8
| show-medals = no
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalSport|Men's [[field hockey]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Olympic Games]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2020 Summer Olympics|2020 Tokyo]]|[[Field hockey at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|Team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2024 Summer Olympics|2024 Paris]]|[[Field hockey at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Men's FIH Hockey World League|World League]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2016–17 Men's FIH Hockey World League|2016–17 Bhubaneswar]]|[[2016–17 Men's FIH Hockey World League Final|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2022 Asian Games|2022 Hangzhou]]|[[Field hockey at the 2022 Asian Games – Men's tournament|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Men's Hockey Asia Cup|Asia Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2017 Men's Hockey Asia Cup|2017 Dhaka]]|}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 Men's Hockey Asia Cup|2025 Rajgir]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Hockey Champions Trophy|Asian Champions Trophy]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2018 Asian Men's Hockey Champions Trophy|2018 Muscat]]|}}
{{MedalGold|[[2023 Men's Asian Champions Trophy|2023 Chennai]]|}}
{{MedalGold|[[2024 Men's Asian Champions Trophy|2024 Hulunbuir]]|}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2021 Men's Asian Champions Trophy|2021 Dhaka]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Hockey Junior World Cup|Junior World Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2016 Men's Hockey Junior World Cup|2016 Lucknow]]|}}
}}
'''Sumit Walmiki''' (born 20 December 1996) is an Indian [[field hockey]] player who plays as a [[Field hockey#Positions|midfielder]] for the [[India men's national field hockey team|Indian national team]].<ref>{{cite news|title=As hockey regains its place in the sun, Bengal experts rue lack of basic infra|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/as-hockey-regains-its-place-in-the-sun-bengal-experts-rue-lack-of-basic-infra/articleshow/85121490.cms|work=The Times of India|date=7 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Haryana CM announces Rs 4 crore for Ravi Dahiya, Rs 2.5 crore each for Surender Kumar and Sumit Walmiki|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/haryana-cm-announces-rs-4-crore-for-ravi-dahiya-rs-2-5-crore-each-for-surender-kumar-and-sumit-walmiki-7440179/|work=The Indian Express|date=5 August 2021}}</ref>

Hailing from [[Haryana]], Sumit was part of the Indian squad that won the [[2016 Men's Hockey Junior World Cup|2016 Junior World Cup]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Vasavda|first1=Mihir|title=Hockey Junior World Cup: Fathers at wheel the driving force for seven in team|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/hockey/fathers-at-wheel-the-driving-force-for-seven-in-junior-hockey-team-4432911/|accessdate=26 November 2017|work=The Indian Express|date=18 December 2016}}</ref> He made his senior team debut at the [[2017 Sultan Azlan Shah Cup]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hockey World League Semi-finals: India's Rupinder Pal Singh, SK Uthappa ruled out of tournament|url=http://www.firstpost.com/sports/hockey-world-league-semi-finals-indias-rupinder-pal-singh-sk-uthappa-ruled-out-of-tournament-3631523.html|accessdate=26 November 2017|work=Firstpost|date=14 June 2017}}</ref> He won the gold medal as part of the Indian team at the [[2022 Asian Games]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Games Results |url=https://info.hangzhou2022.cn/en/results/hockey/result-men-fnl-000200-.htm |access-date=6 October 2023 |website=2022 Asian Games, Hangzhou}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.hockeyindia.org/players/sumit-profile-1065 Sumit] at [[Hockey India]]
*{{Sports links}}

{{Navboxes
|title=India squads
| bg = #0077FF
| fg = #FFFF40
|list1=
{{India FH Squad 2017 Asia Cup}}
{{India FH Squad 2018 World Cup}}
{{India FH Squad 2020 Summer Olympics}}
{{India FH Squad 2022 Asian Games}}
{{India FH Squad 2024 Summer Olympics}}
{{India FH Squad 2025 Asia Cup}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sumit}}
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Sonipat]]
[[Category:Indian men's field hockey players]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Haryana]]
[[Category:Men's field hockey midfielders]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2020 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2024 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympic field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2018 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:2018 Men's Hockey World Cup players]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympic medalists in field hockey]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2024 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists in field hockey]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]

{{India-fieldhockey-bio-stub}}
{{India-Olympic-medalist-stub}}

Ranya Rao

2026-04-23T06:55:09Z

Yaarzu: started first bio w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Indian actress and model (born 1993)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ranya Rao
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Harshavardhini Ranya<ref name="birthname">{{cite news |title=Gold smuggling accused Ranya Rao's firm allotted land to set up steel plant by previous Karnataka govt: Board |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/gold-smuggling-accused-ranya-raos-firm-allotted-land-to-set-up-steel-plant-by-previous-karnataka-govt-kiadb-101741585805783.html |agency=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=Mar 10, 2025}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1993|5|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Chikmagalur]], Karnataka, India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|Model|Gold Smuggler}}
| yearsactive = 2014–2017
| spouse = Jatin Hukkeri<ref name="Jatin">{{cite web |author= HT News Desk |date= 2025-03-07 |title= Who is Jatin Hukkeri? Architect husband of actor Ranya Rao, who is caught in alleged gold smuggling case |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/who-is-jatin-hukkeri-architect-husband-of-ranya-rao-who-is-caught-in-alleged-gold-smuggling-case-101741232653000.html |website= Hindistan Times |location= New Dehli |publisher= HT Media Group |access-date=2025-03-31}}</ref>
{{Infobox criminal
| child = yes
| criminal_charge = COFEPOSA case<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/198858344/ |title=Smt Harshavardini Ranya vs Senior Intelligence Officer on 26 April, 2025 |work=indiankanoon.org |date=23 July 2021 |access-date=30 April 2025 }}</ref>
| conviction_penalty = 1 year in prison
| conviction_status = Incarcerated (sentenced on 16 July 2025)
| conviction = Gold smuggling
| apprehended = 3 March 2025
| imprisoned = [[Bangalore Central Prison]]
}}
}}

'''Harshavardhini Ranya''' (born 28 May 1993), known professionally as '''Ranya Rao''', is an Indian former actress and model, who appeared in [[Kannada cinema|Kannada films]]. She made her debut with the 2014 Kannada film, ''[[Maanikya]]''. In 2025, she was convicted and was sentenced a year's imprisonment in the gold smuggling case under the charges of [[Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974|COFEPOSA]]. She was set to be released on bail after a year on 23 April 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karnataka High Court finds no fault in preventive detention of actor Ranya Rao under anti-smuggling law|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/karnataka-high-court-finds-no-fault-in-preventive-detention-of-actor-ranya-rao-under-anti-smuggling-law/article70420029.ece|website=The Hindu|date=20 December 2025}}</ref>

==Early life==
Harshavardhini Ranya was born on 28 May 1993.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Patel |first1=Bharat A. |title=Sandalwood's latest IT girl: Ranya |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Sandalwoods-latest-IT-girl-Ranya/articleshow/40356171.cms |access-date=5 October 2015 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> She originally hails from the [[Chikkamagaluru district]] in [[Karnataka]], India. After completing her schooling in [[Bangalore]], Rao pursued acting with accreditation in acting.<ref>{{cite news |author=Christopher, Kavya |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Chikmaglur-girl-Ranya-gets-set-for-her-dream-debut/articleshow/34319688.cms |title=Chikmagalur girl Ranya gets set for her dream debut |newspaper=The Times of India |date=28 April 2014 |access-date=8 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ranya and Ganesh teamed |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/ranya-and-ganesh-teamed-kannada-news-135989.html |website=indiaglitz.com |date=23 June 2015 |access-date=8 July 2015}}</ref>

==Career==
Rao was first signed by actor and director [[Sudeepa]] in April 2014 for his directorial [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada film]], ''[[Maanikya]]''.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |title=Maanikya 100 |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/maanikya-100-kannada-news-111652.html/ |access-date=30 May 2015 |work=indiaglitz.com}}</ref> She was cast as Manasa in a supporting role, portraying a girl belonging to a rich Indian family and Sudeep's love interest. Her performance received mixed reviews from critics. A. Sharadhaa of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote, "Both Ranya and Varalaxmi play their parts well but fail to impress."<ref>{{cite web |author=Sharadhaa A. |title=A Refreshing Treat for Sudeep's Fans |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/A-Refreshing-Treat-for-Sudeeps-Fans/2014/05/03/article2203356.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427172459/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/A-Refreshing-Treat-for-Sudeeps-Fans/2014/05/03/article2203356.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 April 2015 |newspaper=The New Indian Express |date=3 May 2014 |access-date=8 July 2015}}</ref>

In June 2015, Rao signed her second film and first [[Tamil cinema|Tamil film]], ''[[Wagah (film)|Wagah]]''<ref>{{cite news |title=Ranya Rao signs Kollywood flick |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/Ranya-Rao-signs-Kollywood-flick/articleshow/47788805.cms |newspaper=Bangalore Mirror |date=23 June 2015 |access-date=8 July 2015}}</ref> She was cast opposite [[Vikram Prabhu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Ranya Rao to romance Vikram Prabhu: Ranya |website=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Ranya-Rao-to-romance-Vikram-Prabhu/articleshow/47717423.cms |access-date=5 October 2015}}</ref> her first as a female lead. In her first release of 2017, a comedy ''[[Pataki (film)|Pataki]]'', in Kannada, she played a journalist Sangeetha, the love interest of a police officer played by [[Ganesh (actor)|Ganesh]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Desai |first1=Dhwani |title=Ganesh's style drew me to Pataki |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/ganeshs-style-drew-ranya-rao-to-pataki/articleshow/58717543.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=30 May 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170530072046/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/ganeshs-style-drew-ranya-rao-to-pataki/articleshow/58717543.cms |archive-date=30 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==2025 gold-smuggling case==
On 3 March 2025, Ranya Rao, the stepdaughter of Karnataka’s [[Director general of police|Director General of Police]], K. Ramachandra Rao, was arrested by the [[Directorate of Revenue Intelligence]] (DRI). <ref name="Kannada actress arrested for ‘smuggling’ 14.8 kg gold at Bengaluru Airport">{{cite news |title=Kannada actress arrested for 'smuggling' 14.8 kg gold at Bengaluru Airport |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/kannada-actress-ranya-rao-arrest-bengaluru-airport-gold-smuggling-9868677/ |access-date=4 March 2025 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304174540/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/kannada-actress-ranya-rao-arrest-bengaluru-airport-gold-smuggling-9868677/ |archive-date=4 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ranya Rao, actor and stepdaughter of IPS officer, caught smuggling 14.8 kg of gold worth over ₹12 crore at KIA">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Ranya Rao, actor and stepdaughter of IPS officer, caught smuggling 14.8 kg of gold worth over ₹12 crore at KIA |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/actor-and-stepdaughter-of-ips-officer-caught-smuggling-148-kg-of-gold-worth-over-12-crore-at-kia/article69291439.ece |access-date=4 March 2025 |work=The Hindu |date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304174614/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/actor-and-stepdaughter-of-ips-officer-caught-smuggling-148-kg-of-gold-worth-over-12-crore-at-kia/article69291439.ece |archive-date=4 March 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

Rao was intercepted at [[Kempegowda International Airport|Bengaluru airport]] after arriving on [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates flight]] EK 566 from [[Dubai]]. While attempting to pass through the green channel at the airport, the actor claimed that she was not carrying any dutiable goods, gold, or contraband, but a metal detector alerted officers to concealed items.<ref name="NDTV">{{cite news |title=How Actor Ranya Rao Managed To Give Airport Security The Slip |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/karnataka-bengaluru-airport-on-actor-ranya-rao-gold-smuggling-case-dri-points-to-state-protocol-department-7910886 |access-date=17 March 2025 |work=www.ndtv.com |date=13 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Upon inspection, Rao was found to have wrapped 14.2 kg of 24-karat gold around her waist and calves, with additional pieces hidden in her shoes and pockets. The gold was valued at over ₹12.56 crore.

The DRI had been monitoring her due to her frequent travels, including 27 trips to Dubai in six months prior to her arrest. She initially claimed these trips were for business and photography purposes. The DRI revealed that the gold smuggling operation involved a larger syndicate and that Rao had received assistance from a State Protocol Officer, who was also part of the racket. Rao was apprehended just before exiting the airport.<ref name="IT130325">{{cite news |title=The twists in Ranya Rao gold smuggling case and unanswered questions |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/actor-ranya-rao-gold-smuggling-case-twists-u-turns-unanswered-questions-stepfather-role-2693078-2025-03-13 |access-date=17 March 2025 |work=India Today |date=13 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref> According to DRI officials, Ranya Rao made 52 trips to Dubai between 2023 and March 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ranya Rao took 52 trips to Dubai, 26 with actor friend Tarun Raju: Report |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ranya-rao-took-52-trips-to-dubai-26-with-actor-friend-tarun-raju-report-101742300855701.html |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

She was sent to [[Bangalore Central Prison]] for 14 days of judicial custody under the 1962 Customs Act.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ranya Rao's smuggling scandal: Secret jackets, cop aides & Dubai gold runs |url=https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/ranya-rao-arrested-gold-smuggling-bengaluru-dubai-dri-investigation-125030600271_1.html |date=6 March 2025 |publisher=Business Standard |access-date=7 March 2025 }}</ref> During questioning, Rao admitted to smuggling gold for the first time. She collected the gold at Dubai Airport from an unidentified man in a white gown, concealed it on her body using adhesive tape, and hid some in her shoes and pockets. Rao confessed to using YouTube videos to plan the smuggling.<ref name="IT130325" />

A search of her Bengaluru home uncovered ₹2.06 crore in gold jewelry and ₹2.67 crore in cash. Rao also held a [[Emirates national identity card|UAE Resident Identity Card]], and the DRI was investigating [[hawala]] money transfers related to her activities.<ref name="NDTV" />

=== Bail ===
Economic Offences Court in [[Bengaluru]] on May 20, 2025 granted default bail to Rao and co-accused Tarun Kondaraju. But Ranya Rao was not released because of the case registered against her under the stringent [[Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974|Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities (COFEPOSA) Act, 1974]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Kannada actress Ranya Rao gets bail in gold smuggling case, but to remain in custody under stringent law |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kannada-actress-ranya-rao-gets-bail-in-gold-smuggling-case-bengaluru-court-imposes-strict-conditions-11747741021258.html}}</ref>

She was lodged at the [[Bangalore Central Prison|Bengaluru Central Prison]] along with two others, Tarun Raju and Sahil Sakaria Jain, who have also been booked under the COFEPOSA Act.<ref name=":2" />

They both were granted bail on two sureties each and ₹2 lakh bond. The court also imposed strict conditions on them stating that they cannot leave the country and must not commit a similar crime. The court issued a stern warning, noting that any breach of these conditions would lead to the cancellation of their bail.<ref name=":2" />

=== Conviction ===
On 16 July 2025, Rao and co-accused Tarun Raju and Sahil Jain were sentenced to one year in prison under the [[Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974|COFEPOSA Act]] under the charge of gold smuggling. The Advisory Board of COFEPOSA also ruled that she will not be granted bail during the term of her incarceration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Actor Ranya Rao jailed for gold smuggling under COFEPOSA in Bengaluru, no bail|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/actor-ranya-rao-jailed-for-gold-smuggling-under-cofeposa-in-bengaluru-no-bail/article69822551.ece|website=The Hindu|date=17 July 2025}}</ref> The DRI also imposed a fine of ₹ 102 crore on Rao and the co-accused after they were sentenced in the gold smuggling racket.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Directorate of Revenue Intelligence imposes ₹102 crore penalty on Kannada actress Ranya Rao in gold smuggling case|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/dri-imposes-penalty-on-kannada-actress-ranya-rao-in-gold-smuggling-case/article70004335.ece|website=The Hindu|date=5 September 2025}}</ref> After finishing her sentence, she was set to be released on bail after a year on 23 April 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold smuggling case 2026: Actress Ranya Rao set for release after year |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/gold-smuggling-case-actress-ranya-rao-set-to-walk-out-of-jail-after-a-year-3977190 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
| style="background:#FFFFCC;"| {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}
| Denotes films that have not yet been released
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Language
! Role
! class="unsortable"|Notes
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Maanikya]]'' || [[Kannada]] || Manasa || Debut movie, credited as Ranya
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Wagah (film)|Wagah]]'' || [[Tamil language|Tamil]] || Khanum/Kajal ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Pataki (film)|Pataki]]'' || Kannada || Sangeetha ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|5945119|Ranya Rao}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rao, Ranya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Chikmagalur]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian smugglers]]
[[Category:Indian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of India]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]

Padrauna Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:49:18Z

Yaarzu: started some data initial version

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Padrauna
| constituency_no = 330
| map_image = 330-Padrauna.svg
| mla = [[Manish Jaiswal]]
| party = [[Bhartiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Kushinagar district|Kushinagar]]
| reservation = None
| type= SLA
}}
'''Padrauna''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Padrauna in the [[Kushinagar district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Padrauna is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Kushi Nagar Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 330 amongst 403 constituencies.

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Padrauna Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/padrauna.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Chandradeo
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Chandra Pratap Narain Singh
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Kranti Dal}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]]
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| rowspan="2" |Purushottam Kaushik
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Brij Kishore
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|[[Baleshwar Yadav (politician)|Baleshwar Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Lokdal}}" |
|[[Lokdal]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|Asgar
|style="background-color: {{party color|Communist Party of India}}" |
|[[Communist Party of India]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Surendra Shukla
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|[[Baleshwar Yadav (politician)|Baleshwar Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Ratanjit Pratap Narain Singh]]
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|-
|2009^
| rowspan="3" |[[Swami Prasad Maurya]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Manish Kumar Jaiswal]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Padrauna<ref name="election2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-25 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2022|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/|website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Manish Kumar Jaiswal]]
|votes = {{formatnum:114496}}
|percentage = 49.8
|change = +5.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Vikrama Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:72488}}
|percentage = 31.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Dr.Nisar Ahmed
|votes = {{formatnum:20983}}
|percentage = 9.13
|change = -16.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|candidate = Javed Yunus Khan
|votes = {{formatnum:7976}}
|percentage = 3.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Mohammad Jahiruddin
|votes = {{formatnum:3338}}
|percentage = 1.45
|change = -18.08
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Anshuman Banka
|votes = {{formatnum:3026}}
|percentage = 1.32
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1394}}
|percentage = 0.61
|change = -0.18
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:42008}}
|percentage = 18.27
|change = -0.97
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:229907}}
|percentage = 60.1
|change = -0.3
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = BJP
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
[[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate '''Swami Prasad Maurya''' won in last Assembly election of [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] candidate '''Javed Iqbal''' by a margin of 40,552 votes.<ref name="election2017">{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/padrauna.html|title=Assembly result 2017|website=Elections.in|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref>
{{Election box begin|title = [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Padraun<ref name="election2017"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Swami Prasad Maurya
|votes = {{formatnum:93649}}
|percentage = 44.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Javed Iqbal
|votes = {{formatnum:53097}}
|percentage = 25.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Shivkumari Devi
|votes = {{formatnum:41162}}
|percentage = 19.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Peace Party of India
|candidate = Rajendra Alias Munna Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:8329}}
|percentage = 3.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rajesh Prasad Saini
|votes = {{formatnum:2196}}
|percentage = 1.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1658}}
|percentage = 0.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:40552}}
|percentage = 19.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:210742}}
|percentage = 60.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==

* [[Padrauna]]
* [[Kushinagar district]]
* [[Kushi Nagar Lok Sabha constituency]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh|state=collapsed}}
{{Uttar Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|26.90|83.98|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Padrauna]]
[[Category:Kushinagar district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Himanshi Choudhry

2026-04-13T09:21:57Z

Yaarzu:

{{short description|British actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Himanshi Choudhry
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Manchester]], United Kingdom
| occupation = Actress
| known for = ''[[Tu Aashiqui]]'' ''[[Inside Edge (TV series)|Inside Edge]]''
| years_active = 2004–present
}}
'''Himanshi Choudhry''' is an Indian actress. She is known for playing Sheetal Dhanrajgir in ''[[Tu Aashiqui]]'' and Sudha Dhawan in ''[[Inside Edge (TV series)|Inside Edge]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/rahil-azam-i-want-people-to-miss-me-on-tv/story-Ij1kVvFPZY6l5NZLvN8GTL.html |title=Rahil Azam: I want people to miss me on TV |date=2 October 2017 |website=Hindustan Times |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=18 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818013852/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/rahil-azam-i-want-people-to-miss-me-on-tv/story-Ij1kVvFPZY6l5NZLvN8GTL.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/himanshi-choudhry-who-is-currently-seen-in-inside-edge-season-3-will-next-be-a-part-of-dobaaraa-she-talks-about-it-more-350017 |title=Himanshi Choudhry, who is currently seen in Inside Edge Season 3, will next be a part of Dobaaraa. She talks about it & more |date=14 December 2021 |website=The Tribune |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411204448/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/himanshi-choudhry-who-is-currently-seen-in-inside-edge-season-3-will-next-be-a-part-of-dobaaraa-she-talks-about-it-more-350017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2022/vivacity/a-passion-pursuit.html |title=A passion pursuit |date=8 January 2022 |website=The Pioneer |last1=Kaur |first1=Harleen |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107194952/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2022/vivacity/a-passion-pursuit.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early life and career==
Choudhry was born in [[Manchester]] to Indian parents and grew up in [[New Delhi]], India. She made her film debut in the 2008 movie [[Antardwand]], which won the [[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/antardwand-movie-review/articleshow/6447484.cms?from=mdr |title=Antardwand: Movie Review |date=27 August 2010 |website=The Economic Times |last1=Malani |first1=Gaurav |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411204510/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/antardwand-movie-review/articleshow/6447484.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Antardwand'- Movie Review|url=http://www.worldsnap.com/news/entertainment/movie-review/antardwand-movie-review-commendable-effort-at-examining-underbelly-of-rural-bihar-90658.html|last=Jha|first=Subhash|publisher=WorldSnap|date=27 August 2010|accessdate=9 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830154239/http://www.worldsnap.com/news/entertainment/movie-review/antardwand-movie-review-commendable-effort-at-examining-underbelly-of-rural-bihar-90658.html|archivedate=30 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Review: Antardwand|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_Review.aspx?id=544|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=27 August 2010|accessdate=9 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831011931/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_Review.aspx?id=544|archivedate=31 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===Film===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2003 ||''[[Ishq Vishk|Ishq Vishq]]'' || Priya || credited as Himanshi
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Antardwand]]'' || Sia || credited as Himanshi, Lead
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Dobaaraa]]'' || Sheela Aunty||
|-
| 2024 || ''[[Savi (film)|Savi]]'' || Ayesha Hassan ||
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Lavanya (TV series)|Lavanya]]'' || Tanya || Debut
|-
| 2004–2005 || ''[[Des Mein Niklla Hoga Chand]]'' || Dingy Singh Kent / Dingy Akash Mehra ||
|-
| 2006–2008 || ''[[Banoo Main Teri Dulhann]]'' || Mahua Singh ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Dil Ki Baatein Dil Hi Jaane]]'' || Manika Kapoor ||<ref name="Himanshi Choudhry's children to be introduced in Dil Ki Baatein">{{cite news |title=Himanshi Choudhry's children to be introduced in Dil Ki Baatein |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/himanshi-choudhrys-children-to-be-introduced-in-dil-ki-baatein/articleshow/47050230.cms |access-date=26 February 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=25 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250226101554/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/himanshi-choudhrys-children-to-be-introduced-in-dil-ki-baatein/articleshow/47050230.cms |archive-date=26 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Devlok with Devdutt Pattanaik]]'' || Presenter ||
|-
| 2016 || ''Shaadi Boys'' || Ruby ||
|-
| 2017–2018 || ''[[Tu Aashiqui]]'' || Sheetal Rajput / Sheetal Dhanrajgir ||
|}

===Web series===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2017–2021 || ''[[Inside Edge (TV series)|Inside Edge]]'' || Sudha Dhawan || Amazon Prime Video
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Out of Love (Indian TV series)|Out of Love]]'' || Ritu Mehra || Hotstar
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Hostages (Indian TV series)|Hostages]]'' || Kanika Arora || Hotstar
|-
| 2022 || ''[[The Great Indian Murder (TV series)|The Great Indian Murder]]'' || Rita Sethi || Hotstar
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|8493385}}
*{{Instagram|thatgirlwithshorthair}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhry, Himanshi}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Manchester]]
[[Category:British film actresses]]
[[Category:British television actresses]]
[[Category:British soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:British web series actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:British people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:British expatriate actresses in India]]
[[Category:21st-century British actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Dano-Mughal War

2026-04-12T20:37:37Z

Yaarzu: starting a details!

{{Short description|Danish colonial conflict against the Mughal Empire}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Dano-Mughal War
| place = {{hlist|[[Bay of Bengal]]|[[Indian Subcontinent|India]]|}}
| image = Dano-Mughal War.png
| image_size = 300
| date = 1642–1698
| caption = Campaign map of the Dano-Mughal War
| result = Stalemate (See [[#Peace|peace]])
| territory = [[Danish India]] acquires trading rights in [[Dannemarksnagore]]
| combatant1 = {{Tree list}}
* {{flagicon|Denmark-Norway}} [[Denmark–Norway]]
** {{flag|Danish India}}
{{tree list/end}}
| combatant2 = {{Tree list}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png}} [[Mughal Empire]]
** {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Bengal Subah]]
* {{flag|Dutch East India Company}}
{{tree list/end}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Denmark-Norway}} [[Christian IV]]{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon|Denmark-Norway}} [[Christian V]] {{flagicon|Danish India}} [[Wolf Henrik von Kalnein|Von Kalnein]] {{flagicon|Danish India}} Poul Nielsen{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon|Danish India}} [[Willem Leyel]]{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon|Danish India}} [[Bernt Pessart]] {{flagicon|Danish India}} Claus Rytter{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon|Danish India}} Carsten Ludvigsen{{Natural Causes}}
| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png}} [[Shah Jahan]]{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png}} [[Aurangzeb]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png}} Mirza Mumin{{Natural Causes}} {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mohammed Ajumadi {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Malik Kasim {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Abdul Gany{{POW}} {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Merse Meliquebek
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Dano-Mughal War}} {{Campaignbox Danish colonial conflicts}}
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 30 ships<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ray |first=Aniruddha |date=1997 |title=Mughal-Danish Relations During the 17th and Early 18th Century Bengal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44143918 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=58 |pages=285–294 |jstor=44143918 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>
| casualties1 = 30 ships<ref name="olsen">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |title=Dansk Ostindien |pages=184 |language=Danish |trans-title=Danish East India}}</ref>
| strength1 = 5 ships (1647–1648)<ref name="olsen" />
}}

The '''Dano-Mughal War''', formally the '''Danish East India Company's War against the Mughal Empire''', was a [[Colonial war|colonial]] and [[Naval warfare|maritime]] conflict between the [[Mughal Empire]] and the [[Danish East India Company]] over trade commerce in the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Lasting from 1642 to 1698, the conflict has also been referred to by historians as the '''Dano-Bengali Thirty Years' War'''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=Jens |title=To verdenshistorier |publisher=Politikens Forlag |year=1982 |location=Copenhagen and Oslo |pages=65 |language=Danish |trans-title=Two world histories }}</ref><ref name="Clausen 1983 109">{{Cite book |last=Clausen |first=Sven |editor-last=Jensen |editor-first= P. Hoxcer |chapter=Den dansk-bengalske trediveårskrig |title=Dansk kolonihistorie. Indføring og studier |year=1983 |location=Aarhus |publisher=Historia |pages=109 |language=da |trans-title=The Dano-Bengali Thirty Years War |isbn=87-88052-04-4}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{Further|Western imperialism in Asia#Early European exploration of Asia| Mercantilism|Christian IV of Denmark#Exploration and colonies}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| header = Monarchs
| image1 = Kristian IV av Danmark, malning av Pieter Isaacsz 1611-1616.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Christian IV]], [[King of Denmark]] and [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norway]] and [[Style of the Danish sovereign|more...]] ({{abbr|r.|reign}}1588–1648)
| image2 = Shah Jahan I of India.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Shah Jahan I, [[List of emperors of the Mughal Empire|Emperor of the Mughals]] ({{abbr|r.|reign}}1628–1658)
}}
At the start of the 17th century [[European colonialism]] started to expand. [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]], an ambitious king who wanted to show off [[Denmark–Norway]] on the international stage, sought to increase Denmark-Norway's [[sphere of influence]] and its financial and [[Autarky|economic independence]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nair |first=P. C. |date=June 1974 |title=Sociétés et Compagnies de Commerce en Orient et dans l'Ocean Indien. By Michel Mollat editor. (Actes du Huitième Colloque International d'Histoire Maritime, Beirut, 1966). Paris: S. E. V. P. E. N., 1970. Pp. 731, 8 plates. 62 Francs.

|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700080281 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=514–515 |doi=10.1017/s0022050700080281 |s2cid=154693349 |issn=0022-0507|url-access=subscription }}</ref> so he founded the first [[Danish East India Company]] in 1616. Nevertheless, he stimulated the establishment of trading companies for Greenland, [[Danish trade monopoly in Iceland|Iceland]], and the West and East Indies. The company was initially weak. It had had a rough [[Ove Gjedde#Career|First expedition]] and wanted to expand its [[Mercantilism]].

== Declaration of war ==
{{See also|Loss of the St. Jacob|Skirmish at Pipli|Expulsion of Danes from Balasore}}
In 1642 the Danish East India Company declared war on the [[Mughal Empire]]. This may sound unreasonable, by comparing the two nations. The Mughals were a vast Asiatic Empire, while [[Denmark–Norway]] was a declining power. For instance, the Mughal Empire's army was perhaps fifty times larger than Denmark's entire population.<ref>{{Citation |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Tapan |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1982-04-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521226929.011 |work=The Cambridge Economic History of India |pages=172–193 |access-date=2023-11-11 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521226929.011 |isbn=978-1-139-05451-5|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johansen |first=Hans Chr. |date=January 1972 |title=Some aspects of Danish rural population structure in 1787 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03585522.1972.10407711 |journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=61–70 |doi=10.1080/03585522.1972.10407711 |issn=0358-5522}}</ref>

The reason why the [[Danish East India Company]] declared war on the [[Mughal Empire]] lay in the nature of European [[Maritime trade]]. Violence was used to ensure the safe transport of [[goods]] and was key to the success of [[commercial enterprise]] in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davis |first=Lance E. |date=September 1980 |title=Profits from Power: Readings in Protection Rent and Violence-Controlling Enterprises. By Frederic C. Lane. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1979. Pp. 128. $24.95 cloth, $7.95 paper. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700085892 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=675–676 |doi=10.1017/s0022050700085892 |s2cid=154335771 |issn=0022-0507|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another mean, [[mercantilism]], the dominant [[economic theory]] in sixteenth and seventeenth-century Europe was also contributing to the competition and conflict in the area. It associated states' strength with their economic dominance. It also emphasized commercial competition. Such competition was used by various European [[Charter companies]] like the [[Danish East India Company]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

In 1640, On a voyage from [[Makassar]] to [[Machilipatnam|Masulipatnam]], the [[Loss of the St. Jacob|''St. Jacob'' was seized]] and wrecked by Bengali local authorities, the [[Danes]] could not negotiate the release of the cargo.<ref name="Larsen 2012 1990–1991">{{Cite journal |last=Larsen |first=Øivind |date=2012 |title=Historie, helse og makt i Dansk Vestindia |journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Legeforening |volume=132 |issue=17 |pages=1990–1991 |doi=10.4045/tidsskr.12.0778 |issn=0029-2001|doi-access=free }}</ref> Dutch records claim that the ''St. Jacob's cargo'' was seized because of Danish debts, but the Danes viewed the seizure as a tyrannous act and in 1642 made a formal [[declaration of war]].<ref name="Coolhaas1970p417">{{Cite journal |last=Coolhaas |first=W. P. |date=August 1970 |title=Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie. Vol. III: 1655–1674. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2593871 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=417 |doi=10.2307/2593871 |issn=0013-0117 |jstor=2593871|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:European settlements in India 1501-1739.png|thumb|Danish and other European settlements in [[Sri Lanka]] and India.]]

== War phase (1643–1650) ==

=== War at sea ===
{{See also|Capture of St. Michael}}
Shortly after declaring war, [[Denmark–Norway]] swiftly dispatched two of [[Tharangambadi|Tranquebar]]'s finest vessels towards [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], where they successfully captured a ship that they later renamed ''Den Bengalske Prise''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kay |title="Danske Kapertoger i den bengalske Havbugt, 1642–1648," |publisher=Olsen, Dansk Ostindien |year=1907 |pages=435–436 |language=Danish}}</ref>

For the Dano-Norwegians, the war served as a means to finance their company, a vital source of [[revenue]] during the period from 1639 to 1668, when the company faced [[Danish East India Company#First company|dissolution]] and [[Danish East India Company#Second company, and the Asiatic Company|resurrection]], with no [[reinforcements]] arriving from Denmark to assist in Asia.<ref>{{Citation |title=1830, 1831 |date=2010-09-16 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511711473.003 |work=Twenty-Nine Years in the West Indies and Central Africa |pages=30–49 |access-date=2023-12-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511711473.003 |isbn=9781108016698 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Danes exhibited a clear inclination towards financial gain, with their primary focus lying on maximizing profits rather than directly attacking the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]]. They particularly targeted ships returning from Southeast Asia due to their immensely valuable cargoes.<ref name="Hauge 3–13">{{Cite journal |last=Hauge |first=Peter |date=2002-06-01 |title=Et brev fra diplomaten Stephen Lesieur til Chr. IV's lutenist John Dowland |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/mag.v15i2.66844 |journal=Magasin Fra Det Kongelige Bibliotek |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.7146/mag.v15i2.66844 |issn=1904-4348}}</ref>

Danish seizures of Bengali ships became alarmingly frequent for the Mughals, and a letter from [[Willem Leyel]] states " they were doing their best to cause the [[Bengalis]] as much harm as possible,"<ref>{{Citation |last=Lo Russo |first=Rosaria |title=Mettere in voce il verso. La pratica del reading di poesia fra letteratura e vocalità |date=2020 |work=L'arte orale |pages=71–90 |publisher=Accademia University Press|doi=10.4000/books.aaccademia.8090 |isbn=9791280136176 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The repercussions of these seizures took a severe toll on the businesses and professional lives of Bengali individual merchants, instilling a deep fear that discouraged them from venturing to sea, fearful of potential capture by the Danes.<ref name="Goor1972">{{Cite journal |last=Goor |first=J. van |date=1972-01-01 |title=W.Ph. Coolhaas, Generale missiven der V.O.C., I, 1610–1628, II, 1639–1655,III, 1655–1674, IV, 1675–1684 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18352/bmgn-lchr.1712 |journal=BMGN: Low Countries Historical Review |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=108–110 |doi=10.18352/bmgn-lchr.1712 |issn=2211-2898|url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Resistance movement|Resistance]] against the Danish sailors was scarce. According to Danish colonial historian Gunnar Olsen, the Bengalis exhibited a sense of resignation, as described in his writings. "the Bengalis seem to have given up in advance on any form of resistance against the [[Royal Danish Navy|Danish ships]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1954 |title=Vore Gamle Tropekolonier. Edited by ''Johannes Bröndsted''. Volume I, Dansk Ostindien og Dansk Guinea. By ''Gunnar Olsen, Kamma Struwe, Aage Rasch'', and ''Georg Nörregaard''. Volume II, Dansk Vestindien. By ''Jens Bro-Jörgensen, Jens Vibœk, Fridlev Skrubbeltrang'', and ''Georg Nörregaard''. (Copenhagen: Westermann. 1952, 1953. Pp. 665; 577. Kr. 550.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/59.3.607 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/59.3.607 |issn=1937-5239|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Although resistance was rare, it was not entirely absent. In a notable incident off the Gingeli coast in 1644, the [[yacht]] ''Walby'' intercepted two sizable Bengali ships carrying elephants, resulting in a skirmish where some of the elephants tragically perished,<ref name="Hauge 3–13"/> documenting the use of violent resistance by Bengalis. The overall lack of efficacy in resisting the Danish forces can be attributed to the stark contrast in [[naval warfare]] capabilities between the [[Europeans]] and the [[Mughals]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=P. J. |date=February 1980 |title=Western Arms in Maritime Asia in the Early Phases of Expansion |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x00012142 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00012142 |s2cid=143911505 |issn=0026-749X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Land skirmishes ===
{{Main|Danish rescue mission to Pipli|Skirmish at Pipli}}

Recorded land [[confrontation]]s were rare, with only two notable instances.

The initial occurrence took place in the early 1640s, prior to the official declaration of war. The Danes, stationed at [[Pipli]] under the leadership of Poul Nielsen, encountered significant financial troubles. A [[Persians|Persian]] merchant, who owed a substantial amount to the Danes, adamantly refused to settle his [[debt]]s. In response, the Danes resorted to [[Imprisonment|imprisoning]] him within his own residence. However, when this approach proved ineffective, they proceeded to seize one of his slaves and impound a portion of his goods at the Danish [[trading post]]. The [[Mughals]], considering this a violation of their [[sovereignty]], promptly dispatched a force of 300 men to seize and set ablaze the Danish trading station. All the confiscated [[goods]] were taken and the Danish factors were imprisoned, although Nielsen and several others managed to escape to [[Tharangambadi|Tranquebar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goebel |first=Erik |date=November 2011 |title=The trials and travels of Willem Leyel: an account of the Danish East India Company in Tranquebar, 1639–48 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21533369.2011.622877 |journal=Journal for Maritime Research |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=164–165 |doi=10.1080/21533369.2011.622877 |s2cid=161425363 |issn=2153-3369|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Fort Dansborg in Tharangambadi, Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|[[Fort Dansborg]] at [[Tranquebar]], the first and main Danish Indian outpost]]

The second encounter occurred during the mid-1640s, following the formal [[declaration of war]]. A Danish vessel, carrying a crew of six, was [[Shipwreck|wrecked]] along the [[Bay of Bengal|Bengali coast]]. The surviving crew members were subsequently detained by the Bengalis, prompting the initiation of a Danish [[rescue operation]]. Led by Nielsen, a group of 16 men set out towards the Mughal governor's residence in [[Pipli]], where the captured crew was rumored to be held captive. They confronted the guards, causing the governor to hastily flee. However, their search yielded no sign of the [[castaway]]s. Nielsen then proposed investigating the [[town hall]], which was vigilantly guarded by soldiers who had already been informed of the ongoing mission. Despite the guards' alertness, the [[Danes]] managed to overpower several of them, forcing the others to flee. Subsequently, they gained access to the town hall, where they discovered the castaways confined in formidable iron chains. Remarkably, the Danish rescue mission achieved its objective with minimal [[Casualty (person)|casualties]] and zero fatalities.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

== Danish manifesto ==
A Portuguese-written [[manifesto]] was [[craft]]ed to justify the Danish stance. Bearing the date August 24, 1644, this concise [[document]] spans five pages and serves to outline the grievances the Danes sought to address. Commencing with the Danish loss of ''Jupiter'', a [[Watercraft|vessel]] carrying valuable cargo, as well as the subsequent imprisonment of its crew in [[1625]]. Additionally, it recounts the distressing incident involving the [[Kidnapping|abduction]] of a young Danish boy, who was forcefully [[Conversion to Islam|converted to Islam]] and disappeared without a trace. The documents blame the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] governor for both instances. Then it explains how the Danes stopped trading in Bengal because of these "robberies, offenses and [[Tyrant|tyrannies]]."
[[File:Danish India 1622-1636.png|thumb|300x300px|Danish India during the regime of [[Roland Crappé]]]]
It also describes several other instances of Mughal aggression like the Mughal governor's obstruction of commerce, the assault on Danish factors at [[Pipli]], and the poisoning of shipwrecked Danish servants. Some of these instances are rejected by scholars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dewhurst |first=R. P. |date=October 1924 |title=Recent books on India – 8.—From Akbar to Aurangzeb. A Study in Indian Economic History. By W. H. Moreland, C.S.I., C.I.E. 9 × 5¾, xiii + 346 pp., 2 maps. London: Macmillan & Co., 1923. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0035869X00065710/type/journal_article |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=684–686 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00065710 |s2cid=163256348 |issn=1356-1863|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Efn| Numerous scholars{{Who|date=July 2024}} have doubted the likelihood that the locals would have deliberately
poisoned the Danes.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} }}

The manifesto, in its essence, appears as trying to portray their enemy's lack of [[morality]] and [[shame]], while simultaneously underscoring the Danish continued [[Volition (psychology)|willingness]] to [[Negotiation|negotiate]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

== Failed negotiations ==
Because of the lack of [[naval power]], the Mughals sought to put an end to the war by instead negotiating and making compromises with the Danes. First in 1645, where they offered 80,000 [[rupee]]s in compensation for peace. Yet Danish governor, Willem Leyel, rejected the offer, hoping to instead receive 436,500 [[Rixdollars (Danish)|rix-dollars]]. Leyel instead intensified the fighting.

The Mughals again tried to compromise with Denmark in 1647 or early 1648 but did not result in any significant [[peace]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olsen |title=Dansk Ostindien |pages=139–141}}</ref>

In 1647, the Danish instructions stated that for peace to be established with the Bengalis, three conditions had to be met.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

# A substantial cash [[payment]] was required
# The Danes were to be granted equal trading privileges as the [[Dutch people|Dutch]]
# Arrangements were to be made for the forgiveness of all debts that [[Bernt Pessart|Pessart]] had incurred in [[Masulipatnam]]
Having themselves failed to negotiate with the Danes, the Mughals instead tried to pressure other [[European colonial powers]] to intervene. After a Danish seizure of two large Bengali ships, the Mughals were enraged<ref name="Goor1972" /> Yet they could not revenge the Danes because the [[Danish East India Company]] no longer had any territory inside of the Mughal Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feldbæk |title=No Ship for Tranquebar for Twenty-nine Years |pages=35}}</ref> Therefore [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]], Mughal Prince, made an ultimatum for the [[Dutch East India Company]] to either stop Danish aggression or leave [[Bengal]], However, after discussions, he was persuaded against pursuing the ultimatum.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Tapan |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004286641 |title=Jan Company in Coromandel 1605–1690 |year=2014 |orig-year=First published 1962 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789004286641 |isbn=978-90-04-28664-1}}</ref>

In 1649, [[Local government|local authorities]] attempted a similar action by refusing favorable trading terms from the VOC, if the Dutch could not assure the protection of their merchants against the Danes. The Dutch, deeming this proposition as ridiculous, rejected it.<ref name="Goor1972" /> VOC eventually accepted the protections of merchants with [[Muslims|Muslim]] backgrounds, against Danish aggression.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ibid III |pages=864}}</ref>

The [[loyalty]] of certain Danish Company servants added complexity to the [[Peace treaty|peace negotiations]]. [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] had a strong bond with the Danish East India Company, so much so that he became the "''Head and Lord of the whole Company''" in 1629.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bredsdorff |title=The Trials and Travels of Willem Leyel |pages=22}}</ref> He had consistently declined to dissolve the Company, even though it was not profitable, due to concerns about losing his reputation in [[Denmark–Norway|Denmark]] and abroad.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bellamy |first=Martin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789047411291 |title=Christian IV and his Navy |date=2006-10-13 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789047411291 |isbn=978-90-474-1129-1}}</ref> The company was eventually dissolved{{Efn|The initial company was in operation from 1616 to 1650, while the second company existed between 1670 and 1729, before being re-established in 1730 as the [[Asiatic Company]] (Danish: ''Asiatisk Kompagni''), .
}} after Christian's death<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ostindisk Kompagni, 1616–1729 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/ostindisk-kompagni |access-date=2024-01-06 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref> when informed about its dissolution, the Danish factors stationed in Asia had no choice but to continue operating the Asian settlements as they were the property of the [[Monarchy of Denmark|Crown]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feldbæk and Justesen |title=Kolonierne i Asian og Afrika |pages=76}}</ref>

== Late phase (1669–1698) ==
{{Further|Attack in Hooghly}}[[File:Christian V. of Denmark.jpg|thumb|Christian V of Denmark]]
After the dissolution of the first company and [[Second Northern War|conflicts at home]], relations between Denmark-Norway and [[Tranquebar]] were re-established in 1669 after a successful expedition by the [[frigate]] ''Færø'' in 1668, which resulted in the renewal of Danish interests in the region. In 1672 [[Christian V of Denmark|Christian V]] wrote a letter to the Mughals, asking for compensation for Danish vessels during the conflict.<ref name="Clausen 1983 109"/> The compensation was never fulfilled, and the Danes became increasingly frustrated and even chased and blew up two greater vessels near [[Hugli-Chinsura|Hughli]].<ref name="Coolhaas1970p417" /> The incidents and skirmishes continued, until eventually, the Danes felt the absence of the Bengali market and decided to resume negotiations.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

== Peace ==
{{Main|Dano-Mughal Treaty}}

A provisional peace was agreed upon in 1674.<ref name="olsen" /> However, this period of peace was short-lived as the Danes continued to pillage Bengali merchants for their own financial benefit. Danish hostilities were renewed against Bengal after the vessel ''Christianshavn'' was wrecked by the local ''[[faujdar]]'' (commander responsible for administering [[Subdistrict|sub-districts]]) according to the Danish claims.<ref name="Larsen 2012 1990–1991"/> Danish harassment of both hostile but also peaceful Bengali merchants went on until the late seventeenth century. The Danes wished to regain their influence in Bengal by re-establishing their presence in the region. They yet again tried to negotiate peace with the Mughals, this time succeeding.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

In 1698, [[Andreas Andræ]], along with [[Thomas Schmertz]], was dispatched to Bengal by the Danish government. They arrived with ships, Indian servants, money, goods, and Danish settlers with the intention of establishing a trading presence in the region. Andræ successfully negotiated a [[Peace treaty|peace agreement]] with the Bengali governor, Mohammed Ajumadi, wherein both parties agreed to set aside their claims over previously confiscated ships. The Danish delegates also gifted 15,000 [[rupee]]s and four cannons to the prince.<ref name="Coolhaas1970p417" /> Moreover, Andræ secured a lease for a plot of land at [[Gondalpara|Gondalapara]] close to the French settlement of [[French India#List of French establishments in India|Chandernagore]] for 30,000 rupees to be paid over a period of ten years. This area eventually became known as [[Dannemarksnagore]], where the Danes established a trading post that served as the foundation for their operations in Bengal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kay |title="Da Fattiromany blev taget: En dansk Kup i Bengalen 1714," |year=1940 |pages=31 |language=Danish |trans-title=When Fattiromany was Taken: A Danish Coup in Bengal 1714}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{Annotated link|Danish East India Company}}
* {{Annotated link|Battle of Buxar}}
* {{Annotated link|Dutch East India Company}}
* {{Annotated link|Bahadur Shah I}}
* {{Annotated link|Ove Gjedde}}
* {{Annotated link|Cattle War}}
* {{Annotated link|Siege of Dansborg (1644)}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Wars involving Denmark–Norway|Mughal]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Naval history of India]]
[[Category:Military history of Bengal]]
[[Category:17th century in India]]
[[Category:Danish colonisation in Asia]]
[[Category:17th century in Danish India]]
[[Category:17th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Military history of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Tranquebar]]

Maharashtra's Best Dancer

2026-04-05T03:06:17Z

Yaarzu: new!

{{Use Indian English|date=March 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox television
| language = Marathi
| last_aired = {{end date|2021|03|14|df=y}}
| first_aired = {{start date|2020|11|30|df=y}}
| image_alt =
| caption =
| alt_name = MBD
| genre = [[Dance]] [[Reality Television]]
| creator =
| presenter = Sankarshan Karhade Namrata Sambherao
| judges = [[Dharmesh Yelande]] [[Pooja Sawant]]
| country = India
| num_episodes = 31
| list_episodes =
| num_seasons =
| image = Maharashtra's Best Dancer.jpeg
| image_size = 300
| producer = Hemant Ruprell Ranjeet Thakur
| director =
| runtime = 60 Minutes
| company = [[Frames Production]]
| network = [[Sony Marathi]]
| channel =
}}

'''''Maharashtra's Best Dancer''''' is the Marathi-language version of the [[reality television]] programme [[India's Best Dancer]] and the show aired on [[Sony Marathi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=New show 'Maharashtra's Best Dancer' to launch soon - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/new-show-maharashtras-best-dancer-to-launch-soon/articleshow/78445943.cms|access-date=2020-12-24|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Actress [[Pooja Sawant]] and Choreographer [[Dharmesh Yelande]] are the Judges and the hosts are Sankarshan Karhade and Namrata Sambherao. Prathamesh Mane is the winner of season 1.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prathamesh Mane lifts the trophy of Maharashtra's Best Dancer - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/prathamesh-mane-lifts-the-trophy-of-maharashtras-best-dancer/articleshow/81507105.cms|access-date=2021-03-17|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Concept ==
Maharashtra's Best Dancer will showcase the people of some of the best dancing talent, who with their solo performances, will compete to win the show. In the Grand Premiere, the judges announced the Top 14 contestants who will have a respective mentor in the journey ahead. Week-on-week these 14 contestants will have to impress the judges and audience alike to move closer to winning the most coveted title of Maharashtra's Best Dancer.

== Top 13 contestants ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:95%; line-height:30px; width:auto;"
! Contestants
! City
! Choreographers
! Status
! Date of Elimination
|-
| Prathamesh Mane
| [[Satara (city)|Satara]]
| Akash Shetty
|{{Won}}
|—
|-
| Prachi Prajapati
| [[Nagpur]]
| Shweta Warrier
|{{Runner-up|1st Runner-up}}
|—
|-
| Apeksha Londhe
| [[Pune]]
| Ashutosh Pawar
|style="background:#7FFFD4;"|2nd Runner-up
|—
|-
| Aditi Jadhav
| [[Mumbai]]
| Rutuja Junnarkar
|style="background:#DDA0DD;"|3rd Runner-up
|—
|-
| Arya Dongre
| [[Pune]]
| Pratiksha Sutar
| {{Eliminated}}
| 2 March 2021
|-
| Shweta Tukrul
| [[Mumbai]]
| Vaibhav Ghuge
|{{Eliminated}}
| 23 February 2021
|-
| Sameep Dhakne
| [[Mumbai]]
| Rupesh Soni
| {{Eliminated}}
| 16 February 2021
|-
| Akash Tambedkar
| [[Mumbai]]
| Sagar Bora
| {{Eliminated}}
| 26 January 2021
|-
| Deepak Hulsure
| [[Latur]]
| Bharat Ghare
|{{Eliminated}}
| 26 January 2021
|-
| Shweta Kadam
| [[Mumbai]]
| Swapnil Mandavkar
|{{Eliminated}}
| 19 January 2021
|-
| Shubham Revankar
| [[Mumbai]]
| Ajinkya Kalokhe
|{{Eliminated}}
| 5 January 2021
|-
| Chinmay Borkar
| [[Goa]]
| Rutuja Parekh
|{{Eliminated}}
| 29 December 2020
|-
| Mansi Sharma
| [[Nagpur]]
| Minakshi Poshe
|{{Eliminated}}
| 22 December 2020
|}

== Guests ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Date
!Guest
!Featured
!Ref.
|-
|21-22 December
|[[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]]
|Guest appearance
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-12|title=Govinda To Appear As A Special Guest On Maharashtra's Best Dancer|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/marathi-movies/news/govinda-to-appear-as-a-special-guest-on-maharashtra-s-best-dancer-307402.html|access-date=2020-12-24|website=Filmibeat}}</ref>
|-
|11-12 January
|[[Ankush Chaudhari]]
|Guest appearance
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-12|title=Ankush Chaudhari appeared as a special guest on Maharashtra's Best Dancer|url=https://www.flixnary.com/maharashtras-best-dancer-elimination-today-sony-marathi/|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref>
|-
|8-9 February
|[[Remo D'Souza]]
|Through Video Call
|
|-
|15-16 February
|[[Amol Kolhe]]
|For Shivaji Maharaj Jayanti
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Actor Amol Kolhe to appear on Maharashtra's Best Dancer - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/actor-amol-kolhe-to-appear-on-maharashtras-best-dancer/articleshow/80894174.cms|access-date=2021-03-08|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|-
|22-23 February
|[[Vishakha Subhedar]], Arun Kadam, Namrata Sambherao
|Marriage Week Special
|
|-
|8-9 March
|[[Geeta Kapoor]]
|For Women's Day
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=MBD: Choreographer Geeta Kapoor lauds Sankarshan Karhade's hosting skills; the latter feels overwhelmed - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/mbd-choreographer-geeta-kapoor-lauds-sankarshan-karhades-hosting-skills-the-latter-feels-overwhelmed/articleshow/81326722.cms|access-date=2021-03-08|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|-
|Grand Finale
|[[Sachin (actor)|Sachin Pilgaonkar]], [[Supriya Pilgaonkar]]
|Guest appearance
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maharashtra's Best Dancer Grand Finale: Sachin and Supriya Pilgaonkar to grace the finale episode - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/maharashtras-best-dancer-grand-finale-sachin-and-supriya-pilgaonkar-to-grace-the-finale-episode/articleshow/81484698.cms|access-date=2021-03-17|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
|}

==Judges and hosts ==
Judges of Maharashtra's best dancer are:
* [[Dharmesh Yelande]]<ref>{{Cite web|title='महाराष्ट्राज् बेस्ट डान्सर' कार्यक्रमाच्या परीक्षकांच्या खुर्चीत धर्मेश विराजमान!|url=https://www.tv9marathi.com/entertainment/dharmesh-will-be-seen-as-judge-in-sony-marathis-new-show-maharashtras-best-dancer-299954.html|access-date=2020-12-24|website=TV9 Marathi|language=mr}}</ref>
* [[Pooja Sawant]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pooja Sawant All Set To Judge Maharashtra's Best Dancer On Sony Marathi|url=https://www.spotboye.com/marathi/marathi-news/pooja-sawant-all-set-to-judge-maharashtra-s-best-dancer-on-sony-marathi/5fc63a04aafb3d5f2f6462be|access-date=2020-12-24|website=SpotboyE}}</ref>

Hosts of Maharashtra's best dancer are:
* Sankarshan Karhade<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sankarshan Karhade to host Maharashtra's Best Dancer - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/sankarshan-karhade-to-host-maharashtras-best-dancer/articleshow/79492267.cms|access-date=2020-12-24|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Namrata Sambherao

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.sonyliv.com/shows/maharashtra-s-best-dancer-1700000633 ''Maharashtra's Best Dancer''] at [[Sony LIV]]

[[Category:Indian dance competition television shows]]
[[Category:2020 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Sony Marathi original programming]]
[[Category:2021 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Marathi-language television shows]]
[[Category:India's Best Dancer]]

Advaita Vedanta

2026-03-28T09:19:28Z

Yaarzu: correct intro to improve readability

{{Short description|Hindu tradition of textual interpretation}}
{{Redirect|Advaita}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Advaita}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|right|thumb|[[Adi Shankara]], the most prominent exponent of Advaita Vedānta tradition. "I am other than name, form and action. My nature is ever free! I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman. I am pure Awareness, always non-dual." Adi Shankara, [[Upadesasahasri]] 11.7{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}]]

'''''Advaita Vedanta''''' ({{IPAc-en|ʌ|d|ˈ|v|aɪ|t|ə|_|v|ɛ|ˈ|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{langx|sa|अद्वैतवेदान्तः}}, {{IAST3|Advaita Vedānta}}) is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] tradition of [[Brahmin|Brahmanical]] textual exegesis and [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]], and a monastic institutional tradition nominally related to the [[Daśanāmi Sampradaya]] and propagated by the [[Smarta tradition]]. Its core tenet is that ''[[jiva]]tman'', the individual experiencing self, is ultimately pure awareness mistakenly identified with the body and its senses<ref>''Tattvabodha'' 33, International Vedanta Mission</ref> and with [[Conceptual proliferation|thought-constructs]],{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52, 57}} and non-different from ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]/[[Brahman]]'' or ''[[Satya|sat]]'', the highest Self or [[ultimate Reality|Real]].{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=3, note 2; p.54}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} The term ''Advaita'' (अद्वैत) literally means "not-two"{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=15}}{{sfn|Katz|2007}} or "one without a second,"{{sfn|Katz|2007}} which means that only [[Brahman]], 'the one', is ultimately real while ''[[Conceptual proliferation|prapanca]]'', 'the second', 'the world' or the multiplicity of thought-constructs, is not fully real.{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52}} It is commonly rendered as "[[Nonduality (spirituality)|nonduality]],"{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|p=3}}{{sfn|Milne|1997}} and popularly interpreted as meaning that Atman is non-different from Brahman, and often equated with [[monism]].{{refn|group=note|name=Monism}}

Advaita Vedanta is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[sādhanā]], a path of spiritual discipline and experience.{{refn|group=note|name=spiritual experience}} It states that ''[[moksha]]'' ('liberation', freedom){{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=8–14, 31–34, 44–45, 176–178}}{{sfn|Fost|1998|pp=387–405}} is attained when knowledge of Brahman is attained, recognizing the illusoriness of the phenomenal world and disidentifying from body-mind and the notion of 'doership',{{refn|group=note|name=self-evident}} acquiring ''[[Vidya (Knowledge)|vidyā]]'' (knowledge){{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} of one's true identity as ''Atman/Brahman'',{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–52}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=78–79}}{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=68}} self-luminous (''[[svayam prakāśa]]''){{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} awareness or [[Sakshi (Witness)|Witness-consciousness]].{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=60}}{{refn|group=note|name=Consciousness}} This knowledge is acquired through [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] statements such as ''[[tat tvam asi]]'', "that['s how] you are," which destroy the ignorance (''[[avidya (Hinduism)|avidyā]]'') regarding one's true identity by revealing that ''(jiv)Ātman'' is non-different from immortal{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal}} ''Brahman''.{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}}

The Advaita vedanta tradition modifies the [[Samkhya]]-dualism between ''[[Purusha]]'' (pure awareness or consciousness) and ''[[Prakriti]]'' ('nature', which includes matter but also cognition and emotion) as the two equal basic principles of existence.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} It proposes instead that ''Atman/Brahman'' (awareness, ''purusha'') alone is ultimately [[Satya|real]] and, though unchanging,{{sfn|King|1995|p=78}} is the cause and origin of the transient [[phenomenon (philosophy)|phenomenal world]] (''[[prakriti]]''). In this view, the ''jivatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection or limitation of singular ''Ātman'' in a multitude of apparent individual bodies.{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=50}} It regards the material world as an illusory appearance (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'') or "an unreal manifestation (''[[Vivartavada|vivarta]]'') of Brahman,"{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} the latter as proposed by the 13th-century scholar [[Prakasatman]] of the [[Vivarana]] school.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}

Advaita Vedanta is often presented as an elite scholarly tradition belonging to the [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox]] Hindu [[Vedanta|Vedānta]]{{refn|group=note|name="Vedanta_meaning"}} tradition, emphasizing scholarly works written in Sanskrit;{{sfn|Allen|2017}} as such, it is an "iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture."{{sfn|King|2002|p=129-130}} Yet contemporary Advaita Vedanta is yogic Advaita, a medieval and modern syncretic tradition incorporating [[Yoga]] and other traditions, and producing works in vernacular.{{sfn|Allen|2017}} The earliest Advaita writings are the [[Sannyasa Upanishads]] (first centuries CE), the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}) and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] (7th century).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Gaudapada adapted [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophical concepts]] from [[Buddhism]], giving them a Vedantic basis and interpretation.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=13, 691}} The Buddhist concepts were further Vedanticised by [[Adi Shankara]] (8th c. CE), who is generally regarded as the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedānta tradition,{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=x–xi, 8–10, 17–18}}{{sfn|Phillips|1998|p=332, note 68}}{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=221, 680}}{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} though some of the most prominent Advaita-propositions come from other Advaitins, and his early influence has been questioned.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} Adi Shankara emphasized that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is [[Subitism|immediate]] and requires no 'action' or 'doership', that is, striving (to attain) and effort.{{sfn|Dubois|2013|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}} Nevertheless, the Advaita tradition, as represented by [[Mandana Misra]] and the ''[[Bhamati]]'' school, also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including contemplation of [[mahavakyas]],{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=125–142}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} presenting a tension between [[Sudden awakening|sudden and gradual approaches]] which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021}}{{refn|group=note|name=subitism}}

Shankaracharya's prominence as the exemplary defender of traditional Hindu-values and spirituality started to take shape only centuries later, in the 14th century, with the ascent of Sringeri matha and its ''jagadguru'' [[Vidyaranya]] (Madhava, 14th cent.) in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]],{{refn|group=note|name="Sringeri_14th_c"}} While Adi Shankara did not embrace ''Yoga'',{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=24, note 12}} the Advaita-tradition by then had accepted yogic samadhi as a means to still the mind and attain knowledge, explicitly incorporating elements from the yogic tradition and texts like the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'',{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} culminating in [[Swami Vivekananda]]'s full embrace and propagation of Yogic samadhi as an Advaita means of knowledge and liberation.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In the 19th century, due to the influence of [[Vidyaranya]]'s ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha]]'',{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} the importance of Advaita Vedānta was overemphasized by [[Indology|Western scholarship]],{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=3}} and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, despite the numerical dominance of [[Ishvara|theistic]] [[Bhakti]]-oriented religiosity.{{sfn|Sharma|2006|p=38–43, 68–75}}{{sfn|King|2013|p=128–132}}{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} In modern times, Advaita views appear in various [[Neo-Vedanta|Neo-Vedānta]] movements.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=119–133}}

{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Etymology and nomenclature==

===Etymology===
The word '''Advaita''' is a composite of two Sanskrit words:
* Prefix "a-" (अ), meaning "non-"
* "Dvaita" (द्वैत), which means 'duality' or 'dualism'.<ref group=web name="EB_Dvaita"/>

''Advaita'' is often translated as "non-duality," but a more apt translation is "non-secondness."{{sfn|Menon|2012}} Fabian Volker, following [[Paul Hacker (Indologist)|Paul Hacker]] explains that ''dvaita'' does not mean "duality," but "the state in which a second is present," synonymous with ''[[prapanca]]'', "conceptual proliferation," and with ''jagat'', "the world." Advaita thus means that only [[Brahman]], 'the one', is ultimately real, while the world with its multiplicity, 'the second', is not fully real.{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52}}
As Gaudapada states, when the unreal is taken as real, people grasp to the unreal, which is ''samsara''. By realizing one's true identity as ''Brahman'', there is no more grasping, and the mind comes to rest.{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}}

In a popular sense, advaita is often expressed as the famous diction that Atman is Brahman, meaning that ''[[jiva]]tman'', the individual experiencing self, is ultimately pure awareness mistakenly identified with body and the senses,<ref>''Tattvabodha'' 33, International Vedanta Mission</ref> and non-different ("na aparah") from ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]/[[Brahman]]'', the highest Self or [[ultimate Reality|Reality]];{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=3, note 2; p.54}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100-101}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}}; the knowledge of this true identity is liberating.

The word ''Vedānta'' is a composition of two Sanskrit words: The word [[Vedas|Veda]] refers to the whole corpus of vedic texts, and the word "anta" means 'end'. From this, one meaning of ''Vedānta'' is "the end of the Vedas" or "the ultimate knowledge of the Vedas". As all the vedas are divided into four parts i.e Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads, Upanishads are the ultimate and final part of vedas,<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Balmiki Prasad |title=Bahudhā and the Post 9/11 World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |pages=51–89 |chapter=The Vedic World View |quote=Each Veda contains four sections consisting of Samhita ... Brahmanas ... Aranyakas ... and Upanishads.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baird |first=Forrest |title=Philosophic Classics: Asian Philosophy, Volume VI |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-21746-0 |chapter=Indian Thought |doi=10.4324/9781351217460-3 |quote=The four Vedas began as collections (Samhitas)... In time, other types of scriptures were added... Brahmanas were added first, then Aranyakas, and finally Upanishads.}}</ref> Vedanta is called as Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sadananda |first=Yogindra |url=https://archive.org/details/VedantaSaraofSadanandaYogindra/page/n23/mode/2up |title=Vedantasara |publisher=Rāmakṛṣṇa Maṭha |year=2008 |location=Nagpur |page=1 |quote=वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्प्रमाणम्। (Vedānto nāma upaniṣat-pramāṇam.)}}</ref> ''Veda'' can also mean "knowledge" in general, so ''Vedānta'' can be taken to mean "the end, conclusion or finality of knowledge". [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] is one of six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].

===Advaita Vedanta===
While "a preferred terminology" for Upanisadic philosophy "in the early periods, before the time of Shankara" was ''Puruṣavāda'',{{sfn|Timalsina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|name="Puruṣavāda"|See also [[Purusha]].}} the Advaita Vedānta school has historically been referred to by various names, such as ''Advaita-vada'' (speaker of Advaita), ''Abheda-darshana'' (view of non-difference), ''Dvaita-vada-pratisedha'' (denial of dual distinctions), and ''Kevala-dvaita'' (non-dualism of the isolated).{{sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}} It is also called ''māyāvāda'' by Vaishnava opponents, akin to [[Madhyamaka]] [[Buddhism]], due to their insistence that phenomena ultimately lack an inherent essence or reality.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=78}}{{sfn|Lorenzen|2015}}{{sfn|Baird|1986}}{{sfn|Goswami Abhay Charan Bhaktivedanta|1956}}

"Advaita" (अद्वैत) is from Sanskrit roots ''a'', not; ''dvaita'', "customarily translated as dual."{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52}} As ''Advaita'', it is usually translated as "not-two"{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=15}}{{sfn|Katz|2007}} or "one without a second",{{sfn|Katz|2007}} and most commonly as "nondualism", "nonduality" or "nondual," invoking the notion of a dichotomy. Fabian Volker, following [[Paul Hacker (Indologist)|Paul Hacker]] explains that ''dvaita'' does not mean "duality," but "the state in which a second is present," the second here being synonymous with ''[[prapanca]]'', "conceptual proliferation," and with ''jagat'', "the world." Advaita thus means that only [[Brahman]], 'the one', is ultimately real, while the phenomenal world, or the [[Prapanca|conceptual multiplicity]], 'the second', is not fully real.{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52}} The term thus does not emphasize two instances, but the notion that the second instance is not fully real, and ''advaita'' is better translated as "that which has no second beside it" instead of "nonduality," denying multiplicity and the proliferation of concepts "that tend to obscure the true state of affairs."{{sfn|Volker|2023|p=52}}{{refn|group=note|According to Anantanand Rambachan, advaita describes the relation between Brahman, the origin of everything, and the world and the individual self. This relation is neither one nor two. It is not "one," because "[t]he world, as an effect, originates from Brahman and is dependent on Brahman for its existence." But it is also not "two," because Brahman is "the ultimate ontological ground of the world and the self."{{sfn|Sydnor|2023|p=4}}}}

According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, the term ''Advaita'' first occurs in a recognizably Vedantic context in the prose of [[Mandukya Upanishad]].{{sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}} According to [[Frits Staal]], a professor of philosophy specializing in Sanskrit and Vedic studies, the word ''Advaita'' itself is from the Vedic era, and the Vedic sage [[Yajnavalkya]] (8th or 7th-century BCE{{sfn|Scharfstein|1998|p=9–11}}{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxxvi with footnote 20}}) is credited to be the one who coined it.{{sfn|Staal|2008|p=365 note 159}} Stephen Phillips, a professor of philosophy and Asian studies, translates the ''Advaita'' containing verse excerpt in ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'', as "An ocean, a single seer without duality becomes he whose world is Brahman."{{refn|group=note|
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
सलिले एकस् द्रष्टा '''अद्वैत'''स् भवति एष ब्रह्मलोकस्
सम्राट् ति ह एनम् उवाच अनुशशास याज्ञवल्क्यस्
एषा अस्य परमा गतिस् एषास्य परमा सम्पद्
|attr1=''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 4.3.32''<ref group=web>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/s/1cl Wikisource] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4 |date=16 January 2024 }}, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.3.32</ref>|
An ocean, a single seer '''without duality''' becomes he whose world is Brahman,
O King, Yajnavalkya instructed
This is his supreme way. This is his supreme achievement.
|attr2=Transl: Stephen Phillips{{sfn|Phillips|2009|p=295 note 24}}{{refn|group=note|For an alternate English translation: Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n159/mode/2up The Thirteen Principal Upanishads], BU 4.3.32, Oxford University Press, p. 138.}}}}

A reference to Non-duality is also made in the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', within a dialogue between the Vedic sage [[Aruni|Uddalaka Aruni]] and his son Svetaketu, as follows :
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
सदेव सोम्येदमग्र आसीत एकमेवा '''अद्वितीय'''म्
तद्धैक आहुरसदेवेदमग्र आसीदेकमेवाद्वितीयं तस्मादसतः सज्जायत
|attr1=''[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 6.2.1''<ref group=web>Sanskrit: [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239260.html Wisdomlimb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906220300/https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239260.html |date=6 September 2022 }}, Chandogya upnishad 6.2.1</ref>|
Somya, before this world was manifest, there was only existence, one '''without duality'''
On this subject, some maintain that before this world was manifest, there was only non-existence, one without a second.
Out of that non-existence, existence emerged.
|attr2=[[Chandogya Upanishad]]}}}}

===Advaita tradition===
While the term "Advaita Vedanta" in a strict sense may refer to the scholastic tradition of textual exegesis established by Shankara and the [[monastic]] [[institutions]], "advaita" in a broader sense may refer to a broad current of advaitic thought, which incorporates advaitic elements with yogic thought and practice and other strands of Indian religiosity, such as [[Kashmir Shaivism]] and the [[Nath]] tradition.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} The first connotation has also been called "Classical Advaita"{{sfn|Madaio|2017}}{{sfn|King|1995|p=9}} and "doctrinal Advaita,"{{sfn|Sharma|1993|p=xiv}} and its presentation as such is due to mediaeval [[Doxography|doxographies]],{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} the influence of Orientalist Indologists like [[Paul Deussen]],{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=2, note 6}} and the Indian response to colonial influences, dubbed [[neo-Vedanta]] by Paul Hacker, who regarded it as a deviation from "traditional" Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} Yet, post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta incorporated yogic elements, such as the [[Yoga Vasistha]], and influenced other Indian traditions, and neo-Vedanta is based on this broader strand of Indian thought.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} This broader current of thought and practice has also been called "greater Advaita Vedanta,"{{sfn|Allen|2017}} "vernacular advaita,"{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} and "experiential Advaita."{{sfn|Sharma|1993|p=xiv}} It is this broader advaitic tradition which is commonly presented as "Advaita Vedanta," though the term "advaitic" may be more apt.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}}{{refn|group=note|name=Madaio2017_umbrella}}

===Monism===
{{See also|Metaphysics|Ontology}}

The nondualism of Advaita Vedānta is often regarded as an idealist [[monism]].{{refn|group=note|name=Monism}} According to King, Advaita Vedānta developed "to its ultimate extreme" the monistic ideas already present in the Upanishads.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|King|1995|p=65}}: "The prevailing monism of the Upanishads was developed by the Advaita Vedanta to its ultimate extreme."}} In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one."{{sfn|Milne|1997|p=168}} ''Advaita'' is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived.{{Sfn|Milne|1997|p=168}}

According to Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of alternate monism theories.{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=3, 10, 13–14 with footnotes}} According to Jacqueline Suthren Hirst, Adi Shankara positively emphasizes "oneness" premise in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to all the Upanishads.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=79}}

Nicholson states Advaita Vedānta contains realistic strands of thought, both in its oldest origins and in Shankara's writings.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=68}}

==Soteriology: moksha – liberating knowledge of Brahman==

===Knowledge is liberating===
[[File:Sri Ramana Maharshi - Portrait - G. G Welling - 1948.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ramana Maharshi]], the Indian sage who is widely regarded as a Jivanmukta]]
{{See also|Jnana|Prajna (Vedic)|Mahāvākyas#Prajñānam Brahma|l1=Jnana|l2=Prajna|l3=Prajñānam Brahma}}

The soteriological goal, in Advaita, is to gain self-knowledge as being in essence (Atman), awareness or [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], and complete understanding of the real identity of ''jivan-ātman'' as [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of ''Brahman'', immortality,{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} and leads to ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation) from suffering{{refn|group=note|The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality}} and ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} This is stated by Shankara as follows:

नामरूपक्रियारूपगुणदोषादिवर्जितः।

स्वयं स्वतन्त्र आकाशकल्पः केवल आत्मकृत्।।

''nāmarūpakriyārūpaguṇadoṣādi varjitaḥ |''

''svayaṃ svatantra ākāśakalpaḥ kevala ātmakṛt ||''<ref>{{cite book |last=Śaṅkarācārya |author-link=Adi Shankara |url=https://sunypress.edu/Books/A/A-Thousand-Teachings |title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7914-0944-2 |editor-last=Mayeda |editor-first=Sengaku |page=111 |chapter=Metrical Part, Chapter 11, Verse 7}}</ref>{{blockquote|
<poem>
I am other than name, form and action.
My nature is ever free!
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman.
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.
</poem>
|Adi Shankara, [[Upadesasahasri]] 11.7|{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}}}

According to Advaita Vedānta, liberation can be achieved while living, and is called ''[[Jivanmukti]]''.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=320}}{{Sfn|Comans|2000|pp=183–184}}{{refn|group=note|name=transformation}} in contrast to ''Videhamukti'' (moksha from samsara after death) in theistic sub-schools of Vedānta.{{sfn|Deussen|1980}}{{better source needed|date=January 2022}} The Atman-knowledge, that is the knowledge of true Self and its relationship to Brahman is central to this liberation in Advaita thought.{{refn|group=note|The true Self is itself just that pure consciousness, without which nothing can be known in any way.(...) And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not different from the ultimate world Principle, Brahman  (...) Brahman (<nowiki>=</nowiki>the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (''sat''), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublimatable.{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}}} Atman-knowledge, to Advaitins, is full awareness that everything is Brahman.{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}}{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=9–13, 29–30, 45–47, 79–86}}{{refn|group=note|name="Fowler2002_monism"}}

According to [[Anantanand Rambachan]], in Advaita, this state of liberating self-knowledge includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}}

===Attaining ''vidyā'' (knowledge)===
{{Main|Jnana Yoga}}

Advaita Vedānta regards the liberated state of being ''Atman/Brahman'' as one's true identity and inherent to being human. According to Shankara and the Vivarana-school, no human action can 'produce' this liberated state, as it is what one already is.{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}} As Swami Vivekananda stated:
{{blockquote|The Vedas cannot show you Brahman, you are That already. They can only help to take away the veil that hides truth from our eyes. The cessation of ignorance can only come when I know that God and I are one; in other words, identify yourself with Atman, not with human limitations. The idea that we are bound is only an illusion [Maya]. Freedom is inseparable from the nature of the Atman. This is ever pure, ever perfect, ever unchangeable.
|Adi Shankara's commentary on Fourth [[Brahma Sutras#Chapter 4: The benefits of spiritual knowledge|Vyasa Sutra]], Swami Vivekananda{{sfnp|Vivekananda|1947|pp=63-65}}}}

According to Shankara, taking a [[Subitism|subitist]] position,{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}} ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=9}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}}<ref group=note>See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism.</ref>

Yet, the Advaita-tradition also emphasizes human effort, a path of Jnana Yoga with a progression of study and training to realize one's true identity as ''Atman/Brahman'' and attain [[moksha]].{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=125–142}} According to the contemporary Advaita tradition, knowledge of Atman/Brahman is obtained gradually, by ''[[svādhyāya]]'', study of the self and of the Vedic texts, which consists of four stages of [[Nididhyāsana|''samanyasa'']]: ''[[Renunciation|virāga]]'' ('renunciation'), ''sravana'' ('listening to the teachings of the sages'), ''[[Manana (reflection)|manana]]'' ('reflection on the teachings') and ''[[nididhyāsana]]'', introspection and profound and repeated meditation on the [[mahavakyas]], selected Upanishadic statements such as ''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ('that art thou' or 'you are That') which are taken literal, and form the ''srutic'' evidence for the identity of ''jivanatman'' and Atman/Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfn|Derrida|1992|p=203}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |title=Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana'' |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051012/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |url-status=live }}</ref> This meditation negates the misconceptions, false knowledge, and [[ahamkara|false ego-identity]], rooted in [[Maya (Hinduism)|''maya'']], which obfuscate the ultimate truth of the oneness of Brahman, and one's true identity as ''Atman/Brahman.''{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}} This culminates in what Adi Shankara refers to as ''anubhava'', immediate intuition, a direct awareness which is construction-free, and not construction-filled. It is not an awareness ''of'' Brahman, but instead an awareness that ''is'' Brahman.{{sfn|Davis|2010|p=34–35}} Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, and affirmed by [[Mandana Misra]],{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=18-19}} it is at odds with Shankara,{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=97}} who took a [[Subitism|subitist]] position.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}}

''Sruti'' (scriptures), proper reasoning and meditation are the main sources of knowledge (''vidya'') for the Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Rambachan|1984}}{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}} It teaches that correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is achievable by ''[[svādhyāya]]'',{{sfn|Sivananda|1977|p=viii}} study of the self and of the Vedic texts, and three stages of practice: ''sravana'' (perception, hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation),{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} a three-step methodology that is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99">{{harvnb|Grimes|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA99 98–99]}}</ref>

According to critics of [[neo-Advaita]], which also emphasizes direct insight, traditional Advaita Vedanta entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature, but also includes self-restraint, textual studies and ethical perfection. It is described in classical Advaita books like Shankara's [[Upadesasahasri]]{{sfn|Mayeda|2006}} and the [[Vivekachudamani]], which is also attributed to Shankara.

==== Preparation: the fourfold qualities ====
The Advaita student has to develop the fourfold qualities,{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}} or behavioral qualifications (''Samanyasa'', ''Sampattis'', ''sādhana-catustaya''):{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Davis|2010|pp=38–39}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105–108}}{{refn|group=note|These characteristics and steps are described in various Advaita texts, such as by Shankara in Chapter 1.1 of ''Brahmasutrabhasya'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} and in the Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10}} A student in Advaita Vedānta tradition is required to develop these four qualities:
# ''{{IAST|Nityānitya vastu viveka}}'' (नित्यानित्यवस्तुविवेकः) – Viveka is the ability to correctly discriminate between the real and eternal (''nitya'') and the substance that is apparently real, illusory, changing and transitory (''anitya'').{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}
# ''{{IAST|Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga}}'' (इहाऽमुत्रार्थफलभोगविरागः) – The renunciation (''virāga'') of all desires of the mind (bhoga) for sense pleasures, in this world (iha) and other worlds. Willing to give up everything that is an obstacle to the pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}}
# ''{{IAST|Śamādi ṣatka sampatti}}'' (शमादिषट्कसम्पत्तिः) – the sixfold virtues or qualities:
## ''Śama'' – mental tranquility, ability to focus the mind.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}}
## ''[[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|Dama]]'' – self-restraint,{{refn|group=note|Example self-restraints mentioned in Hindu texts: one must refrain from any violence that causes injury to others, refrain from starting or propagating deceit and falsehood, refrain from theft of others' property, refrain from sexually cheating on one's partner, and refrain from avarice.{{sfnp|Heim|2005|pp=341–354}}{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2001|p=777}}{{sfnp|Rao|1926}}}} the virtue of temperance.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}} restraining the senses.
## ''Uparati'' – dispassion, lack of desire for worldly pleasures, ability to be quiet and disassociated from everything;{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} discontinuation of all religious duties and ceremonies{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}}
## ''[[Titiksha|Titikṣa]]'' – endurance, perseverance, putting up with pairs of opposites (like heat and cold, pleasure and pain), ability to be patient during demanding circumstances{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}}
## ''[[Śraddhā]]'' – having faith in teacher and the [[Sruti]] scriptural texts{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}
## ''Samādhāna'' – contentedness, satisfaction of mind in all conditions, attention, intentness of mind{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Thibaut|1890|p=12 with footnote 1}}
# ''{{IAST|Mumukṣutva}}'' (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) – An intense longing for freedom, liberation and wisdom, driven to the quest of knowledge and understanding. Having moksha as the primary goal of life{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}}

==== The threefold practice: ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation)====
The Advaita tradition teaches that correct knowledge, which destroys ''avidya'', psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=78–79}} is obtained in ''jnanayoga'' through three stages of practice,{{sfn|Davis|2010|pp=38–39}} ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation).{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'':{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99"/>
* ''Sravana'', which literally means hearing. The student listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}} of the sages on the [[Upanishads]] and Advaita Vedānta, studying the Vedantic texts, such as the [[Brahma Sutras]], aided by discussions with the [[guru]] (teacher, counsellor).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}
* ''Manana'' refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the various ideas based on ''svadhyaya'' and ''sravana''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert P. Waxler|author2=Maureen P. Hall|title=Transforming Literacy: Changing Lives Through Reading and Writing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dB7gXgmOhR4C&pg=PA105 |year=2011|publisher=Emerald |isbn=978-0-85724-628-8|pages=105–106}}</ref> It is the stage of [[Manana (reflection)|reflection on the teachings]];{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}
* ''[[Nididhyāsana]]'', the stage of meditation and introspection.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |title=Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana'' |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051012/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |url-status=live }}</ref> This stage of practice aims at realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality and a state where there is a fusion of thought and action, knowing and being.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=16}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}

Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, Shankara's works show an ambivalence toward it: while accepting its authenticity and merits, as it is based in the scriptures, he also takes a [[Subitism|subitist]] position,{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}} arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=9}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}}<ref group=note>See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism.</ref> According to Rambachan, "it is not possible to reconcile Sankara's views with this seemingly well-ordered system."{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=97}}

[[Mandana Misra]], on the other hand, explicitly affirms the threefold practice as the means to acquire knowledge of Brahman, referring to meditation as ''dhyana''.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=18}} He states that these practices, though conceptual, 'can eliminate both ignorance and coneptuality at the same time, leaving only the "pure, transparent nature" of self-awareness'.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=19}}

Bilimoria states that these three stages of Advaita practice can be viewed as ''sadhana'' practice that unifies ''[[Yoga]]'' and ''[[Karma]]'' ("action," referring here to ritual) ideas, and was most likely derived from these older traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=P.P. Bilimoria|title=Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arvrCAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-2911-1|pages=299–301}}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}

====Guru====
{{Main|Guru}}

Advaita Vedānta school has traditionally had a high reverence for a Guru (teacher), and recommends that a competent Guru be sought in one's pursuit of spirituality, though this is not mandatory.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Reading of Vedic literature and reflection is the most essential practice.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly employed compound words "such as ''Sastracaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and ''Vedāntacaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the Upanishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of Guru".{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} According to Comans, this reflects the Advaita tradition which holds a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge, and to self-realization.{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=182–183}} Nevertheless, in the Bhamati-school the guru has a less essential role, as he can explain the teachings, but the student has to venture its further study.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}}

A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the ''guru'' serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.<ref name=joelmlecko33>Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906162935/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 |date=6 September 2023 }} Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pp. 33–61</ref> The guru, states Joel Mlecko, is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life."<ref name=joelmlecko33/>

===''Pramana'' (means of knowledge)===
{{Main|Epistemology in Advaita Vedanta}}

In classical Indian thought, ''[[pramana]]'' ([[epistemology|means of knowledge]]) concerns questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired; how one knows, how one doesn't; and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Potter |year=2002 |title=Presuppositions of India's Philosophies |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0779-0 |pages=25–26}}</ref><ref name=dpsb>{{cite book |first=DPS |last=Bhawuk |year=2011 |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |editor=[[Anthony J. Marsella]] |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |page=172}}</ref> In contrast to other schools of Indian philosophy, early Vedanta paid little attention to ''[[pramana]]''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} The ''Brahmasutras'' are not concerned with ''pramana'', and ''pratyaksa'' (sense-perception) and ''anumana'' (inference) refer there to ''sruti'' and ''smriti'' respectively.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46}}{{refn|group=note|Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology (''pramana-janya'') in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri, and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Bādarāyaṇa|1936|p=35}} NB: some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1.18.133 as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|loc=Verse 2.8.133, p. 258}}{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=249}}}} but his thematic focus was upon [[metaphysics]] and [[soteriology]], and he took for granted the ''pramanas''.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} For Shankara, ''sabda'' is the only means of knowledge for attaining ''Brahman-jnana''.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} taking ''Atman/Brahman'' to be self-evident (''svapramanaka'') and self-established (''svatahsiddha''), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}}

Nevertheless, the Advaita tradition accepts altogether six kinds of {{IAST|pramāṇas}}.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|Datta|1932|pp=221–253}}{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=228}}{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} While Adi Shankara emphasized ''[[Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism|Śabda]]'' (शब्द), relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts with regard to religious insights,<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|King|1999|p=14}} and also accepted ''pratyakṣam'' (प्रत्यक्षम्), perception; and ''anumāṇam'' (अनुमानम्), inference; classical Advaita Vedānta, just like the [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa|Bhatta Purvamimamsaka school]], also accepts ''upamāṇam'' (उपमानम्), comparison, analogy; ''arthāpattih'' (अर्थापत्तिः), postulation, derivation from circumstances;<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Flood1996|p=225}} and ''[[anupalabdhi|anupalabdhih]]'' (अनुपलब्धिः), non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}

==== Samadhi ====
According to Dubois, Shankara's Advaita emphasizes that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort;{{sfn|Dubois|2013|p=xvii}} yet, the contemporary Advaita tradition, which is a yogic Advaita synthesis which developed in the late mediaeval period, also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including yogic samadhi, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.{{sfn|Barua|2015}}{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021}}{{refn|group=note|name=subitism}}

Shankara regarded the ''srutis'' as the means of knowledge of Brahman, and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation, which at best may prepare one for ''Brahma-jnana''.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> According to Rambachan, criticising Vivekananda, Shankara states that the knowledge of Brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the [[Shruti]], and not by Yoga or samadhi, which at best can only silence the mind.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=124–125}} The Bhamati school and the Vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation, but they both "deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques."{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=96}} Later Advaita texts like the ''[[Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka]]'' (14th century) and ''[[Vedantasara (of Sadananda)|Vedāntasara (of Sadananda)]]'' (15th century) added [[samādhi]] as a means to liberation, a theme that was also emphasized by Swami Vivekananda.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} The [[Vivekachudamani]], traditionally attributed to Shankara but post-dating him,{{sfn|Grimes|2004|p=23}} "conceives of ''[[nirvikalpa samadhi]]'' as the premier method of Self-realization over and above the well-known vedantic discipline of listening, reflection and deep contemplation."{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} Koller states that yogic concentration is an aid to gaining knowledge in Advaita.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}}

==== ''Anubhava'' ('experience') ====
The role of ''anubhava'', ''anubhuti'' ("experience," "intuition"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}}) as "experience" in gaining ''Brahman-jnana'' is contested. While neo-Vedanta claims a central position for ''anubhava'' as "experience," Shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining ''Brahman-jnana'',{{sfn|Halbfass|2017|p=387}}{{refn|group=note|See also ramesam, [https://www.advaita-vision.org/atma-anubhava-anubhuti/ ''AtmA anubhava / anubhUti''] (blog).}} "the intuition of Brahman,"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}} and used ''anubhava'' interchangeably with ''pratipatta'', "understanding".{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=68}} Arvind Sharma argues that Shankara's own "direct experience of the ultimate truth" guided him in selecting "those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed, even forbidden, doors."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sharma|2000|p=177}} refers to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' 4.1.15, "which tradition views as an allusion to his own direct experience of the ultimate truth." It runs as follows: [...] How can one contest the heart-felt cognition of another as possessing ''brahman''-knowledge, even though bearing a body?}}

The ''[[Vivekachudamani]]'' "explicit[ly] declar[es] that experience (''anubhuti'') is a ''pramana'', or means of knowing (VCM 59),"{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} and [[neo-Vedanta]] also accepts ''anubhava'' ("personal experience") as a means of knowledge.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} Dalal and others state that ''anubhava'' does not center around some sort of "mystical experience," but around the correct knowledge of Brahman.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=1–14}} Nikhalananda concurs, stating that (knowledge of) ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' can only be reached by ''[[buddhi]]'', "reason,"{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|p=viii}} stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while ''buddhi'' is the highest means of attaining knowledge.{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|pp=viii–ix}}

====''Adhyaropa Apavada'' - imposition and negation====
{{See also|Neti neti|l1=Neti Neti}}

Since Gaudapada,{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} who adopted the Buddhist four-cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute',{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}}} a central method in Advaita Vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called ''Adhyaropa Apavada''.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} In this method, which was highly estimated by [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati]], a property is imposed (''adhyaropa'') on Atman to convince one of its existence, whereafter the imposition is removed (''apavada'') to reveal the true nature of Atman as nondual and undefinable.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|pp=158-159}} In this method, "That which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} As Shankara writes, "First let me bring them on the right path, and then I will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} For example, Atman, the real "I," is described as [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness]], giving "it" an attribute to separate it from non-self. Since this implies a duality between observer and observed, next the notion of "witness" is dropped, by showing that the Self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications, and only that what is remains, without using any words:<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda>{{Cite web |url=https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |title=''adhyAropa apavAda'' |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129091002/https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{blockquote|After one separates oneself i.e. 'I' or Atman from the sense objects, the qualities superimposed on Self are also negated by saying that which not being and not non-being, cannot be described by words, without beginning and end (BG 13.32) or as in Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahman, beyond words, beyond mind and speech, etc. Here there is an attempt to negate the earlier attribute like being witness, bliss, most subtlest, etc. After this negation of false superimposition, Self Alone shines. One enters into the state of Nirvikalp Samadhi, where there is no second, no one to experience and hence this state cannot be described in words.<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda/>}}

===The ''Mahavakyas'' - recognising one's true identity ===
''Moksha'', liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence ''Atman'', and attaining knowledge of the identity of ''Atman'' and [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=14}} The real self is ''Sat'', "the Existent," that is, ''Atman/Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=12, 172}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=49}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the ''shruti'', especially the Upanishadic statement ''tat tvam asi''.

====''Mahavakyas''====
According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman''. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the ''[[Mahavakyas]]'', which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=81}} They are:
* तत्त्वमसि, ''[[Tattvamasi|tat tvam asi]]'', [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya VI.8.7]]. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are),{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=349 note 8.7-16.3}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} with ''[[Tattva|tat]]'' in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to ''[[Satya|sat]]'', "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152; p.349 note 8.7-16.3}}); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are,"{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}}{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=152}} with ''tat'' in Ch.U.6.12.3, its original location from where it was copied to other verses,{{sfn|Brereton|1986}} referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]"{{sfn|Bhatawadekar|2013|p=203, note 14}}{{sfn|Brereton|1986|p=107}}
* अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, ''[[aham brahmāsmi]]'', [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadāranyaka I.4.10]], "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine."{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}}
* प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, ''prajñānam brahma'', [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya V.3]], "''Prajñānam''{{refn|group=note|"Consciousness",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu">{{Cite web |url=http://www.jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |title=Jiddu Krishnamurti, ''Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106223706/http://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |url-status=live }}</ref> "intelligence",{{sfn|Sivaraman|1973|p=146}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}} "wisdom"}} ''is Brahman''."{{refn|group=note|"the Absolute",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "infinite",<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "the Highest truth"<ref group=web name="Jiddu" />}}
* अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ''ayamātmā brahma'', [[Mandukya Upanishad|Mandukya II]], "This Atman is Brahman."

====''That you are''====
The longest chapter of Shankara's ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'', chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|sat]]''), and the identity expressed in [[Chandogya Upanishad#Sixth Prapāṭhaka|Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7]] in the ''[[Mahāvākyas|mahavakya]]'' (great sentence) "''tat tvam asi''", "that thou art."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=50, 172}}{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} In this statement, according to Shankara, ''tat'' refers to '''[[Satya|Sat]]'',{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.3, 18.6, 18.7}} Existence, Being,<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya">{{cite web |url=http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=343e9e12ffd6b71c499e1722e8813e90&topic=87.0 |title=Topic: CHAPTER 6 - SECTION 8 |date=April 7, 2019 |website=Shankarabhashya.com |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209212211/http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?topic=87.0 |url-status=live }}</ref> or Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.6}} the Real, the "Root of the world,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}}{{refn|group=note|While the Vedanta tradition equates ''sat'' ("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} {{harvtxt|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}: "Although the text does not use the term ''brahman'', the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (''sat'') referred to is no other than Brahman."}} the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya"/> "Tvam" refers to one's real I, ''pratyagatman'' or inner Self,{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=60, 62}} the "direct Witness within everything,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=60}} "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=218 (up.II.1.24)}} the essence, ''Atman'', which the individual at the core is.{{sfnp|Muller|1879|pp=92-109 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Goodall|1996|pp=136–137}} As Shankara states in the ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'':
{{blockquote|Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner ''Atman'' will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190-192}}}}

The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} According to Nakamura, the non-duality of ''atman'' and ''Brahman'' "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=675}} (c.600 CE or earlier).{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=176}} Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to ''Brahma Sutra'' verse I.1.4:
{{blockquote|When the metaphorical or false ''atman'' is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent ''Brahman, atman''', how can anyduty exist?{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=178}}}}

From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=679}}

====Direct perception versus contemplation of the ''Mahavakyas''====
In the ''Upadesasahasri Shankara'', Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic ''mahavakya''. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}} and rejects ''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends ''parisamkhyana'',{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=173-174 (Up.I.18.9-19); p.196 note 13}} separating ''Atman'' from everything that is not ''Atman'', that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=251-253 (Up.II.3)}} Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only ''Atman'' exists, stating that "all the sentences of the ''Upanishads'' concerning non-duality of ''Atman'' should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=253 (Up.II.3)}} As Mayeda states, "how they [''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' versus ''parisamkhyana''] differ from each other in not known."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=196 note 13}}

''Prasamkhyana'' was advocated by Mandana Misra,{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=155}} the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} "According to Mandana, the ''mahavakyas'' are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about ''brahmajnana''. The ''Vedanta-vakyas'' convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (''prasamkhyana''). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the ''mahavakyas''.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=155-156}} Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=156}} In contrast, the [[Vivarana]] school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} follows Shankara closely, arguing that the ''mahavakyas'' are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=95}}

Shankara's insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the ''[[asparsa yoga]]'' described in Gaudapada's ''Mandukyakarika'' III.39-46.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}} In this practice of 'non-contact' (''a-[[sparśa]]''), the mind is controlled and brought to rest, and does not create "things" (appearances) after which it grasps; it becomes non-dual, free from the subject-[grasping]-object dualism.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=365-366}}{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}} Knowing that only ''Atman/Brahman'' is real, the creations of the mind are seen as false appearances (MK III.31-33). When the mind is brought to rest, it becomes or is ''Brahman'' (MK III.46).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}}

====Renouncement of ritualism====
In the ''Upadesasahasri'' Shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to ''Deva'' (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from [[Brahman]].{{refn|group=note|name="ritualism"|Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts;{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=16}} For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up",<ref>Karl Potter on p. 220;{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> Elsewhere, Shankara's ''Bhasya'' on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites".<ref>{{cite book |title=Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |translator=S Madhavananda |year=1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda |pages=[https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda/page/348/mode/2up?view=theater 348–350, 754–757]}}</ref>}}{{refn |group=note |name="Mookerji" |1=Compare {{harvnb|Mookerji|2011}} on [[Svādhyāya]] (Vedic learning). {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29–31}} notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the ''Ŗik'' (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of ''dharma'' and ''Parabrahman''. {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29, 34}} concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of [[Nirukta|their meaning]] was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation." {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=35}} refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, ''akshara-praptī'', is followed by ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]'', perception of their meaning." (''[[Artha]]'' may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.{{sfn|Potter|1998|p=610 (note 17)}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |title=artha |work=Sanskrit English Dictionary |publisher=University of Koeln, Germany |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607221225/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |archive-date=2015-06-07}}</ref>) According to {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=36}}, "the realization of [[rta|Truth]]" and the knowledge of ''[[paramatman]]'' as revealed to the ''rishis'' is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.}} The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=219–221}} The false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} is connected with the novice's conviction that (''Upadesasaharsi II.1.25'')
{{blockquote|...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91, 218}}}}

Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-''Brahman''," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172-173 (Up.I.18.3-8)}} According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=183 (Up.I.18.99-100)}} "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the witness of all internal organs,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190 (Up.I.18.174)}} and not from any actions.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=192 (Up.I.18.196-197); p.195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}{{refn|group=note|Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees ''Atman'' there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}}} With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of ''Atman''] with the highest ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=85, 220 (Up.II.1.30)}}

==Philosophy: Reality/truth (Brahman, sat) and the world==
[[File:SwansCygnus olor.jpg|right|thumb|The swan is an important motif in Advaita. The white colour of swan symbolises [[Sattva]] guṇa & the ability to discern '''Satya''' (Real, Eternal) from '''Mithya''' (Unreal, Changing), just as the mythical swan [[Paramahamsa]] discerns milk from water.]]

Classical Advaita Vedānta states that all reality and everything in the experienced world has its root in Brahman, which is unchanging intelligent Consciousness.{{sfn|Menon|2012}} To Advaitins, there is no duality between a Creator and the created universe.{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Sharma|2008|p=5–14}} All objects, all experiences, all matter, all consciousness, all awareness are somehow also this one fundamental reality Brahman.{{sfn|Menon|2012}} Yet, the knowing self has various experiences of reality during the waking, dream and dreamless states,{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}} and Advaita Vedānta acknowledges and admits that from the empirical perspective there are numerous distinctions.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}} Advaita explains this by postulating different levels of reality,{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=174–178}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}}{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}} and by its theory of errors (''anirvacaniya khyati'').{{sfn|Thrasher|1993|p=1–7}}{{sfn|Menon|2012}}

===Darśana (view) – central concerns===
[[File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|The ripple, ''Jivatman'', is non-different from the water, ''Brahman''.]]
{{Further|Hindu philosophy}}

Vedānta is one of the six classical [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu ''darśanas'']], the Indian traditions of religious philosophy and practice which accept the authority of the Vedas. The various schools of Vedanta aim to harmonise the diverging views presented in the ''Prasthantrayi'', the Principal Upanishads,{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=237}}{{sfn|Dalal|2009|pp=16, 26–27}} along with the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]], offering an integrated body of textual interpretations and religious practices which aim at the attainment of ''[[moksha]]'', release or liberation from transmigratory existence.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=73}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|It is not a philosophy in the western meaning of the word, according to Milne.{{sfn|Milne|1997|p=166}}}}

====Rejection of samkhya-dualism====
{{Quote box |width=20em | bgcolor=#c6dbf7 |align=right |quote="Samkhya is not ''one'' of the systems of Indian philosophy. Samkhya ''is'' the philosophy of India!" | salign = right|source =Gopinath Kaviraj{{sfn|Larson|2014|p=xi}}}}
The Brahma Sutras, the constituting text of the Vedanta-tradition, rejects the ''purusha''-''prakriti'' dualism of the samkhya-tradition,{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} and "much of the ''Brahmasutra'' appears to have been written to refute the perspective of the Samkhya school."{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} [[Samkhya]] postulates two independent primal principles, ''[[purusha]]'' (primal consciousness) and ''[[prakriti]]'' (nature, which includes both matter and cognition and emotions). In samkhya, ''prakriti'' consists of three qualities (''[[Guṇa]]s''), which are in balance, until they come in contact with ''purusha'' and the equilibrium is disturbed. From this ''[[pradhana]]'' then evolves the material universe, distinct from ''purusha'', thereby postulating ''purusha'' as the efficient cause of all existence, and ''prakriti'' as its material cause or origin.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=19}}

While closely related to [[Samkhya]],{{sfn|Scheepers|2010|p=126, 128}}{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} the Advaita Vedānta tradition rejects this dualism, instead stating that reality cannot evolve from an inert, consciousness- and intelligence-less principle or essence. Brahman, which is intelligent and consciousness,{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} is the sole reality,{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} "that from which the origination, subsistence, and dissolution of this universe proceed,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=19}} as stated in the second verse of the Brahman Sutras. In Samkhya, ''purusha'' is the efficient cause, and ''prakriti'' is the material cause: ''purusha'' causes ''prakriti'' to manifest as the natural world. Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman, consciousness, is both the efficient and the material cause, that from which the material universe evolves.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=18–20}} Yet, in the Brahmasutras Brahma is a dynamic force, while the Advaita-tradition regards Brahman as an "essentially unchanging and static reality,"{{sfn|King|1995|p=78}} since Brahman changing into something else would mean that Brahman would not exist anymore, while a partial change would leave Brahman divided.{{sfn|King|1995|p=78}}

====Theoretical difficulties====
By accepting that Brahman is the sole, unchanging reality, various theoretical difficulties arise which are not answered by the Brahmasutras, which asserts that the Upanishadic views have to be accepted due to their scriptural authority, "regardless of logical problems and philosophical inconsistencies."{{sfn|King|1995|p=78}} Advaita and other Vedānta traditions face several problems, for which they offer different solutions.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=20–22}}{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} According to Deutsch and Dalvi, "The basic problem of Vedanta [is] the relation between the plural, complex, changing phenomenal world and the Brahman in which it substantially subsists."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}} According to Mayeda, following the post-Shankara{{sfn|King|1995|p=77}} predicate ''sat-cit-ananda'', three problems emerge. First, how did Brahman, which is ''sat'' ('existence'), without any distinction, become manifold material universe? Second, how did Brahman, which is ''cit'' ('consciousness'), create the material world? Third, if Brahman is ''ananda'' ('bliss'), why did the empirical world of sufferings arise? The [[Brahma Sutras]] do not answer these philosophical queries, and later Vedantins including Shankara had to resolve them.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=20–22}}

To solve these questions, Shankara introduced the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=20}} coming close to Samkhya dualism.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=22}} Shankara's notion of "Unevolved Name-and-Form" was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition; instead, the later tradition turned ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} In this view, Brahman alone is real, and the phenomenal world is an appearance (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'') or "an unreal manifestation (''[[Vivartavada|vivarta]]'') of Brahman."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} [[Prakasatman]]s (13th c.) defense of ''[[Vivartavada|vivarta]]'' to explain the origin of the world, which declared phenomenal reality to be an [[maya (Hinduism)#Hinduism|illusion]],{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}}

====Relation between ''jivatman'' and Atman/Brahman====
A main question in all schools of Vedanta is the relation between the individual self ([[jiva]]) and ''Atman''/''Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=25}} As Shankara and his followers regard Atman/Brahman to be the ultimate Real, ''jivanatman'' is "ultimately [to be] of the nature of Atman/Brahman."{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100-101}} This truth is established from a literal reading of selected parts{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}} of the oldest [[Principal Upanishads]] and [[Brahma Sutras]], and is also found in parts of the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]] and numerous other Hindu texts,{{sfn|Menon|2012}} and is regarded to be self-evident.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}}{{refn|group=note|Reason clarifies the truth and removes objections, according to the Advaita school, however it believes that pure logic cannot lead to philosophical truths and only experience and meditative insights do. The ''Sruti'', it believes is a collection of experience and meditative insights about liberating knowledge,{{sfn|Koller|2006|p=xii}}}} Great effort is made to show the correctness of this reading, and its compatibility with reason and experience, by criticizing other systems of thought.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}} [[Vidya (philosophy)|''Vidya'']], correct knowledge or understanding of the identity of [[Atman (Hinduism)|jivan-ātman]] and [[Brahman]], destroys or makes null ''[[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]]'' ('false knowledge'), and results in [[Moksha|liberation]].{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=99–106}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sharma|1993|pp=72–83}}: "According to Advaita, the pure subject is our true self whose knowledge is liberative, (...) If the subject could be realised in its purity then all misery would cease: this is called self-knowledge"}}

===Three levels of Reality/truth===
{{See also|Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)|Two truths doctrine}}Shankara proposes three levels of reality, using sublation as the ontological criterion:{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=174–178}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}}
* ''{{IAST|Pāramārthika}}'' (''paramartha'', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This reality is the highest; it can't be sublated (assimilated) by any other.{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}} Ultimate reality only consists of Brahman. Everything else is like a dream.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Betty |first=Stafford |date=2010-07-01 |title=Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2010.484955 |journal=Asian Philosophy |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=216 |doi=10.1080/09552367.2010.484955 |issn=0955-2367}}</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Vyāvahārika}}'' (''vyavahara''), or ''samvriti-saya'',{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=131}} consisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a given time and context but not [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] true. It is "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". It is the level in which both ''[[jiva]]'' (living creatures or individual Selfs) and ''[[Iswara]]'' are true; here, the material world is also true but this is incomplete reality and is sublatable.{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}}{{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=42–44}} ''Vyāvahārika'' reality results from superimposing ignorance on Brahman, like seeing a snake instead of a rope.<ref name=":0" />
* ''{{IAST|Prātibhāsika}}'' (''pratibhasika'', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality. Well-known examples of ''pratibhasika'' is the imaginary reality such as the "roaring of a lion" fabricated in dreams during one's sleep, and the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake.{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}}{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|p=359–363}}{{sfn|Sharma|1997|p=1–16}}

Absolute and relative reality are valid and true in their respective contexts, but only from their respective particular perspectives.{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}}{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}}{{sfn|Murti|1996|p=294–296, 194–195}} John Grimes explains this Advaita doctrine of absolute and relative truth with the example of light and darkness.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}} From the sun's perspective, it neither rises nor sets, there is no darkness, and "all is light". From the perspective of a person on earth, sun does rise and set, there is both light and darkness, not "all is light", there are relative shades of light and darkness. Both are valid realities and truths, given their perspectives. Yet, they are contradictory. What is true from one point of view, states Grimes, is not from another. To Advaita Vedānta, this does not mean there are two truths and two realities, but it only means that the same one Reality and one Truth is explained or experienced from two different perspectives.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}}{{sfnp|Grimes|1994|pp=35–38}}

As they developed these theories, Advaita Vedānta scholars were influenced by some ideas from the [[Nyaya]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Yoga]] schools of Hindu philosophy.{{sfnp|Sinha|2013|pp=306–314}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}} These theories have not enjoyed universal consensus among Advaitins, and various competing ontological interpretations have flowered within the Advaita tradition.{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfnp|Ram-Prasad|2013a|pp=190–194}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Timalsina|2008|p=xvii}}: "Advaita can be approached from various angles. Not only are there multiple interpretations of Advaita, there are different starting points from which one can arrive at the conclusion of non-duality".}}

===''Pāramārthika'' - ''Sat'' (True Reality)===

====Ātman====
{{Main|Ātman (Hinduism)}}

{{See also|Samadhi|Buddha-nature|Sunyata|Choiceless awareness}}

Ātman ([[IAST]]: ātman, [[Sanskrit]]: आत्मन्) is the "real self"{{sfnp|Dalal|2011|p=38}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2009|p=entry "Atman (self)"}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000c|loc="Atman"}}{{sfn|Timalsina|2014|pp=3–23}}{{refn|group=note|[https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul"}} or "essence"<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+atman&trans=Translate&direction=AU |title=Sanskrit Dictionary, ''Atman'' |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222144841/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+atman&trans=Translate&direction=AU |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"}} of the individual. It is ''caitanya'', Pure Consciousness,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=103 (verse 1), p.105 (note 1)}} a consciousness, states Sthaneshwar Timalsina, that is "self-revealed, self-evident and self-aware (''svaprakashata''),"{{sfn|Timalsina|2014|pp=3–23}} and, states Payne, "in some way permanent, eternal, absolute or unchanging."{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"}} It is self-existent awareness, limitless and non-dual.{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}} It is "a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of individuated phenomenality."{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=235}} Ātman, states Eliot Deutsch, is the "pure, undifferentiated, supreme power of awareness", it is more than thought, it is a state of being, that which is conscious and transcends subject-object divisions and momentariness.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–51}} According to Ram-Prasad, "it" is not an object, but "the irreducible essence of being [as] subjectivity, rather than an objective self with the quality of consciousness."{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=237}}

According to Shankara, it is self-evident and "a matter not requiring any proof" that Atman, the 'I', is 'as different as light is from darkness' from non-Atman, the 'you' or 'that', the material world whose characteristics are mistakenly superimposed on Atman, resulting in notions as "I am this" and "This is mine."<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble"/> One's real self is not the constantly changing body, not the desires, not the emotions, not the ego, nor the dualistic mind,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=44–45, 90}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=50–51, 101–107}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=256–258, 261–263}} but the introspective, inwardly self-conscious "on-looker" (''saksi''),{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/448 448]–449}} which is in reality completely disconnected from the non-Atman.<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble"/>

The ''jivatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection of singular Atman in a multitude of apparent individual bodies.{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=50}} It is "not an individual subject of consciousness,"{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=235}} but the same in each person and identical to the universal eternal [[Brahman]],{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=9–13, 29–30, 45–47, 79–86}} a term used interchangeably with Atman.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992}}

''Atman'' is often translated as [[soul]],{{refn|group=note|name="Soul"}} though the two concepts differ significantly, since "soul" includes mental activities, whereas "Atman" solely refers to detached witness-consciousness.

=====Three states of consciousness and Turiya=====
Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep (suṣupti), which are empirically experienced by human beings,{{sfn|Sharma|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=57–60}} and correspond to the [[Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)|Three Bodies Doctrine]]:{{sfn|Wilber|2000|p=132}}
# The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world.{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}} This is the gross body.
# The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the [[subtle body]].{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}}
# The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the [[causal body]].{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}}

Advaita also posits "the fourth," [[Turiya]], which some describe as pure consciousness, the background that underlies and transcends these three common states of consciousness.<ref group=web name=rm>{{cite book |url=http://bhagavan-ramana.org/ramana_maharshi/books/tw/tw617.html |author=Ramana Maharshi |title=States of Consciousness |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-date=9 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209164417/http://bhagavan-ramana.org/ramana_maharshi/books/tw/tw617.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref group=web name=sc1>{{cite book|url=http://www.yogaofsrichinmoy.com/yoga/summits_of_god-life|author=Sri Chinmoy|title=Summits of God-Life|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-date=15 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215153917/http://www.yogaofsrichinmoy.com/yoga/summits_of_god-life/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Turiya is the state of liberation, where states Advaita school, one experiences the infinite (''ananta'') and non-different (''advaita/abheda''), that is free from the dualistic experience, the state in which [[ajativada]], non-origination, is apprehended.{{sfn|King|1995|p=300 note 140}} According to Candradhara Sarma, Turiya state is where the foundational Self is realized, it is measureless, neither cause nor effect, all pervading, without suffering, blissful, changeless, self-luminous,{{refn|group=note |name=self-luminous}} real, immanent in all things and transcendent.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|pp=122, 137}} Those who have experienced the Turiya stage of self-consciousness have reached the pure awareness of their own non-dual Self as one with everyone and everything, for them the knowledge, the knower, the known becomes one, they are the ''Jivanmukta''.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|pp=126, 146}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=128–131, 5–8, 30–37}}{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=106–108}}{{sfnp|Sullivan|1997|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Gupta|1998|pp=26–30}}

Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory in more ancient Sanskrit texts.{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=32–33}} For example, chapters 8.7 through 8.12 of [[Chandogya Upanishad]] discuss the "four states of consciousness" as awake, dream-filled sleep, deep sleep, and beyond deep sleep.{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=32–33}}{{sfnp|Hume|1921|p=Chandogya Upanishad – Eighth Prathapaka, Seventh through Twelfth Khanda, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n289/mode/2up pp. 268–273]}} One of the earliest mentions of ''Turiya'', in the Hindu scriptures, occurs in verse 5.14.3 of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''.{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Olivelle|1998|p=77}}; Sanskrit ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् Wikisource]): प्राणोऽपानो व्यान इत्यष्टावक्षराणि अष्टाक्षर ह वा एकं गायत्र्यै पदम् एतदु हैवास्या एतत् स यावदिदं प्राणि तावद्ध जयति योऽस्या एतदेवं पदं वेद अथास्या एतदेव '''तुरीयं''' दर्शतं पदं परोरजा य एष तपति यद्वै चतुर्थं तत्तुरीयम् दर्शतं पदमिति ददृश इव ह्येष परोरजा इति सर्वमु ह्येवैष रज उपर्युपरि तपत्य् एव हैव श्रिया यशसा तपति योऽस्या एतदेवं पदं वेद ॥ ३ ॥}} The idea is also discussed in other early Upanishads.{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=58–67, 106–108}}

=====''Svayam prakāśa'' (self-luminosity)=====
{{Quote box
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| quote = Brahma Jnanavali Mala, attributed to Adi Shankara:<ref group=web>[https://indiaspirituality.blogspot.com/2013/06/brahma-jnanavali-mala-by-shri-adi_26.html Brahma Jnanavali Mala by Shri Adi Shankaracharya]</ref>

6. I am the indwelling consciousness, I am calm (free from all agitation), I am beyond [[prakriti]] (maya), I am of the nature of eternal bliss, I am the very Self, indestructible and changeless.

14. I am a mass of awareness and of consciousness. I am not a doer nor an experiencer. I am the very Self, indestructible and changeless.

[[Manisha Panchakam]], attributed to Adi Shankara:<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/Manishapanchakam.pdf |title=manIShApanchakam |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417060741/https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/Manishapanchakam.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
{{Main|Prakāśa}}

{{See also|Svasaṃvedana|Vimarśa}}

In the Advaita tradition, consciousness is svayam prakāśa, "self-luminous,"{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=24, 28}}{{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} which means that "self is pure awareness by nature."{{sfn|Ganeri|2019|p=103}} According to Dasgupta, it is "the most fundamental concept of the Vedanta."{{sfn|Dasgupta|1975|p=148-149}} According to [[Tiruppattur R. Venkatachala Murti|T. R. V. Murti]], the Vedanta concept is explained as follows:
{{blockquote|The point to be reached is a foundational consciousness that is unconditional, self-evident, and immediate (''svayam-prakāśa''). It is that to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object. The self should not be confused with the contents and states which it enjoys and manipulates. If we have to give an account of it, we can describe it only as what it is not, for any positive description of it would be possible only if it could be made an object of observation, which from the nature of the case it is not. We "know" it only as we withdraw ourselves from the body with which we happen to be identified, in this transition.{{sfn|Murti|1983|p=339}}{{refn|group=note|Compare {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}: For Advaita Vedānta, consciousness is to be distinguished from all contents of consciousness that might be introspectively detectable: It is precisely consciousness of whatever contents it is conscious of and not itself one of these contents. Its only nature is, Advaita holds, prakāśa (manifestation); in itself it is devoid of any content or structure and can never become an object.}}}}

According to Jonardon Ganeri, the concept was introduced by the Buddhist philosopher [[Dignāga]] (c.480–c.540 CE), and accepted by the Vedanta tradition;{{sfn|Ganeri|2019|p=103}} according to Zhihua Yao, the concept has older roots in the [[Mahasanghika#Self-Awareness and the Mind|Mahasanghika]] school.{{sfnp|Yao|2005|p=2}}

====Brahman====
{{Main|Brahman|Satcitananda}}

According to Advaita Vedānta, [[Brahman]] is the true Self, consciousness, awareness, intelligent, possessed with will, and the only Reality (''[[Satya|Sat]]'').{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Raju|2006|p=426; Conclusion chapter part XII}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_definitions}} Brahman is ''Paramarthika Satyam'', "Absolute Truth"{{sfn|Venkatramaiah|2000|p=xxxii}} or absolute Real.{{sfn|Padiyath|2014|p=177}} It is That which is [[Ajativada|unborn]] and unchanging,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Brodd|2009|p=43–47}} and immortal.{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal}} Other than ''Brahman'', everything else, including the universe, material objects and individuals, are ever-changing and therefore [[maya (illusion)|maya]]. Brahman is "not sublatable",{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}} which means it cannot be superseded by a still higher reality:{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=231}}
{{blockquote|the true Self, pure consciousness [...] the only Reality (''sat''), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublatable".{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}}}

In Advaita, Brahman is the substrate and cause of all changes.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Brodd|2009|p=43–47}} Refuting samkhya, which considers [[pradhana]] or prakriti the material cause (primal matter) and purusha the efficient cause,{{sfn|Vireswarananda|2019|p=xix, xxii}} in Advaita Vedanta Brahman is considered to be the material cause{{refn|group=note|It provides the "stuff" from which everything is made}} and the efficient cause{{refn|group=note|It sets everything into working, into existence}} of all that exists.{{sfn|Raju|2006|p=426 and Conclusion chapter part XII}}{{sfnp|Dhavamony|2002|pp=43–44}}{{sfnp|Martinez-Bedard|2006|pp=18–35}} The Brahma Sutras I.1.2 state that Brahman is:
{{blockquote|...that from which the origination, subsistence, and dissolution of this universe proceed.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=18-19}}{{Refn|group=note|Gambhirananda: "That (is Brahman) from which (are derived) the birth etc. of this (universe)."{{sfn|Gambhirananda|2021|p=13}}}}}}

Advaita's Upanishadic roots state Brahman's qualities{{refn|group=note|''Svarupalakshana'', qualities, definition based on essence}} to be ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]'',{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=9}}{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}} "true being-consciousness-bliss,"{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=9–10 with footnote 2}} or "Eternal Bliss Consciousness".{{sfn|Werner|1994}}{{refn|group=note|The Advaitin scholar Madhusudana Sarasvati explained Brahman as the Reality that is simultaneously an absence of falsity (sat), absence of ignorance (cit), and absence of sorrow/self-limitation (ananda).{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}}}} A distinction is made between ''[[nirguna Brahman]]'', formless Brahman, and ''[[Saguna brahman|saguna Brahman]]'', Brahman with form, that is, ''Ishvara'', God. ''Nirguna Brahman'' is undescribable, and the Upanishadic ''[[neti neti]]'' ('not this, not that' or 'neither this, nor that') negates all conceptualizations of Brahman.{{sfn|Derrida|1992|p=203}}{{sfnp|Pradhan|2014|p=19}}

===''Vyāvahārika'' (conventional reality) – ''Avidya'' and ''{{IAST|Māyā}}'' ===

====''Avidyā'' (ignorance)====
''[[Avidyā (Hinduism)|Avidyā]]'' is a central tenet of Shankara's Advaita, and became the main target of Ramanuja's criticism of Shankara.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=152}}{{sfn|Grimes|1990|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In Shankara's view, avidyā is ''adhyasa'', "the superimposition of the qualities of one thing upon another."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=77}} As Shankara explains in the ''Adhyasa-bhasya'', the introduction to the ''Brahmasutrabhasya'':
{{blockquote|Owing to an absence of discrimination, there continues a natural human behaviour in the form of 'I am this' or 'This is mine'; this is avidya. It is a superimposition of the attributes of one thing on another. The ascertainment of the nature of the real entity by separating the superimposed thing from it is vidya (knowledge, illumination).}}

Due to ''avidya'', we're steeped in ''loka drsti'', the empirical view.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}} From the beginning we only perceive the empirical world of multiplicity, taking it to be the only and true reality.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}}{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=114–122}} Due to avidyā there is ignorance, or nescience, of the real Self, ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman/Brahman]]'', mistakenly identifying the Self with the body-mind complex.<ref group=web name="EB_Maya"/> With ''parmartha drsti'' ignorance is removed and ''vidya'' is acquired, and the Real, distinctionless Brahman is perceived as the True reality.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}}

The notion of avidyā and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedānta thought: how can avidyā appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure consciousness?{{sfnp|Kaplan|2007}} For Shankara, ''avidya'' is a perceptual or psychological error.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} According to Satchidanandendra Saraswati, for Shankara "''avidya'' is only a technical name to denote the natural tendency of the human mind that is engaged in the act of superimposition."{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=160}} The later tradition diverged from Shankara by turning ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')," thereby setting aside Shankara's 'Unevolved Name-and-Form' as the explanation for the existence of materiality.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}}{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=149}} According to Mayeda, "[i]n order to save monism, they characterized ''avidya'' as indefinable as real or unreal (''sadasadbhyam anirvacanya''), belonging neither to the category of being nor to that of non-being."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} In the 20th century, this theory of ''mulavidya'' became a point of strong contention among Advaita Vedantins, with [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati]] arguing that Padmapada and Prakasatman had misconstrued Shanakara's stance.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=150}}

Shankara did not give a 'location' of ''avidya'', giving precedence to the removal of ignorance.{{sfn|Doherty|2005|p=209-210}}{{refn|group=note|Compare [[Parable of the Poisoned Arrow]]}} Sengaku Mayeda writes, in his commentary and translation of [[Adi Shankara]]'s Upadesasahasri:
{{blockquote|Certainly the most crucial problem which Sankara left for his followers is that of avidyā. If the concept is logically analysed, it would lead the Vedanta philosophy toward dualism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental position.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=82}}}}

The later Advaita-tradition diverged from Shankara, trying to determinate a locus of ''avidya'',{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=7-8}} with the Bhamati-school locating ''avidya'' in the ''jiva'' c.q. ''prakriti'', while the Vivarana-school locates it in Brahman.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|pp=155-156}}{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=7-8}}

====''{{IAST|Māyā}}'' (appearance)====
In Advaita Vedanta, the perceived empirical world, "including people and other existence," is Māyā, "appearance."{{sfnp|Vroom|1989|pp=122–123}}{{sfn|Shastri|1911|pp=5 and ix}} Jiva, conditioned by the human mind, is subjected to experiences of a subjective nature, and misunderstands and interprets the physical, changing world as the sole and final reality.{{sfnp|Vroom|1989|pp=122–123}} Due to ''avidya'', we take the [[phenomenon (philosophy)|phenomenal world]] to be the final reality,<ref group=web name="EB_Maya"/> while in Reality only ''Sat'' ( True Reality, Brahman) is Real and unchanging.{{sfn|Shastri|1911|pp=58–73}}

While Shankara took a realistic stance, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion," the 13th-century scholar [[Prakasatman]], founder of the influential [[Vivarana]] school, introduced the notion that the world is illusory.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} According to Hacker, maya is not a prominent theme for Shankara, in contrast to the later Advaita tradition, and "the word ''maya'' has for [Shankara] hardly any terminological weight."{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|p=266, note 21}}

====Five ''koshas'' (sheaths)====
Due to avidya, atman is covered by ''[[koshas]]'' (sheaths or bodies), which hide man's true nature. According to the [[Taittiriya Upanishad]], the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually rendered "sheath".{{sfnp|Roeser|2005|p=15}} They are often visualized like the layers of an onion.{{sfnp|Belling|2006}} From gross to fine the five sheaths are:
# Annamaya kosha, physical/food sheath
# [[Prana|Pranamaya kosha]], life-force sheath
# Manomaya kosha, mental sheath
# [[Vijñāna|Vijnanamaya kosha]], discernment/wisdom sheath
# [[Anandamaya kosha]], bliss sheath (''[[Ananda]]'')

===''Parinamavada'' and ''vivartavada'' - causality and change ===
{{See also|Samkhya#Causality|l1=Satkāryavāda|Ajativada|Vivartavada}}

Cause and effect are an important topic in all schools of [[Vedanta]].{{refn|group=note|These concepts are discussed in ancient and medieval texts of [[Hinduism]], and other Indian religions, using synonymous terms. Cause is referred to as ''{{IAST|kāraṇa}}'' (कारण), ''nidana'' (निदान), ''hetu'' (हेतु) or ''mulam'' (मूलम्), while effect is referred to as ''{{IAST|kārya}}'' (कार्य), ''phala'' (फल), ''parinam'' (परिणाम) or ''Shungam'' (शुङ्ग).<ref group=web name ="spokensanskrit_cause"/>{{sfnp|Nagao|1991|pp=127–128}}}} Two sorts of causes are recognised, namely {{IAST|Nimitta kāraṇa}}, the [[efficient cause]], that which causes the existence of the universe, and {{IAST|Upādāna kāraṇa}}, the [[material cause]], that from which the matery of this universe comes.{{sfnp|Lipner|1996|pp=109–126}} All schools of Vedānta agree that Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause, and all subscribe to the theory of ''[[Satkaryavada|Satkāryavāda]]'',<ref group=web name="IEP_Bheda"/> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}{{refn|group=note|Advaita furthermore states that effect ({{IAST|''kārya''}}) is non-different from cause ({{IAST|''kāraṇa''}}), but the cause is different from the effect. This principle is called {{IAST|''kārya-kāraṇa ananyatva''}}. When the cause is destroyed, the effect will no longer exist. For example, cotton cloth is the effect of the cotton threads, which is the material cause. Without threads there will be no cotton cloth. Without cotton there will be no thread. According to Swami Sivananda, in his comments on the {{IAST|Brahmasūtra-Bhāṣya}} 2.1.9, Adi Shankara describes this as follows:
{{blockquote|{{IAST|''ananyatve'pi kāryakāraṇayoḥ kāryasya kāraṇātmatvaṃ na tu kāraṇasya kāryātmatvaṃ''}} Despite the non-difference of cause and effect, the effect has its self in the cause but not the cause in the effect. The effect is of the nature of the cause and not the cause the nature of the effect. Therefore the qualities of the effect cannot touch the cause.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_2/bs_2.1.03.html |title=Brahma Sutras by Swami Sivananda |publisher=Swami-krishnananda.org |access-date=2011-06-10| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110612173736/http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_2/bs_2.1.03.html| archive-date= 12 June 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>}}}}

There are different views on the origination of the empirical world from Brahman. All commentators "agree that Brahman is the cause of the world," but disagree on how exactly Brahman is the cause of the world.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "Mediaeval Vedantins distinguished two basic positions." ''[[Vivartavada|Parinamavada]]'' is the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} ''[[Vivartavada]]'' is the idea that
{{blockquote|the world is merely an unreal manifestation (''vivarta'') of Brahman. Vivartavada states that although Brahman appears to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are unreal manifestation, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}

{{Quote box
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| quote = 20th verse of ''Brahmajnanavalimala'', attributed to Shankara:

ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या 
जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः

Brahman is real, the world is an illusion 
Brahman and [[Jiva]] are not different.

''Brahmajnanavalimala'' 1.20<ref group=web>Sanskrit:[https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/brahmajna.html?lang=sa Sanskrit documents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623112419/https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/brahmajna.html?lang=sa |date=23 June 2021 }}, Brahmajnanalimala 1.20</ref>
}}

The ''Brahma Sutras'', the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> as well as Samkhya argue for ''parinamavada''.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> The "most visible advocates of Vivartavada," states Nicholson, are the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} "Although the world can be described as conventionally real", adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman's effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated".<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{refn|group=note|According to Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta states that from "the standpoint of Brahman-experience and Brahman itself, there is [[Ajativada|no creation]]" in the absolute sense, all empirically observed creation is relative and mere transformation of one state into another, all states are provisional and a cause-effect driven modification.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=40–43}}}}

Yet, Adi Shankara himself most likely explained causality through ''parinamavada''.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|King|1999|p=221}} In Shankara's works "''Brahman'' constitutes the basic essence (''svabhava'') of the universe (BS Bh 3.2.21) and as such the universe cannot be thought of as distinct from it (BS Bh 2.1.14)." In Shankara's view, then, "The world is real, but only in so far as its existence is seen as totally dependent upon ''Brahman''."{{sfn|King|1999|p=221}}

Shankara introduced the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=20}} but this concept was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} Vivartavada became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} Scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker already noted that Adi Shankara did not advocate ''Vivartavada'', and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion".{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}{{refn|group=note|According to Hugh Nicholson, "the definitive study on the development of the concept of ''vivarta'' in Indian philosophy, and in Advaita Vedanta in particular, remains Hacker's ''Vivarta''.{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=266 note 20, 167–170}} According to Hacker, "the word ''maya'' has for [Shankara] hardly any terminological weight."{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|p=266 note 21}}}}
{{Quote box
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| quote = [[Manisha Panchakam]], attributed to Adi Shankara:<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/Manishapanchakam.pdf |title=manIShApanchakam |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417060741/https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/Manishapanchakam.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

2. I am Brahman (pure consciousness). It is pure consciousness that appears as this universe.
}}
It was the 13th-century scholar Prakasatman, who founded the influential [[Vivarana]] school, who gave a definition to ''vivarta'', introducing the notion that the world is illusory. It is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the ''vivarta-vada'' isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to ''parinama-vada'', and the ''vivarta'' explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{refn|group=note|Compare the misunderstanding of [[Yogachara]]s concept of [[The doctrine of Vijñapti-mātra|vijñapti-mātra]], 'representation-only', as 'consciousness-only'.}}

==Ethics==
Some claim, states Deutsch, "that Advaita turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character".{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=99}} However, Deutsch adds, ethics ''does'' have a firm place in this philosophy. Its ideology is permeated with ethics and value questions enter into every metaphysical and epistemological analysis, and it considers "an independent, separate treatment of ethics are unnecessary".{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=99}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bauer | first=Nancy F. | title=Advaita Vedanta and Contemporary Western Ethics | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | volume=37 | issue=1 | year=1987 | pages=36–50 | doi=10.2307/1399082 | jstor=1399082}}</ref> According to Advaita Vedānta, states Deutsch, there cannot be "any absolute moral laws, principles or duties", instead in its axiological view Atman is "beyond good and evil", and all values result from self-knowledge of the reality of "distinctionless Oneness" of one's real self, every other being and all manifestations of Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=100}} Advaitin ethics includes lack of craving, lack of dual distinctions between one's own Self and another being's, good and just [[Karma]].{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=101–102 with footnotes}}

The values and ethics in Advaita Vedānta emanate from what it views as inherent in the state of liberating self-knowledge. This state, according to Rambachan, includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}} Such knowledge and understanding of the indivisibility of one's and other's Atman, Advaitins believe leads to "a deeper identity and affinity with all". It does not alienate or separate an Advaitin from his or her community, rather awakens "the truth of life's unity and interrelatedness".{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}} These ideas are exemplified in the [[Isha Upanishad]] – a ''sruti'' for Advaita, as follows:

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
One who sees all beings in the self alone, and the self of all beings,
feels no hatred by virtue of that understanding.
For the seer of oneness, who knows all beings to be the self,
where is delusion and sorrow?
</poem>
|''Isha Upanishad 6–7''|Translated by A Rambachan{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ORPkAf3SZBQC&pg=PA109 109]}}}}

Adi Shankara, in verse 1.25 to 1.26 of his ''Upadeśasāhasrī'', asserts that the Self-knowledge is understood and realized when one's mind is purified by the observation of [[Yamas]] (ethical precepts) such as [[Ahimsa]] (non-violence, abstinence from injuring others in body, mind and thoughts), [[Satya]] (truth, abstinence from falsehood), [[Asteya]] (abstinence from theft), [[Aparigraha]] (abstinence from possessiveness and craving) and a simple life of meditation and reflection.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=88–89}} Rituals and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=92}} but can be abandoned when moving on to "hearing, reflection, and meditation on the Upanishads."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=33}}

Elsewhere, in verses 1.26–1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Any ''Bheda'' (discrimination), states Shankara, based on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and lack of liberating knowledge.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=17–19}} This text states that the fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics of non-difference.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=17–19}}

{{Blockquote|One, who is eager to realize this highest truth spoken of in the Sruti, should rise above the fivefold form of desire: for a son, for wealth, for this world and the next, and are the outcome of a false reference to the Self of Varna (castes, colors, classes) and orders of life. These references are contradictory to right knowledge, and reasons are given by the Srutis regarding the prohibition of the acceptance of difference. For when the knowledge that the one non-dual Atman (Self) is beyond phenomenal existence is generated by the scriptures and reasoning, there cannot exist a knowledge side by side that is contradictory or contrary to it.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.44|{{sfn|Sankara|2006|pp=226–227}}<ref group=note>{{harvnb|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|p=32}}; '''Sanskrit''': तच् चैतत् परमार्थदर्शनं प्रतिपत्तुमिच्छता वर्णाश्रमाद्यभिमान-कृतपाञ्क्तरूपपुत्रवित्तलोकैषणादिभ्यो व्युत्थानं कर्तव्यम् । सम्यक्प्रत्ययविरोधात् तदभिमानस्य भेददर्शनप्रतिषेधार्थोपपत्तिश्चोपपद्यते । न ह्येकस्मिन्नात्मन्यसंसारित्वबुद्धौ शास्त्रन्यायोत्पादितायां तद्विपरीता बुद्धिर्भवति । न ह्य् अग्नौ शितत्वबुद्धिः, शरीरे वाजरामरणबुद्धिः । तस्मादविद्याकार्यत्वात् सर्वकर्मणां तत्साधनानां च यज्ञोपवीतादीनां परमार्थदर्शनिष्टेन त्यागः कर्तव्यः ॥ ४४॥</ref>}}

==Texts==
The [[Upanishads]], the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]] and [[Brahma Sutras]] are the central texts of the Advaita Vedānta tradition, lending authority to the doctrines about the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' and their changeless nature.{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=35}}

Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these texts in his commentaries. [[Adi Shankara]]'s ''[[Bhashya]]'' (commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita Vedānta philosophy, but are one among many ancient and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this tradition.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=221, 680}} The subsequent Advaita tradition has further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries. Adi Shankara is also credited for the famous text [[Nirvana Shatakam]].

===''Prasthanatrayi''===
The ''Vedānta'' tradition provides exegeses of the ''[[Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavadgita]]'', collectively called the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]'', literally, ''three sources''.{{sfn|Grimes|1990|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=35}}
# The ''[[Upanishads]]'',{{refn|group=note|Many in number, the ''Upanishads'' developed in different schools at various times and places, some in the Vedic period and others in the medieval or modern era (the names of up to 112 ''Upanishads'' have been recorded).{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=28}} All major commentators have considered the twelve to thirteen oldest of these texts as the principal ''Upanishads'' and as the foundation of Vedanta.}} or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Sruti|{{IAST|Śruti}}]]'' (Vedic scriptures) foundation of ''Vedānta''.{{refn|group=note|The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts – the ''Samhitas'', the ''Brahmanas'', the ''Aranyakas'', and the early ''Upanishads''.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-1867-6}}, pp. 2–3</ref>}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{sfn|Coburn|1984|p=439}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245–248}} Most scholars, states [[Eliot Deutsch]], are convinced that the Śruti in general, and the Upanishads in particular, express "a very rich diversity" of ideas, with the early ''Upanishads'' such as ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' and ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' being more readily amenable to ''Advaita Vedānta'' school's interpretation than the middle or later ''Upanishads''.{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=4–6 with footnote 4}}{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=18–19}} In addition to the oldest ''Upanishads'', states Williams, the ''Sannyasa Upanishads'' group composed in pre-''Shankara'' times "express a decidedly ''Advaita'' outlook".<ref>Stephen Phillips (1998), ''Classical Indian Metaphysics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814899}}, p. 332 note 68</ref>
# The ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of ''Vedānta''. The ''Brahma Sutras'' attempted to synthesize the teachings of the ''Upanishads''. The diversity in the teachings of the ''Upanishads'' necessitated the systematization of these teachings. The only extant version of this synthesis is the ''Brahma Sutras'' of ''[[Badarayana]]''. Like the ''Upanishads'', ''Brahma Sutras'' is also an aphoristic text, and can be interpreted as a non-theistic ''Advaita Vedānta'' text or as a theistic ''Dvaita Vedānta'' text. This has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpretations by scholars of various sub-schools of ''Vedānta''.<ref>Stephen Phillips (1998), ''Classical Indian Metaphysics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814899}}, p. 332 note 69</ref> The ''Brahmasutra'' is considered by the Advaita school as the ''Nyaya Prasthana'' (canonical base for reasoning).{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}}
# The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]]'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Smriti]]'' (remembered tradition) foundation of ''Vedānta''.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}} It has been widely studied by ''Advaita'' scholars, including a commentary by ''Adi Shankara''.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}}

===Textual authority===
The Advaita Vedānta tradition considers the knowledge claims in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not its ''karma-kanda'' (ritual injunctions).{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}} The knowledge claims about self being identical to the nature of ''Atman/Brahman'' are found in the [[Upanishads]], which Advaita Vedānta has regarded as "errorless revealed truth."{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}} Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their teachings using reason and experience, and this led them to investigate and critique competing theories.{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}

Advaita Vedānta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, accepts as an [[epistemic]] premise that [[Śruti]] (Vedic literature) is a reliable source of knowledge.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{sfn|Coburn|1984|p=439}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245–248}} The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-1867-6}}, pp. 2–3</ref> Of these, the Upanishads are the most referred to texts in the Advaita school.

The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}} The [[Brahmasutra]] (also called Vedānta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) accepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piecemeal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unified way wherein the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other means of knowledge such as perception, inference and remaining [[pramana]]s.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}} This theme has been central to the Advaita school, making the [[Brahmasutra]] as a common reference and a consolidated textual authority for Advaita.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}}

The Bhagavad Gitā, similarly in parts can be interpreted to be a monist Advaita text, and in other parts as theistic Dvaita text. It too has been widely studied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi Shankara.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}}

===Other texts===
A large number of texts are attributed to Shankara; of these texts, the Brahma Sutra Bhasya (commentary on the Brahma Sutras), the commentaries on the principal Upanishads, and the [[Upadesasahasri]] are considered genuine and stand out.{{fact|date=February 2025}}

Post-Shankara Advaita saw the composition of both scholarly commentaries and treatises, as well as, from late mediaeval times (14th century) on, popular works and compositions which incorporate Yoga ideas. These include notable texts mistakenly attributed to Shankara, such as the [[Vivekachudamani]], [[Atma bodha]], and Aparokshanubhuti; and other texts like [[Advaita Bodha Deepika]] and [[Dŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka]]. Texts which influenced the Advaita tradition include the [[Avadhuta Gita]], the [[Yoga Vasistha]], and the [[Yoga Yajnavalkya]].{{fact|date=February 2025}}

==Sampradaya and Smarta tradition==

===Monastic order - Mathas===
{{See also|Dashanami Sampradaya}}
[[File:Vidyashankara Temple at Shringeri.jpg|thumb|(Vidyashankara temple) at [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham]], [[Shringeri]]]]

Advaita Vedānta is not just a philosophical system, but also a tradition of monastic [[Sannyasa|renunciation]]. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />

{{blockquote|Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />}}

According to tradition, around 740 AD Gaudapada founded [[Shri Gaudapadacharya Math]]{{refn|group=note|{{langx|sa|श्री संस्थान गौडपदाचार्य मठ}}, {{IAST|Śrī Sansthāna Gauḍapadācārya Maṭha}}}}, also known as {{IAST|Kavaḷē maṭha}}. It is located in [[Kavale]], [[Ponda taluk|Ponda]], Goa,<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.vidya-ashramvidyaorder.org/index.V.html |title=Asram Vidya Order, ''Biographical Notes About Sankara And Gaudapada'' |access-date=14 July 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809145405/http://vidya-ashramvidyaorder.org/index.V.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and is the oldest [[matha]] of the [[South India]]n [[Saraswat Brahmin]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|title=Shri Gowdapadacharya & Shri Kavale Math (A Commemoration volume)| page=10}}</ref><ref group=web>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101459/http://www.shrikavalemath.org.in/default.htm Kavale Math Official Website]</ref>

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of [[Shiva]],<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" /> is credited with establishing the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the [[Dashanami Sampradaya|Ekadandi monks]] under an umbrella grouping of ten names.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition">[http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Shankara/shankar4.html Sankara Acarya Biography – Monastic Tradition] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508091224/http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Shankara/shankar4.html |date=8 May 2012}}</ref> Several Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions, however, remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.<ref>Karigoudar Ishwaran, ''Ascetic Culture''</ref><ref>Wendy Sinclair-Brull, ''Female Ascetics''</ref><ref>H.A. Rose, Ibbetson, Denzil Ibbetson Sir, and Maclagan, ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province'', p. 857</ref>

Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four {{IAST|[[Matha|Maṭhas]]}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|मठ}}) (monasteries), called the ''Amnaya Mathas'', with the headquarters at [[Dvārakā]] in the West, [[Jagannatha Puri]] in the East, [[Sringeri]] in the South and [[Badrikashrama]] in the North.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition"/> According to tradition, each math was first headed by one of his four main disciples, and the tradition continues since then. Yet, according to Paul Hacker, no mention of the ''mathas'' can be found before the 14th century CE.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=28}} Until the 15th century, the timespan of the directors of Sringeri Math are unrealistically long, spanning 60+ and even 105 years. After 1386, the timespans become much shorter.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=28-29}} According to Hacker, these mathas may have originated as late as the 14th century, to propagate Shankara's view of Advaita.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{refn|group=note|Nakamura also recognized the influence of these mathas, which he argues contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors". The mathas which he established remain active today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=680–681}}}}{{refn|group=note|According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams established by [[Vibhandak Rishi|Vibhāņdaka]] and his son [[Rishyasringa|Ŗșyaśŗnga]].{{sfn|Pandey|2000|pp=4–5}} Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvārakā and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Śŗngaverapura to Badarikāśrama, and the ashram at Angadeśa to Jagannātha Purī.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=5}}}} According to another tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's [[samadhi]] at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely [[Naduvil Madhom, Thrissur|Naduvil Madhom]], Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes attributed to Shankara. While the dasanāmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures attributed to Adi Śankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control of the Sankara maths. The advaita sampradaya is not a [[Saiva]] sect,<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=782–783}} despite the historical links with Shaivism.{{refn|group=note|Sanskrit.org: "Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others."<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />}} Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />

===Smarta Tradition===
{{Main|Smarta Tradition}}

The [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of [[Hinduism]] is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought and practice, which developed with the [[Hindu synthesis]], dating back to the early first century CE.{{refn|group=note|Archeological evidence suggest that the Smarta tradition in India dates back to at least 3rd-century CE.<ref name="Williams1981p2">{{cite book|author=Frederick Asher|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-06498-2|pages=1–4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175658/https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p141"/>}} It is particularly found in south and west India, and reveres all Hindu divinities as a step in their spiritual pursuit.<ref name="Harle1994p141"/><ref name="Flood1996p17"/>{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}} Their [[Puja (Hinduism)|worship]] practice is called ''Panchayatana puja''.<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60|year=2003|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|pages=60–61|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175701/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5| url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/140 140]–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> The worship symbolically consists of five deities: [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Devi]] or [[Durga]], [[Surya]] and an [[Ishta Devata]] or any personal god of devotee's preference.<ref name="Flood1996p17">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/17 17]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India|year=1998|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11265-9|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175659/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Smarta tradition, Advaita Vedānta ideas combined with [[bhakti]] are its foundation. Adi Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}} and reformer of the Smarta.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|p=166}} According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], Shankara's Advaita Vedānta and practices became the doctrinal unifier of previously conflicting practices with the ''smarta'' tradition.{{refn|group=note|Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and ''smarta'' orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the ''varnasramadharma'' theory as defining the path of ''karman'', but had developed the practice of ''pancayatanapuja'' ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's ''istadevata'' ("deity of choice").{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}}}

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all images and statues ([[murti]]), or just five marks or any anicons on the ground, are visibly convenient icons of spirituality ''saguna Brahman''.<ref name="lexicon"/><ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/> The multiple icons are seen as multiple representations of the same idea, rather than as distinct beings. These serve as a step and means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman – as "That art Thou".<ref name="lexicon">[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects The Four Denominations of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618033816/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=18 June 2018 }}, Basics of Hinduism, Kauai Hindu Monastery</ref><ref>Falk Reitz (1997), [http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/76/1/Pancayatana_1.pdf Pancayatana-Komplexe in Nordindien: Entstehung, Entwicklung und regionale Besonderheiten einer indischen Architekturform] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009000103/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/76/1/Pancayatana_1.pdf |date=9 October 2016 }}, PhD Thesis (in German), Awarded by [[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]]</ref>

==Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedānta==
{{Main|Buddhist philosophy}}

{{Further|Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta}}

===Similarities with Buddhism===
Advaita Vedānta and [[Āstika and nāstika|other schools of Hindu philosophy]] share numerous terminology, doctrines, and dialectical techniques with [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=126, 157}} According to a 1918 paper by the [[Buddhist studies|Buddhist scholar]] O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw."{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}} [[Tiruppattur R. Venkatachala Murti|T. R. V. Murti]] notices that "the ultimate goal" of [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], [[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]], and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhism]] is "remarkably similar"; while Advaita Vedānta postulates a "foundational self", according to Murti "Mahāyāna Buddhism implicitly affirms the existence of a deep underlying reality behind all empirical manifestations in its conception of ''[[śūnyatā]]'' (the indeterminate, the void), or ''[[Yogachara#The doctrine of Vijñapti-mātra|vijñapti-mātra]]'' (consciousness only), or ''[[tathātā]]'' (thatness), or ''[[Dharma|dhārmata]]'' (noumenal reality)."{{sfn|Murti|1983|p=339}} According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita Vedānta are similar to those found in Buddhism.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}

===Mahāyāna philosophy===
The influence of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhism]] on Advaita Vedānta has been significant.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}{{sfn|Grimes|1998|pp=684–686}} Sharma points out that the early commentators on the ''Brahma Sūtras'' were all [[Philosophical realism|realists]], or [[Pantheism|pantheist]] realists. He states that they were influenced by Buddhism, particularly during the 5th–6th centuries CE with the development of the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] school of [[Buddhist philosophy]].{{sfn|Sharma, B.N.|2000|p=60–63}} [[Helmuth von Glasenapp|Von Glasenapp]] states that there was a mutual influence between [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] and Buddhism.<ref group=note name=helmithglasenapp2>[[Helmuth von Glasenapp]] (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pages 2-3, '''Quote:''' "[[Vedanta|Vedānta]] and [[Buddhism]] have lived side by side for such a long time that obviously they must have influenced each other. The strong predilection of the Indian mind for a doctrine of universal unity has led the representatives of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] to conceive [[Saṃsāra]] and [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvāṇa]] as two aspects of the same and single true reality; for [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] the '''empirical world is a mere appearance''', as [[Pratītyasamutpāda|all dharmas, manifest in it, are perishable and conditioned by other dharmas]], [[Svabhava|without having any independent existence of their own]]. Only the [[Śūnyatā|indefinable "Voidness"]] (''Śūnyatā'') to be grasped in [[Buddhist meditation|meditation]], and realized in Nirvāṇa, has '''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|true reality]]''' [in Buddhism]".</ref> [[Surendranath Dasgupta|S. N. Dasgupta]] and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the [[Indian religions#Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE)|Upanishadic period]] to the time of [[Adi Shankara|Śaṅkara]]."{{sfn|Dasgupta|Mohanta|1998|p=362}}{{refn|group=note|This development did not end with Advaita Vedānta but continued in [[Tantra|Tantrism]] and [[Shaivism#Traditions|various schools of Shaivism]]. Non-dual [[Kashmir Shaivism]], for example, was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} These include the orthodox Hindu schools of [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], [[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]], [[Patañjali]]'s [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga tradition]], and [[Nyaya|Nyāya]], and [[Schools of Buddhism|prominent Buddhist schools]], including [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] and [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]],{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} but also Tantra and the [[Natha Sampradaya|Nath-tradition]].{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=26}}}}

The influence of Buddhist doctrines on [[Gauḍapāda]] has been a vexed question.{{sfn|Potter|1981|p=105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=2}} Modern scholarship generally accepts that Gauḍapāda was influenced by Buddhism, at least in terms of using Buddhist terminology to explain his ideas, but adds that Gauḍapāda was a Vedantin and not a Buddhist.{{sfn|Potter|1981|p=105}} [[Adi Shankara|Ādi Śaṅkara]], states Natalia Isaeva, incorporated "into his own system a Buddhist notion of ''[[Maya (illusion)|māyā]]'' which had not been minutely elaborated in the Upanishads".{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}} According to Mudgal, Śaṅkara's Advaita view and [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]]'s [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]] view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a ''[[via negativa]]'' or ''[[neti neti]]''. Mudgal concludes therefore that "the difference between [[Madhyamaka|Śūnyavāda]] [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy of Buddhism]] and [[#Darśana (view) – central concerns|Advaita]] [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy of Hinduism]] may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind".{{sfn|Mudgal|1975|p=4}} Similarly, there are many points of contact between the Buddhist [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] school and Śaṅkara's Advaita tradition.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=174}} According to S. N. Dasgupta,
{{blockquote|[[Adi Shankara|Śaṅkara]] and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His ''[[Brahman]]'' was very much like the ''[[Śūnyatā|śūnya]]'' of [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] [...] The debts of Śaṅkara to the [[Svasaṃvedana|self-luminosity]]{{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} of the [[Yogacara|Vijñānavāda Buddhism]] can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Śaṅkara by [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñāna Bhikṣu]] and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Śaṅkara's philosophy is largely a compound of [[Yogacara|Vijñānavāda]] and [[Madhyamaka|Śūnyavāda]] Buddhism with the Upanishadic notion of the permanence of self superadded.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1997|page=494}}}}

===Differences from Buddhism===
The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on ''Ātman'', ''Anattā'', and ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=60, 145–154}} Yet, some [[early Buddhist texts]] (1st millennium CE), such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures]] ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras'' suggest [[Self-concept|"self-like" concepts]], variously called ''Tathāgatagarbha'' or "[[Buddha nature]]".{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=104, 125–127}}{{sfn|Hookham|1991|pp=100–104}} In modern era studies, scholars such as Wayman state that these "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor individual soul, nor personality.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=107, 112}}{{sfn|Hookham|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JqLa4xWot-YC&pg=PA96 96]}} Some scholars posit that the ''Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras'' were written [[Spread of Buddhism|to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists]].<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=104–105, 108–109}}: "(...) it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics."</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Merv Fowler|title=Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7UKjtA0QDwC|year=1999|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-66-0|pages=101–102}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John W. Pettit|title=Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection|year=1999|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-86171-157-4|pages=48–49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Kz4ox1vp5IC|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Kz4ox1vp5IC|url-status=live}}</ref>

The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge—perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article).{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}<ref name=ds>{{cite journal| author= D Sharma |year= 1966| title= Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic — Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi| journal= [[Indo-Iranian Journal]]| volume= 9| number= 4| pages= 291–300|doi= 10.1163/000000066790086530}}</ref><ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521126274}}, p. 54</ref> However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's ''Śabda'' pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.<ref>Alex Wayman (1999), A Millennium of Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816466}}, pp. xix–xx</ref>

Advaita Vedānta posits a [[Substance theory|substance ontology]], an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls ''Ātman/Brahman''.{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=49–50, 60–62}} In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars, and specific properties, and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes.<ref name="Bartley2011p91"/> In contrast, [[Buddhism]] posits a [[Process philosophy|process ontology]], also called as "event ontology".{{sfn|Williams|Tribe|Wynne|2000|p=92}}<ref name="Bartley2011p91">{{cite book|author=Christopher Bartley|title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlupnDEr5iAC|year=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84706-449-3|pages=90–91}}</ref> According to [[Buddhist philosophy]], particularly after the rise of ancient [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] [[Abhidharma|Buddhist scholarship]], the concept of [[Impermanence (Buddhism)|impermanence]] (''anicca'') is understood as one of the [[three marks of existence]] (''trilakṣaṇa''):<ref name="Siderits 2015"/> there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality, because all phenomena are characterized by their [[Svabhava|lack of a solid and independent existence]] (''svabhāva''), and ontology can be explained as a process.{{sfn|Williams|Tribe|Wynne|2000|p=92}}{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=40–50, 60–62, 97}}{{refn|group=note|Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]] and [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994}}}}

In Buddhist ontology, there is a [[Pratītyasamutpāda|system of dependent origination and interdependent phenomena]] (''pratītya-samutpāda'') but no stable persistent identities, neither eternal universals nor particulars.<ref name="Siderits 2015"/> In Buddhism, thoughts and memories are [[Skandha|mental constructions and fluid processes]] (''skandhā'') [[Anatta|without a real observer, personal agent, or cognizer]] (''anattā'').<ref name="Siderits 2015"/> By contrast, in Advaita Vedānta and the other [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox schools of Hinduism]], the eternal, unchanging [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ultimate self]] (''ātman'') identical with ''[[Brahman]]'' is understood as the real observer, personal agent, and cognizer.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Bartley|title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlupnDEr5iAC|year=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84706-449-3|pages=90–91, 96, 204–208}}</ref> However, the [[Gautama Buddha|historical Buddha]] considered this Brahmanical belief to be one of the [[View (Buddhism)|six wrong views]] about the self; in fact, Buddha held that attachment to the appearance of a permanent self in this world of change is [[Duḥkha|the cause of suffering]] (''duḥkha''), and the main obstacle to the attainment of [[Moksha|spiritual liberation]] (''mokṣa'').<ref name="Siderits 2015">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Siderits |first=Mark |date=Spring 2015 |title=Buddha: Non-Self |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/buddha/ |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Center for the Study of Language and Information]], [[Stanford University]] |issn=1095-5054 |oclc=643092515 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427183712/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/buddha/ |archive-date=27 April 2023 |access-date=24 June 2023 |quote=The [[Middle Way|Buddha's "middle path" strategy]] can be seen as one of first arguing that there is nothing that the word "[[Self-concept|I]]" genuinely denotes, and then explaining that our erroneous sense of an "I" stems from our employment of the useful fiction represented by the concept of the person. While the second part of this strategy only receives its full articulation in the later development of the [[Two truths doctrine|theory of two truths]], the first part can be found in the Buddha's own teachings, in the form of several [[Anattā|philosophical arguments for non-self]]. Best known among these is the [[Impermanence#Buddhism|argument from impermanence]] (S III.66–8) [...]. It is the fact that this argument does not contain a premise explicitly asserting that the [[Skandha|five ''skandhas'']] (classes of psychophysical element) are exhaustive of the constituents of persons, plus the fact that these are all said to be empirically observable, that leads some to claim that the Buddha did not intend to deny the existence of a self ''tout court''. There is, however, evidence that the Buddha was generally hostile toward attempts to establish the existence of unobservable entities. In the ''[[Dīgha Nikāya|Poṭṭhapāda Sutta]]'' (D I.178–203), for instance, the Buddha compares someone who posits an unseen seer in order to explain our introspective awareness of cognitions, to a man who has conceived a longing for the most beautiful woman in the world based solely on the thought that such a woman must surely exist. And in the ''[[Dīgha Nikāya|Tevijja Sutta]]'' (D I.235–52), the Buddha rejects the claim of certain [[Brahmins]] to know the path to oneness with [[Brahman]], on the grounds that no one has actually observed this Brahman. This makes more plausible the assumption that the argument has as an implicit premise the claim that there is no more to the person than the five ''skandhas''.}}</ref>

===Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools===
Some Hindu scholars have criticized Advaita Vedānta for its notion of ''[[Maya (illusion)|māyā]]'' and [[Creator in Buddhism|non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism]],<ref>[[Julius Lipner]] (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887060397}}, pp. 120–123</ref>{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}} sometimes referring to the Advaita tradition as ''Māyāvāda''.{{refn|{{harvnb|Hacker|1995|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2015}}; {{harvnb|Baird|1986}}; {{harvnb|Goswami Abhay Charan Bhaktivedanta|1956}}}}

[[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]], a Hindu philosopher of the [[Bhedabheda|Bhedabheda Vedānta]] school (9th century CE), accused Śaṅkara's Advaita tradition as "this despicable broken down ''Māyāvāda'' that has been chanted by the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhists]]", characterizing it as a school that is undermining the [[Brahmanism|ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy]].{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}

[[Ramanuja|Rāmāṉuja]], a Hindu saint and founder of the [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedānta]] school (12th century CE), similarly accused Ādi Śaṅkara of being a ''Prachanna Bauddha'', that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",{{sfn|Biderman|1978|pp=405–413}} and someone who was undermining the [[Ishvara|theistic]] [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti]]-oriented devotionalism.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}

==Relationship with other traditions==
The Advaita Vedānta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedānta philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the 11th-century [[Vishishtadvaita]] (qualified [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]]) of [[Ramanuja]], and the 14th-century [[Dvaita]] (theistic dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]].{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=238–243, 288–294, 340–342}} Their application of Vedanta philosophy to ground their faith turned Vedanta into a major factor in India's religious landscape.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=691-693}}

===Vishishtadvaita===
{{main|Vishishtadvaita}}

[[Ramanuja|Ramanuja's]] Vishishtadvaita school and [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s Advaita school are both nondualism Vedānta schools,<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanuja – Hindu theologian and Philosopher] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621165517/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |date=21 June 2022 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref><ref name=cetternonplu/> both are premised on the assumption that all Selfs can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his Dvaita subschool of Vedānta believed that some Selfs are eternally doomed and damned.{{sfn|Sarma|1994|pp=374–375}}<ref>{{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923|pages=361–362}}</ref> Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world ([[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.<ref name="Sydnor2012p87">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=84–87|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=joeschultz81>{{cite book|author=Joseph P. Schultz|title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|year=1981|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-1707-6|pages=81–84|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175615/https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|url-status=live}}</ref> Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (Self) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=cetternonplu>{{cite book|author=Christopher Etter|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC| year=2006| publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1|pages=57–60, 63–65}}</ref>{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=1–2, 97–102}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2013|p=247–248}} In contrast, Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and ''saguna'' Brahman with attributes is also real.<ref name=joeschultz81/> God, like man, states Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (''saguna'' Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/>

===Shuddhadvaita===
{{main|Shuddhadvaita}}

[[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the philosophy of [[Shuddhadvaita]] Brahmvad enunciates that Ishvara has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power) and manifests Himself through the world.<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, "Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)", Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is why shuddhadvaita is known as 'Unmodified transformation' or 'Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'. Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a 'part' (but devoid of bliss).<ref>"Brahmavād Saṅgraha", Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>

===Dvaita===
{{main|Dvaita}}

Madhvacharya was also a critic of [[Advaita]] Vedānta. Advaita's nondualism asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are identical (both in bondage and liberation<ref name=":1">Tapasyananda, Swami. ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'' pg. 180-181</ref>), there is interconnected oneness of all Selfs and Brahman, and there are no pluralities.<ref name=stoker2011mc/><ref name=staffordbetty215/> Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are different (both in bondage and liberation<ref name=":1" />), only [[Vishnu]] is the Lord (Brahman), individual Selfs are also different and depend on Vishnu, and there are pluralities.<ref name=stoker2011mc>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Madhva (1238–1317) |first=Valerie |last=Stoker |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2011 |access-date=2 February 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |archive-date=12 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012131604/http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=staffordbetty215>Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pp. 215–224</ref> Madhvacharya stated that both Advaita Vedānta and [[Mahayana Buddhism]] were a [[nihilism|nihilistic]] school of thought.<ref name=smschari6/> Madhvacharya wrote four major texts, including ''Upadhikhandana'' and ''Tattvadyota'', primarily dedicated to criticizing Advaita.<ref name=smschari6>SMS Chari (1999), Advaita and Visistadvaita, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815353}}, pp. 5–7</ref>

Followers of [[ISKCON]] are highly critical of Advaita Vedānta, regarding it as ''māyāvāda'', identical to Mahayana Buddhism.<ref group=web>Gaura Gopala Dasa, [https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183434/https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |date=9 July 2021 }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |title=''Mayavada Philosophy'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-date=14 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214115618/http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Influence on other traditions===
Within the ancient and medieval texts of Hindu traditions, such as [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]] and [[Shaktism]], the ideas of Advaita Vedānta have had a major influence.{{refn|group=note|name=Influence}} Advaita Vedānta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the different parts of India.{{sfn|Neog|1980|pp=243–244}} One of its most popular text, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', adopts and integrates in Advaita Vedānta philosophy.{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006|pp=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pp=553–557}}{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is generally accepted by scholars to have been composed in the second half of 1st millennium CE.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p=6}}<ref name="Archaism">{{Cite book | year=1966 | last=van Buitenen | first=J. A. B | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhagavata Purana| editor=Milton Singer | title=Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes | pages=23–40}}</ref>

In the ancient and medieval literature of [[Shaivism]], called the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]]'', the influence of Advaita Vedānta is once again prominent.{{sfn|Smith|2003|pp=126–128}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=177–178}} Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are ''[[Dvaita]]'' texts, eighteen are ''[[Bhedabheda]]'', and sixty-four are ''[[Advaita]]'' texts.{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=167 note 21}}{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|pp=43–44}} According to Natalia Isaeva, there is an evident and natural link between 6th-century Gaudapada's Advaita Vedānta ideas and [[Kashmir Shaivism]].{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=134–135}}

[[Shaktism]], the Hindu tradition where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedānta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti'').{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}}{{sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=35–39}}{{sfn|Mahony|1997|p=274 with note 73}}

Other influential ancient and medieval classical texts of Hinduism such as the ''[[Yoga Yajnavalkya]]'', ''[[Yoga Vashishta]]'', ''[[Avadhuta Gita|Avadhuta Gitā]]'', ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and ''[[Sannyasa Upanishads]]'' predominantly incorporate premises and ideas of Advaita Vedānta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|pp=ix–x with footnote 3}}; {{harvnb|Rosen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA149 149]}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= White |first=David Gordon |title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography| year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691143774|pages=xvi–xvii, 50–52}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Rigopoulos|1998|pp=37, 57, 62–63, 195–207}}; {{Harvnb|Sahasrabudhe|1968|pp=113–114}}; {{Harvnb|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}</ref>

==History of Advaita Vedānta==
[[File:Shri Gaudapadacharya Statue.jpg|[[Gaudapada]], one of the most important pre-Śaṅkara philosophers in Advaita tradition|thumb|upright]]
{{Main|History of Advaita Vedanta}}

===Historiography===
The historiography of Advaita Vedanta is coloured by Orientalist notions,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}{{refn|group=note|name=Orientalist|In the Orientalist view, the medieval Muslim period was a time of stagnation and cultural degeneration, in which the original purity of the Upanisadic teachings, systematized by philosophers like Shankara, was lost. In this view, "the genuine achievements of Indian civilization" were recovered during the British colonial rule of India, due to the efforts of western Indologists, who viewed Advaita Vedanta as the authentic philosophy of the Upanishads, and Shankara as its greatest exponent.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}<ref group=note>See also Devdutt Pattanaik (August 30, 2020), [https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms ''Who is a Hindu? - What they don't tell you about Advaita''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219134850/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms |date=19 December 2021 }}, Mumbai Mirror.</ref> While this view has been criticised by postcolonial studies and critiques of Orientalism, "in some corners of the academy, the Orientalists' understanding of premodern Indian history has so far escaped thorough reexamination."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24}}}} while [[Neo-Vedanta|modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta]], which developed as a reaction to western [[Orientalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]]{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought."{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} According to Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan, "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

===Early Vedānta===
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedānta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=95–96}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments".{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|pp=xxx–xxxi}}{{refn|group=note|Deutsch and Dalvi point out that, in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=95}}}}

The [[Brahma Sutras]] of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedānta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} were compiled in its present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that".{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint."<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}

===Early Advaita Vedānta===
Two Advaita writings predating Maṇḍana Miśra and Shankara were known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, namely the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] (7th century).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Later scholarship added the [[Sannyasa Upanishads]] (first centuries CE{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|p=10}}) to the earliest known corpus, some of which are of a sectarian nature,{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=3–4}} and have a strong Advaita Vedānta outlook.{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}<ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0812692983}}, p. 332 with note 68</ref><ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791436967}}, pp. 62–63</ref>

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period [between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara], but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |title=advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'' |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303094318/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedānta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

==== Gauḍapāda and ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' ====
{{Main|Gaudapada}}

According to tradition, Gauḍapāda (6th century){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} was the teacher of [[Govinda Bhagavatpada]] and the grandteacher of Shankara. Gauḍapāda wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'', also known as the ''{{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}}'' or the ''{{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}''.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} The ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' is a commentary in verse form on the ''[[Mandukya Upanishad|Māṇḍūkya Upanishad]]'', one of the shortest [[Upanishads]] consisting of just 13 prose sentences. Of the ancient literature related to Advaita Vedānta, the oldest surviving complete text is the ''Māṇḍukya Kārikā''.{{sfn|Sarma|1997|p=239}} The ''Māṇḍūkya Upanishad'' was considered to be a [[Śruti]] before the era of Adi Shankara, but not treated as particularly important.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} In later post-Shankara period its value became far more important, and regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanishad philosophy. The entire ''Karika'' became a key text for the Advaita school in this later era.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=280–281}}{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}}

Gaudapada took over the Yogachara teaching of ''[[Yogacara#Representation-only|vijñapti-mātra]]'', "representation-only," which states that the empirical reality that we experience is a fabrication of the mind, experienced by consciousness-an-sich,{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|It is often used interchangeably with the term ''citta-mātra'', but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism".{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=1}} A better translation for ''vijñapti-mātra'' is ''representation-only''.{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=5}}}} and the four-cornered negation, which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute'.{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}} The 'four-cornered negation' is an English gloss of the Sanskrit, [[Catuṣkoṭi|Chatushkoti]].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into the philosophy of ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177-178}}{{refn|group=note|The influence of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana notes that the [[Visuddhimagga]] – a Theravada Buddhist tradition, contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the [[Yogacara|Yogacarins]]".{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=206}}}} In this view,
{{blockquote|the ultimate ontological reality is the pure consciousness, which is bereft of attributes and intentionality. The world of duality is nothing but a vibration of the mind (manodṛśya or manaspandita). The pluralistic world is imagined by the mind (saṁkalpa) and this false projection is sponsored by the illusory factor called māyā.<ref group=web name=iepgauda>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/gauḍapad/ Gaudapada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615104440/https://www.iep.utm.edu/gau%e1%b8%8dapad/ |date=15 June 2020 }}, Devanathan Jagannathan, University of Toronto, IEP</ref>}}

[[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] uses the concepts of [[Ajativada|Ajātivāda]] to explain that 'the Absolute' is not subject to [[Saṃsāra|birth, change and death]]. The Absolute is ''aja'', the unborn eternal.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}} The [[Empiricism|empirical world]] of [[phenomenon|appearances]] is considered [[Maya (illusion)|unreal]], and not [[Philosophical realism|absolutely existent]].{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}}

===Early medieval period - Maṇḍana Miśra and Adi Shankara ===

====Maṇḍana Miśra====
[[Maṇḍana Miśra]], an older contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of [[Kumarila]], but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the ''Brahma-siddhi''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=31}}{{sfn|Thrasher|1993|p=vii–x}} According to Fiordalis, he was influenced by the Yoga-tradition, and with that indirectly by Buddhism, given the strong influence of Buddhism on the Yoga-tradition.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=24, note 12}} For a couple of centuries he seems to have been regarded as "the most important representative of the Advaita position,"{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}}} and the "theory of error" set forth in the ''Brahma-siddhi'' became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=32}}

====Adi Shankara====
{{Main|Adi Shankara}}

{{See also|History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms – The Late-Classical Age|l1=Late-Classical Age|History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|l2=Hinduism in the Middle Ages}}

Very little is known about Shankara. According to Dalal, "Hagiographical accounts of his life, the ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Śaṅkaravijayas]]'' ("Conquests of Śaṅkara"), were composed several centuries after his death,"<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> in the 14th to 17th century, and established Shankara as a rallying symbol of values in a time when most of India was conquered by Muslims.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}} He is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, but was actually a systematizer, not a founder.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/>{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}}

=====Systematizer of Advaita thought=====
Shankara was a scholar who synthesized and systematized ''Advaita-vāda'' thought which already existed at his lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] in the 8th century, reforming [[Badarayana]]'s Vedānta tradition.<ref name=johnkoller/> According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with ''moksha'', "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XVIII, note 3}} Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=56, incl. note 12}}

=====Writings=====
{{Main|Adi Shankara bibliography}}

Adi Shankara is best known for his reviews and commentaries (''Bhasyas'') on ancient Indian texts. His ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' (literally, commentary on [[Brahma Sutra]]) is a fundamental text of the Vedānta school of Hinduism.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}} His commentaries on ten [[Mukhya Upanishads|Mukhya]] (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=30–31}} Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gitā (part of his [[Prasthana Trayi]] Bhasya).{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} He also authored [[Upadesasahasri]], his most important original philosophical work.<ref name=johnkoller>John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): ''The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-134-18001-1}}, pp. 98–106</ref><ref name=halbfassyoga>Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), ''Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-0362-4}}, pp. 205–208</ref> The authenticity of Shankara being the author of {{IAST|[[Viveka Chudamani|Vivekacūḍāmaṇi]]}}<ref>Adi Shankaracharya, [https://archive.org/stream/vivekachudamanio00sankrich#page/n3/mode/2up Vivekacūḍāmaṇi] S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)</ref> has been questioned, and "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara."<ref>John Grimes (2004), ''The Vivekacudamani of Sankaracarya Bhagavatpada: An Introduction and Translation'', Ashgate, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3395-2}}, p.23</ref>

=====Influence of Shankara=====
While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, scholars have questioned the traditional narrative of Shankara's early influence in India.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary [[Maṇḍana Miśra]], who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Only when Vacaspati Misra, an influential student of Maṇḍana Miśra, harmonised the teachings of Shankara with those of Maṇḍana Miśra, Shankara's teachings gained prominence.{{sfn|King|1999|p=55}} Some modern Advaitins argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were maintained by the Suresvara school.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} According to [[Satchidanandendra Sarasvati]], "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]."{{sfn|Satchidanandendra Sarasvati|1997|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=157; 229 note 57}} Vedanta became a major influence when Vedanta philosophy was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=691-693}} such as [[Ramanuja]] (11th c.), who aligned [[bhakti]], "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views.<ref group=web name=EB_Ramanuja>Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanajua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621165517/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |date=21 June 2022 }}</ref>

The cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta started only centuries later, in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in the 14th century,{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} when Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire and became a powerful institution.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} [[Vidyaranya]], also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} played a central role in this growing influence of Advaita Vedanta, and the [[deification]] of Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]].{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} From 1346 onwards Sringeri ''matha'' received patronage from the Vijayanagara kings, and its importance and influence grew rapidly in the second half of the 14th century.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{refn|group=note|The insignificance of Srineri ''matha'' before this time was such, that Hacker and Kulke & Rothermund have argued that Sringeri ''matha'' may have been founded by Vidyaranya himself, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}}} Vidyaranya and the Sringeri matha competed for royal patronage and converts with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire,{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} and Madhava (the pre-ordination name of Vidyaranya) presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', portraying the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The subsequent ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Shankara Digvijayam]]'' genre, following the example of the earlier ''Madhva Digvijayam'',{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=157}} presented Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]], conquering the four quarters of India and bringing harmony.{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} The genre created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}

Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists, following Vidyaranya, elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."{{sfn|King|2002|p=129}} Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=129-130}}

====Advaita Vedanta sub-schools====
Two defunct schools are the ''Pancapadika'' and ''Istasiddhi'', which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The still existing [[Bhāmatī]] and [[Vivarana]] developed in the 11th-14th century.<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana/>{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations of the concepts of [[Maya (illusion)|māyā]] and [[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]].<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana />

[[Padmapada]] (c. 800 CE),{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} the founder of the defunct Pancapadika school, was a direct disciple of Shankara. He wrote the ''Pancapadika'', a commentary on the ''Sankara-bhaya''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} Padmapada diverged from Shankara in his description of ''avidya'', designating ''prakrti'' as ''avidya'' or ''ajnana''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=39}}

Sureśvara (fl. 800–900 CE){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}} was a contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} and often (incorrectly) identified with Maṇḍana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}}{{refn|group=note|name=karlpottermms|{{harvnb|Potter|2008|pp=346–347, 420–423}}: "There is little firm historical information about Suresvara; tradition holds Suresvara is same as Mandanamisra."}} Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}}

Mandana Mishra's student [[Vachaspati Miśra]] (9th/10th century CE),{{sfn|Fowler|2002|p=129}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=85-86}}{{sfn|Larson|Bhattacharya|1987|p=301-312}} who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=34}} wrote the ''[[Bhamati]]'', a commentary on Shankara's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'', and the ''Brahmatattva-samiksa'', a commentary on Mandana Mishra's ''Brahma-siddhi''. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=35}}<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |title=The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools |access-date=11 September 2012 |archive-date=7 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407053224/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the [[Jiva]] as the source of avidya.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana /> It sees contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=37}}

Vimuktatman (c. 1200 CE){{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} wrote the ''Ista-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} It is one of the four traditional ''siddhi'', together with Mandana's ''Brahma-siddhi'', Suresvara's ''Naiskarmya-siddhi'', and Madusudana's ''Advaita-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|pp=198–199}} According to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is "pure intuitive consciousness".{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=199}} His school of thought was eventually replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}}

Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} wrote the ''Pancapadika-Vivarana'', a commentary on the ''Pancapadika'' by [[Padmapadacharya]].{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The ''Vivarana'' lends its name to the subsequent school. According to Roodurmun, "[H]is line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition."{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The Vivarana school takes an epistemological approach. It is distinguished from the ''Bhamati'' school by its rejection of action and favouring Vedic study and "a direct apprehension of Brahma."{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}} Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of ''mulavidya'' or ''maya'' as being of "positive beginningless nature",{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=41}} and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it cannot be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana />

Another late figure which is widely associated with Advaita and was influential on late Advaita thought was [[Shriharsha|Śrīharṣa]].

===Late medieval India - yogic Advaita===
Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is very well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

While indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedānta, the living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} Yoga and samkhya had become minor schools of thought since the time of Shankara, and no longer posed a thread for the sectarian identity of Advaita, in contrast to the Vaishnava traditions.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}}

The ''Yoga Vasistha'' became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedānta tradition in the 14th century, and the "yogic Advaita"{{sfn|Fort|1996|p=136}}{{sfn|Fort|1998|p=97}} of Vidyāraņya's ''Jivanmuktiviveka'' (14th century) was influenced by the ''(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha'', which in turn was influenced by [[Kashmir Shaivism]].{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=4}} Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedānta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some [[Nath]] and [[hatha yoga]] texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}}

According to [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]], it was with the arrival of Islamic rule, first in the form of [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]], and the subsequent persecution of Indian religions, that Hindu scholars began a self-conscious attempts to define an [[Unifying Hinduism|identity and unity]].{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}}<ref name="gaborieau7">{{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}</ref> Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, this effort emerged with the "astika and nastika" schema of classifying Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}}

==== Vidyāraṇya ====
It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu ''darsana'' took shape as Advaitins in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} who shifted their allegiance from ''Advaitic'' [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] Shaivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=215, 221-222}}

Central in this repositioning was [[Vidyaranya|Vidyāraṇya]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Śringeri Śarada Pītham]] from 1380 to 1386<ref name="Chisholm, Hugh 1911">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} He inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India, in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially ''[[Vishishtadvaita|Visistadvaita]]'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55}} Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 14th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited ''Śankara-vijaya'', in which legends were created to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=90}}

Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} In his [[doxography]] ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha]]'' ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', presenting the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160-162}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} [[Bhedabheda]] wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=161}} Vidyaranya became head of Sringeri ''matha'', proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}} Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (''mathas'') to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}

=== Modern Advaita ===

==== Niścaldās and "Greater" Advaita ====
Michael S. Allen has written on the influence and popularity of Advaita Vedanta in early modern north India, especially on the work of the Advaita [[Dadu Dayal|Dādū-panthī]] monk [[Niścaldās]] (ca. 1791–1863), author of ''The Ocean of Inquiry'' (Hindi: Vichāra-sāgara), a vernacular compendium of Advaita.{{sfn|Allen|2017}} According to Allen, the work of Niścaldās "was quite popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: it was translated into over eight languages and was once referred to by Vivekananda as having 'more influence in India than any [book] that has been written in any language within the last three centuries.'"{{sfn|Allen|2017}}

Allen highlights the widespread prominence in early modern India of what he calls "Greater Advaita Vedānta" which refers to popular Advaita works, including "narratives and dramas, “eclectic” works blending Vedānta with other traditions, and vernacular works such as ''The Ocean of Inquiry''."{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Allen refers to several popular late figures and texts which draw on Advaita Vedanta, such as the Maharashtrian sant [[Eknath|Eknāth]] (16th c.), the popular ''[[Adhyatma Ramayana|Adhyātma-rāmāyaṇa]]'' (ca. late 15th c.), which synthesizes Rama bhakti and advaita metaphysics and the ''[[Tripura Rahasya|Tripurā-rahasya]]'' (a tantric text that adopts an advaita metaphysics).{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Other important vernacular Advaita figures include the Hindu authors Manohardās and Māṇakdās (who wrote the Ātma-bodh). Advaita literature was also written in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and Oriya.{{sfn|Allen|2017}}

====Neo-Vedanta====
[[File:MKGandhi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] stated "I am an advaitist".<ref name=jordens116>{{cite book|author=J. Jordens|title=Gandhi's Religion: A Homespun Shawl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELODDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37389-1|page=116}}</ref><ref name=long194>{{cite book|author=Jeffrey D. Long|editor=Rita Sherma and Arvind Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=194|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073153/https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism}}

According to King, with the consolidation of the British imperialist rule the new rulers started to view Indians through the "colonially crafted lenses" of [[Orientalism]]. In response Hindu nationalism emerged, striving for socio-political independence and countering the influence of Christian missionaries.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109}} Among the colonial era intelligentsia the monistic Advaita Vedānta has been a major ideological force for Hindu nationalism,<ref>{{cite book|author=Anshuman A Mondal|title=Nationalism and Post-Colonial Identity: Culture and Ideology in India and Egypt|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw2CAgAAQBAJ |year= 2004|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-49417-0|pages=85, 256}}</ref> with Hindu intellectuals formulating a "humanistic, inclusivist" response, now called Neo-Vedānta, attempting to respond to this colonial stereotyping of "Indian culture [as] backward, superstitious and inferior to the West."{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138}}

Due to the influence of Vidyaranya's [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|''Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'']], early Indologists regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} Vedānta came to be regarded, both by westerners as by Indian nationalists, as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" and umbrella of "inclusivism".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109, 128}} Colonial era Indian thinkers, such as [[Vivekananda]], presented Advaita Vedānta as an inclusive universal religion, a spirituality that in part helped organize a religiously infused identity. It also aided the rise of Hindu nationalism as a counter weight to Islam-infused Muslim communitarian organizations such as the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], to Christianity-infused colonial orientalism and to religious persecution of those belonging to Indian religions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|pages=112, 141–144|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180154/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gaborieau7/><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Blom Hansen|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691006710|pages=76–77, 91–92, 179–181, 44–47, 69–70|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> Neo-Vedānta subsumed and incorporated Buddhist ideas thereby making the [[Buddha]] a part of the Vedānta tradition, all in an attempt to reposition the history of Indian culture.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} This view on Advaita Vedānta, according to King, "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=132–133, 172}}

Vivekananda discerned a [[Universalism|universal religion]], regarding all the apparent differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=91–92}} Vivekananda emphasised ''nirvikalpa'' [[samadhi]] as the spiritual goal of Vedānta, he equated it to the liberation in [[Yoga]] and encouraged Yoga practice which he called ''Raja yoga''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rabindra Kumar Dasgupta|title=Swami Vivekananda on Indian philosophy and literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|isbn=978-81-85843-81-0|pages=145–146, 284–285|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116190113/https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to Comans, this approach is missing in historic Advaita texts.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Comans | first=Michael | s2cid=170870115 | title=The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=1993 | pages=19–38 | doi=10.2307/1399467 | jstor=1399467 }}</ref>}} With the efforts of [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]], modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought", though Hindu beliefs and practices are diverse.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}}

[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], first a professor at Oxford University and later a President of India, further popularized Advaita Vedānta, presenting it as the essence of Hinduism.<ref group=web name="IEP" /> According to Michael Hawley, Radhakrishnan saw other religions, as well as "what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism," as interpretations of Advaita Vedānta, thereby "in a sense Hindusizing all religions".<ref group=web name="IEP" /> Radhakrishnan metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedānta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedānta for contemporary needs and context.<ref group=web name="IEP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |title=Michael Hawley, ''Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975)'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712171420/https://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=bhedabheda|Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to [[Bhedabheda|Bhedabheda-Vedanta]] than to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F. Gier: "Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term."<ref>{{Cite journal |first =Nicholas F. |last =Gier |year=2012 |title=Overreaching to be different: A critique of Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different |journal=[[International Journal of Hindu Studies]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=259–285 | doi =10.1007/s11407-012-9127-x|s2cid =144711827}}</ref>}}

Mahatma Gandhi declared his allegiance to Advaita Vedānta, and was another popularizing force for its ideas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicholas F.|last=Gier|year=2004|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=40–42|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073707/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Contemporary Advaita Vedānta====
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox [[Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham]]; the more traditional teachers [[Sivananda Saraswati]] (1887–1963), [[Chinmayananda Saraswati]] (1916-1993),<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> [[Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)]] (1930-2015), Swami Paramarthananda, Swami Tattvavidananda Sarasvati, Carol Whitfield (Radha), Sri Vasudevacharya (previously Michael Comans)<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> and less traditional teachers such as [[Narayana Guru]].<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers">{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |title=Advaita Vision, ''teachers'' |access-date=6 April 2015 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032833/http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in 20th century Advaita tradition are [[Chandrashekhara Bharati III|Shri Chandrashekhara Bharati Mahaswami]], [[Chandrashekarendra Saraswati|Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Swamigal]], [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati|Sacchidānandendra Saraswati]].<ref group=web name="Menon">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |title=Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101653/http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Influence on new religious movements====
Advaita Vedānta has gained attention in western [[spirituality]] and [[New Age]] as [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]], where [[Perennial philosophy|various traditions]] are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience.{{sfn|Katz|2007}} Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object".<ref group=web name="Undivided">{{Cite web |url=http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |title=Undivided Journal, ''About the Journal'' |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823200254/http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |archive-date=23 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality".<ref group=web name="whatisnond">{{Cite web |url=http://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |title=Jerry Katz on Nonduality, "What is Nonduality?" |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106211636/https://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Neo-Advaita]] is a [[new religious movement]] based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of [[Ramana Maharshi]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} Notable neo-advaita teachers are [[H. W. L. Poonja]],{{sfn|Caplan|2009|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} his students [[Gangaji]]{{sfn|Lucas|2011|pp=102–105}} [[Andrew Cohen (spiritual teacher)|Andrew Cohen]]{{refn|group=note|Presently Cohen has distanced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings "Evolutionary Enlightenment".{{sfn|Gleig|2011|p=10}} ''What Is Enlightenment'', the magazine published by Choen's organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001. See.<ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414172435/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j22/stacey.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 September 2006]</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp What is Enlightenment? 31 December 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310124030/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp |date=10 March 2013}}</ref><ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414151819/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j31/translucent.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 December 2005]</ref>}}, and [[Eckhart Tolle]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}}

==See also==
* [[Cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta|Cause and effect in Advaita Vedānta]]
* [[Kashmir Shaivism]]
* [[Pandeism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Aham Brahmasmi]]
* [[Ubhay Bharati]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=


{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman|Highest self:
* Shankara, ''Upadesasahasri'' I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|Sat]]''). I.18.6: "The two [contradictory] notions "I am the Existent-''Brahman''" and "I act," have ''Atman'' as their witness. It is considered more reasonable to give up only [that one] of the two [notions] which arises from ignorance. I.18.7: "The notion, "I am the Existent," arises from right means of knowledge [while] the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge." ({{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=172}})
* ''Brahmajnanavalimala'' Verse 20: "Brahman is real, the universe is mithya (it cannot be categorized as either real or unreal). The jiva is Brahman itself and not different." Translation by S. N. Sastri [https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/brahmajnaanaavalimaalaa.pdf]
* {{harvnb|Sivananda|1993|p=219}}: "Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or individual soul is non-different from Brahman."
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "The experiencing self (jīva) and the transcendental self of the Universe (ātman) are in reality identical (both are Brahman), though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such. These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse "brahma satyam jagan mithya; jīvo brahmaiva na aparah" (Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman)."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=54}}: "[the] essential status [of the individual human person] is that of unqualified reality, of identity with the Absolute [...] the self (''jiva'') is only misperceived: the self is really Brahman."
* {{harvnb|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}: "Atman, which is identical to Brahman, is ultimately the only reality and [...] the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance [...] the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman/Brahman [...] Brahman alone is ultimately real."
* {{harvnb|Bowker|2000a|loc="Advaita Vedanta"}}: "There is only Brahman, which is necessarily undifferentiated. It follows that there cannot even be a difference, or duality, between the human subject, or self, and Brahman, for Brahman must be that very self (since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance). The goal of human life and wisdom must, therefore, be the realization that the self (ātman) is Brahman."
* {{harvtxt|Hacker|1995|p=88}} notes that Shankara uses two groups of words to denote 'atman': "One group - principally ''jiva'', ''vijnanatman'', and ''sarira'' - expresses the illusory aspect of the soul [...] But in addition there are the two expressions ''atman'' and ''pratyagatman''. These also designate the individual soul, but in its real aspect." {{Harvtxt|Mayeda|1992|pp=11, 14}} uses the word ''pratyagatman''; {{harvtxt|Sivananda1993|p=219}}, {{harvtxt|Deutsch|1973|p=54}}, and {{harvtxt|Menon|2012}} use the term ''jiva'' when referring to the identity of ''atman'' and ''Brahman''.}}

{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_definitions|Brahman is also defined as:
* The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is all [[matter]], [[energy]], [[time]], [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit without a second.({{harvtxt|Brodd|2003}}; {{harvtxt|Vachatimanont|2005|pp=47–48}})
* {{harvnb|Bowker|2003|loc="Brahman"}}: "(Skt., literally, 'growth' or 'expansion'). The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe."
* {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} The supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world."
* The Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperishable. Brahman is indescribable.{{harvnb|Fowler|2005|p=30}}: "''Upanisadic'' thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the ''Vedic'' period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...]."}}

{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal|{{harvtxt|Potter|2008|p=136}}; see [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 2.51-14; [[Chandogya Upanishad]] 8.3.4.}}


{{refn|group=note|name=Consciousness|For pure Consciousness, also included in the phrase [[sat-cit-ananda]], see {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=103 (verse 1), p.105 (note 1); p.126, verse 7}}; {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–51}}; {{harvnb|Davis|2010|pp=34–35}}; {{harvnb|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}; {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}; {{harvnb|Sinha|2016|p=42}}.
* Shankara, Upadeśasāhasrī I.1.1, translated in {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=103}}: "Salutation to the all-knowing Pure Consciousness [note 1] which pervades all, is all, abides in the hearts of all beings, and is beyond all objects [of knowledge]. [Note 1 by Mayeda: "The Sanskrit term caitanya translated here as "Pure Consciousness" is used as a synonym for Brahman-Atman, indicating the nature of It."]
* Shankara, Upadeśasāhasrī I.11.7, translated in {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=126}}: "Being different from name, form, and action and by nature constantly free, I am ''Atman'', ie. the highest ''Brahman''; I am Pure Consciousness only and always non-dual."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=48}}: "Atman (or ''paramatman'', the highest Self), for Advaita vedanta, is that pure, undifferentiated, self-shining consciousness, timeless, spaceless, and unthinkable, that is non-different from Brahman and that underlies and supports the individual human person."
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "For classical Advaita Vedānta, Brahman is the fundamental reality underlying all objects and experiences. Brahman is explained as [[Satcitananda|pure existence, pure consciousness and pure bliss]]. All forms of existence presuppose a knowing self. Brahman or pure consciousness underlies the knowing self. Consciousness according to the Advaita School, unlike the positions held by other Vedānta schools, is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. Brahman is also one without a second, all-pervading and the immediate awareness."
* {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}: "According to Advaita Vedānta, the absolute is pure, qualityless and unchanging consciousness. Our consciousness (the consciousness of individual conscious entities) is not distinct from it, but is nothing other than this absolute itself, (seemingly) modified by the mental states of respective individual minds."
* {{harvnb|Sinha|2016|p=42}}: "According to the Advaita Vedānta, the Atman is pure, eternal, undifferenced consciousness, while the jīva is the pure consciousness limited or determined by the internal organ (antahkarana)."}}


{{refn|group=note|name=spiritual experience|Philosophy and spiritual experience:
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1988|p=4}}: "Advaita Vedanta is more than a philosophical system, as we understand these terms in the West today; it is also a practical guide to spiritual experience and is intimately bound up with spiritual experience."
* {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=11}}: "Any philosophy worthy of its title should not be a mere intellectual exercise but should have practical application in enabling man to live an enlightened life. A philosophy which makes no difference to the quality and style of our life is no philosophy, but an empty intellectual construction."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Fowler2002_monism"|{{harvnb|Fowler|2002|pp=30–31, 260–264}}: "As a philosophical and metaphysical term it [monism] refers to the acceptance of one single, ultimate, principle as the basis of the cosmos, the unity and oneness of all reality (...) [monism] has a model par excellence in that put forward by the eighth-century Indian philosopher Shankara, who is associated with the school of thought of Advaita Vedanta. (p. 263) – "In Shankara's words: 'the notions oneself and one's own are indeed falsely constructed (upon Atman) through nescience. When there is (the knowledge of) the oneness of Atman, these notions certainly do not exist. If the seed does not exist, whence shall the fruit arise?".}}


{{refn|group=note|name=Influence|Scholars are divided on the historical influence of Advaita Vedānta. Some Indologists state that it is one of the most studied Hindu philosophy and the most influential schools of classical Indian thought:
* {{harvnb|Indich|2000|pp=57–60}}
* {{harvnb|Brannigan|2009|p=19}}: "''Advaita Vedanta'' is the most influential philosophical system in Hindu thought."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1969|p=3}}: "[Advaita Vedānta] has been and continues to be the most widely accepted system of thought among philosophers in India, and it is, we believe, one of the greatest philosophical achievements to be found in the East or the West."}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"|{{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence." Critical scholarship has identified a number of key concepts used in contemporary Advaita Vedānta which differ from Shankara's views, revealing a discrepancy between the nominal adherence to Shankara and the actual alliance with his views.({{harvnb|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=4}}, {{harvnb|Potter|2006|pp=6–7}}) Some modern Advaitins, specifically [[Satchidanandendra Sarasvati]], argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, an argument deemed correct by Potter.({{harvnb|Potter|2006|pp=6–7}}, {{harvnb|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}) {{harvtxt|Potter|2006|pp=6–7}}: "...these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara's time are confused and basically mistaken, and that 99% of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara's philosophy is off the mark. This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion. Yet, there is good reason to think that it may well be true." {{harvnb|Satchidanandendra Sarasvati|1997|p=6}}: "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]."}}


{{refn|group=note|name=Madaio2017_umbrella|Many of these traditions, which were influential among Neo-Vedantins, did not derive from Vedantic lineages, i.e., the "Advaita Vedanta" of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]. As {{harvtxt|Madaio|2017|p=4}} points out "...it is possible to speak of sanskritic and vernacular advaitic texts (which are either explicitly non-dualistic or permit a non-dualistic reading) and 'Advaita Vedanta' texts which originate within sampradayas that claim an Advaita Vedantic lineage. This, then, avoids the obfuscating tendency to subsume advaitic but non-vedantic works under a 'Vedanta' or 'Advaita Vedanta' umbrella."}}

{{refn|group=note|name=Monism|Form of monism:
* {{harvnb|Malkovsky|2000|p=71}}: "The interpretation of advaita that is the most common equates non-duality with monism and acosmic illusionism. Only the Absolute, or the paraa brahma, is said to exist; everything else is but an illusory appearance."
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "The essential philosophy of Advaita is an idealist monism, and is considered to be presented first in the Upaniṣads and consolidated in the Brahma Sūtra by this tradition."
* {{harvnb|King|1995|p=65}}: "The prevailing monism of the Upanishads was developed by the Advaita Vedanta to its ultimate extreme."
* {{harvnb|Mohanty|1980|p=205}}: "Nyaya-Vaiseshika is realistic; Advaita Vedanta is idealistic. The former is pluralistic, the latter monistic."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"|{{harvnb|Payne|2005|pp=199–200 with p. 215 notes 5, 6}}: "A fourth metaphor is the monistic equation of the true or absolute self (atman) with absolute being (Brahman). In general, then, the conception of the self that emerges is one in which the self is in some way permanent, eternal, absolute or unchanging. It is also simultaneously universal and individual. The view is that there is an essence and that it can be known."}}


{{refn|group=note|name=self-evident|According to Shankara, in ''Adhyasa-bhasya'' (pre-amble to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' I.1.1), it is self-evident that ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'', pure awareness or the [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], is completely different from non-Atman, the thinking and acting self and the material world.}}

<ref group=note name=self-luminous>Self-luminosity; see {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Dasgupta|1975|pp=148–149}}; {{harvnb|Indich|2000|pp=24, 28}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}; {{harvnb|Ganeri|2019|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Murti|1983|p=339}}; {{harvnb|Isaeva|1993|p=102}}. For the translation and meaning of ''svayam prakāśa'':
* ''svayam'': "himself, autonomous, in person" (Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, [https://www.learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&direct=au&script=hk&tran_input=svayam svayam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207215520/https://www.learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&direct=au&script=hk&tran_input=svayam |date=7 December 2021 }})
* ''[[prakāśa]]'': "manifestation," literally "light" or "illumination"; "the capacity to disclose, present, or make manifest" ({{harvnb|Fasching|2021}} note 1, referring to "MacKenzie 2017, 335; cf. also Ram-Prasad 2007, 53")
''Svayam prakāśa'' can be translated as:
* "self-luminous" ({{harvnb|Ganeri|2019}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}})
* "self-revealing" {{harv|Dasgupta|1975}})
* "self-manifesting" ({{harvnb|Chatterjea|2003|p=1}})
* "Self-aware" {{harv|Wood|1992|p=102}}
* "Immediate" {{harv|Murti|1983|p=339}}
On the meaning of ''svayam prakāśa'':
* {{harvnb|Menezes|2017|p=198}}: "Self-luminosity (svayam prakāśa) means self is pure awareness by nature"; idem {{harvnb|Ganeri|2019}}: "self is pure awareness by nature."
* {{harvnb|Murti|1983|p=339}}: "a foundational consciousness [...] to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object."
For a detailed treatment, see {{harvnb|Mackenzie|2012}}; {{harvnb|Fasching|2011}}.</ref>

{{refn|group=note|name="Soul"|Soul:
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul"
* David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415215277}}, pp. 208–209, '''Quote''': "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself";
* Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425138}}, p. 64, '''Quote:''' "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".
* Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195340136}}, p. 63; '''Quote''': "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of ''Atman'' (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Sringeri_14th_c"|Sringeri matha received patronage from the kings of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]],({{harvnb|Goodding|2013|p=89}}) competing with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'' groups for royal patronage and converts.({{harvnb|Stoker|2016|pp=55–56}}) The works of the influential Advaitin [[Vidyaranya]] (Madhava, 14th cent.), ''jagadguru'' of Sringeri ''matha'' from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386, presented Advaita teachings as the summit of the Indian ''[[Darśana#In Hinduism|darśanam]]'',({{harvnb|Hacker|1995|pp=29–30}}, {{harvnb|Blake Michael|1992|pp=60–62 with notes 6, 7, and 8}}, {{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}, {{harvnb|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}) while the subsequent [[Shankara Digvijayam]] genre [[Deification|deified]] him as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]] who conquered the four quarters.({{harvnb|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}, {{harvnb|Bader|2001|p=vii}}) Shankara's prominence was further established in the 19th and 20th century, gaining worldwide fame, in a "confluence of interests" of Western Christian missionaries, the [[British Raj]], and [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalists]].({{harvnb|King|2002|pp=129–135}})}}

{{refn|group=note|name=subitism|Compare, in Buddhism: [[Subitism]], [[Hongaku]] ("original enlightenment"), [[Post-satori practice]]. See also Nisargadatta Maharaj on 'the bird's way and the ant's way'.}}


{{refn|group=note|name=transformation|Jivanmukti is a state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual.After this transformation, the liberated individual shows attributes such as:{{harv|Aiyar|1914|pp=140–147}};{{harv|Nikhilananda|1958|pp=53–79}}; {{harv|Fort|1998}}
* he is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel words, treats others with respect regardless of how others treat him;
* when confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
* even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
* he does not crave for blessings or expect praise from others;
* he never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa), he is intent in the welfare of all beings;
* he is as comfortable being alone as in the presence of others;
* he is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and nagara (city);
* he does not care about or wear sikha (tuft of hair on the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha, knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only knowledge matters;
* for him there is no invocation nor dismissal of deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing other than knowledge of Self;
* he is humble, high spirited, of clear and steady mind, straightforward, compassionate, patient, indifferent, courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Vedanta_meaning"|Literally: ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', referring to the [[Upanishads]] and their interpretation; it is a tradition of interpretation of the [[Upanishads]],({{harvnb|Nakamura|1990|p=112}}) the [[Brahma Sutras]], and the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]].({{harvnb|Grimes|1990|pp=6–7}}, {{harvnb|Menon|2012}})}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=


<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble">Shankara, ''Adhyasa-bhasya'' (pre-amble to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' I.1.1)</ref>
}}

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* {{cite book | last =Thrasher | first =Allen Wright | year =1993 | title =The Advaita Vedānta of Brahma-siddhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | isbn =978-81-208-0982-6 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=9b2cJ1gLgvgC | access-date =29 January 2017 | archive-date =16 January 2024 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240116181719/https://books.google.com/books?id=9b2cJ1gLgvgC | url-status =live }}

* {{Citation | last =Vachatimanont | first =Sakkapohl | year =2005 | title =On why the traditional Advaic resolution of jivanmukti is superior to the neo-Vedantic resolution | journal =Macalester Journal of Philosophy |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=47–48}}
* {{Citation|last=Venkatramaiah|first=Munagala|year=2000|title=Talks With Sri Ramana Maharshi: On Realizing Abiding Peace and Happiness|publisher=Inner Directions|isbn=1-878019-00-7}}
* {{Citation | last =Vireshwarananda | first =Swami | year =1936 | title =Adhyasa or Superimposition | url =https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/brahma-sutras/d/doc62758.html | access-date =3 July 2020 | archive-date =9 December 2021 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20211209194655/https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/brahma-sutras/d/doc62758.html | url-status =live }}
* {{cite book | last =Vireswarananda | first =Swami | year =2019 | orig-year =1936 | title =Brahma Sutras. According to Sri Sankara | publisher =Advaita Ashrama}}
* {{cite book | last =Vivekananda | first =Swami | year =1947 | title =The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 7 | url =https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.47041}}
* {{cite book | last =Volker | first =Fabian | year =2023 | chapter =The Plurality of Nonduality: Toward a Tripartite Typology | editor-last1 =Sydnor | editor-first1 =Jon Paul | editor-last2 =Watson | editor-first2 =Anthony J. | title =Nondualism: An Interreligious Exploration | publisher =Bloomsbury Publishing | url =https://www.academia.edu/73677134}}
* {{cite book | last =Vroom | first =H.M. | year =1989 | title =Religions and the Truth: Philosophical Reflections and Perspectives | publisher =Eerdmans Publishing | isbn =978-0802805027}}

* {{Citation | last =Werner|first=Karel|year=1994|title=The Yogi and the Mystic|publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite journal | last =Whaling|first=Frank|year=1979|title=Shankara and Buddhism|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=1–42|doi=10.1007/BF02561251|s2cid=170613052}}
* {{Citation|last=Wilber|first=Ken|year=2000|title=Integral Psychology|publisher=Shambhala Publications}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Paul |last2=Tribe |first2=Anthony |last3=Wynne |first3=Alexander |year=2000 |title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-20701-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVvFBQAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Paul|year=2008|title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25056-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060834/https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Citation | last =Wood | first =Thomas E. | year =1992 | title =The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad and the Āgama Śāstra: An Investigation Into the Meaning of the Vedānta}}

* {{cite book | last =Yao | first =Zhihua | year =2005 | title =The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition}}
* {{Citation|last=Yogani|year=2011|title=Advanced Yoga Practices Support Forum Posts of Yogani, 2005–2010|publisher=AYP Publishing}}
{{refend}}

;Web-sources
{{Reflist|group=web|refs=


<ref group=web name="EB_Dvaita">Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Dvaita". Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Feb. 2015, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dvaita {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309060051/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dvaita |date=9 March 2021 }}. Accessed 13 March 2022.</ref>

<ref group=web name="EB_Maya">Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/maya-Indian-philosophy ''Maya''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104163819/https://www.britannica.com/topic/maya-Indian-philosophy |date=4 November 2021 }}</ref>


<ref group=web name="IEP_Bheda">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 |title=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'' |access-date=16 January 2017 |archive-date=18 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218113652/http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 |url-status=live }}</ref>


<ref group=web name="spokensanskrit_cause">{{cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=+cause&trans=Translate |title=cause |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080735/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=+cause&trans=Translate |archive-date=2017-02-11 |postscript=,}} {{cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=effect&script=&direction=ES&link=yes |title=effect |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075836/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=effect&script=&direction=ES&link=yes |archive-date=2017-02-11 |postscript=,}} ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany.</ref>

<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021>Neil Dalal (2021), [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ Shankara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127111736/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |date=27 January 2022 }}, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
;Primary texts
* Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n7/mode/2up Thirteen Principal Upanishads], Oxford University Press
* Shankara, "A thousand teachings: the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara", Translator Sengaku Mayeda
* Shankara, [http://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/Vedanta-Sutras-With-the-Commentary-by-Sankaracharya.pdf Brahma Sutras with Shankara's commentary], translator George Thibaut
* Maṇḍana Miśra, translated by Allen W. Thrasher (1993), ''[[iarchive:TheAdvaitaVedantaOfBrahmaSiddhiAllenWrightThrasher|The Advaita Vedānta of Brahmasiddhi]]'', Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass
* [[Eliot Deutsch]] and J. A. B. van Buitenen (1971), ''A Source Book of Advaita Vedānta'', Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, {{ISBN|978-0870221897}}

;Introductions
* {{Citation | last =Mayeda | first =Sengaku | year =1992 | chapter =An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara | editor-first =Sengaku | editor-last =Mayeda | title =A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara | publisher =State University of New York City Press | isbn =0-7914-0944-9 | chapter-url =https://archive.org/details/thousandteaching00sank |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Comans | first =Michael | year =2000 | title =The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | last =Rambachan | first =A. | year =2006 | title =The Advaita Worldview: God, World, and Humanity | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0791468524 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Sarma | first =Candradhara | year =2007 |isbn= 978-8120813120 | title =The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass |ref=none}}

;History
* {{citation|last=Nakamura|first=Hajime|year=1950|title=A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One (1990 Reprint)|place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{citation|last=Nakamura|first=Hajime|year=1950|title=A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two (2004 Reprint)|place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Potter | first =Karl H.| year =1981 | title =Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 3: Advaita Vedanta up to Sankara and his Pupils | place =Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press|ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Potter | first =Karl H.| year =2006 | title =Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies vol. 11: Advaita Vedānta from 800 to 1200 | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Isaeva | first =N.V. | year =1995 | title =From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta | publisher =SUNY Press |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Clark | first =Matthew | year =2006 | title =The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs. The Integration Of Ascetic Lineages Into An Order | publisher =BRILL | ref=none}}

;Topical studies
* [[Arvind Sharma]] (1995), ''The Philosophy of Religion and Advaita Vedānta: A Comparative Study in Religion and Reason'', Pennsylvania State University Press
* Satyapal Verma (1992), ''Role of Reason in Sankara Vedānta'', Parimal Publication, Delhi
* Sangam Lal Pandey (1989), ''The Advaita view of God'', Darshana Peeth, Allahabad
* Kapil N. Tiwari (1977), ''Dimensions of renunciation in Advaita Vedānta'', Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
* Jacqueline G. Suthren Hirst (2005), Samkara's Advaita Vedānta: A Way of Teaching, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415406017}}
* Leesa Davis (2010), Advaita Vedānta and Zen Buddhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry, Bloomsbury Academic
* {{cite journal |last=Dalal |first=Neil |date=March 2019 |title=Embodying Texts and Tradition: Ethnographic Film in a South Indian Advaita Vedānta ''Gurukulam'' |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=81–121 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfy027 |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270}}

;Gaudapada
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =1995 | title =Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =9780791425138 | ref=none}}

;Shankara
* Natalia V. Isayeva (1993), ''Shankara and Indian philosophy'', SUNY, New York
* Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan (1990), ''The Ethics of Sankara'', University of Calicut
* Raghunath D. Karmarkar (1966), ''Sankara's Advaita'', Karnatak University, Dharwar
* Paul Deussen (Translated by Charles Johnston), {{Google books|DI7cCgAAQBAJ|The System of the Vedanta with Shankara commentaries}}, Open Court
* Charles Johnston, {{Google books|sM2wBAAAQBAJ|The Vedanta Philosophy of Sankaracharya}}, Theosophical Society

;Neo-Vedānta
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =2002 | title =Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" | publisher =Routledge |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Rambachan, Anantanand |title=The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=[Honolulu] |year=1994 |isbn=0-8248-1542-4}}

;Neo-Advaita
* {{Citation | last =Jacobs | first =Alan | year =2004 | title =Advaita and Western Neo-Advaita. | journal =The Mountain Path Journal | pages =81–88 | publisher =Ramanasramam | url =http://www.sriramanamaharshi.org/mpath/2004/october/mp.swf | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150518100046/http://www.sriramanamaharshi.org/mpath/2004/october/mp.swf | archive-date =18 May 2015 | df =dmy-all |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Lucas | first =Phillip Charles | year =2011 | title =When a Movement Is Not a Movement. Ramana Maharshi and Neo-Advaita in North America | journal =Nova Religio |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=93–114 | jstor =10.1525/nr.2011.15.2.93| doi =10.1525/nr.2011.15.2.93 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Sharf | first =Robert H. | year =2000 | title =The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion | journal =Journal of Consciousness Studies | volume =7 | issue =11–12 | pages =267–87 | url =http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | access-date =17 January 2017 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130513104227/http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | archive-date =13 May 2013 | url-status =dead }}

;Indian languages
* Mishra, M., ''Bhāratīya Darshan'' (भारतीय दर्शन), Kalā Prakāshan.
* Sinha, H. P., ''Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha'' (Features of Indian Philosophy), 1993, Motilal Benarasidas, Delhi–Varanasi.
* Swāmi Paramānanda Bhārati, ''Vedānta Prabodha'' (in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]), Jnānasamvardhini Granthakusuma, 2004

==External links==

{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ ''Advaita Vedānta''] by Sangeetha Menon, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/biblio.html Bibliography of Advaita Vedānta] Ancient to 9th-century literature
* [http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/biblio2.html Bibliography of Advaita Vedānta] 9th-century to 20th-century literature
* [http://vedantahub.org Vedānta Hub] – Resources to help with the Study and Practice of Advaita Vedānta
* [http://www.sankaracharya.org/spiritual_library.php sankaracharya.org Spiritual Library]
* [https://www.celextel.org/ Vedanta Spiritual Library]

{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{Indian Philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Advaita Vedanta| ]]
[[Category:Advaita|Vedanta]]
[[Category:Schools and traditions in ancient Indian philosophy]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Monism]]
[[Category:Hindu mysticism]]
[[Category:Nonduality]]
[[Category:Transtheism]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Sufism]]

Kshatriya (film)

2026-03-28T07:27:00Z

Yaarzu: improve details further and corrected details per standard format

{{Short description|1993 film by J. P. Dutta}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kshatriya
| image = Kshatriya (1993 film poster).jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[J. P. Dutta]]
| screenplay = J. P. Dutta {{infobox
| decat = yes
| child = yes
| label1 = Dialogues by
| data1 = [[O. P. Dutta]]
}}
| story = J. P. Dutta
| producer = Sunder Das Sonkiya
| starring = [[Sunil Dutt]] ({{small|special appearance}}) [[Dharmendra]] [[Vinod Khanna]] [[Sunny Deol]] [[Sanjay Dutt]] [[Meenakshi Sheshadri]] [[Raveena Tandon]] [[Divya Bharti]] [[Rakhee Gulzar]] [[Sumalatha]] [[Kabir Bedi]] [[Puneet Issar]] [[Prem Chopra]]
| narrator = [[Kulbhushan Kharbanda]]
| cinematography = [[Nirmal Jani]]
| editing = Deepak Wirkud
| music = [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
| studio = Pushpa Movies
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1993|03|26}}
| runtime = 187 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|5 crore}}<ref name="figure">{{cite news|url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/this-action-film-had-dharmendra-vinod-khanna-sunny-deol-in-lead-roles-still-failed-at-box-office-sanjay-dutt-was-reason-for-flop-due-to-his-arrest-in-bombay-bombing-case-movie-is-kshatriya-7711853|title=This action film had Dharmendra, Vinod Khanna, Sunny Deol in lead roles, still failed at box-office, Sanjay Dutt was reason for flop due to...|date=26 March 2025|accessdate=12 March 2026|author=Mallika Mehzabeen|work=[[India.com]]}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR|2.5 crore}}<ref name="figure" />
}}
'''''Kshatriya''''' ({{translation|Warriors}}) is a 1993 Indian Hindi-language [[action film]] directed and written by [[J. P. Dutta]]. It stars an [[ensemble cast]] of [[Dharmendra]], [[Vinod Khanna]], [[Sunny Deol]], [[Sanjay Dutt]], [[Meenakshi Seshadri]], [[Raveena Tandon]], [[Divya Bharti]], [[Rakhee Gulzar]], [[Sumalatha]], [[Kabir Bedi]], [[Puneet Issar]] and [[Prem Chopra]], with [[Sunil Dutt]] in a special appearance.

It was released worldwide on March 26, 1993.

==Plot==
This is a story about two warring royal [[Rajput]] families in [[Rajasthan]], [[India]], based in Surjangarh and Mirtagarh. The Mirtagarh family is headed by Maharaj Bhavani Singh, his wife Maheshwari Devi, their daughter Divya, and his younger brother Jaswant Singh. The Surjangarh family is headed by Maharaj Prithvi Singh, his wife Suman, his brother Devendra Pratap Singh, and Devendra's son Vijay Pratap Singh.

Vijay falls in love with Divya, but both families are against the marriage. The situation is made worse by Mirtagarh's [[Bookkeeping|diwan]] (bookkeeper), Ajay Singh, and his son, Shakti Singh. When Vijay comes to meet Divya, he is killed by Shakti, even though Bhavani never wanted him dead. On seeing Vijay's body, Divya commits suicide. Overwhelmed, Prithvi shoots and kills Bhavani in revenge, and is arrested by police officer Ganga Singh. While Prithvi is in prison, Jaswant returns from [[England]] with his newly wed [[English people|English]] wife, Jenny. When he learns about the past events, he kills Devendra in revenge. Horrified by this bloodbath, Jenny, who is pregnant, leaves him for her native England, saying that she will give birth to their child at a place where there is love and peace. Both Prithvi and Jaswant vow to kill each other once Prithvi is released from prison. To get them away from the bloody feud, Prithvi's son, Vinay, and Bhavani's son, Vikram, are sent to England as children.

Twenty years later, Vinay and Vikram are the best of friends, living in [[London]], England. Neelima, who is Vikram's cousin and Jaswant and late Jenny's daughter, also lives in London. Vinay and Neelima fall in love and want to marry, which could signal the end of the Surjangarh and Mirtagarh feud. Meanwhile, Ganga's daughter, Tanvi falls in love with Vikram. After completing their education from [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], the three youngsters – Vinay, Vikram, and Neelima – return to their families in India, with Tanvi to arrive a few days later.

Just then, Prithvi is released from prison. Jaswant challenges him to a [[Duel|sword fight]], which Prithvi eagerly accepts. [[Deputy inspector general of police#India|DIG]] Ganga Singh intervenes and stops them from killing each other. As the truth behind the feud is revealed to them, Vinay and Neelima are forbidden from entering a relationship. Despite the threats, they continue their forbidden romance. Wrongly assuming Vikram already knew, Vinay tells him that his father had killed Vikram's father. Later, enraged and seeking revenge, Vikram bursts into the Surjangarh mansion and shoots Prithvi. In a fit of rage, Vinay shoots back at Vikram.

While both Prithvi and Vikram survive and are recovering in a hospital, Vinay and Jaswant get into a fight outside. When Vinay assaults Jaswant, Neelima intervenes and slaps Vinay for hitting her father. This prompts Vinay to break off his relationship with Neelima, realizing that the feud will never end. Saddened by this break-up, Neelima attempts suicide but is saved by Madhu, Jaswant's beloved. However, Neelima tells Vinay that she cannot live without him and will again attempt suicide if he doesn't take her with him.

Alarmed, Vinay visits Jaswant and pleads with him to let him marry Neelima and end the feud. Jaswant refuses and tells Vinay to leave. As Vinay leaves, he is ambushed by Shakti, Ajay, and their men. It's then revealed to Vinay that Shakti Singh had killed his cousin, Vijay, and wants to kill him too. As Shakti tries to attack Vinay, Vinay overpowers and kills him with his own sword. In the skirmish that follows, Madhu gets shot by Ajay. Saddened by this, Jaswant kills Ajay, and Madhu dies in his arms. As promised to Madhu, he lets Neelima go with Vinay. Vinay and Neelima decide to return to England, marry, and settle there.

Vikram recovers from the hospital and challenges Prithvi to a sword fight. Maheshwari prevents Prithvi from accepting Vikram's challenge, telling him she has forgiven him for killing her husband, Bhavani, and that he should remember that. Prithvi promises her he will not kill Vikram. Vinay decides to accept Vikram's challenge instead, to uphold his father's honour. As Vikram and Vinay are [[duel]]ing, their mothers, Maheshwari (accompanied by Tanvi) and Suman (accompanied by Neelima), intervene. The mothers decide to hurt themselves to stop their sons from fighting. Vinay and Vikram eventually stop, and the feud finally ends, with friendship and a relationship blossoming between the two families.

==Cast==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! class="unsortable"| Actor
! class="unsortable"| Role
! class="unsortable"| Description
!Allegiance
|-
| [[Sunil Dutt]] ({{small|special appearance}})
| Maharaj Bhavani Singh || Jaswant's elder brother, Vikram's father
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Dharmendra]] || Maharaj Prithvi Singh || Vinay's father || Surjangarh
|-
| [[Vinod Khanna]] || Raja Jaswant Singh || Bhavani's younger brother, Neelima's father
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Sunny Deol]] || Vinay Pratap Singh || Prithvi's son, Neelima's boyfriend
| Surjangarh
|-
| [[Sanjay Dutt]] || Vikram Singh || Bhavani's son, Tanvi's boyfriend
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Meenakshi Seshadri]] || Madhu || Jaswant's beloved ({{small|after his wife's death}})
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Raveena Tandon]] || Neelima Singh || Jaswant and Jenny's daughter, Vinay's girlfriend
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Divya Bharti]] || Tanvi Singh || Ganga's daughter, Vikram's girlfriend
| Neutral
|-
| [[Rakhee Gulzar]] || Maheshwari Devi || Bhavani's wife, Vikram's mother
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Sumalatha]] || Suman Singh || Prithvi's wife, Vinay's mother
| Surjangarh
|-
| [[Kabir Bedi]] || [[Deputy inspector general of police#India|DIG]] Ganga Singh || Region's police chief, Tanvi's father || Neutral
|-
| [[Puneet Issar]] || Shakti Singh || Ajay's son, Mirtagarh's chief henchman
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Prem Chopra]] || Ajay Singh || Shakti's father, Mirtagarh's diwan
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Nafisa Ali]] || Jenny Singh || Jaswant's wife, Neelima's mother
| Mirtagarh
|-
| [[Vijayendra Ghatge]] || Vijayendra Singh || Surjangarh's diwan || Surjangarh
|-
| [[Dolly Minhas]] || Divya Singh || First-born daughter of Bhavani and Maheshwari
| Mirtagarh
|-
| Salim Fatehi || Vijay Pratap Singh || Devendra's son || Surjangarh
|-
| Pradeep Chaudhry || Raja Devendra Pratap Singh || Prithvi's younger brother, Vijay's father
| Surjangarh
|-
| [[Navtej Hundal]] || Ashu Pal || Madhu's father || Mirtagarh
|}

==Music and soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Kshatriya {{small|(Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)}}
| type = [[Soundtrack album]]
| cover =
| caption =
| artist = [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
| alt =
| released = 26 March 1993
| recorded = 1992–1993
| genre = [[Soundtrack|Motion picture soundtrack]], [[filmi]]
| length = 39:37
| language = Hindi
| label = [[Tips Industries|Tips]]
| producer = Laxmikant–Pyarelal
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|BO3R45M6woY|Kshatriya: Hello Hello}}
| audio2 = {{YouTube|t1cqENf03p4|Kshatriya: Main Khichi Chali Aayi}}
| audio3 = {{YouTube|21TVoV0Z-7c|Kshatriya: Dil Na Kisi Ka Jaaye}}
| audio4 = {{YouTube|0MTMaLpl37s|Kshatriya: Cham Cham Barso Pani}}
| audio5 = {{YouTube|zaquwYagJ90|Kshatriya: Main Ek Pyaasi Kali}}
| audio6 = {{YouTube|dm8dKFqZlQA|Kshatriya: Sapne Mein Sakhi}}
| audio7 = {{YouTube|bpQF8oPmlqM|Kshatriya: Tune Kiya Tha Vada}}
}}
}}
The film's music was composed by [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]] and the lyrics of the songs were penned by [[Anand Bakshi]].
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Song !! Singer
|-
| 1
| "Hello Hello"
| [[Mohammed Aziz]]
|-
| 1
| "Hello Hello" (version 2)
| Mohammed Aziz
|-
| 3
| "Main Khichi Chali Aayee"
| [[Alka Yagnik]]
|-
| 4
| "Dil Na Kisi Ka Jaye"
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]]
|-
| 4
| "Dil Na Kisi Ka Jaye" (version 2)
| Kavita Krishnamurthy
|-
| 6
| "Chham Chham Barsa Pani"
| [[Sadhana Sargam]], Kavita Krishnamurthy
|-
| 7
| "Main Ek Pyassi Kali"
| Kavita Krishnamurthy
|-
| 8
| "Sapne Mein Sakhi"
| Kavita Krishnamurthy
|-
| 9
| "Tune Kiya Tha Vaada"
| Kavita Krishnamurthy
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0104645|title=Kshatriya}}
{{J. P. Dutta}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kshatriya (Film)}}
[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:1993 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Indian epic films]]
[[Category:Films directed by J. P. Dutta]]
[[Category:Indian buddy films]]
[[Category:Indian action war films]]
[[Category:1990s action drama films]]
[[Category:1990s action war films]]
[[Category:1990s buddy films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]

Indian rupee

2026-03-27T17:06:34Z

Yaarzu:

{{Short description|Currency of India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox currency
| currency_name = Indian rupee
| subunit_ratio_1 = {{frac|100}}
| currency_name_in_local = {{collapsible list
|titlestyle = text-align:center; font-size:85%;
|title = {{nobold|Scheduled official languages:}}
|{{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle= font-size:80%;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow| label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]: | data1 = {{lang|as|ভাৰতীয় টকা}}
| rowclass2 = mergedrow| label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]: | data2 = {{lang|bn|ভারতীয় টাকা}}
| rowclass3 = mergedrow| label3 = [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]]: | data3 = {{lang|brx|भारतारी रां}}
| rowclass4 = mergedrow| label4 = [[Dogri language|Dogri]]: | data4 = {{lang|doi|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass5 = mergedrow| label5 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: | data5 = {{lang|gu|ભારતીય રૂપિયો}}
| rowclass6 = mergedrow| label6 = [[Hindi]]: | data6 = {{lang|hi|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass7 = mergedrow| label7 = [[Kannada]]: | data7 = {{lang|kn|ಭಾರತೀಯ ರೂಪಾಯಿ}}
| rowclass8 = mergedrow| label8 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]: | data8 = {{lang|ks|ہِندوستٲنؠ رۄپَے}}
| rowclass9 = mergedrow| label9 = [[Konkani language|Konkani]]: | data9 = {{lang|kok|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass10 = mergedrow| label10 = [[Maithili language|Maithili]]: | data10 = {{lang|mai|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass11 = mergedrow| label11 = [[Malayalam]]: | data11 = {{lang|ml|ഭാരതീയ രൂപ}}
| rowclass12 = mergedrow| label12 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]: | data12 = {{lang|mr|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass13 = mergedrow| label13 = [[Meitei language|Meitei]]: | data13 = {{lang|mni|ꯚꯥꯔꯠꯀꯤ ꯂꯨꯄꯥ}}
| rowclass14 = mergedrow| label14 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]: | data14 = {{lang|ne|भारतीय रुपैयाँ}}
| rowclass15 = mergedrow| label15 = [[Odia language|Odia]]: | data15 = {{lang|or|ଭାରତୀୟ ଟଙ୍କା}}
| rowclass16 = mergedrow| label16 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: | data16 = {{lang|pa|ਭਾਰਤੀ ਰੁਪਿਆ}}
| rowclass17 = mergedrow| label17 = [[Sanskrit]]: | data17 = {{lang|sa|भारतीय रुपये}}
| rowclass18 = mergedrow| label18 = [[Santali language|Santali]]: | data18 = {{lang|sat|ᱵᱷᱟᱨᱚᱛᱤᱭᱚ ᱴᱟᱠᱟ}}
| rowclass19 = mergedrow| label19 = [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]: | data19 = {{lang|sd|هندستاني روپيو}}
| rowclass20 = mergedrow| label20 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: | data20 = {{lang|ta|இந்திய ரூபாய்}}
| rowclass21 = mergedrow| label21 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: | data21 = {{lang|te|భారత రూపాయి}}
| rowclass22 = mergedrow| label22 = [[Urdu]]: | data22 = {{lang|ur|ہندوستانی روپیہ}}
}}
}}
| image_1 = Banknote of india.png
| image_2 = File:INR Coins.jpg
| image_title_1 = [[Banknotes of the Indian rupee]]
| image_title_2 = [[Coins of the Indian rupee]]
| iso_code = INR
| symbol = [[Indian rupee sign|{{INR}}]]
| frequently_used_banknotes = [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]], [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]], [[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]], [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]], [[Indian 500-rupee note|{{INR}}500]]
| rarely_used_banknotes = [[Indian 1-rupee note|{{INR}}1]], [[Indian 2-rupee note|{{INR}}2]], [[Indian 5-rupee note|{{INR}}5]]
| frequently_used_coins = [[Indian 1-rupee coin|{{INR}}1]], [[Indian 2-rupee coin|{{INR}}2]], [[Indian 5-rupee coin|{{INR}}5]], [[Indian 10-rupee coin|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee coin|{{INR}}20]]
| rarely_used_coins = [[File:Indian Paisa symbol.svg|10px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]50 (discontinued, but still legal tender for amounts up to ₹10);
[[File:Indian Paisa symbol.svg|10px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]25 (discontinued, not legal tender)
| unit = rupee
| subunit_name_1 = [[Indian paisa|paisa]]
| symbol_subunit_1 = [[File:Indian_Paisa_symbol.svg|12px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]
| coin_article = Modern Indian Coins
| using_countries = {{ubl|{{flag|India}}|{{flag|Bhutan}}|<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.rma.org.bt/FAQ.jsp#2 |publisher=[[Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan]]Zimbabwe |access-date=20 January 2020 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206104607/http://www.rma.org.bt/FAQ.jsp#2 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| date_of_introduction = {{ start date and age|1835}}
| unofficial_users = {{ubl| {{flag|Nepal}}|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}|<ref>{{cite news |title=Nepal writes to RBI to declare banned new Indian currency notes legal |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/nepal-writes-to-rbi-to-declare-banned-new-indian-currency-notes-legal/articleshow/67406624.cms |access-date=20 January 2020 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |publisher=[[Times Internet]] |date=6 January 2019 |archive-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205184338/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/nepal-writes-to-rbi-to-declare-banned-new-indian-currency-notes-legal/articleshow/67406624.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| issuing_authority = [[Reserve Bank of India]]<ref name="rbi">{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |title=FAQ – Your Guide to Money Matters |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=5 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123135/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |archive-date=12 January 2012 }}</ref>
| issuing_authority_website = {{URL|https://www.rbi.org.in/}}
| printer = [[Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited]]<ref name=SPMCIL>{{cite book |last1=[[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] – [[Department of Economic Affairs (India)|Department of Economic Affairs]] |title=Sixth Report, Committee on Public Undertakings – Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited |date=30 April 2010 |publisher=[[Lok Sabha Secretariat]] |page=8 |url=http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public%20Undertakings_6.pdf |access-date=8 June 2020 |archive-date=12 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412213713/http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public%20Undertakings_6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| printer_website = {{URL|spmcil.com}}
| mint = [[India Government Mint]]<ref name=SPMCIL />
| mint_website = {{URL|indiagovtmint.in}}
| inflation_rate = {{decrease}}3.4% (September 2024)<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |title=Inflation Rate In India: September 2024 Data |url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/in/personal-finance/inflation-rate-in-india/#:~:text=Core%20inflation%20is%20at%203.4%25%20versus%20the%20expectation%20of%203.35%25. |website=Forbes Advisor INDIA |date=16 September 2024}}</ref>
| inflation_source_date = [https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/AnnualReport/PDFs/4TBE93D257F71548D48A75D589A53E9DEF.PDF RBI – Annual Inflation Report]
| inflation_method = [[Consumer price index]] ([[Consumer price index by country#India|India]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India - Annual Report |url=https://rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualReportPublications.aspx?Id=1331 |website=rbi.org.in |access-date=9 April 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517210417/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualReportPublications.aspx?Id=1331 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| pegged_by = {{flagd|Bhutan|size=20px}} [[Bhutanese ngultrum]] (at par) {{flagd|Nepal|size=20px}} [[Nepalese rupee]] (₹1 = रु1.60)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/nepal-to-keep-currency-pegged-at-to-indian-rupee/article9689230.ece |title=Nepal to keep currency pegged to Indian rupee |work=[[Business Line]] |date=11 January 2018 |access-date=13 May 2019 |archive-date=10 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310065324/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/nepal-to-keep-currency-pegged-to-indian-rupee/article9689230.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
| footnotes = {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
}}

The '''Indian rupee''' ([[Currency symbol|symbol]]: '''[[Indian rupee sign|₹]]'''; [[ISO 4217|code]]: '''INR''') is the official [[currency]] of [[India]] and the erstwhile [[British Raj]]. The rupee is subdivided into 100 ''[[Indian paisa|paise]]'' (singular: ''paisa''). The issuance of the currency is controlled by the [[Reserve Bank of India]]. The Reserve Bank derives this role from powers vested in it by the [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]]. It is the world's [[Template: Most traded currencies|eleventh-most-traded cur]][[Template: Most traded currencies|rency]] as of April 2025.<ref>{{cite report |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey Foreign exchange turnover in April 2025 |url=https://www.bis.org/statistics/rpfx25_fx.pdf |publisher=[[Bank for International Settlements]] |page=14 |date=30 September 2025 |archive-date=2025-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251012053635/https://www.bis.org/statistics/rpfx25_fx.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology ==


[[Pāṇini]] (6th to 4th century BCE), the ancient Indian grammarian and logician, writes of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|rūpya}} ({{lang|sa|रूप्य}}). While it is unclear whether Pāṇini was referring specifically to coinage,<ref>{{citation |first=Shankar |last=Goyal |title=The Origin and Antiquity of Coinage in India |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |publisher=[[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] |volume=80 |number=1/4 |year=1999 |jstor=41694581 |page=144|quote=[[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]] makes the statement (V.2.120) that a 'form' (''rüpa'') when 'stamped' (''ahata'') or when praise-worthy (prašamsa) takes the ending ''ya'' (i.e. ''rupya''). ... Whether Panini was familiar with coins or not, his ''[[Astadhyayi]]'' does not specifically state.}}</ref> [[Coinage of India#Early|some scholars conclude]] that
he uses the term ''rūpa'' to mean a piece of precious metal (typically silver) used as a coin, and a ''rūpya'' to mean a stamped piece of metal, a coin in the modern sense.{{sfn|Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times|1966|p=214}} The ''[[Arthashastra]]'', written by [[Chanakya]], prime minister to the first [[Maurya Empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ({{circa|340–290 BCE}}), mentions silver coins as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|rūpyarūpa}}. Other types of coins, including gold coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|suvarṇarūpa}}), copper coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|tāmrarūpa}}), and lead coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|sīsarūpa}}), are also mentioned.<ref>{{citation |title=Arthashastra Of Chanakya |url=https://archive.org/details/arthashastraofchanakyaenglishrshamasastry/page/n11/mode/2up |pages=115, 119, 125 |author=R Shamasastry |year=1915 |access-date=15 April 2021 }}</ref> The immediate precursor to the rupee is the ''rūpiya''—the silver coin weighing 178 [[Grain (mass)|grains]] minted in northern India, first by [[Sher Shah Suri]] during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545, and later by the [[Mughal Empire]]. The weight remained unchanged well beyond the end of Mughal rule into the 20th century.<ref name="mogul">{{cite web |title=Mogul Coinage |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html|website=[[RBI Monetary Museum]] |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 October 2002 |quote=Sher Shah issued a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged till the early 20th Century }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|Rupee|History of the rupee|:Category:Historical currencies of India|l3 = Historical currencies of India|Paisa|Coinage of India}}
[[File:MauryanCoin.JPG|right|thumb|[[Silver]] [[Punch-marked coins|punch mark coin]] of the [[Maurya Empire]], known as ''Rūpyarūpa'', 3rd century BCE]]
[[File:Gupta Kings. Skandagupta. AD 455-467.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of [[Skandagupta]] of [[Gupta Empire]] known as ''Rūpaka'' (रूपक) in Sanskrit, in the style of the [[Western Satrap]]s, with [[Indian peacock|peacock]] on reverse, 455—467]]
[[File:Sher shah's rupee.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Rupiya]]'' issued by [[Sher Shah Suri]], 1540–1545|alt=Silver coins with raised writing]]

The history of the Indian [[rupee]] traces back to [[ancient India]] around the 6th century BCE; ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of [[coin]]s in the world,<ref>{{cite book |first=Subodh |last=Kapoor |title=The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious ..., Volume 6 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |date=January 2002 |page=1599 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1599 |isbn=81-7755-257-0 }}</ref> alongside the [[Chinese wen]] and [[Lydia]]n [[stater]]s.<ref>{{citation |first=David M. |last=Schaps |chapter=The Invention of Coinage in Lydia, in India, and in China |title=XIV International Economic History Congress |location=Helsinki |year=2006 |publisher=[[International Economic History Association]] |chapter-url=http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers1/Schaps.pdf |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712184842/http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers1/Schaps.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Arthashastra]]'', written by [[Chanakya]], the prime minister to the first [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan emperor]] [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as ''rūpyarūpa'', gold coins as ''suvarṇarūpa'', copper coins as ''tamrarūpa'', and lead coins as ''sīsarūpa''. {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rūpa}} means 'shape' or 'form'.<ref name="Redy">{{cite web |author= |title=A short history of ancient Indian coinage. |url=http://worldcoincatalog.com/AC/C3/India/AIndia.htm |access-date=20 June 2013 |publisher=worldcoincatalog.com |archive-date=3 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403184349/http://worldcoincatalog.com/AC/C3/India/AIndia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Gupta Empire]] under [[Chandragupta II]] produced large numbers of silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier [[Western Satraps]].<ref name="EBAllan&Stern">Allan & Stern (2008)</ref> The silver ''Rūpaka'' ({{langx|sa|रूपक}}) coins weighed approximately 20 [[Ratti (unit)|rattis]] (2.2678 g).<ref>{{cite web |title=Rupaka, Rūpaka: 23 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/rupaka |website=Wisdom Library |date=3 August 2014 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623033054/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/rupaka |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the intermediate times following the Guptas, there appears to have been no fixed monetary system of coinage as reported in the travelogue ''[[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions|Da Tang Xi Yu Ji]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Da Tang Xiyu Ji. [[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions|Great Tang Dynasty Records of the Western World]] |publisher=[[Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner & Co.]] |year=1906 |edition=First |series=Trübner's Oriental Series |volume=1-2 |location=London |translator=[[Samuel Beal]] |orig-date=1884}}</ref>

During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, [[Sultan]] [[Sher Shah Suri]] issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 [[Grain (mass)|grains]] (or 11.53 grams), which was also termed the ''rupiya''.<ref name="etymonline1">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rupee&searchmode=none|title=Etymology of rupee|date=20 September 2008|website=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|access-date=20 September 2008|archive-date=10 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110165256/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rupee&searchmode=none|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mughal Coinage |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516085855/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=16 May 2008 |website=[[RBI Monetary Museum]] |publisher=Reserve Bank of India}}</ref> During [[Babur]]'s time, the brass to silver exchange ratio was roughly 50:2.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dughlat |first=Mirza Muhammad Haidar |url=https://archive.org/details/TheTarikh-i-rashidi |title=The Tarikh-I-Rashidi |publisher=Karakoram Books |others=Ebook Version 1.0 Edited and Presented By Mohammed Murad Butt |editor-last=Elias |editor-first=N. |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=E. Denison |chapter=CXII |author-link=Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat |orig-date=1895 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The silver coin remained in use during the [[Mughal period]], the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha era]] as well as in [[British India]].<ref name="rbi-c-colo">{{cite web |title=Pre-Colonial India & Princely States: Coinage |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-colo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215222137/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-colo.html |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=20 June 2013 |website=RBI Monetary Museum |publisher=Reserve Bank of India}}</ref> Some of the earliest issuers of [[banknote|paper rupees]] include the [[Bank of Hindostan|Bank of Hindustan]] (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–1775, established by [[Warren Hastings]]), and the Bengal Bank (1784–91).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-25 |title=Throwback: How India's paper currency came into existence and evolved over decades |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/industry/article/throwback-how-indias-paper-currency-came-into-existence-and-evolved-over-decades/749261 |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== 1800s ===
{| class="wikitable floatright collapsible collapsed"
!colspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;"|Indian silver rupee value (1820–1900)<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade">{{cite web |last=Andrew |first=A. Piatt |author-link=A. Piatt Andrew |date=August 1901 |title=Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-1884973 |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |pages=483–514}}</ref>
|-
| Year ||Exchange rate (pence per rupee)||Melt value (pence per rupee)
|-
| 1850||24.3||22.7
|-
| 1851||24.1||22.7
|-
| 1852||23.9||22.5
|-
| 1853||24.1||22.8
|-
| 1854||23.1||22.8
|-
| 1855||24.2||22.8
|-
| 1856||24.2||22.8
|-
| 1857||24.6||22.9
|-
| 1858||25.7||22.8
|-
| 1859||26.0||23.0
|-
| 1860||26.0||22.9
|-
| 1861||23.9||22.6
|-
| 1862||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1863||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1864||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1865||23.8||22.7
|-
| 1866||23.1||22.7
|-
| 1867||23.2||22.5
|-
| 1868||23.2||22.5
|-
| 1869||23.3||22.5
|-
| 1870||22.5||22.5
|-
| 1871||23.1||22.5
|-
| 1872||22.7||22.4
|-
| 1873||22.3||22.0
|-
| 1874||22.1||21.6
|-
| 1875||21.6||21.1
|-
| 1876||20.5||19.6
|-
| 1877||20.8||20.4
|-
| 1878||19.8||19.5
|-
| 1879||20.0||19.0
|-
| 1880||19.9||19.4
|-
| 1881||19.9||19.2
|-
| 1882||19.5||19.3
|-
| 1883||19.5||18.7
|-
| 1884||19.3||18.8
|-
| 1885||18.2||18.0
|-
| 1886||17.4||16.8
|-
| 1887||16.9||16.6
|-
| 1888||16.4||15.9
|-
| 1889||16.5||15.8
|-
| 1890||18.0||17.7
|-
| 1891||16.7||16.7
|-
| 1892||15.0||14.8
|-
| 1893||14.5||13.2
|-
| 1894||13.1||10.7
|-
| 1895||13.6||11.1
|-
| 1896||14.4||11.5
|-
| 1897||15.3||10.2
|-
| 1898||16.0||10.0
|-
| 1899||16.0||10.2
|-
| 1900||16.0||10.4
|}
[[File:INDIAN SILVER RUPEE VALUE 1850-1900.png|thumb|Chart showing exchange rate of Indian [[Silver rupee|silver rupee coin]] (blue) and the actual value of its silver content (red), against [[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|British pence]] (from 1850 to 1900)]]

Historically, the [[rupee]] was a [[Bullion coin|silver coin]]. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century when the strongest economies in the world were on the [[gold standard]] (that is, paper linked to gold). The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies caused the [[panic of 1873]] which resulted in a decline in the [[Relative value (economics)|value]] of [[Silver as an investment|silver relative]] to gold, devaluing India's standard currency, an event known as "the fall of the rupee". Following the panic, the world descended into a '[[Long Depression]]', which resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump that lasted until 1897.<ref>[[W. B. Sutch]], ''The Long Depression, 1865–1895''. (1957)</ref>

India was unaffected by the imperial [[Order in Council|order-in-council]] of 1825, which attempted to introduce British [[Pound sterling|sterling]] coinage to the British colonies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teucher |first1=Andy |last2=Albers |first2=Sam |last3=Hazlitt |first3=Stephanie |date=2017-12-20 |title=bcmaps: Map Layers and Spatial Utilities for British Columbia |url=https://doi.org/10.32614/cran.package.bcmaps |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=CRAN: Contributed Packages |doi=10.32614/cran.package.bcmaps }}</ref> India, at that time, was [[Company rule in India|controlled]] by the British [[East India Company]]. The [[Silver rupee|silver rupee coin]] continued as the currency of India through the [[British Raj]] and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a [[Fine silver|mono-metallic]] [[Silver standards|silver standard]] based on the rupee coin; this decision was influenced by a letter written by [[Lord Liverpool]] in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.<ref>{{Citation |last=Garg |first=Sanjay |title=Acts, Proclamations, Declarations and Notifications of the Government of India Concerning the Coinage, Currency and its Legal Tender (1835–56) |date=2019-05-14 |work=Monetary Foundations of the Raj |pages=415–434 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315271903-27 |access-date=2025-12-26 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315271903-27 |isbn=978-1-315-27190-3|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liverpool |first=Charles Jenkinson |url=http://archive.org/details/treatiseoncoinso00liveuoft |title=A treatise on the coins of the realm, in a letter to the King |date=1805 |publisher=Oxford, Univ. Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref>

Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, the British government took direct [[British Raj|control]] of India. From 1851, gold sovereigns were produced ''en masse'' at the [[Royal Mint]] in [[Sydney]]. In an 1864 attempt to make the British [[gold sovereign]] the "imperial coin", the treasuries in [[Bombay]] and [[Calcutta]] were instructed to receive (but not to issue) gold sovereigns; therefore, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound [[Sterling silver|sterling]], a conclusion was reached that it could not replace the [[trade coin|silver dollar]] in the [[Straits Settlements]] with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired). Since the [[silver crisis of 1873]], several nations switched over to a [[Gold standard#Gold exchange standard|gold exchange standard]] (wherein silver or banknotes circulate locally but with a fixed gold value for export purposes), including India in the 1890s.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter II}}</ref>

=== India Council Bill ===
In 1870, India was connected to Britain by a submarine [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] cable.
Around 1875, Britain started paying India for exported goods in India Council (paper) Bills (instead of silver).
<blockquote>If, therefore, the India Council in London should not step in to sell bills on India, the merchants and bankers would have to send silver to make good the (trade) balances. Thus a channel for the outflow of silver was stopped, in 1875, by the India Council in London.<ref name="The silver question">{{cite web |last=Moore |first=J S |date=23 October 2016 |title=The Silver Question |url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-25110026/25110026_djvu.txt |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=The North American Review}}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The great importance of these (Council) Bills, however, is the effect they have on the Market Price of Silver: and they have in fact been one of the most potent factors in recent years in causing the diminution in the Value of Silver as compared to Gold.<ref name="Henry Dunning Macleod">{{cite web |last1=MacLeod |first1=Henry Dunning |author-link=Henry Dunning Macleod |year=1883 |title=The Theory and Practice of Banking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEMIAAAAQAAJ&q=syria&pg=PA10 |access-date=18 April 2018 |via=Google Books}}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The Indian and Chinese products for which silver is paid were and are, since 1873–74, very low in price, and it therefore takes less silver to purchase a larger quantity of Eastern commodities. Now, on taking the several agents into united consideration, it will certainly not seem very mysterious why silver should not only have fallen in price<ref name="The silver question" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>The great nations had recourse to two expedients for replenishing their exchequers, {{ndash}} first, loans, and, second, the more convenient forced loans of paper money۔<ref name="The silver question" /></blockquote>

=== Fowler Committee (1898) ===
{{Main|Indian Currency Committee}}

[[File:Government_of_India_5_Rupee_Note_1858.jpg|thumb|[[Government of India]] - 5-[[rupee]] note (1858)]]

The [[Indian Currency Committee]] or Fowler Committee was a government committee appointed by the [[British Raj|British-run Government of India]] on 29 April 1898 to examine the currency situation in India.<ref name="chishti2001">{{Citation |author=Chishti |first=M. Anees |title=Committees and commissions in pre-independence India 1836–1947, Volume 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5JipbQyOCQC |year=2001 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-803-7 |quote=... The Indian Currency Committee was appointed by the Royal Warrant of 29 April 1898 ... by the closing of the Indian Mints to what is known as the free coinage of Silver ...}}</ref> They collected a wide range of testimony, examined as many as 49 witnesses, and only reported their conclusions in July 1899, after more than a year's deliberation.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" />
<blockquote>The prophecy made before the Committee of 1898 by Mr. A. M. Lindsay, in proposing a scheme closely similar in principle to that which was eventually adopted, has been largely fulfilled. "This change," he said, "will pass unnoticed, except by the intelligent few, and it is satisfactory to find that by this almost imperceptible process, the Indian currency will be placed on a footing which Ricardo and other great authorities have advocated as the best of all currency systems, viz., one in which the currency media used in the internal circulation are confined to notes and cheap token coins, which are made to act precisely as if they were bits of gold by being made convertible into gold for foreign payment purposes.<ref name="John Maynard Keynes">{{cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter I |author=John Maynard Keynes|author-link=John Maynard Keynes |year=1913}}</ref> The committee concurred in the opinion of the Indian government that the mints should remain closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver and that a gold standard should be adopted without delay...they recommended (1) that the British sovereign be given full legal tender power in India, and (2) that the Indian mints be thrown open to its unrestricted coinage (for gold coins only).</blockquote>
These recommendations were acceptable to both governments and were shortly afterwards translated into laws. The act making gold a legal tender was promulgated on 15 September 1899, and preparations were soon thereafter undertaken for the coinage of gold sovereigns in the mint at Bombay.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" />

<blockquote>Silver, therefore, has ceased to serve as, and standard; and the Indian currency system of to-day (that is 1901) may be described as that of a "limping" gold standard similar to the systems of France, Germany, and Holland, and the United States.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>The Committee of 1898 explicitly declared themselves to be in favour of the eventual establishment of a gold currency. This goal, '''if it was their goal''', the Government of India have never attained.<ref name="John Maynard Keynes" /></blockquote>

=== 1900s ===
[[File:IND-1c-Government of India-1 Rupee (1917).jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|Government of India]] {{ndash}} [[Indian 1-rupee note|1 rupee]] (1917)]]

In 1913, [[John Maynard Keynes]] writes in his book ''Indian Currency and Finance'' that during the financial year 1900{{ndash}}1901, gold coins (sovereigns) worth £6,750,000 were given to the Indian people in the hope that they would circulate as currency. But against the expectation of the Government, not even half of that was returned to accounts. As this experiment failed spectacularly, the government abandoned the practice but did not abandon the narrative of the gold standard. Subsequently, much of the gold held by the Government of India was shipped to the [[Bank of England]] in 1901 and held there.<ref>{{cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter IV}}</ref>


During [[World War II]], Colonial British control over parts of Nagaland was [[Battle of Imphal|lost to Japanese forces]], the [[Coins of British India|British Indian rupee]] was banned and the [[Japanese government–issued rupee in Burma|Japanese rupee]] (1942–44) was introduced.

In the autumn of 1917 (when the silver price rose to 55 [[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|pence]]), there was danger of uprisings in India (against paper currency) which would handicap seriously British participation in the war. Inconvertibility (of paper currency into silver coin) would lead to a run on [[Postal savings system|Post Office Savings Banks]]. It would prevent the further expansion of (paper currency) note issues and cause a rise of prices, in paper currency, that would greatly increase the cost of obtaining war supplies for export; to have reduced the silver content of this historic [rupee] coin might well have caused such popular distrust of the Government as to have precipitated an internal crisis, which would have been fatal to British success in the war... and the Government could not afford to buy silver at 55 pence per ounce to coin into rupees with a bullion parity of 43.1 pence per ounce. To let silver be replaced by gold, as Mexico had done in 1906, was also impossible, for the world had no gold to spare.
The Government, therefore, did the only possible thing, and raised the value of the (silver) rupee in terms of gold...<ref name="Silver Money">{{cite web |author=Leavens |first=Dickson H |year=1939 |title=Silver Money |url=http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/mon/m04-all.pdf |website=[[Cowles Foundation]] |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=18 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218012440/http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/mon/m04-all.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Problems caused by the gold standard ===
{{See also|Gold standard}}
At the onset of the [[First World War]], the cost of gold was very low and therefore the pound sterling (silver) had high value. But during the war, the value of the pound fell alarmingly due to rising war expenses. At the end of the war, the value of the pound was only a fraction of what it had been before the war. It remained low until 1925, when the then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] (finance minister) of the United Kingdom, [[Winston Churchill]], restored it to pre-war levels. As a result, the price of gold fell rapidly. While the rest of Europe purchased large quantities of gold from the United Kingdom, there was little increase in her gold reserves (in United Kingdom). This dealt a blow to an already deteriorating British economy. The United Kingdom began to look to its possessions as India to compensate for the gold that was sold.<ref>Balachandran, G. (1996). John Bullion's Empire: Britain's Gold Problem and India Between the Wars. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0428-6}}, p. 6</ref>

However, the price of gold in India, '''on the basis of the official exchange rate''' of the (silver) rupee around 1[[Shilling (British coin)|s.]] 6[[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|d]]., was lower than the price prevailing abroad practically throughout{{clarify|date=May 2023}}; the disparity in prices made the export of the (gold) metal profitable; and this continued for almost a decade. Thus, in 1931–32, there were net exports of 7.7 million [[troy ounce|ounces]], valued at INR 57.98 [[crore]]. In the following year, both the quantity and the price rose further: net exports totalled 8.4 million ounces, valued at INR 65.52 crore. In the ten years ended March 1941, total net exports were of the order of 43 million ounces (1337.3 tons (of gold)) valued at about INR 375 crore, or an average price of INR 32-12-4 per [[tola (unit)|tola]].<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/PDFs/89630.pdf |title=History of the Reserve Bank of India |publisher=The Reserve Bank of India |editor=S. L. N. Simha |year=2005 |pages=40–81 |chapter=2. Currency, Exchange and Banking Before 1935 |orig-date=1970 |access-date=28 October 2022 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028142244/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/PDFs/89630.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1931 to 1941, the United Kingdom purchased large amounts of gold from India and its many other colonies just by increasing price of gold, as Britain was able to pay in printable paper currency. Similarly, on 19 June 1934, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made{{clarify|date=May 2023}} [[American Silver Purchase Act|Silver Purchase Act]] (which increased the price of silver) and purchased about 44,000 tons of silver, paying with paper [[silver certificate]]s.<ref>[http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1937121400 Four Years of the Silver Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222234329/http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1937121400 |date=22 December 2019 }}. 14 December 1937. [[CQ Press]].</ref>

In 1939, Dickson H. Leavens wrote in his book ''Silver Money'': "In recent years the increased price of gold, measured in depreciated paper currencies, has attracted to the market (of London) large quantities (of gold) formerly hoarded or held in the form of ornaments in India and China".<ref name="Silver Money" />

In their respective former colonies, the Indian rupee replaced the [[Danish Indian rupee]] in 1845, the [[French Indian rupee]] in 1954 and the [[Portuguese Indian escudo]] in 1961. Following the [[independence of India]] in 1947 and the [[Instrument of Accession|accession]] of the [[princely state]]s to the new [[Dominion of India|Union]], the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the [[Hyderabadi rupee]] was not demonetised until 1959).<ref>{{cite book|first1=Rezwan |last1=Razack |first2=Kishore |last2=Jhunjhunwalla |title=The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money|year=2012|publisher=Coins & Currencies|isbn=978-81-89752-15-6|title-link=The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money }}</ref> Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the [[Travancore rupee]]). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the [[Kutch kori]]) had different values.

The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during [[British Raj|British rule]] (and in the first decade of independence) were:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subdivisions of the rupee during the 20th century
!Value (in [[Anna (monetary subunit)|anna]])
!Popular name
!Value (in [[Indian paisa|paise]])
|-
|16 anna
|1 [[rupee]]
|100 paise
|-
|8 anna
|1 ardharupee / 1 [[athanni]] (dheli)
|[[Indian 50-paisa coin|50 paise]]
|-
|4 anna
|1 pavala / 1 [[chawanni]]
|[[Indian 25-paisa coin|25 paise]]
|-
|2 anna
|1 beda / 1 duanni
|12 paise
|-
|1 anna
|1 ekanni
|6 paise
|-
|{{frac|1|2}} anna
|1 paraka / 1 [[History of the taka|taka]] / 1 adhanni
|3 paise
|-
|{{frac|1|4}} anna
|1 kani ([[pice]]) / 1 [[paisa]] (old paise)
|1{{frac|1|2}} paise
|-
|{{frac|1|8}} anna
|1 dhela
|{{frac|3|4}} paisa
|-
|{{frac|1|12}} anna
|1 [[Pie (monetary subunit)|pie]]
|{{frac|1|2}} paisa
|}
* In 1957, the rupee was [[decimalised]] and divided into 100 ''[[Naya paise|naye paise]]'' (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial ''naye'' was dropped.
* Many still refer to [[Indian 25-paisa coin|25-]], [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50-]] and 75-paise coins as 4, 8, and 12 [[Anna (monetary subunit)|annas]], respectively; compare the expression "two [[Bit (money)|bits]]" in colloquial [[American English]] for a quarter-dollar coin.

===New currency sign for the Indian rupee===
In 2010, a [[Indian rupee sign|new rupee sign]] ({{INR}}) was officially adopted. As [[D. Udaya Kumar|its designer]] explained, it was derived from the combination of the [[Devanagari]] consonant "[[र]]" (''ra'') and  the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] capital letter "R" without its vertical bar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/events/Indian_Rupee_Symbol.pdf |title=Currency Symbol for Indian Rupee |first=D. Udaya |last=Kumar |author-link=D. Udaya Kumar |publisher=Indian Institute of Technology Bombay |website=IDC School of Design |access-date=5 October 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821132944/http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/events/Indian_Rupee_Symbol.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion to the [[flag of India]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldreporter.com/2010/07/indian-rupee-joins-elite-currency-club.html |title=Indian Rupee Joins Elite Currency Club |publisher=Theworldreporter.com |date=17 July 2010 |access-date=25 September 2010 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427203838/http://www.theworldreporter.com/2010/07/indian-rupee-joins-elite-currency-club.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's desire to reduce [[Economic inequality|economic disparity]]. The first series of coins with the new rupee sign started in circulation on 8 July 2011. Before this, India used "[[Rupee sign|₨]]" and "Re" as the symbols for multiple rupees and one rupee, respectively, and these symbols are still used in situations where the official symbol is unavailable. At an international level, like India, some nations' currencies are also Rupees. When the ({{INR}}) symbol is unavailable, then INR is used to represent the Indian currency.

=== Digitization of Indian rupee ===
{{Main|Digital rupee}}

{{Excerpt|Digital rupee}}

==Legal framework==
{{ anchor | Legal | Framework }}

British East India Company (EIC) was given the right in 1717 to mint coins in the name of the [[Mughal emperor]] [[Farrukhsiyar]] on the island of Bombay. By 1792 the EIC demonetised all other coins till they were reduced to only 3 types of coins, i.e. EIC, Mughal and [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] coins. After EIC expanded its control over India, it brought the "Coinage Act of 1835" and started to mint coins in the name of the British king. [[Company rule|EIC rule]] was replaced by [[British Raj|British Crown raj]] which brought the "Paper Currency Act of 1861" and the "Uniform Coinage Act of 1906".<ref name=act1>[https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/east-india-company-fought-hard-for-its-coins-in-india-even-aurangzebs-fury-couldnt-stop-it/1687918/ East India Company fought hard for its coins in India. Even Aurangzeb’s fury couldn’t stop it] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727120630/https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/east-india-company-fought-hard-for-its-coins-in-india-even-aurangzebs-fury-couldnt-stop-it/1687918/ |date=27 July 2023 }}, The Print, 27 July 2023.</ref>

After 2021, the government of independent India amended "The Coinage Act, 2011",<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2011|title=THE COINAGE ACT, 2011|url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/COIN281114.pdf|access-date=7 August 2021|website=Reserve Bank of India|archive-date=7 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807120234/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/COIN281114.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> the "[[Foreign Exchange Management Act]] (FEMA), 1999," the "[[Information Technology Act, 2000]]" and the "Crypto-currency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bhattacharya|first=Saurya|date=25 July 2021|title=Cryptocurrency, CBDC and the RBI Act|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business-laws/cryptocurrency-cbdc-and-the-rbi-act/article35527446.ece|access-date=2021-08-07|website=Business Line|language=en|archive-date=26 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626193538/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business-laws/cryptocurrency-cbdc-and-the-rbi-act/article35527446.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Variath|first=Adithya Anil|date=26 November 2021|title=Cryptocurrency Bill {{!}} India's First Step To Exercise Its Sovereignty Over Digital Currency|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/opinion/cryptocurrency-bill-indias-first-step-to-exercise-its-sovereignty-over-digital-currency-7764891.html|access-date=2021-11-26|website=Moneycontrol|language=en|archive-date=21 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921214010/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/opinion/cryptocurrency-bill-indias-first-step-to-exercise-its-sovereignty-over-digital-currency-7764891.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Coins ==
=== Post-independence issues ===
{{Main|Coins of the Indian rupee|Indian paisa}}

==== Independent pre-decimal issues, 1950–1957 ====
India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in denominations of 1 [[Indian pice|pice]], {{frac|1|2}}, one and two annas, {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|2}} and [[Indian 1-rupee coin|one-rupee]]. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-piece (which was bronze, but not holed).

==== Independent decimal issues, 1957–present ====
[[File:IN Aluminium Series Paise.jpg|thumb|In 1964, India introduced [[aluminium]] coins for denominations up to 20p.|alt=Row of six differently-shaped aluminium coins, arranged by size]]

The first [[Decimal coinage|decimal-coin]] issues in India consisted of [[1 naya paisa (Indian coin)|1]], [[2 naye paise (Indian coin)|2]], [[5 naye paise (Indian coin)|5]], 10, 25 and 50 [[Naya paise|naye paise]], and [[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 rupee]]. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5, and 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed ''[[chawanni]]''; 25 naye paise equals 4 [[Indian anna|annas]]), 50 naye paise (also called ''[[athanni]]''; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee were nickel. In 1964, the words ''naya''/''naye'' were removed from all coins. Between 1957 and 1967, aluminium [[Indian 1-paisa coin|one]]-, [[Indian 2-paisa coin|two]]-, [[Indian 3-paisa coin|three]]-, [[Indian 5-paisa coin|five]]- and [[Indian 10-paisa coin|ten-paise]] coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass [[Indian 20-paisa coin|20-paise]] coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the [[Indian 25-paisa coin|25-]] and [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50-paise]] and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel [[Indian 2-rupee coin|two-rupee]] coins were introduced. In 1988 [[stainless steel]] 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and [[Indian 5-rupee coin|5-rupee]] coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from [[brass]], are being minted by the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI).

In 1997 the 20 paise coin was discontinued, followed by the 10 paise coin in 1998, and the 25 paise in 2002.

Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two-, and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise – nicknamed ''athanni'' – one, two, five, and ten rupees with the new rupee sign) were put into circulation in 2011. In 2016 the 50 paise coin was last minted. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five, ten, and twenty rupees.<ref name="newcoin">{{cite web|title=Issue of new series of Coins|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24773|publisher=RBI|access-date=4 November 2011|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729043050/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24773|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TimesofIndia29082011">{{cite news|title=This numismatist lays hands on coins with Rupee symbol|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/This-numismatist-lays-hands-on-coins-with-Rupee-symbol/articleshow/9788223.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107053256/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-29/vadodara/29940658_1_coins-nandan-parikh-new-symbol|url-status=live|archive-date=7 November 2011|access-date=4 November 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 August 2011}}</ref> Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (''athanni'') coin is rarely seen in circulation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coins of 25 paise and below will not be Legal Tender from June 30, 2011: RBI appeals to Public to Exchange them up to June 29, 2011|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24418|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|date=18 May 2011|archive-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004170924/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24418|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|+Circulating coins<ref name=newcoin /><ref name="rbi_coins">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_coins_5.aspx |title=Reserve Bank of India – Coins |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119035314/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_coins_5.aspx |archive-date=19 November 2011 }}</ref>
|-
!rowspan="2"| Value !!colspan="4"| Technical parameters !!colspan="2"| Description !!colspan="2"| Year of
|-
! Diameter !! Mass !! Composition !! Shape !! Obverse !! Reverse !! First minting !! Last minting
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50 paise]]|| 19 mm || 3.79 g || [[Ferritic stainless steel]]|| Circular || [[Emblem of India]]|| Value, the word "[[Paisa|PAISE]]" in English and Hindi, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2016
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| 50 paise || 22 mm || 3.79 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, hand in a fist || 2008 || – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|{{INR}}1]]|| 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India, value || Value, two stalks of [[wheat]] || 1992 || – |2004
|-
|{{INR}}1
|25 mm
|4.95 g
|Ferritic stainless steel
|Circular
|Unity from diversity, cross dividing 4 dots
|Value, Emblem of India, Year of minting
|2004
|2007
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}1 || 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, hand showing thumb (an expression in the [[Bharatanatyam|Bharata Natyam]] Dance) || 2007 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}1 || 22 mm ||3.79 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|[[Indian 2-rupee coin|{{INR}}2]]|| 26 mm || 6 g || [[Cupronickel|Cupro-Nickel]] || Eleven-sided|| Emblem of India, Value || National integration || 1982 || – |2004
|-
|{{INR}}2
|26.75 mm
|5.8 g
|Ferritic stainless steel
|Circular
|Unity from diversity, cross dividing 4 dots
|Value, Emblem of India, Year of minting
|2005
|2007
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 27 mm || 5.62 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India, year of minting || Value, hand showing two fingers (Hasta Mudra – hand gesture from the dance Bharata Natyam) || 2007 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|-{{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 23 mm || 4.07 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019 || – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 5-rupee coin|{{INR}}5]]|| 23 mm || 9 g || Cupro-Nickel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value || 1992 || |2006
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, wavy lines || 2007 || – |2009
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || Brass || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, wavy lines || 2009 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || [[Nickel silver|Nickel-Brass]] || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 25 mm || 6.74 g || Nickel-Brass || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019|| – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 10-rupee coin|{{INR}}10]] || 27 mm || 7.62 g || [[Bi-metallic coin|Bimetallic]]|| Circular || Emblem of India and year of minting
|| Value with outward radiating pattern of 15 spokes || 2006 || – |2010
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|{{INR}}10 || 27 mm || 7.62 g || Bimetallic || Circular|| Emblem of India and year of minting || Value with an outward radiating pattern of 10 spokes, new rupee sign || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}10 || 27 mm || 7.74 g || Bimetallic || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019|| – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 20-rupee coin|{{INR}}20]]|| 27 mm || 8.54 g || Bimetallic || [[Dodecagon]]al|| Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2020|| – |
|}

The coins are minted at the four locations of the [[India Government Mint]]. The {{INR}}1, {{INR}}2, and {{INR}}5 coins have been minted since independence. The Government of India is set to introduce a new {{INR}}20 coin with a dodecagonal shape, and like the {{INR}}10 coin, also bi-metallic, along with new designs for the new versions of the {{INR}}1, {{INR}}2, {{INR}}5 and {{INR}}10 coins, which were announced on 6 March 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2019 |title=PM releases new series of visually impaired friendly coins |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/pm-releases-new-series-of-visually-impaired-friendly-coins/ |access-date=16 May 2019 |website=[[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office]] |archive-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516175026/https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/pm-releases-new-series-of-visually-impaired-friendly-coins/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Minting ====
{{Main|India Government Mint|Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India}}

[[File:BOMBAY MINT Post Card.jpg|thumb|A postcard depicting the [[India Government Mint, Mumbai|Bombay Mint]].]]

The [[Government of India]] has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the four [[India Government Mint]]s at [[India Government Mint, Mumbai|Mumbai]], [[India Government Mint, Kolkata|Kolkata]], [[India Government Mint, Hyderabad|Hyderabad]], and [[India Government Mint, Noida|Noida]].<ref>[https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=DeptOfCM.htm About Us – Dept. of Commerce] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123074521/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=DeptOfCM.htm |date=23 January 2021 }}. [[Reserve Bank of India]].</ref> The coins are issued for circulation only through the [[Reserve Bank of India|Reserve Bank]] in terms of the [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934|RBI Act]].<ref>[http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/coins.html Reserve Bank of India – Coins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628233910/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/coins.html |date=28 June 2013 }}. Rbi.org.in. Retrieved 28 July 2013.</ref>

==== Commemorative coins ====
{{Main|Commemorative coins of India}}

After independence, the [[India Government Mint|Government of India Mint]], minted [[numismatics|numismatic]] coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In the years 2010 and 2011, for the first time ever, {{INR}}75, {{INR}}150 and {{INR}}1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], the 150th birth anniversary of the birth of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and 1000 years of the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]], respectively. In 2012, a {{INR}}60 piececoins was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee coin|100 coin]] was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s return to India.<ref>{{cite news|title=India, South Africa discuss UNSC reforms|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/india-south-africa-discuss-unsc-reforms/article6769452.ece|access-date=9 January 2015|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=9 January 2015|location=Chennai, India|first=Rahi|last=Gaikwad|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116210219/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/india-south-africa-discuss-unsc-reforms/article6769452.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Commemorative coin]]s of {{INR}}125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December 2015 to honour the 125th anniversary of the births of [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and [[B. R. Ambedkar]], respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/industry/banking-finance/teachers-day-pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-125-coins-in-honour-of-dr-s-radhakrishnan/130734/ |title=Teachers' day: PM Narendra Modi releases Rs 125 coin in honour of Dr S Radhakrishnan |date=4 September 2016 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=10 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423104638/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/industry/banking-finance/teachers-day-pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-125-coins-in-honour-of-dr-s-radhakrishnan/130734/ |archive-date=23 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/economy/pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-10-rs-125-commemorative-coins-honouring-dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/175185/ |title=PM Narendra Modi releases Rs 10, Rs 125 commemorative coins honouring Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar |date=6 December 2016 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=10 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423090709/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/economy/pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-10-rs-125-commemorative-coins-honouring-dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/175185/ |archive-date=23 April 2016 }}</ref>

=== Pre-independence issues ===
{{Main|Coins of British India}}

{{more citations needed section|date=November 2016}}
[[File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg|thumb|1835 [[East India Company]] 2 [[Mohur]]s]]
[[File:Rupee, 1840 - British India, Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|225px|1840 [[East India Company]] rupee. It was minted in [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]]]]
{{multiple image
| header = Indian rupee (from 1862)
| width = 108
| image1 = India 1 Rupee 1884 Victoria(obv)-4037.jpg
| alt1 = India 1 rupee 1884 Victoria (obverse)
| image2 = India 1 Rupee 1884 Victoria(rev)-4038.jpg
| alt2 = India 1 rupee 1884 Victoria (reverse)
| caption1 = '''Obverse''': Crowned bust of [[Queen Victoria]]
| caption2 = '''Reverse''': Face value, country and year of issue
| footer = Coin made of 91.7% silver
}}
[[File:India 1862 One Mohur.jpg|thumb|1862 Indian One [[Mohur]]]]
[[File:Silver rupee of Sayaji Rao III of Baroda.jpg|thumb|Silver rupee of [[Sayajirao Gaekwad III]] of [[Baroda State]] (ruled 1875–1939), showing his profile. This coin is dated 1955 in the [[Vikrami calendar]] (1897 CE)]]
[[File:INDIAGeorge V King Emperor.jpg|thumb|right|Regal issue minted during the reign of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King/Emperor George V]]]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee coin, 1947.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1947) featuring [[George VI]] on obverse and [[Indian Lion]] on reverse]]
[[File:Indian one pice minted in 1950.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-paisa coin|Indian one pice]], minted in 1950|alt=Both sides of copper-coloured coin]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee (1905).jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1905) featuring [[Edward VII]]]]
[[File:Hyderabad_-_One_Rupee_-_Mahboob_Ali_Khan_-_1329_AH_Silver_-_Kolkata_2016-06-28_5271-5272.png|thumb|One-rupee coin issued by [[Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI|Mir Mahbub Ali Khan]] of [[Hyderabad State]], 1329 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] (1911)]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee (1918).jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1918) featuring [[George V]]]]

==== East India Company, 1835 ====
The three [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|Presidencies]] established by the British [[East India Company]] ([[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] and [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]) each issued their [[Coins of British India|own coinages]] until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to {{frac|1|8}}- and {{frac|1|16}}-rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-[[Pie (monetary subunit)|pie]], {{frac|1|2}}-, one- and two-[[Paisa|paise]] coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, {{frac|1|4}}-, {{frac|1|2}}-, 1-, 1{{frac|1|2}}-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras, there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paise, with the first two denominated as {{frac|1|2}} and one dub (or {{frac|1|96}} and {{frac|1|48}}) rupee. Madras also issued the [[Madras fanam]] until 1815.

All three Presidencies issued gold [[mohur]]s and fractions of mohurs including {{frac|1|16}}, {{frac|1|2}}, {{frac|1|4}} in Bengal, {{frac|1|15}} (a gold rupee) and {{frac|1|3}} (pancia) in Bombay and {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|3}} and {{frac|1|2}} in Madras.

In 1835, a single coinage for the [[East India Company|EIC]] was introduced. It consisted of copper {{frac|1|12}}, {{frac|1|4}} and {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian anna|anna]], silver {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|3}} and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]] in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the company had been [[Crown rule in India|taken over by the Crown]].

==== Regal issues, 1862–1947 ====
In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the profile of [[Queen Victoria]] and the designation "India". Their denominations were {{frac|1|12}} [[Indian anna|anna]], {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]], {{frac|1|4}} and {{frac|1|2}} anna (all in copper), 2 annas, {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|2}} and one rupee (silver),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jfcampbell.us/india/victoria/rupee-mm.htm|title=VICTORIA {{!}} The Coins of British India One Rupee: Mint Mark Varieties (1874–1901)|website=jfcampbell.us|date=13 October 2004|author= J. Franklin Campbell|access-date=17 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913183949/http://jfcampbell.us/india/victoria/rupee-mm.htm|archive-date=13 September 2019}}</ref> and five and ten rupees and one [[mohur]] (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no {{frac|1|2}}-anna coins were issued after 1877.

In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a [[Cupronickel|cupro-nickel]] one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918–1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck [[gold sovereign]]s and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The {{frac|1|12}} [[Indian anna|anna]] and {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]] ceased production, the {{frac|1|4}} anna was changed to a bronze, [[holed coin]], cupro-nickel and [[Nickel brass|nickel-brass]] {{frac|1|2}}-anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce one- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 per cent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel {{frac|1|4}}-, {{frac|1|2}}- and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of [[George VI]], King and Emperor on the obverse and an [[Indian lion]] on the reverse.

== Banknotes ==
=== Post-independence issues ===
{{Main|Lion Capital Series}}

{{See also|The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978|2016 Indian banknote demonetisation}}
[[File:First banknote of independent India, one rupee, 1949.jpg|thumb|First banknote of [[independent India]], [[Indian 1-rupee note|one rupee]] (1949)]]
After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of [[George VI]]. The government continued issuing the [[Indian 1-rupee note|₹1 note]], while the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) issued other denominations (including the {{INR}}5,000 and {{INR}}10,000 notes introduced in 1949). All pre-independence banknotes were officially demonetised with effect from 28 April 1957.<ref>{{cite web|title=Currency Notes without Asoka Pillar Emblem to Cease to be Legal Tender|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20921-BR/FIN-1956-04-28_2423.pdf|website=[[Press Information Bureau of India]] – Archive|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808194012/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20921-BR/FIN-1956-04-28_2423.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Legal Tender of Currency and Bank Notes|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20922-BR/FIN-1956-10-25_2659.pdf|website=[[Press Information Bureau of India]] – Archive|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193909/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20922-BR/FIN-1956-10-25_2659.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the 1970s, {{INR}}[[Indian 20-rupee note|20]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 50-rupee note|50 notes]] were introduced; denominations higher than {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee note|100]] were [[The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978|demonetised in 1978]]. In 1987, the {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500 note]] was introduced, followed by the {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1,000 note]] in 2000 while {{INR}}[[Indian 1-rupee note|1]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 2-rupee note|2 notes]] were discontinued in 1995.

[[File:10 Rupees banknotes of India.jpg|thumb|10-rupee banknote from the 1990s]]
The design of banknotes is approved by the [[Government of India|central government]], on the recommendation of the central board of the [[Reserve Bank of India]].<ref name="rbi" /> Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in [[Nashik]], the Bank Note Press in [[Dewas]], the [[Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran]] (P) Ltd at [[Salboni]] and [[Mysore]] and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Narmadapuram. The [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the [[Lion Capital Series]]. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with {{INR}}[[Indian 10-rupee note|10]] and {{INR}}500 banknotes. The printing of {{INR}}[[Indian 5-rupee note|5 notes]] (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

As of January 2012, the new [[Indian rupee sign|'{{INR}}' sign]] has been incorporated into banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] in denominations of {{INR}}10, {{INR}}20, {{INR}}50, {{INR}}100, {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1,000.<ref name="10notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 10/- Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol (')|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25121|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611055008/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25121|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="500notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 500 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729042118/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="1000notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 1000 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729042118/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="100notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of '100 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25462|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611233300/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25462|url-status=dead}}</ref> In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015. The deadline was further extended to 30 June 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=107510 | title=Withdrawal of Currencies Issued Prior to 2005 | publisher=Press Information Bureau | date=25 July 2014 | access-date=25 July 2014 | archive-date=28 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728232422/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=107510 | url-status=live }}</ref>

On 8 November 2016, the RBI announced the issuance of new {{INR}}500 banknotes in a new series after [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|demonetisation of the older {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1000 notes]]. The new {{INR}}500 banknote has a stone-grey base colour with an image of the [[Red Fort]] along with the [[Flag of India|Indian flag]] printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the [[Swachh Bharat Abhiyan]] logo printed on the back. The banknote denominations of {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}100 and {{INR}}50 have also been introduced in the new [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]] intended to replace all banknotes of the previous [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]].<ref name="new">{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/rbi-to-issue-1000-100-50-with-new-features-design-in-coming-months/article9328285.ece |title=RBI to issue ₹1,000, ₹100, ₹50 with new features, design in coming months |work=[[Business Line]] |access-date=18 April 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016075731/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/rbi-to-issue-1000-100-50-with-new-features-design-in-coming-months/article9328285.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 June 2017, RBI introduced new {{INR}}50 notes, but the old ones continue being legal tender. The design is similar to the current notes in the Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series, except they will come with an inset 'A'.

On 8 November 2016, the [[Government of India]] announced [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|the demonetisation of {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1,000 banknotes]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/feel-super-rich-rs-100-rs-10-purse/|title=How I feel super rich with Rs 100 and Rs 10 in my purse|last=Mukherjee|first=Amrita|date=14 November 2016|website=[[Asia Times]]|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/article/indias-demonetization-takes-toll-major-sectors/|title=India's demonetization takes its toll on major sectors|date=15 November 2016|website=[[Asia Times]]|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> with effect from midnight of the same day, making these notes invalid.<ref name=rbi-demonetise>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520 |title=Withdrawal of Legal Tender Status for ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 Notes: RBI Notice |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=18 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118080913/https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520 |url-status=live }}</ref> A newly [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series|redesigned series]] of {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500 banknote]], in addition to a new denomination of {{INR}}[[Indian 2000-rupee note|2,000 banknote]] is in circulation since 10 November 2016.<ref name=rbi-500-new>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR114610FD822AC70142AEB274AF376755C293.PDF |title=Issue of ₹500 Banknotes (Press Release) |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108201007/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR114610FD822AC70142AEB274AF376755C293.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=rbi-2000-new>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR1144EFECD860ED0D479D88AB8D5CA036FC35.PDF |title=Issue of ₹2000 Banknotes (Press Release) |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-date=10 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110043657/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR1144EFECD860ED0D479D88AB8D5CA036FC35.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 2017 to 2019, the remaining banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]] were released in denominations of [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]], [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]], [[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]] and [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]].<ref>{{cite news|title=RBI Introduces ₹ 200 denomination banknote|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=41460#mainsection|website=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|date=24 August 2017|access-date=26 March 2018|archive-date=5 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005145255/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=41460#mainsection|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=RBI to Issue New Design ₹ 100 Denomination Banknote|url=https://rbi.org.in/scripts/FS_PressRelease.aspx?prid=44533&fn=2753|date=19 July 2018|website=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|access-date=25 December 2018|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225175349/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/FS_PressRelease.aspx?prid=44533&fn=2753|url-status=live}}</ref> The {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1,000 note]] has been suspended.<ref name="new" />

==== Current circulating banknotes ====
{{Main|Mahatma Gandhi Series|Mahatma Gandhi New Series}}

As of 27 April 2025, current circulating banknotes are in denominations of ₹[[Indian 1-rupee note|1]], {{INR}}[[Indian 5-rupee note|5]], {{INR}}[[Indian 10-rupee note|10]], {{INR}}[[Indian 20-rupee note|20]], {{INR}}[[Indian 50-rupee note|50]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee note|100]] from the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] (retired) and in denominations of ₹10, ₹20,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rbi.org.in//Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=46913|title=Reserve Bank of India – Press Releases|website=rbi.org.in|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-date=12 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012171214/https://m.rbi.org.in//Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=46913|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Indian 50-rupee note|₹50]], {{INR}}100, {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500]] and ₹[[Indian 2000-rupee note|2000]] (recalled but still legal tender)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-19 |title=RBI on 2000 Rupee note: RBI to withdraw Rs 2,000 notes from circulation; notes will continue to be legal tender |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-notes-from-circulation-notes-will-continue-to-be-legal-tender-till-september-30/articleshow/100360257.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-09-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> from the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+
|-
!colspan="2"| Image !!rowspan="2"| Value !!rowspan="2"| Dimensions !!rowspan="2"| Main colour !!colspan="3"| Description !!rowspan="2"| Date of issue !!rowspan="2"| Circulation
|-
! Obverse !! Reverse !! Obverse !! Reverse !! Watermark
|-
|[[File:Indian 1 Rupee 2020 Front.jpg|97x97px]]
|[[File:Indian 1 Rupee 2020 Reverse.jpg|97x97px]]
|[[Indian 1-rupee note|₹1]]
|97mm × 63mm
|[[Shades of pink|Pink]]
|New ₹1 coin
|[[Mercator (company)#Sagar Samrat|Sagar Samrat oil rig]]
|[[State Emblem of India|National Emblem of India]]
|2015<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-03-09 |title=Rupee 1 note released from Shrinathji temple |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/rupee-1-note-released-from-shrinathji-temple/articleshow/46506397.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-07-22 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |Limited
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[File:5 Rupees (Obverse).jpg|117x117px]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[File:5 Rupees (Reverse).jpg|117x117px]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Indian 5-rupee note|{{INR}}5]] || 117mm × 63mm || [[Green]] || rowspan="7" | [[Mahatma Gandhi]] || [[Tractor]] || rowspan="7" | Mahatma Gandhi and electrotype denomination || 2002 / 2009
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+New series banknotes
|-
!colspan="2"| Image !!rowspan="2"| Value !!rowspan="2"| Dimensions !!rowspan="2"| Main colour !!colspan="3"| Description !!rowspan="2"| Date of issue !!rowspan="2"| Circulation
|-
! Obverse !! Reverse !! Obverse !! Reverse !! Watermark
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 10 INR, MG series, 2018, obverse.jpg|122px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 10 INR, MG series, 2018, reverse.jpg|122px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]]|| 123mm × 63mm ||[[Chocolate (color)|Chocolate Brown]]|| rowspan="7" | [[Mahatma Gandhi]] ||[[Konark Sun Temple]] || rowspan="7" | Mahatma Gandhi and electrotype denomination || 2017 || rowspan="6" | Wide
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 20 INR, MG series, 2019, obverse.jpg|130px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 20 INR, MG series, 2019, reverse.jpg|130px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]] || 129mm × 63mm ||[[Shades of yellow|Greenish Yellow]]||[[Ellora Caves]] || 2019
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 50 INR, MG series, 2018, obverse.jpg|139px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 50 INR, MG series, 2018, reverse.jpg|139px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]] || 135mm × 66mm ||[[Shades of blue|Fluorescent Blue]]||[[Hampi]] || 2017
|-
|[[File:100 rs note obverse.jpg|147px]]
|[[File:100 rs note reverse.jpg|147px]]
|[[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]]
|142mm × 66 mm
|[[Lavender (color)|Lavender]]
|[[Rani ki vav]]
|2018
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India, 200 INR, 2018, obverse.jpg|154px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India, 200 INR, 2018, reverse.jpg|154px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]] || 146mm × 66mm || [[Shades of orange|Orange]]||[[Sanchi Stupa]] || 2017
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 500 INR, MG series, 2016, obverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 500 INR, MG series, 2016, reverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Indian 500-rupee note|{{INR}}500]] || 150mm × 66mm || [[Shades of gray#Stone gray|Stone Grey]] || [[Red Fort]]
| rowspan="2" |2016
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India_new_2000_INR,_MG_series,_2016,_obverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India_new_2000_INR,_MG_series,_2016,_reverse.jpg|160px]]
|[[Indian 2000-rupee note|₹2000]]
|166mm × 66mm
|[[Magenta]]
|[[Mars Orbiter Mission|Mangalyaan]]
|Withdrawn from 2023 circulation (still legal tender)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/commonperson/English/Scripts/FAQs.aspx?Id=3443#:~:text=for%20normal%20transactions?-,Yes.,or%20before%20September%2030,%202023 |access-date=2025-09-10 |website=www.rbi.org.in}}</ref>
|-
| colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|{{Standard banknote table notice}}
|}

===== Micro printing =====
{{See also|Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran|Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India}}
The new Indian banknote series features a few micro-printed texts in various locations. The first one lies on the inner surface of the left temple of Gandhi's spectacles that reads "भारत" ([[Names for India#Bharat|Bhārata]]), the Hindi word for India. The next one (which is printed only in 10 and 50 denominations) is placed on the outer surface of the right temple of Gandhi's spectacles near his ear and reads "RBI" ([[Reserve Bank of India]]) and the face value in numerals "10" or "50". The last one is written on both sides of Gandhi's collar and reads "भारत" and "INDIA" respectively. Currency notes have 17 languages on the panel which appears on the reverse of the notes.
[[File:Gandhi's Spectacles.jpg|none|thumb|500x500px|Micro printed texts on [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]]'s spectacles]]
[[File:Gandhi's Collar.jpg|none|thumb|500x500px|Micro printed texts on [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]]'s collar]]

=== Pre-independence issues ===
[[File:IND-A10a-Government of India-10 Rupees (1910).jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|Government of India]] {{En dash}} [[Indian 10-rupee note|10 rupees]] (1910), Red Underprint Series]]
[[File:KGVI rupee 1 note obverse.jpg|thumb|British Indian [[Indian 1-rupee note|one rupee note]], [[Reserve Bank of India]] 1940 issue|alt=Old 1 rupee note]]

In 1861, the [[British Raj|Government of India]] introduced its first paper money through the [[The Paper Currency Act, 1861|Paper Currency Act]].<ref name="Spink">{{cite web|url=https://spink.com/media/view?id=48|publisher=Spink and Son|title=Banknotes For The Raj|author=Dr. K. A. Rodgers|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref> The {{INR}}10 note was introduced in 1864, {{INR}}5 note in 1872, {{INR}}10,000 note in 1899, {{INR}}100 note in 1900, {{INR}}50 note in 1905, {{INR}}500 note in 1907 and {{INR}}1,000 note in 1909. The first set of notes, known as the "Victoria Portrait" Series, were unifaced and featured two language panels on hand-moulded paper. This series' name is derived from the portrait of [[Queen Victoria]] which appeared in the upper-left corner of the notes.<ref name="RBI">{{cite web|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/pm_britishindia.aspx|publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|title=British India Issues|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref> In 1917, {{INR}}1 and {{INR}}2{{frac|1|2}} notes were introduced.<ref name="oneindia">{{cite web|url=https://oneindiaonline.com/history-of-indian-currency-notes.php|publisher=oneindiaonline|title=History of Indian Money: The Journey of Currency Notes|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref>

In 1867, the Victoria Portrait series was withdrawn and replaced with the unifaced "[[Underprint]] Series" in response to [[forgery]]. Underprint Series notes featured 4 language panels in the "Green Series" (notes which featured a green underprint). The languages on the notes differed in relation to where the note was issued. The amount of language panels was increased to 8 in the "Red Series" (notes which featured a red underprint). The Underprint Series remained largely unchanged until the introduction of the "King's Portrait" Series in 1923.<ref name="RBI"></ref>

The King's Portrait Series were introduced in May of 1923 on a [[Indian 10-rupee note|ten rupee note]].

After the accession of [[King George V]] lower denominations such as ₹1 and ₹2.5 were printed along with notes for specific territories like [[British rule in Burma|Burma]].<ref name="oneindia"></ref>

The [[Reserve Bank of India]] began banknote production in 1938, issuing {{INR}}2, {{INR}}5, {{INR}}10, {{INR}}50, {{INR}}100, {{INR}}1,000 and {{INR}}10,000 notes while the government continued issuing {{INR}}1 note but demonetized the {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}2 {{frac|1|2}} notes.<ref name="RBI"></ref>

== Convertibility ==
{{See also|Monetary policy of India|Monetary Policy Committee (India)}}{{Most traded currencies}}
Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the [[Reserve Bank of India]] trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact [[Trade weighted index|effective exchange rates]]. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the [[US dollar]] is a ''[[de facto]]'' controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "[[managed float]]". On 9 May 2022, the Indian rupee traded at ₹77.41 against the US dollar, hitting an all-time low.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Rupee falls to all-time low against US dollar |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indian-rupee-falls-to-all-time-low-against-us-dollar-332778-2022-05-09 |access-date=2022-05-12 |website=Business Today |date=9 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509135601/https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indian-rupee-falls-to-all-time-low-against-us-dollar-332778-2022-05-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of [[floating exchange rate]]s, and often create persistent [[arbitrage]] opportunities against the RBI.<ref>[http://icrier.org/pdf/wp108.pdf "Convertibility: Patnaik, 2004"] (PDF). Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.</ref> Unlike [[China]], successive [[Government of India|administrations]] (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.<ref>{{cite news|last=Chandra |first=Shobhana |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=alS4DteWrtco&refer=asia |title='Neither the government nor the central bank takes a view on the rupee (exchange rate movements), as long as the movement is orderly', says Indian Minister of Finance |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=26 September 2007 |access-date=5 November 2011}}</ref>

Also affecting convertibility is a series of [[customs]] regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, only up to {{INR}}25000 can be imported or exported in cash at a time, and the possession of {{INR}}200 and higher notes in [[Nepal]] is prohibited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/scripts/Notification.aspx?Id=301#Foreign |title=RBI Master Circular on Import of Goods and Services |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=25 August 2013 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023063023/http://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/scripts/Notification.aspx?Id=301#Foreign |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewMasCirculardetails.aspx?id=7354#b22 |title=RBI Master Circular on Export of Goods and Services |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=25 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817130904/http://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewMasCirculardetails.aspx?id=7354#b22 |archive-date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> The conversion of currencies for and from rupees is also regulated.

RBI also exercises a system of [[capital control]]s in addition to (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors face restrictions on convertibility when bring money into/out of the country and buying securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms can take capital out of the country to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full ''de facto'' convertibility.

There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity;{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} therefore, money cannot be converted into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

''"As per Section 26 of [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]], the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions. The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement that means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount."''<ref>[http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39#12 Reserve bank of India Frequently Asked Questions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123135/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |date=12 January 2012 }} rbi.org.in Retrieved 27 August 2013</ref>

=== Chronology ===
* 1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. Several reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments, and [[remittances]]) and some capital asset-based transactions. Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a [[Dual exchange rate|dual-exchange-rate]] system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.<ref>Rituparna Kar and Nityananda Sarkar: ''Mean and volatility dynamics of Indian rupee/US dollar exchange rate series: an empirical investigation'' in Asia-Pacific Financial Markets (2006) 13:41–69, p. 48. {{doi|10.1007/s10690-007-9034-0}} .</ref>
* 1997 – A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|1997–1998 Asian financial crisis]].
* 2006 – [[Prime Minister]] [[Manmohan Singh]] asked the [[P. Chidambaram|Finance Minister]] and the [[Reserve Bank of India]] to prepare a road map for moving towards [[capital account convertibility]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The 'Fuller Capital Account Convertibility Report'|date=31 July 2006|url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/72250.pdf|access-date=23 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205135704/http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/72250.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2009}}</ref>
* 2016 – The [[Government of India]] announced the [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|demonetisation]] of all ₹500 and ₹1,000 banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]].<ref name="withdrawaloflegal">{{cite web|url=https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520|title=Withdrawal of Legal Tender Status for ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 Notes: RBI Notice (Revised)|date=8 November 2016|publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|access-date=8 November 2016|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118080913/https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520|url-status=live}}</ref> The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit "black money" and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.<ref name="India Today2">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/live-pm-narendra-modi-addresses-nation-350943-2016-11-08|title=Here is what PM Modi said about the new Rs 500, Rs 2000 notes and black money|date=8 November 2016|access-date=9 November 2016|work=[[India Today]]|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118082404/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/live-pm-narendra-modi-addresses-nation/1/805755.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rs-500-and-Rs-1000-notes-pulled-out-of-circulation-immediately-PM-Narendra-Modi/articleshow/55315473.cms|title=Notes out of circulation|date=8 November 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=3 June 2017|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118082725/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rs-500-and-Rs-1000-notes-pulled-out-of-circulation-immediately-PM-Narendra-Modi/articleshow/55315473.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2023 – [[Reserve Bank of India]] issued a circular on [[May 19|19 May]] stating currency notes of ₹2,000 denomination will be withdrawn from circulation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=ET Online |title=Rs 2,000 notes to be withdrawn from circulation, exchange window open till September 30 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/rs-2000-notes-to-be-withdrawn-from-circulation-to-continue-as-legal-tender/articleshow/100360379.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |publisher=The Economic Times |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519173725/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/rs-2000-notes-to-be-withdrawn-from-circulation-to-continue-as-legal-tender/articleshow/100360379.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The reason given for this withdrawal is the decline in the number of currency notes in circulation. According to the circular, there were only 10.8% of Notes in Circulation on March 31, 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rs 2,000 notes withdrawn from circulation, RBI says will remain legal tender |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-note-from-circulation-2381590-2023-05-19 |website=www.indiatoday.in |date=19 May 2023 |publisher=India Today |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519135549/https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-note-from-circulation-2381590-2023-05-19 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Exchange rates ==
{{See also|Foreign Exchange Management Act}}

=== Historic exchange rates ===
{{Main|Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee}}

==== Pre-Independence ====
[[File:INR-USD, GBP, EUR, JPY.svg|thumb|upright=2.04|Graph of exchange rates of Indian rupee (INR) per USD 1, GBP 1, EUR 1, JPY 100 averaged over the month, from September 1998 to May 2013. ''Data Source: Reserve Bank of India reference rate'']]
For almost a century following the [[Great Recoinage of 1816]], and adoption of the [[Gold Standard]], until the outbreak of World War I, the silver-backed Indian rupee lost its value against a basket of gold-pegged currencies and was periodically devalued to reflect the then current [[gold silver ratio|gold to silver reserve ratios]]. In 1850, the official conversion rate between the pound sterling and the rupee was £0 / 2[[shilling|s]] / 0d (or £1:₹10), while between 1899 and 1914, the official conversion rate was set at £1 to 1[[shilling|s]] to 4[[Penny|d]] (or £1:₹15). However, this was just half of market exchange rates between 1893 and 1917.

The [[gold silver ratio|gold-to-silver ratio]] expanded between 1870 and 1910. Unlike India, Britain was on the gold standard. To meet the Home Charges (i.e., expenditure in the United Kingdom), the colonial government had to remit a larger number of rupees, and this necessitated increased taxation, unrest and nationalism.

Between both world wars, the rate improved from 1[[shilling|s]] to 6[[Penny|d]] (or £1:₹13.33), and remained pegged at this rate for the duration of the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods agreement]], to its devaluation and pegging to the US dollar, at $1:{{INR}}7.50, in 1966.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chandra |first=Saurabh |date=21 August 2013 |title=The fallacy of 'dollar = rupee' in 1947 |url=http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947_82327.html |access-date=22 August 2013 |archive-date=21 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821093246/http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947_82327.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Historical exchange rates from 1953 with graph and charts |url=http://fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?YA=1&C1=GBP&C2=USD&A=1&YYYY1=1953&MM1=01&DD1=01&YYYY2=2017&MM2=09&DD2=18&LANG=en |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Fxtop.com |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032700/http://fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?YA=1&C1=GBP&C2=USD&A=1&YYYY1=1953&MM1=01&DD1=01&YYYY2=2017&MM2=09&DD2=18&LANG=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Post-Independence ====
Following the country's independence, India implemented a [[Par value]] exchange rate regime until 1971. The country switched to [[Fixed exchange rate system|a fixed exchange rate regime]] in 1971 and graduated to a basket peg against five major currencies in 1975. Since 1991, the rupee has been under a floating exchange rate regime.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India - Publications |url=https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=12252 |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=m.rbi.org.in |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522005114/https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=12252 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first major impact on the rupee's exchange rate after independence was the devaluation of the pound sterling against the US dollar in 1949, which impacted currencies that maintained a peg to the sterling, which included the Indian rupee.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 1949 |series=Guardian Century 1940-1949 |title=Pound devalued 30 per cent |url=https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,,105127,00.html |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209092533/https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,,105127,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1966, the Indian rupee was devalued by 57% against [[United States dollar]], which also led to the depreciation of the sterling.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Gupta |first=Sujay |date=7 Jun 2016 |title=Forgotten legacy of 6/6/66 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/forgotten-legacy-of-6/6/66/articleshow/52629071.cms |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422075118/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/forgotten-legacy-of-6/6/66/articleshow/52629071.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Five years later, when the [[Bretton Woods system]] was suspended, India initially announced that it would maintain a fixed rate of $1 to INR 7.50 and leave the sterling under a floating regime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Verghese |first=S. K. |year=1973 |title=International Monetary Crises and the Indian Rupee |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362898 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=8 |issue=30 |pages=1342–1348 |jstor=4362898 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416174616/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362898 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, by the end of 1971, following the [[Smithsonian Agreement]] and the subsequent devaluation of the US dollar, [[India]] pegged the rupee with the pound sterling once again at a rate of £1 to INR 18.9677.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wadhva |first1=Charan D. |last2=Paul |first2=Samuel |year=1973 |title=The Dollar Devaluation and India's Balance of Payments |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362402 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=517–522 |jstor=4362402 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416174751/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362402 |url-status=live }}</ref> During this period, [[India]] had a non-commercial exchange rate with the [[Soviet Union]]. The ruble to rupee exchange rates was announced by the Soviet Union, as the ruble was not a freely traded currency and the commercial trade between both nations used to take place in rupees following a [[India–Russia relations|treaty between India and the Soviet Union]] in 1953.

In September 1975, the exchange rate of the Indian rupee started to be determined based on the basket peg. The details of currencies which form the basket, and their weightage were kept confidentially by [[Reserve Bank of India]] and the exchange rate of the rupee based on market fluctuation of these currencies was periodically announced by the RBI.<ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Tikku |first=M. K. |date=7 April 2015 |title=High-powered Indian team of financial experts to visit Moscow to sort out rouble-rupee exchange rate differences |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19760531-high-powered-indian-team-of-financial-experts-to-visit-moscow-to-sort-out-rouble-rupee-exchange-rate-differences-819182-2015-04-07 |magazine=India Today |language=en |access-date=2022-04-19 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419174839/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19760531-high-powered-indian-team-of-financial-experts-to-visit-moscow-to-sort-out-rouble-rupee-exchange-rate-differences-819182-2015-04-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Verghese |first=S. K. |year=1979 |title=Exchange Rate of Indian Rupee since Its Basket Link |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4367782 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=14 |issue=28 |pages=1160–1165 |jstor=4367782 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419174839/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4367782 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The next major change that occurred was the devaluation of the rupee by about 18% in July 1991 following the [[1991 Indian economic crisis|balance of payments crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/History/Scripts/Chron1991to2000.aspx |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=rbi.org.in |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628091901/https://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/History/Scripts/Chron1991to2000.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Thereafter, in March 1992, the Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System was introduced, enabling the transition to a [[floating exchange rate]] regime.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|+ Indian rupees per currency unit averaged over the year<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=FXHistory: historical currency exchange rates |publisher=OANDA Corporation |url=http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |format=database |access-date=1 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060403020304/http://oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |archive-date=3 April 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web | title = The fallacy of 'dollar = rupee' in 1947 | publisher = DNA | url = http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947-1876776 | access-date = 19 August 2013 | archive-date = 26 October 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131026004214/http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947-1876776 | url-status = live }}</ref>
! Currency !! [[ISO 4217|ISO code]] !! 1947 !! 1966 !! 1995!! 1996 !! 2000 !! 2004 !! 2006 !! 2007 !! 2008 !! 2009 !! 2010 !! 2013 !! 2014 !! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 !! 2019 !! 2020 !! 2021 !! 2022 !! 2023
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Australian dollar]] || AUD || – || 5.33 || – || 27.69 || 26.07 || 33.28 || 34.02 || 34.60 || 36.81 || 38.22 || 42.00 || 56.36 || 54.91 || 48.21 || 49.96 || 49.91 || 50.64 || 50.01 || 56.30
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Bahraini dinar]] || BHD || – || 13.35 || 91.75 || 91.24 || 117.78 || 120.39 || 120.40 || 109.59 || 115.65 || 128.60 || 121.60 || 155.95 || 164.55 || 170.6 || 178.3 || – || 169.77
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Bangladeshi taka]] || BDT || – || – || 0.84 || 0.84 || 0.77 || 0.66 || 0.63 || 0.57 || 0.71 || 0.66 || 0.68 || 0.80 || 0.88 || 0.84 || 0.85 || – || 0.76
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Canadian dollar]] || CAD || – || 5.90 || 23.63 || 26.00 || 30.28 || 34.91 || 41.09 || 42.92 || 44.59 || 52.17 || 44.39 || 56.88 || 49.53 || 47.94 || 52.32 || 50.21 || 51.38
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Renminbi]] || CNY || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 5.80 || – || – || – || 9.93 || 10.19 || 10.15 || – || 9.81
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[United Arab Emirates dirham|Emirate dirham]] || AED || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.47 || 18.26 || 17.73 || 17.80
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Euro]]a || EUR || – || – || 42.41 || 44.40 || 41.52 || 56.38 || 64.12 || 68.03 || 60.59 || 65.69 || – || – || 70.21 || 72.60 || 75.84 || 73.53 || 79.52
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Israeli new shekel|Israeli shekel]]b || ILS || 13.33 || 21.97 || 11.45 || 10.76 || 10.83 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.08 || 16.57 || 17.47 || – || 18.36
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Japanese yen]]c || JPY || 6.6 || 2.08 || 32.66 || 32.96 || 41.79 || 41.87 || 38.93 || 35.00 || 42.27 || 51.73 || 52.23 || 60.07 || 57.79 || 53.01 || 62.36 || – || 56
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Kuwaiti dinar]] || KWD || – || 17.80 || 115.5 || 114.5 || 144.9 || 153.3 || 155.5 || 144.6 || 161.7 || 167.7 || 159.2 || 206.5 || 214.3 || 213.1 || 222.4 || || 211.43
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Malaysian ringgit]] || MYR || 1.55 || 2.07 || 12.97 || 14.11 || 11.84 || 11.91 || 12.36 || 11.98 || 13.02 || 13.72 || 14.22 || 18.59 || 18.65 || 16.47 || 16.37 || – || 15.72
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Maldivian rufiyaa]] || MVR || 1.00 || 1.33 || 2.93 || 2.91 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 4.58 || 4.76 || 5.01 || 5.23 || – || 4.13
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Pakistani rupee]] || PKR || 1.00 || 1.33 || 1.08 || 0.95 || 0.80 || 0.77 || 0.75 || 0.67 || 0.61 || 0.59 || 0.53 || 0.57 || 0.60 || 0.62 || 0.64 || – || 0.57 || 0.46 || 0.45
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Pound sterling]] || GBP || 13.33 || 17.76 || 51.14 || 55.38 || 68.11 || 83.06 || 80.63 || 76.38 || 71.33 || 83.63 || 70.63 || 91.08 || 100.51 || 98.11 || 92.00 || 83.87 || 90.37
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Russian ruble]]d || RUB || 6.60 || 15.00 || 7.56 || 6.69 || 1.57 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 1.05 || 0.99 || – || 1.10
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Saudi riyal]] || SAR || – || 1.41 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.11 || 17.88 || – || 17.02
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Singapore dollar]] / [[Brunei dollar]]e || SGD / BND || 1.55 || 2.07 || 23.13 || 25.16 || 26.07 || 26.83 || 30.93 || 33.60 || 34.51 || 41.27 || 33.58 || 46.84 || 45.86 || 46.67 || 48.86 || – || 47.70
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Sri Lankan rupee]] || LKR || – || 1.33 || 0.63 || 0.64 || 0.58 || – || – || – || – || – || – || 0.47 || 0.46 || 0.45 || 0.46 || – || 0.41 || 0.39 || 0.39
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Swiss franc]] || CHF || – || 1.46 || 27.48 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 43.95 || 66.95 || 66.71 || 66.70 || 68.40 || – || 65.48
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[United States dollar|US dollar]] || USD || 3.30 || 7.50 || 32.45 || 35.44 || 44.20 || 45.34 || 43.95 || 39.50 || 48.76 || 45.33 || 45.00 || 68.80 || 66.07 || 66.73 || 67.19 || 65.11 || 72.10 || 74.20 || 74.50 || 82.62 || 83.25
|-
| colspan="20" style="text-align: left;" | a Before 1 January 1999, the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU) b Before 1980, the [[Israeli pound]] (ILP) c 100 [[Japanese yen]] d Before 1993, the [[Soviet ruble]] (SUR), in 1995 and 1996 – per 1000 rubles e Before 1967, the [[Malaya and British Borneo dollar]]
|}

=== Current exchange rates ===
{{Exchange rate|INR|AED|JPY|USD|style=navbox}}

== Worldwide rupee usage ==
{{See also|Gulf rupee|Bhutanese ngultrum|Nepalese rupee|Pakistani rupee|Mauritian rupee}}
As the [[Straits Settlements]] were originally an outpost of the British [[East India Company]], the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency of the Straits Settlements in 1837, as it was administered as part of [[British India]]. This attempt was resisted by the locals. However, [[Spanish dollar]]s continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 [[Cent (currency)|cents]] = 1 dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or [[Mexican peso]]. In 1867, the administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the [[Straits dollar]] was made the standard currency, and attempts to reintroduce the rupee were finally abandoned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=739 |title=Straits Settlements (1867–1946) |publisher=Dcstamps.com |date=13 May 2014 |access-date=18 April 2018 |archive-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024084205/http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=739 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the [[Partition of India]], the [[Pakistani rupee]] came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply over-stamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including [[Colony of Aden|Aden]], [[Oman]], [[Dubai]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], the [[Trucial States]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]], [[Uganda]], the [[Seychelles]] and [[Mauritius]].

The Indian government introduced the [[Gulf rupee]] as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamalakaran |first=Ajay |date=14 September 2021 |title=Gulf rupee: When the Reserve Bank of India played central banker in West Asia |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/1005110/gulf-rupee-when-the-reserve-bank-of-india-played-central-banker-in-west-asia |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416181455/https://scroll.in/magazine/1005110/gulf-rupee-when-the-reserve-bank-of-india-played-central-banker-in-west-asia |url-status=live }}</ref> The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the [[United Arab Emirates]] in 1971) – replaced the [[Gulf rupee]] with their own [[Currency|currencies]]. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 with the [[Kuwaiti dinar]] and in 1965 with the [[Bahraini dinar]], respectively.<ref name="commoncurrency">{{cite web |last1=Ranjan |first1=Rajiv |last2=Prakash |first2=Anand |date=April 2010 |title=Internationalisation of currency: the case of the Indian rupee and Chinese renminbi |url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/RRSS180510F.pdf |access-date=1 March 2010 |series=RBI Staff Studies |publisher=Department of Economic Analysis and Policy, Reserve Bank of India |archive-date=26 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226115513/http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/RRSS180510F.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Bhutanese ngultrum]] is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The [[Nepalese rupee]] is pegged at {{INR}}0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Bhutan, except {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1000 banknotes]] of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] and the {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}500 banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]], which are not legal tender in Bhutan and Nepal and are banned by their respective governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/dont-take-1-000-and-500-indian-rupee-notes-to-nepal/20120725.html |title=Don't take 1,000 and 500 Indian rupee notes to Nepal |publisher=RBI Staff Studies |access-date=27 October 2014 |archive-date=27 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027133004/http://www.rediff.com/news/report/dont-take-1-000-and-500-indian-rupee-notes-to-nepal/20120725.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 29 January 2014, Zimbabwe added the Indian rupee as a [[legal tender]] to be used.<ref name="deccanherald.com">{{cite news |title=Indian Rupee to be legal tender in Zimbabwe |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/383402/indian-rupee-legal-tender-zimbabwe.html |access-date=8 November 2019 |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |publisher=The Printers Mysore |date=29 January 2014 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108094711/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/383402/indian-rupee-legal-tender-zimbabwe.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hungwe |first=Brian |date=6 February 2014 |title=Zimbabwe's multi-currency confusion |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26034078 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416041444/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26034078 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{annotated link|British currency in the Middle East}}
* {{annotated link|Coinage of India}}
* {{annotated link|Coins of British India}}
* {{annotated link|Coins of the Indian rupee}}
** {{annotated link|Anna (monetary subunit)}}
** {{annotated link|Pie (monetary subunit)}}
* {{annotated link|Digital rupee}}
* {{annotated link|Fake Indian currency note}}
* {{annotated link|Great Depression in India}}
* {{annotated link|History of the taka}}
* {{annotated link|Paisa}}
** {{annotated link|Indian paisa}}
* {{annotated link|Reserve Bank of India}}
** {{annotated link|RBI Monetary Museum}}
** {{annotated link|Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934}}
* {{annotated link|Rupee}}
** {{annotated link|History of the rupee}}
* {{annotated link|The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money|''The Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money''}}
* {{annotated link|Zero-rupee note}}
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{numis cite SCWC |date = 1991 }}
* {{numis cite SCWPM |date = 1994 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |edition=Second |year=1966 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |orig-date=1943 |isbn=978-81-208-0405-0 |ref={{sfnref|Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times|1966}} |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=31 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531130644/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27%2F |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Rupee (India)}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121008074636/http://indianbanknotes.com/book-chapters.html A gallery of all Indian currency issues]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/pm_republicindia.aspx |title=Gallery of Indian Rupee Notes introduced till date| publisher=Reserve Bank of India|access-date=9 January 2015}}
* [http://www.bis-ans-ende-der-welt.net/Indien-B-En.htm The banknotes of India] {{in lang|en|de}}
* [https://www.worldbanknotescatalog.com/india Banknotes catalog of India] {{in lang|en}}

{{Indian currency|state=expanded}}
{{Historic Indian currency and coinage|state=collapsed}}
{{Rupee}}
{{Currencies of Asia}}
{{Symbols of India}}
{{Economy of India}}
{{British Ceylon period topics}}
{{Mohandas K. Gandhi}}
{{Portal bar|Asia|India|Money|Numismatics}}

[[Category:Currencies of India]]
[[Category:Currencies of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Currencies of Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Currencies of Asia]]
[[Category:Circulating currencies]]
[[Category:Rupee]]

Bago, Myanmar

2026-03-27T13:16:25Z

Yaarzu: expanded section per standard format

{{Redirect|Pegu|the mountain range|Pegu Range|the village in Iran|Pegu, Iran|the surname|Pegu (surname)}}
{{For|the kingdom|Hanthawaddy Pegu}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Bago
| settlement_type = Capital Town
| native_name = {{lang|my|ပဲခူးမြို့}}
| other_name = Pegu
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
|perrow = 1/1
|border = infobox
|total_width = 280
|image1 = Bago-Rundblick von Mahazedi Paya (4).JPG
|image2 = Hamsa Statue in Bago.png
}}
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Myanmar
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Bago, Myanmar
| coordinates = {{coord|17|20|12|N|96|28|47|E|region:MM|display=inline}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Myanmar}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Administrative divisions of Myanmar|Region]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Bago Region}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[Townships of Myanmar|Township]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bago Township]]
| established_title = Founded
| established_date = 1152 CE
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_total_sq_mi = 18.45
| elevation_m = 4
| population_total = 179505
| population_as_of = 2019
| population_footnotes = <ref name="mimu"/>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro =
| population_blank1_title = Ethnicities
| population_blank1 = {{hlist|[[Bamar]]|[[Mon people|Mon]]|[[Shan people|Shan]]|[[Burmese Chinese]]|[[Burmese Indians]]|[[Karen people|Kayin]]}}
| population_blank2_title = Religions
| population_blank2 = {{hlist|[[Buddhism]]|[[Hinduism]]|[[Christianity]]}}
| website =
| timezone = [[Myanmar Standard Time|MMT]]
| utc_offset = +6.30
| name =
}}

'''Bago''' (formerly spelled '''Pegu''';<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Pegu |volume=21 |page=58 |ref=none}}</ref> {{MYname|MY={{lang|my|ပဲခူးမြို့}}|MLCTS=pai: khu: mrui.}}, {{IPA|my|bəɡó mjo̰|IPA}}), formerly known as '''Hanthawaddy''', is the capital of the [[Bago Region]] in [[Myanmar]]. It is located {{convert|91|km|mi}} north-east of [[Yangon]]. The city had a population of 179,505 people in 2019 and was a historical capital of the [[Taungoo Dynasty]] and is known for its large [[pagoda]]s.

==Etymology==
The Burmese name '''Bago''' (ပဲခူး) is likely derived from the [[Mon language]] place name '''Bagaw''' ({{langx|mnw|ဗဂေါ}}, {{IPA|mnw|bəkɜ̀|}}). Until the Burmese government [[List of renamed places in Myanmar|renamed English place names]] throughout the country in 1989, Bago was known as '''Pegu'''. Bago was formerly known as '''Hanthawaddy''' ({{Langx|my|ဟံသာဝတီ}}; {{Langx|mnw|ဟံသာဝတဳ}} {{Transliteration|mnw|Hongsawatoi}}; {{Langx|pi|italic=yes|Haṃsāvatī}}; lit. "she who possesses the [[Hamsa (bird)|sheldrake]]"), the name of [[Hanthawaddy Pegu|a Burmese-Mon kingdom]].

An alternative etymology from the 1947 Burmese Encyclopedia derives Bago (ပဲခူး) from '''Wanpeku''' ({{langx|my|ဝမ်းပဲကူး}}) as a shortening of Where the Hinthawan Ducks Graze ({{langx|my|ဟင်္သာဝမ်းဘဲများ ကူးသန်းကျက်စားရာ အရပ်}}). This etymology relies on the non-phonetic Burmese spelling as its main reasoning.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burma Translation Society |title=Myanma Swesone Kyan |date=1947 |publisher=BStephen Austin & Sons |volume=6 |location=London |script-title=my:မြန်မာ့ စွယ်စုံကျမ်း |trans-title=Burmese Encyclopedia}}</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Shwethalyaungbuddhabago.jpg|thumb|left|The 177 ft (54 m) [[Shwethalyaung Temple|Shwethalyaung Buddha]], constructed in 994 A.D. by King Migadepa]]
{{See also|Hanthawaddy Kingdom}}

===Establishment===

Various [[Mon language]] [[Burmese chronicles|chronicles]] report widely divergent foundation dates of Bago, ranging from 573 CE to 1152 CE<ref group=note>A version of the 18th century chronicle ''[[Slapat Rajawan]]'' as reported by [[Arthur Purves Phayre|Arthur Phayre]] (Phayre 1873: 32) states that the settlement was founded in 1116 [[Buddhist calendar|Buddhist Era]] (572/573 CE). But another version of the ''Slapat'', used by P.W. Schmidt (Schmidt 1906: 20, 101), states that it was founded on 1st waxing of [[Tabodwe|Mak (Tabodwe)]] 1116 BE ({{circa}} 19 January 573 CE), which it says is equivalent to year 514 of "the third era", without specifying what the era specifically was. However, per (Phayre 1873: 39), one of the "native records" used by Maj. Lloyd says that Pegu was founded in 514 [[Burmese calendar|Burmese (Myanmar) Era]] (1152/1153 CE). If the year 514 is indeed the Burmese Era, then the ''Slapat's'' 1st waxing of Tabodwe 514 would be 27 December 1152, equivalent to 1st waxing of Tabodwe 1696 BE (not 1116 BE).</ref> while the ''[[Zabu Kuncha]]'', an early 15th century Burmese administrative treatise, states that Pegu was founded in 1276/77 CE.{{sfn|Aung-Thwin|2017|p=332}}

The earliest extant evidence of Pegu as a place dates only to the late [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan period]] (1212 and 1266)<ref group=note>(Aung-Thwin 2005: 59) cites the inscription found at the Min-Nan-Thu village near [[Bagan]], which as shown in (SMK Vol. 3 1983: 28–31) was donated by daughter of Theingathu, dated Thursday, 7th waxing of Nanka (Wagaung) 628 ME (8 July 1266), and lists Pegu as Pe-Ku. (Aung-Thwin 2017: 200, 332) updates by saying that the earliest extant inscriptions that mention Pegu date to 1212 and 1266 but does not provide the source of the 1212 inscription. It must be a recent discovery as none of the inscriptions listed in the ''Ancient Burmese Stone Inscriptions'' (SMK Vol. 1 1972: 93–102) for years 573 ME (1211/1212) or 574 ME (1212/1213) shows Pe-Ku or Pegu.</ref> when it was still a small town, not even a provincial capital. After the collapse of the Pagan Empire, Bago became part of the breakaway [[Hanthawaddy Kingdom|Kingdom of Martaban]] by the 1290s.

The earliest possible external record of Bago dates to 1028 CE. The Thiruvalangadu plate describe [[Rajendra Chola I]], the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Emperor from South India, as having conquered "Kadaram" in the fourteenth year of his reign – 1028 CE. According to one interpretation, Kadaram refers to Bago.<ref name="sastrip">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The Cōlas |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Madras]] |location=Madras |ref=Sastri |author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |orig-date=1935}}</ref><ref name="Majumdar">{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |title=Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East |publisher=Ashok Kumar Majumdar |year=1937 |volume=2: Suvarnadvipa |location=Dacca |pages=212–218}}</ref> More modern interpretations understand Kadaram to be [[Kedah]] in modern day Malaysia, instead of Bago.<ref name="sastrip" /> A Chinese source mentions [[Jayavarman VII]] adding [[Pegu]] to the territory of the [[Khmer Empire]] in 1195.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterji |first=Bijan Raj |date=1939 |title=Jayavarman VII (1181–1201 A.D.) (The last of the great monarchs of Cambodia) |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=3 |pages=377–385 |jstor=44252387}}</ref>

===Growth===
[[File:Elefante Portugues.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Portuguese Ruler and his Soldiers-Drawing by Philips, Jan Caspar (engraver)]]

The small settlement grew increasingly important in the 14th century as the region became most populous in the Mon-speaking kingdom. In 1369, King [[Binnya U]] made Bago the capital. During the reign of King [[Razadarit]], Bago and the [[Ava Kingdom]] were engaged in the [[Forty Years' War]]. The peaceful reign of Queen [[Shin Sawbu]] came to an end when she chose the [[Buddhist monk]] [[Dhammazedi]] (1471–1492) to succeed her. Under Dhammazedi, Bago became a centre of commerce and [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]].

In 1519, [[António Correia (admiral)|António Correia]], then a merchant from the Portuguese ''casados'' settlement at [[Cochin]], landed in Bago (known to the Portuguese as Pegu) looking for new markets for pepper from Cochin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Luís Filipe Tomás |url=http://actd.iict.pt/eserv/actd:SEPV096/n096.pdf |title=A viagem de António Correia a Pegu em 1519 |date=1976 |publisher=Junta de Investigações do Ultramar |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Malekandathil, Pius M C |title=Origin and Growth of Luso-Indian Community in Portuguese Cochin and the maritime trade of India, 1500–6663 |date=2010-10-26 |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/13205/10/10_chapter%203.pdf |publisher=Pondicherry University}}</ref>{{nonspecific|date=January 2023}} A year later, [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Portuguese India Governor]] [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]] sent an ambassador to Pegu.

===Toungoo dynastic capital===
{{See also|Toungoo dynasty}}

[[File:Kanbawzathadi Palace - Bago, Myanmar 20130219-01.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Kanbawzathadi Palace]]
The city remained the capital until the kingdom's fall in 1538. The ascendant [[Toungoo dynasty]] under [[Tabinshwehti]] made numerous raids that the much larger kingdom could not muster its resources against. While the kingdom would have a brief resurgence for 2 years in the 1550s, Tabinshwehti's successor [[Bayinnaung]] would firmly come to control Bago in 1553.<ref name="Harvey">{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=G. E. |title=History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824 |date=1925 |publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd |location=London |pages=153–157, 171}}</ref>

In late 1553, Bago was proclaimed the new capital with commissioning of a new palace, the [[Kanbawzathadi Palace]] and Bayinnaung's coronation itself in January 1554. Over the next decade, Bago gradually become the capital of more land and eventually the largest empire in Indochina.
[[File:Plan of Bago 1568.png|thumb|200x200px|left|Plan of the city of Pegu (Bago), 1568]]
After the 1565 rebellion by resettled Shans in Pegu, he faced no new rebellions for the next two years (1565–1567). Because the rebellion burned down major swaths of the capital, including the entire palace complex, he had the capital and the palace rebuilt. The new capital had 20 gates, each named after the vassal who built it.<ref name="Harvey" /> Each gate had a gilded two-tier ''[[pyatthat]]'' and gilded wooden doors.<ref name="mhyzw">{{Cite book |last=[[U Kala|Kala]] |first=U |title=Maha Yazawin |title-link=Maha Yazawin |date=1724 |publisher=Ya-Pyei Publishing |edition=2006, 4th printing |volume=1–3 |location=Yangon |language=Burmese}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=7 | Plan of the gates of the newly built Hanthawaddy Pegu, 1568
|-
| width="10%" style="background-color:#B9D1FF" | Northwest
| width="10%" | [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]]
| width="10%" | [[Tanintharyi (town)|Tenasserim]]
| width="10%" | [[Mottama|Martaban]]
| width="10%" | [[Pakhan]]
| width="10%" | [[Pathein|Bassein]]
| width="10%" style="background-color:#B9D1FF" | Northeast
|-
| [[Theinni]]
|
|
|
|
|
| [[Pyay|Prome]]
|-
| [[Tharrawaddy, Burma|Tharrawaddy]]
|
|
|
|
|
| [[Inwa|Ava]]
|-
| [[Nyaungshwe]]
|
|
|
|
|
| [[Taungoo|Toungoo]]
|-
| [[Mongnai State|Mone]]
|
|
|
|
|
| [[Dala township|Dala]]
|-
| [[Kalaymyo|Kale]]
|
|
|
|
|
| [[Lan Xang]]
|-
| width="10%" style="background-color:#B9D1FF" | Southwest
| width="10%" | [[Dawei|Tavoy]]
| width="10%" | [[Mogaung]]
| width="10%" | [[Mohnyin]]
| width="10%" | [[Momeik]]
| width="10%" | [[Lan Na|Chiang Mai]]
| width="10%" style="background-color:#B9D1FF" | Southeast
|}

The newly rebuilt Kanbawzathadi Palace was officially opened on 16 March 1568, with every vassal ruler present. He even gave upgraded titles to four former kings living in Pegu: [[Mobye Narapati]] of Ava, [[Sithu Kyawhtin]] of Ava, [[Yun Bayin|Mekuti]] of Lan Na, and [[Maha Chakkraphat]] of Siam.<ref name="mhyzw" />

As a major seaport, the city was frequently visited by Europeans, among these, [[Gasparo Balbi]] and [[Ralph Fitch]] in the late 1500s. The Europeans often commented on its magnificence. Pegu also established maritime links with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] by 1545.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casale |first=Giancarlo |title=The Ottoman Age of Exploration |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-537782-8 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377828.001.0001}}</ref>

[[File:The king of PEgu recievs an envoy (17th century).jpg|left|thumb|278x278px|The king of Pegu receives an envoy (17th century)]]

The Portuguese conquest of Pegu, following the destruction caused by the kings of Tangot and Arrakan in 1599, was described by Manuel de Abreu Mousinho in the account called "Brief narrative telling the conquest of Pegu in eastern India made by the Portuguese in the time of the viceroy Aires de Saldanha, being captain [[Salvador Ribeiro de Sousa]], called Massinga, born in Guimarães, elected as their king by the natives in the year 1600", published by Fernão Mendes Pinto in the 18th century. The 1599 destruction of the city and the crumbling authority of Bayinnaung's successor [[Nanda Bayin]] saw the Toungoo dynasty flee their capital to [[Inwa|Ava]].

The capital was looted by the viceroy of [[Toungoo]], [[Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo]], and then burned by the viceroy of [[Rakhine State|Arakan]] during the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605)]]. [[Anaukpetlun]] wanted to rebuild Hongsawadi and the glories of Bago, which had been deserted since Nanda Bayin had abandoned it. He was only able to build a temporary palace, however.<ref name="Damrong">{{Cite book |author=Prince Damrong Rajanubhab |title=Our Wars with the Burmese |date=2001 |publisher=White Lotus |isbn=974-7534-58-4 |location=Bangkok}}</ref>{{rp|151–162,191}}

[[File:Two ass-headed demons - Burma, probably from Pegu - Late 15th century AD - British Museum, London.jpg|thumb|right|Glazed plaque of demons representing the army of King Mara from the Shwegugyi pagoda at Pegu constructed by King [[Dhammazedi]] (1472–92) and now in the [[British Museum]]'s collection<ref>[https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1965-1217-1 British Museum collection]</ref>]]
The Burmese capital's return to Bago was short lived as the royal capital was once again relocated to [[Inwa|Ava]] in 1634 by the next king [[Thalun]] to focus on the core of the smaller Burmese empire.

===The fall of the Toungoo and Konbaung dynasty===

In 1740, the Mon revolted and founded the [[Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom]]. However, a [[Bamar people|Bamar]] king, [[Alaungpaya]], captured the city in May 1757.

Bago was rebuilt by King [[Bodawpaya]] (r. 1782–1819), but by then the river had shifted course, cutting the city off from the sea. It never regained its previous importance. After the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]], the [[British Empire|British]] annexed Bago in 1852. In 1862, the province of [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]] was formed, and the capital moved to [[Yangon]]. The substantial differences between the colloquial and literary pronunciations, as with Burmese words, was a reason of the British corruption "Pegu".

In 1911, Hanthawaddy was described as a district in the [[Bago Region|Bago]] (or ''Pegu'') division of [[Lower Burma]]. It lay in the home district of [[Yangon]], from which the town was detached to make a separate district in 1880. It had an area of {{convert|3023|sqmi|km2}}, with a population of 48,411 in 1901, showing an increase of 22% in the past decade. Hanthawaddy and [[Hinthada]] were the two most densely populated districts in the province.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Hanthawaddy|volume=12|page=932}}</ref>

Hanthawaddy, as it was constituted in 1911, consisted of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between the mouth of the [[Irrawaddy River]] and the [[Pegu Range]]. Except the tract of land lying between the Pegu Range on the east and the [[Yangon River]], the country was intersected by numerous [[Creek (tidal)|tidal creek]]s, many of which were navigable by large boats and some by steamers. The headquarters of the district was in Rangoon, which was also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second sub-division had its headquarters at [[Insein Township|Insein]], where there were large railway works. Cultivation was almost wholly confined to rice, but there were many vegetable and fruit gardens.<ref name="EB1911"/>

Bago was severely damaged during earthquakes in [[1930 Bago earthquake|May]] and [[1930 Pyu earthquake|December]] 1930. The May earthquake killed at least 500 people and triggered a tsunami.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-05|title=On This Day: The 1930 Earthquake Which Flattened Bago|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/on-this-day/1930-earthquake-flattened-bago.html|access-date=2020-10-14|website=The Irrawaddy|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Modern history===

Today, Hanthawaddy is one of the wards of Bago's city proper. The town of Bago is subdivided into 34 wards.<ref name=":0"/> On 9 April 2021, during the [[2021 Myanmar protests|Myanmar protests]], Bago became the site of the [[Bago massacre]], during which military forces killed at least 82 civilians following a protest crackdown.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-04-10|title=Myanmar coup: 'Dozens killed' in military crackdown in Bago|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-56703416|access-date=2021-04-11}}</ref>

==Demographics==
The [[2014 Myanmar Census|2014 Myanmar census]] reported that Bago had a population of 237,619, representing 48.35% of [[Bago Township]]'s total population.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dop.gov.mm/sites/dop.gov.mm/files/publication_docs/bago_0.pdf|title=Bago Township Report|date=October 2017|website=2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census}}</ref>

As of 2019, the urban town has 179,505 people based on the [[General Administration Department]]'s estimates. 88.73% of the Township is [[Bamar]] with a significant [[Karen people|Karen]], Mon, [[Palaung people|Palaung]] and [[Burmese Indian]] population. [[Buddhists]] make up 94.2% of the city with [[Christianity]] being the second most populous at 4.2%. There are 749 monasteries, 92 nunneries and 134 stupas of various sizes including the tallest pagoda in Myanmar, the [[Shwemawdaw Pagoda]]. The city also has 9 churches, 6 mosques, 16 Hindu temples and 3 Chinese [[Mahayana]] temples.<ref name="mimu">{{cite report |author=Myanmar Information Management Unit |date=December 19, 2019 |title=Bago Myone Daethasaingyarachatlatmya|script-title=my:ပဲခူမြို့နယ် ဒေသဆိုင်ရာအချက်လက်များ|trans-title=Bago Township Regional Information |url=http://themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/documents/TspProfiles_GAD_Bago_2019_MMR.pdf |publisher=MIMU |access-date=February 7, 2024}}</ref>

==Economy and transport==
The main industries of Bago Township are agriculture and service sector employment. Bago city has an industrial zone with several factories, mostly in textiles and shoe-making. Smaller factories and workshops within the city also create food products, plastics, electric meters, motors, wood products, tea and [[halwa]]. Bago also has a small, but thriving tourism industry with many tourists from nearby Yangon. The Bago Development Committee manages 11 markets around the city.

There are no airports within the township, and the city is served mostly by [[Yangon International Airport]] but the proposed [[Hanthawaddy International Airport]] serving Yangon and Bago may be located within Bago Township.<ref name="SUNJIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.sunjin.co.kr/eng/p_over_part_view.asp?seq=1046&page=1&PCode=2 |title=Oversea Major Project |publisher=SUNJIN Engineering & Architecture |date= |accessdate=23 June 2012 }}{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> There are two rail lines that pass through Bago, [[Yangon–Mandalay Railway]] and [[Yangon–Mawlamyine Railway]]. Bago also has several bus depots on its outskirts with intercity buses providing regular service. Bago is served by the [[Yangon–Mandalay Expressway]] as well as the old highways going to Taungoo and Myeik. Bago has seven major bridges crossing the [[Bago River]] in and around the city.

==Climate==
Bago has a [[tropical monsoon climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Am''), similar to most of coastal Myanmar, with a hot, [[dry season]] from mid-November to mid-April and a, hot, extremely humid, and exceedingly rainy [[wet season]] from May to October.
{{Weather box
| width = auto
| location = Bago, Myanmar (1991–2020)
| single line = Y
| metric first = Y
|Jan high C = 31.7
|Feb high C = 34.0
|Mar high C = 36.3
|Apr high C = 37.9
|May high C = 34.6
|Jun high C = 30.9
|Jul high C = 30.1
|Aug high C = 30.0
|Sep high C = 31.1
|Oct high C = 32.6
|Nov high C = 32.7
|Dec high C = 31.5
| year high C = 32.8
|Jan mean C = 24.0
|Feb mean C = 25.8
|Mar mean C = 28.5
|Apr mean C = 30.6
|May mean C = 29.1
|Jun mean C = 26.9
|Jul mean C = 26.5
|Aug mean C = 26.5
|Sep mean C = 27.1
|Oct mean C = 27.8
|Nov mean C = 26.9
|Dec mean C = 24.5
| year mean C = 27
|Jan low C = 16.3
|Feb low C = 17.6
|Mar low C = 20.7
|Apr low C = 23.3
|May low C = 23.6
|Jun low C = 23.0
|Jul low C = 22.9
|Aug low C = 22.9
|Sep low C = 23.1
|Oct low C = 23.1
|Nov low C = 21.2
|Dec low C = 17.6
| year low C = 21.3
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 5.0
|Feb precipitation mm = 3.1
|Mar precipitation mm = 15.2
|Apr precipitation mm = 38.5
|May precipitation mm = 333.9
|Jun precipitation mm = 640.5
|Jul precipitation mm = 803.4
|Aug precipitation mm = 720.9
|Sep precipitation mm = 475.3
|Oct precipitation mm = 188.0
|Nov precipitation mm = 50.2
|Dec precipitation mm = 7.5
| year precipitation mm = 3281.5
| unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 0.8
|Feb precipitation days = 0.3
|Mar precipitation days = 1.1
|Apr precipitation days = 2.2
|May precipitation days = 15.2
|Jun precipitation days = 26.3
|Jul precipitation days = 28.3
|Aug precipitation days = 28.0
|Sep precipitation days = 22.7
|Oct precipitation days = 12.4
|Nov precipitation days = 3.2
|Dec precipitation days = 0.5
|year precipitation days = 140.8
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]]<ref name=WMOCLINO>{{cite web
| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-2-WMO-Normals-9120/Myanmar/CSV/Bago_48093.csv
| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020
| publisher = World Meteorological Organization
| access-date = 16 October 2023}}</ref>
}}

==Places of interest==
[[Image:Bago-Blick von Mahazedi Paya.JPG|thumb|right|View from [[Mahazedi Pagoda]]]]
* [[Shwethalyaung Buddha]] ([[Reclining Buddha]])
* [[Shwemawdaw Pagoda]]
* [[Kyaikpun Buddha]]
* [[Kanbawzathadi Palace]] site and museum
* [[Kalyani Ordination Hall]]
* [[Mahazedi Pagoda]]
* Shwegugyi Pagoda
* [[Shwegugale Pagoda]]
* [[Bago Sittaung Canal]]
* Butterfly lake (Lake-pyar-kan)
* Mazin Dam
* Snake Monastery
* Bago Moat

==Sports==
Bago has a 400 meter football field and 1 public fitness center.
* Grand Royal Stadium

==Healthcare==
The most common illness within the Township is diarrhea. Between 2017 and 2018, Bago Township saw 617 cases of [[HIV]] leading to 16 deaths.<ref name="mimu"/>

* Bago General Hospital (500-bedded Public Hospital)
* Bago Traditional Medicine Hospital
*Aung Hospital
*Swal Taw Hospital
*Joe Thein Hospital
*Thamar Di Hospital

==Education==

Bago also has 9 high schools and a university. Bago's larger high schools have branches within the city. There are 28 monastic schools within the Township. Bago has a school attendance rate of 99.82% and 33% attendance rate for university. Overall, the literacy rate is 99.55%.<ref name="mimu"/>
* [[Bago University]]
* Basic Education High School No. 1 Bago
*[[Basic Education High School No. 3 Bago]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | last=Aung-Thwin | first=Michael A. | title=The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma | edition=illustrated | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2005 | location=Honolulu | isbn=9780824828868}}
* {{cite book | last=Aung-Thwin | first=Michael A. | title=Myanmar in the Fifteenth Century | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | year=2017 | location=Honolulu | isbn=978-0-8248-6783-6}}
* {{cite book | editor=Nyein Maung | title=Shay-haung Myanma Kyauksa-mya [Ancient Burmese Stone Inscriptions] | volume=1–5 | language=my | location=Yangon | publisher=Archaeological Department | year=1972–1998}}
* {{cite book | last=Pan Hla | first=Nai | title=[[Razadarit Ayedawbon]] | language=my | year=1968 | edition=8th printing, 2005 | location=Yangon | publisher=Armanthit Sarpay}}
* {{cite journal | last=Phayre | author-link=Arthur Purves Phayre | first=Major-General Sir Arthur P. | title=The History of Pegu | journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal | volume=42 | year=1873 | location=Calcutta | pages=23–57, 120–159 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CboIAAAAQAAJ }}
* {{cite book | last=Phayre | author-link=Arthur Purves Phayre | first=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. | title=History of Burma | year=1883 | edition=1967 | publisher=Susil Gupta | location=London}}
* {{cite journal | last=Schmidt | first=P.W. | title=Slapat des Ragawan der Königsgeschichte | journal=Die äthiopischen Handschriften der K.K. Hofbibliothek zu Wien | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0A1LAQAAMAAJ | location=Vienna | year=1906 | language=de | volume=151 | publisher=Alfred Hölder}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Bago, Myanmar|Bago}}
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&dq=Bago+River&pg=PA60 International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Donwun]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma|Capital of Hanthawaddy Kingdom]]|years=1369 – by 31 March 1539}}
{{s-aft|after=End of Kingdom}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Taungoo|Toungoo]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma]]|years=by 31 March 1539 – 30 April 1550}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Inwa|Ava]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma|Capital of Hanthawaddy Kingdom]]|years=June 1550 – 12 March 1552}}
{{s-aft|after=End of Kingdom}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Taungoo|Toungoo]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma]]|years=12 March 1552 – 19 December 1599}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Inwa|Ava]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Inwa|Ava]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma]]|years=14 May 1613 – 25 January 1635}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Inwa|Ava]]}}
{{s-bef|before=Founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Capital of Burma|Capital of Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom]]|years=November 1740 – 6 May 1757}}
{{s-aft|after=End of Kingdom}}
{{s-end}}

{{Bago Region}}
{{Most populous cities in Myanmar}}
{{Wikivoyage|Bago (Myanmar)}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|17|20|N|96|29|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Township capitals of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Populated places in Bago Region]]
[[Category:Capitals of Mon kingdoms]]

Pookkaalam

2026-03-27T06:49:10Z

Yaarzu: started some details first draft...

{{Short description|2023 Indian film by Ganesh Raj}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pookkaalam
| image = Pookkaalamfilm.jpeg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Ganesh Raj
| producer = {{Ubl | Thomas Thiruvalla | Vinod Shornur}}
| writer =
| screenplay = Ganesh Raj
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = {{Ubl
| [[Vijayaraghavan]]
| [[Basil Joseph]]
| [[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]
| [[K. P. A. C. Leela]]
}}
| narrator =
| music = [[Sachin Warrier]]<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ml:പ്രേക്ഷകമനസ്സിൽ പൂക്കാലം തീർത്ത് പാട്ട്; കൈതപ്രത്തിന്റെ വരികള്‍ക്ക് സച്ചിൻ വാരിയറുടെ ഈണം |language=ml |trans-title=The song fills the minds of the audience; Sachin Warrier's tune to kaithapram's lyrics |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/music/music-news/2023/03/18/manasilum-pookkaalam-song-from-the-movie-pookkaalam.html |publisher=[[Manoramaonline.com]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=18 March 2023}}</ref>
| editing = Midhun Murali
| cinematography = Anend C. Chandran
| studio = {{Ubl | CNC Cinemas | Thomas Thiruvalla Films}}
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2023|04|8|df=y|ref1=<ref name=date>{{cite web |script-title=ml:തിയേറ്ററുകളിൽ ഇനി 'പൂക്കാലം'; 'ആനന്ദ'ത്തിന് ശേഷം ഗണേഷ് രാജ് ഒരുക്കുന്ന ചിത്രം റിലീസിനൊരുങ്ങുന്നു |language=ml |trans-title='Pookalam' to hit theatres; After 'Ananda', Ganesh Raj's film is gearing up for release |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/vijayaraghavan-in-pookalam-movie-release-date-announced-1.8425487 |publisher=[[Mathrubhumi]] |access-date=28 March 2023 |date=26 March 2023}}</ref>}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Pookkaalam''''' ({{Translation|Spring}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by Ganesh Raj. It stars [[Vijayaraghavan]] as a 100-year-old man, with [[K. P. A. C. Leela]] paired opposite him.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ml:പ്രേക്ഷകമനസ്സിലൊരു പൂക്കാലം തീർത്ത് 'പൂക്കാലം' ആദ്യ വീഡിയോ ഗാനം പുറത്ത് |language=ml |trans-title=The first video song of 'Pookkalam' is out. |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/actor-vijayaraghavan-starrer-new-film-pookkaalam-song-out-hrk-rrpg0j |publisher=[[Asianet News]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ml:'ആനന്ദ'ത്തിന് ശേഷം 'പൂക്കാല'വുമായി ഗണേഷ് രാജ് |language=ml |trans-title=After 'Ananda', Ganesh Raj to come up with 'Pookkala' |url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/malayalam-cinema/movie-news/director-ganesh-rajs-next-after-aanandam-film-titled-as-pookkalam/articleshow/92285566.cms |publisher=[[Samayam]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=17 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Malayalam Director Ganesh Raj Reveals First Look of His Next Film Pookkaalam |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/malayalam-director-ganesh-raj-reveals-first-look-of-his-next-film-pookkaalam-5398879.html |publisher=[[News 18]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=18 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title='Pookkaalam' to arrive this summer! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pookkaalam-to-arrive-this-summer/articleshow/98517140.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=9 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=First-look poster of Pookkaalam is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/mar/05/the-first-look-poster-of-pookkaalam-is-out-40668.html |publisher=[[Cinema Express]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=5 March 2023}}</ref>

''Pookkaalam'' was released on 8 April 2023.<ref name="date" /><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ml:വിജയരാഘവൻ 100 വയസ്സുകാരനായി അഭിനയിക്കുന്ന 'പൂക്കാലം' റിലീസ് പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ചു |language=ml |trans-title=Pookkalam {{!}} Vijayaraghavan's 'Pookkalam' release announced as a 100-year-old |url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/film/movies-release-date-for-the-movie-pookkalam-starring-vijayaraghavan-mm-591965.html |publisher=[[News 18]] |access-date=28 March 2023 |date=27 March 2023}}</ref> It was featured at the [[54th International Film Festival of India|54th IFFI]] Indian Panorama section.<ref name="pib:ip">{{Cite news|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1970040|title=Indian Panorama 2023 Announces Official Selection for 54th IFFI, 2023|date=23 October 2023|access-date=21 November 2023|publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]]|via=press release}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2023/04/08/pookkaalam-audience-review.html | title=തിയറ്ററുകളിൽ പൂത്തുലഞ്ഞ് 'പൂക്കാലം'; പ്രേക്ഷക പ്രതികരണം }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/vijayaraghavan-starrer-pookkaalam-gets-an-ott-release-date/articleshow/100323066.cms | title=Vijayaraghavan starrer 'Pookkaalam' gets an OTT release date | newspaper=The Times of India | date=18 May 2023 }}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{Expand section|date=October 2023}}
''Pookkaalam'' is the story of the lives of Ittoop and Kochu Thresiamma and the people surrounding them.

== Cast ==
* [[Vijayaraghavan]] as Ittoop
* [[Basil Joseph]] as [[Advocate]] Jikkumon
* [[Vineeth Sreenivasan]] as [[Judge]] Ravi
* [[K. P. A. C. Leela]] as Maya Thattakathu Kochu Thresiamma, Ittoop's wife
** Nandini Gopalakrishnan as young Kochu Thresiamma
* [[Roshan Mathew]] as Johnnymon, Ittoop's eldest son
* [[Sarasa Balussery]] as Alamma, Ittoop's eldest daughter
* [[Suhasini Maniratnam]] as Clara, Ittoop's second daughter
** Noila Francy as young Clara
* Radha Gomathy as Rosamma, Ittoop's third daughter
* Ganga Meera as Elsamma, Ittoop's youngest daughter
* [[Jagadish Kumar|Jagadish]] as Puthanveetil Kochousepp
* [[Johny Antony]] as Advocate Narayanan Pillai
* [[Annu Antony]] as Elsi, Elsamma's daughter
* [[Arun Kurian]] as Susheel, Elsi's fiancé
* [[Abu Salim (actor)|Abu Salim]] as Venu, Elsamma's husband
* [[V. Suresh Thampanoor]] as Xavier
* Sarath Sabha as Father Gabriel, Elsamma's son
* Amal Raj and Kamal Raj as Michael and Angelo
* Kavya and Navya as Dinsy and Donna
* [[Arun Ajikumar]] as Guinness
* [[Kanakalatha]] as Susheel's mother
* Harish Pengan as Kochousepp's son
* [[Kochu Preman]] as the sexton
* [[Ranjini Haridas]] as the astrologer
* [[Shebin Benson]] as K. C. Unnikrishnan
* [[Gilu Joseph]] as Narayanan Pillai's wife
* [[Honey Rose]] as herself
* Anjali Thachillath as Adv. Anjali

==Production==
After his debut film ''[[Aanandam]]'', director Ganesh Raj took 4 years to complete the script of Pookkaalam,<ref name=gr/> and he penned a note as "Pookkaalam... The season of growth, change, and Love" along with the first look poster.<ref>{{cite web |title='Pookkaalam': 'Aanandam' director Ganesh Raj's next is all about the season of growth, change, and pure love |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pookkaalam-aanandam-director-ganesh-rajs-next-is-all-about-the-season-of-growth-change-and-pure-love/articleshow/92273151.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 March 2023 |date=17 June 2022}}</ref> This film was bankrolled by Vinod Shornur for CNC Cinemas in association with Thomas Thiruvalla's Thomas Thiruvalla Films.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/its-a-wrap-for-pookkaalam/articleshow/96244807.cms |title=It's a wrap for 'Pookkaalam' |date=15 December 2022 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pookkaalam-to-arrive-this-summer/articleshow/98517140.cms |title='Pookkaalam' to arrive this summer! |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/pookkaalam-aanandam-director-ganesh-rajs-next-is-all-about-the-season-of-growth-change-and-pure-love/articleshow/92273151.cms |title='Pookkaalam': 'Aanandam' director Ganesh Raj's next is all about the season of growth, change, and pure love |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 June 2022}}</ref> [[Sachin Warrier]] was signed to provide the music and background score of the film.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/basil-s-kadin-kadorame-andakadaham-release-eid-174853 |title=Basil's Kadin Kadorame Andakadaham to release for Eid |date=21 March 2023 |website=The News Minute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://theprimetime.in/manasilum-pookkaalam-movie-lyrical-video/ |title=Manasilum Pookkaalam Movie Lyrical video |first=Revathy |last=Anil |date=18 March 2023 | publisher=Prime Time | accessdate=11 February 2024}}</ref> Actress [[Honey Rose]] also plays a cameo role.<ref>{{cite web |title=At Bakery Inauguration In Vijayawada, Actress Honey Rose Expresses Thoughts On Marriage |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/at-bakery-inauguration-in-vijayawada-actress-honey-rose-expresses-thoughts-on-marriage-7393249.html |publisher=[[News 18]] |access-date=28 March 2023 |date=27 March 2023}}</ref>

[[Principal photography]] started on 13 April 2022. The filming [[Wrap (filmmaking)|wrapped]] up on 14 December after 37 days of shooting.<ref name="gr">{{cite news |title=It's a wrap for Ganesh Raj's 'Pookkaalam' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2022/dec/16/its-a-wrap-for-ganesh-rajs-pookkaalam-2528826.html |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=16 December 2022}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Critical reception===
Princy Alexander of ''[[Onmanorama]]'' noted that the film is "a fresh take" on elderly couple relationships and compared the film to ''[[Oru Cheru Punchiri]]'', and wrote: "Though the movie dwells on a serious subject like a marital discord, Ganesh Raj's 'Pookkaalam' is not a tear-jerker. Instead, he relies on the youthful vibrancy that was the pillar of his earlier work to narrate this film, too. … Despite the good performances, the weak dialogues and the failure to explore some of the characters further affect the film, which is otherwise an interesting family drama."<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 April 2023 |access-date=12 August 2025 |title=Movie Review: 'Pookkaalam' - a feel-good film revolving around a 100-year-old man|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/2023/04/08/pookkaalam-movie-vijayaraghavan-ganesh-raj-review.html |website=Onmanorama |language=en}}</ref> Sajin Shriijth of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' gave 3.5/5 stars and wrote: "Despite some of its rough edges, Pookkaalam is what I would call a wholesome family entertainer ideal for the holidays. There are places where the exaggerated acting from Basil Joseph, Vineeth Sreenivasan, Johny Antony, and others doesn't land, but their presence also makes Pookkaalam lively when necessary. In a way, they remind us of some of our family members. We don't always like what they do, but we can't live without them either."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shriijth |first=Sajin |date=9 April 2023|title=MPookkaalam movie review: A wholesome family entertainer designed to lift your spirits |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2023/Apr/09/pookkaalam-movie-review-a-wholesome-family-entertainer-designed-to-lift-your-spirits-42118.html |access-date=2025-06-27 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

==Awards==
=== [[National Film Awards]] ===
* '''[[71st National Film Awards]]''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=71st National Film Awards announced {{!}} Who won Best Actor, Best Film, and more? |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/71st-national-film-awards-announced-bb9jti7e |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=Mathrubhumi News |language=en}}</ref> (presented in August 2025 for films certified in 2023)
** Best Supporting Actor – [[Vijayaraghavan]]
** Best Editing – Midhun Murali

=== [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]] ===
* '''[[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards 2023]]'''
** Best Actor – [[Vijayaraghavan]]
** Best Supporting Actress – [[K. P. A. C. Leela]]
** Best Makeup - Ronex Xavier <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala Film Critics Awards 2023: ‘Aattam’ bags best film award|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/kerala-film-criticsawards-aattam-bags-best-film-award-5aa74905 |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=Mathrubhumi News |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|21071620}}

[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2023 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sachin Warrier]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor National Film Award winners]]

Minto Park, Prayagraj

2026-03-26T15:31:15Z

Yaarzu: stub!

{{Short description|Historical park in Prayagraj, India}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}

'''Madan Mohan Malaviya Park''' ''formerly known as'' '''Minto Park''', is a park in [[Prayagraj]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM11/It-s-time-for-beautification-of-Khusrobagh-and-Minto-Park/Article1-101394.aspx |title = It?s time for beautification of Khusrobagh and Minto Park – Hindustan… |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130726103345/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM11/It-s-time-for-beautification-of-Khusrobagh-and-Minto-Park/Article1-101394.aspx |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is located in the southern part of the city along the banks of [[Yamuna river]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/UttarPradesh/Fake-stamp-paper-racket-busted-in-Allahabad-4-held/Article1-279636.aspx |title=Fake stamp paper racket busted in Allahabad; 4 held – Hindustan Times |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130726103308/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/UttarPradesh/Fake-stamp-paper-racket-busted-in-Allahabad-4-held/Article1-279636.aspx |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The park is a historical site because in 1858 [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Earl Canning]] read out the declaration of [[Queen Victoria#Empress|Queen Victoria's Proclamation]] (at 1 November 1858), which resulted in the complete transfer of control over India from The [[East India Company]] to the [[government of Britain]]. To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the event, the [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|Earl of Minto]] installed a proclamation pillar in 1908. The marble pillar was topped with busts of Queen Victoria and Edward VII. In 1910, the park was named Minto Park.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lal |first1=Akshat |title=British Legacy in Allahabad |url=https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/amazing-india/the-british-legacy-in-allahabad/ |access-date=16 May 2021 |agency=Live History India |date=15 September 2019}}</ref> After independence, the marble busts atop the pillar were replaced by the Ashokan Lion Capital and park renamed Madan Mohan Malaviya Park.

==See also==
{{commons category|Minto Park Prayagraj}}
* [[List of tourist attractions in Prayagraj]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Prayagraj landmarks}}

{{coord missing|Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Prayagraj]]
[[Category:Gardens in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Memorials to Madan Mohan Malaviya]]

Harvey Rosenberg Bauman

2026-03-23T01:25:51Z

Yaarzu: adding a details

{{Short description|Christian medical missionary (1897–1970)}}
'''Harvey Rosenberger Bauman''' (February 26, 1897 – October 4, 1970) was an American medical missionary, who with his wife Ella Gerber-Bauman (1895–1989), established the first general hospital in [[Champa, Chhattisgarh|Champa, India]] of the [[General Conference Mennonite Church|General Conference of Mennonite]] Mission.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Following in Steps of Missionary Parents-Prospective Missionaries Doctors, In Family of Drs. Harvey & Ella Bauman |url=https://newscomwc.newspapers.com/image/810925476/ |work=Mennonite Weekly Review |pages=7}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Martens |first=Delphine |title=India Missionaries Retire After 37 Yrs |url=https://newscomwc.newspapers.com/image/811346046/?match=1&pqsid=pSJ0J4vdEiGvLpJs9P1nrw%3A49106%3A1710569292 |work=Mennonite Weekly Review |pages=9}}</ref> Later both served as directors of cancer detection at the Allentown General Hospital in Pennsylvania.

== Early life and education ==
Bauman was born in [[Congo, Pennsylvania|Congo, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania]], to farmer parents Samuel W. and Clara Rosenberger Bauman.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Warkentin |first=Abraham |title=Who's Who among the Mennonites |publisher=Bethel College Press |year=1943 |location=North Newton, Kansas |pages=17}}</ref> Bauman grew up in a religious household.

===Education===
Bauman attended primary school in [[Milford Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania|Milford Township Buck County, PA.]] Bauman went to Quakertown High School (1911–14), where he graduated, and began to briefly pursue studies at Perkiomen Seminary<ref name=":1" /> (1914–15). He then pursued higher education at [[Bluffton University|Bluffton College]] in Ohio (1916–19). In summer of 1919, Bauman attended [[Muhlenberg College]]. Afterward, Bauman returned to Pennsylvania, where he attended [[Thomas Jefferson University|Jefferson Medical College]] (1919–23) and interned at Allentown General Hospital (1923–24) the year following his completion. While his wife was interning at AGH, Bauman worked as a physician at Phoenix Utility Company, [[Hawley, Pennsylvania|Hawley, PA]].<ref name=":1" />

===Family===
On June 11, 1924, Bauman married Ella Gerber. The marriage produced five children: Kenneth, Clara Ann, Albert Samuel, Mary Harvella, and Elizabeth Ruth.<ref name="Albert">{{cite web |title=Obituary: Albert S. Bauman |url=https://www.tiddfuneralservice.com/obituaries/albert-bauman |publisher=Tidd Family Funeral Home |access-date=16 December 2024}}</ref> Albert and Elizabeth went on to become medical missionaries.<ref name="Albert" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Elizabeth Shelly: Green thumb and caring heart |date=20 June 2019 |url=https://www.blufftonicon.com/news/2019/06/20/elizabeth-shelly-green-thumb-and-caring-heart |publisher=Blufton Icon |access-date=16 December 2024}}</ref> Son Kenneth became a religious missionary in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bauman, Kenneth G. |url=https://archives.mhsc.ca/index.php/bauman-kenneth-g-1926-1986 |website=Mennonite Archival Information Database |publisher=Mennonite historical Society of Canada |access-date=16 December 2024}}</ref>

== Mission ==
The Baumans received their missionary "call" and went to India 3 October 1925. They studied language for their first year while raising funds for the new hospital.<ref name="Mennonite 41">{{cite journal |last1=Stauffer |first1=May |journal=The Mennonite |date=11 February 1926 |volume=41 |issue=6 |page=3 |url=https://archive.org/details/mennonite41unse_0/page/n23/mode/1up |access-date=30 December 2024}}</ref> Bauman supervised the construction by F.J. Isaac of the Christian General Hospital in Champa. In addition, he led the clinical staff including medicine compounders(a form of pharmacist), nurses, and the paramedics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juhnke |first=James C |title=A People of Mission: A History of General Conference Mennonite Overseas Missions |year=1979 |location=Newton, Kansas |pages=33,252,223}}</ref> construction of the hospital started in 1927 and 1931.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Mennonite |url=https://archive.org/details/mennonite193146grub |access-date=30 December 2024 |issue=14 |date=2 April 1931|volume=46 }}</ref> By 1928 the partially completed General hospital at Chamapa was serving more than 3500 patients with outpatient, inpatient, and surgical services. In 1930 there were 3857 pateients served.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bauman |first1=Harvey and Ella |title=The Mennonite |url=https://archive.org/details/mennonite44unse_0 |access-date=30 December 2024 |issue=17 |date=25 April 1929|volume=44 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Mennonite |url=https://archive.org/details/mennonite193146grub |access-date=30 December 2024 |issue=14 |date=2 April 1931|volume=46 }}</ref>

While in India, Bauman served as the Chief Medical Officer at Bethesda Leper Home and Christian (General) Hospital, which he and his wife established, beginning in 1926.<ref name=":1" /> The general hospital was started separately from the Leper Home to serve patients who did not have Leprosy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Penner |first1=Peter |title=The Mennonite |url=https://archive.org/details/mennonite41unse_0/page/n144/mode/1up |access-date=30 December 2024 |issue=35 |date=9 September 1926|volume=41 }}</ref> Bauman also served in other capacity in India outside of the hospital, such as being a pastor.<ref name=":0" />

==Return to the US and death==
Bauman and his wife concluded their work in India in 1961. They returned to Pennsylvania and were named co-directors of the cancer detection department of [[Lehigh Valley Health Network|Allentown General Hospital]] (AGH). In retirement, Bauman maintained his membership in the West Swamp Mennonite Church, in [[Quakertown, Pennsylvania|Quakertown, PA]].{{cn|date=September 2025}}

Bauman died in 1970 of a heart attack at his home in [[Coopersburg, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Death Claims Retired Medical Missionary |url=https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Bauman,_Harvey_Rosenberger_(1897–1970) |work=Mennonite Weekly Review |pages=3}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
Bauman and his wife founded Christian Hospital in Champa, India. The hospital now operates as the [[Emmanuel Hospital Association]] Champa Christian Hospital.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eha-health.org/hospitals/champa-christian-hospital | title=Champa Christian Hospital }}</ref> EHA Champa Christian Hospital focuses on those who are poor and marginalized.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vision, Mission, and Core Values |url=https://eha-health.org/about-us/vision-mission-core-values |publisher=Emmanuel Hospital Association |access-date=16 December 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bauman, Harvey Rosenberg}}
[[Category:1897 births]]
[[Category:1970 deaths]]
[[Category:Jefferson Medical College alumni]]
[[Category:Bluffton University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century American medical doctors]]
[[Category:Protestant missionaries in India]]
[[Category:Mennonite missionaries]]
[[Category:Christian medical missionaries]]
[[Category:American Mennonites]]
[[Category:American medical missionaries]]

Sreenivasan

2026-03-18T23:39:21Z

Yaarzu: minor reworked details additionally and improved wording

{{Short description|Indian actor and filmmaker (1950–2025)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{about|the actor born in 1950|other uses|Sreenivasan (disambiguation)}}
{{confuse|Srinivasan (Tamil actor)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sreenivasan
| image = ശ്രീനിവാസൻ സ്റ്റേജ് ഷോ.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Sreenivasan in 2010
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1950|05|02|df=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-23 |title=എന്തിന് ചെറുപ്പമാവാനുള്ള ചാൻസ് കളയുന്നെന്ന തമാശ ബാക്കി, ശ്രീനിവാസൻ വിടപറഞ്ഞത് 75-ാം വയസിൽ |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/sreenivasan-passes-away-75-age-debate-qadxwmbu |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Pattiom]], Kannur district, Kerala
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2025|12|20|1950|05|02|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Thrippunithura]], Kochi, Kerala
| other_names =
| alma_mater = Pazhassi Raja N. S. S. College, Mattanur, [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute|Madras Film Institute]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|screenwriter|film director|film producer}}
| years_active = 1977–2025
| works = [[Sreenivasan filmography|Full list]]
| spouse = Vimala Sreenivasan
| children = {{ubl|[[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]|[[Dhyan Sreenivasan]]}}
| awards = [[National Film Awards]] [[Kerala State Film Awards]]
}}

'''Sreenivasan''' (2 May 1950 – 20 December 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-12-23 |title=How old was the late actor Sreenivasan really? Inside the confusion and facts behind the age debate after his demise |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/how-old-was-the-late-actor-sreenivasan-really-inside-the-confusion-and-facts-behind-the-age-debate-after-his-demise/articleshow/126137843.cms#:~:text=He%20died%20at%20age%2075,or%20had%20heard%20about%20him. |access-date=2025-12-23 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> was an Indian actor, screenwriter, film director and producer who predominantly worked in [[Malayalam cinema]].<ref>[http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/17/stories/2005041708920300.htm Sreenivasan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105164114/http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/17/stories/2005041708920300.htm |date=5 November 2012}} ''The Hindu'' 17 April 2005. Retrieved 1 June 2012.</ref> He starred in over 225 films.
Sreenivasan wrote the screenplays of films such as ''[[Odaruthammava Aalariyam]]'' (1984), ''[[Sanmanassullavarkku Samadhanam]]'' (1986), ''[[Gandhinagar 2nd Street]]'' (1986), ''[[Nadodikkattu]]'' (1987), ''[[Pattanapravesham]]'' (1988), ''[[Varavelpu]]'' (1989), ''[[Thalayana Manthram]]'' (1990), ''[[Sandesam]]'' (1991), ''[[Mithunam (1993 film)|Midhunam]]'' (1993), ''[[Mazhayethum Munpe]]'' (1995), ''[[Azhakiya Ravanan]]'' (1996), ''[[Oru Maravathoor Kanavu]]'' (1998), ''[[Udayananu Tharam]]'' (2005), ''[[Katha Parayumpol]]'' (2007), and ''[[Njan Prakashan]]'' (2018), the latter being one of the [[List of highest-grossing Indian films#Malayalam|highest-grossing Malayalam films of all time]]. He won two [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Screenplay|Kerala State Film Awards for Best Screenplay]] for ''Sandesam'' and ''Mazhayethum Munpe'', along with several other honours including a [[National Film Awards|National Film Award]], two [[Filmfare Awards South]] and six [[Kerala State Film Awards]].

As a writer and actor, he frequently collaborated with directors such as [[Priyadarshan]], [[Sathyan Anthikad]] and [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]]. As a filmmaker, he scripted and directed ''[[Vadakkunokkiyantram|Vadakkunokkiyanthram]]'' (1989) and ''[[Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala]]'' (1998). ''Vadakkunokkiyanthram'' won the [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film]], while ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala'' won the [[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues]] and the [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value]] at the 29th Kerala State Film Awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.oneindia.in/malayalam/top-stories/2008/chinthavishtayaya-shyamala-hindi-remake-041208.html |title=Sreenivasan's Chintavishtayaya Shyamala|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712234956/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/malayalam/top-stories/2008/chinthavishtayaya-shyamala-hindi-remake-041208.html |archive-date=12 July 2012|work=Oneindia |date=2008-12-04}}</ref> He co-produced ''[[Katha Parayumpol]]'' (2007) and ''[[Thattathin Marayathu]]'' (2012) under the banner Lumiere Film Company, along with actor [[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Malayalam cinema stalwart Sreenivasan dies at 20 December 2025 age 69|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2025/12/20/sreenivasan-malayalam-actor-director-dies.html |website=Onmanorama |access-date=20 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Sreenivasan was born in [[Pattiom]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bureau |first1=The Hindu |title=Sreenivasan, renowned Malayalam actor-scenarist, passes away |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sreenivasan-noted-malayalam-actor-scenarist-passes-away/article70418616.ece |work=The Hindu |date=20 December 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref> a village near [[Thalassery]] in [[Kannur district|Kannur]], North Malabar region of [[Kerala]]. He has a sister and two brothers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/13608/ |title=Sreenivasan Interview|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219074117/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/13608/ |date=19 December 2013|work=Mathrubhumi website|archive-date=19 December 2013}}</ref> His mother was a homemaker and his father a school teacher.<ref>[http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Sreenivasan Sreenivasan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220040708/http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Sreenivasan |date=20 February 2014 }} MSIDB</ref> Sreenivasan completed his formal education at [[Kuthuparamba]] Middle School and [[GVHSS Kadirur|Government High School, Kadirur]]. He received a bachelor's degree in economics from Pazhassi Raja N. S. S. College, Mattanur. In 1977, he joined the [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute|Film and Television Institute of Tamil Nadu]] in [[Chennai]] to complete his formal training in films.<ref>[http://cinidiary.com/people.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=52&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter= Actor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619051139/http://cinidiary.com/people.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=52&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter= |date=19 June 2015 }} Cinidiary.</ref>

==Career==
Sreenivasan debuted in the 1976 [[P. A. Backer]] movie ''[[Manimuzhakkam]]''. His first lead role was ''[[Sanghaganam]]'' (1979).<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 21, 2025 |title=Malayalam film stalwart Sreenivasan’s legacy: A timeline |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sreenivasan-malayalam-film-actor-director-sreenwriter-satirist-timeline-career/article70418924.ece/ |access-date=December 21, 2025}}</ref> At film school, he was enrolled by Aniyeri Prabhakaran, who later cast him in ''[[Mela (1980 film)|Mela]]'' (1980). In 1984, Sreenivasan wrote his first film, ''[[Odaruthammava Aalariyam]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 21, 2025 |title=How Sreenivasan rewrote Malayalam cinema, one ordinary life at a time |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2025/12/20/sreenivasan-screenwriter-changed-malayalam-cinema.html |access-date=December 21, 2025}}</ref> He both wrote and acted in ''[[Varavelpu]]'', ''[[Gandhinagar 2nd Street]]'', '' [[Nadodikkattu]]'' and its two sequels, ''[[Pattanapravesham]],'' and ''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]]''. As a director he filmed ''[[Vadakkunokkiyantram|Vadakkunokkiyanthram]]'' and ''[[Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 21, 2025 |title=Tributes pour in for actor Sreenivasan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/tributes-pour-in-for-actor-sreenivasan/article70418884.ece |access-date=December 21, 2025}}</ref> His comedies include ''[[Aram + Aram = Kinnaram]]'', ''[[Kinnaripuzhayoram]]'', ''[[Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu]]'', [[Ponmuttayidunna Tharavu|''Ponmuttayidunna'' Tharavu]], ''[[Artham]]'', ''[[Azhakiya Ravanan]]'', and ''[[Chithram]]''.

Sreenivasan’s scripts in the 1980s and 1990s were profoundly successful in creating a new dimension for Malayalam cinema by way of humor to show vibrant and engaging stories of ordinary people in the simplest manner, usually with fast-paced scripts.

Many of the characters he created, most of them taken from his real-life experience, drew the viewers into compelling narratives that kept them immersed in their journey through the movie.

Through satires, he was, on the other hand, pretty successful in providing incredible insights into the challenges faced by the people caused by unemployment and socioeconomic inequality.

With his natural-sounding conversations devoid of stereotypes, Sreenivasan was able to portray an authentic representation of diverse characters within his movies. And many of his characters have left an indelible mark on viewers' hearts and minds, while some of these characters and their conversations have inspired countless catchphrases among Malayalees of all generations around the world.

<ref>
{{Cite web |date=December 21, 2025 |title=O special one! Hundreds pay tribute to Sreenivasan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2025/Dec/21/o-special-one-hundreds-pay-tribute-to-sreenivasan |access-date=December 21, 2025}}</ref>

==Personal life and death==
Sreenivasan was married in 1984<ref>{{cite news |last1=archive |first1=From our online |title=Sreenivasan's 25th wedding anniversary |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2011/Nov/29/sreenivasans-25th-wedding-anniversary-314930.html#:~:text=But%20Vimala%20was%20adamant.,scripted%2C%20'Oodarathuammava%20Aalariyam'. |work=The New Indian Express |date=16 May 2012 |language=en}}</ref> to Vimala,<ref>{{cite news |title='വീടും പറമ്പും ജപ്തിയായി, വിമലയെ ആദ്യം കാണുന്നത് വഴിയിൽ വച്ച്, വാടക വീട്ടിലേക്ക് കൊണ്ടുപോയി'; 42 വർഷത്തെ ദാമ്പത്യത്തിന് ശേഷം വിമല ടീച്ചറെ തനിച്ചാക്കി ശ്രീനിയേട്ടൻ വിടപറയുന്നു! |url=https://malayalam.timesnownews.com/entertainment/42-years-together-one-final-goodbye-sreenivasans-love-story-with-vimala-teacher-article-153321359 |work=Times Now Malayalam |date=20 December 2025 |language=ml}}</ref> a school teacher, now retired. The couple has two sons. The elder son, [[Vineeth Sreenivasan]], is a singer, actor, producer, and director. The younger son, [[Dhyan Sreenivasan]], is also an actor, director, and producer who made his debut in the movie ''[[Thira (film)|Thira]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=10 years of ‘Thira’: Reasons why the Dhyan Sreenivasan starrer is an underrated gem in Mollywood |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/10-years-of-thira-reasons-why-the-dhyan-sreenivasan-starrer-is-an-underrated-gem-in-mollywood/photostory/105237080.cms |work=The Times of India |date=15 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=19 August 2013|title=Interview|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/384687/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819124003/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/384687/|archive-date=19 August 2013|work=Mathrubhumi}}</ref> Divya Narayanan and Arpita Sebastian are his daughters-in-law.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vineeth Sreenivasan is officially taken |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/vineeth-sreenivasan-is-officially-taken/articleshow/16863627.cms |work=The Times of India |date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Dhyan and Arpita tied the knot after a 10-year courtship {{!}} Pix |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2017/04/07/dhyan-sreenivasan-gets-married-to-arpita.html |work=OnManorama}}</ref>

Sreenivasan died at Taluk Hospital in [[Thrippunithura|Tripunithura]], [[Kochi]], on December 20, 2025, after being ill with Triple Vessel Disease for a long time, at the age of 75.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2025-12-20|title=നടൻ ശ്രീനിവാസൻ അന്തരിച്ചു|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/actor-sreenivasan-passes-away-brovmi5h|access-date=2025-12-20|website=[[Mathrubhumi]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title=Sreenivasan, Malayalam actor-filmmaker, passes away |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/sreenivasan-malayalam-actor-filmmaker-passes-away-tzp6jgo5
|work=Mathrubhumi
|language=en
|access-date=20 December 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title=Sreenivasan, Malayalam actor and director, dies |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2025/12/20/sreenivasan-malayalam-actor-director-dies.html
|work=Onmanorama
|language=en
|date=20 December 2025
|access-date=20 December 2025
}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{Main|Sreenivasan filmography}}

==Awards and honours==
;[[National Film Awards]]
*1998 – [[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues|Best Film on Other Social Issues]] – ''[[Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala]]'' (director)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/71_46thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=46th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref>

;[[Kerala State Film Awards]]
*1989 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film|Best Film]] – ''[[Vadakkunokkiyantram]]'' (director)<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Awards list |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234213/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=[[Department of Information and Public Relations (Kerala)]]}}</ref>
*1991 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Story|Best Story]] – ''[[Sandhesam]]''<ref name="department of information and public relations kerala">{{Cite web |title=State Awards list |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards3.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234213/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards3.htm |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Department of Information and Public Relations (Kerala)}}</ref>
*1995 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]] – ''[[Mazhayethum Munpe]]''<ref name="department of information and public relations kerala" />
*1998 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value|Best Popular Film]] – ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala'' (director)<ref name="department of information and public relations kerala" />
*2006 – [[Kerala State Film Award – Special Mention|Special Mention]] (Acting) – ''[[Thakarachenda]]''<ref name="department of information and public relations kerala-2">{{Cite web |title=State Awards list |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234213/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards4.htm |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Department of Information and Public Relations (Kerala)}}</ref>
*2007 – Best Popular Film – ''[[Katha Parayumpol]]'' (producer)<ref name="department of information and public relations kerala-2" />

;[[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]]:
*1989 – [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Story|Best Story]] – ''Vadakkunokkiyantram''<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020">{{Cite web |date=2020-10-17 |title=Film Critics awards complete list from 1977 to 2012 |url=https://www.keralafilmcritics.com/2020/10/film-critics-awards-complete-list-from.html |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=[[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]]}}</ref>
*1995 – [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]] – Mazhayethum Munpe<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020" />
*1998 – [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Popular Film|Best Popular Film]] – ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala'' (director)<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020" />
*2002 – Best Screenplay – ''[[Yathrakarude Sradhakku]]''<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020" />
*2007 – Best Screenplay – ''Katha Parayumpol''<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020" />
*2007 – Special Jury Award<ref name="kerala film critics association awards-2020" />
*2023 – [[Chalachitra Ratnam Award]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-12 |title=Kerala Film Critics Awards 2023: 'Aattam' bags best film award |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/kerala-film-criticsawards-aattam-bags-best-film-award-1.9552040 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240609111423/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/kerala-film-criticsawards-aattam-bags-best-film-award-1.9552040 |archive-date=2024-06-09 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=[[Mathrubhumi]]}}</ref>

;[[Filmfare Awards South]]:
*1998 – [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Malayalam|Best Director – Malayalam]] – ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala''<ref>{{Cite web |title=46th Filmfare Awards South |url=https://ia903107.us.archive.org/21/items/46thFilmfareAwardsSouthWinners/46th%20Filmfare%20Awards%20south%20winners.jpg |access-date=2024-07-20}}</ref>
*2007 – [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Malayalam|Best Film – Malayalam]] – ''Katha Parayumpol'' (producer)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bollyspice.com/view.php/1411-happy-days-at-the-55th-tiger-balm-filmfare-south-awards.html |title='Happy Days' at the 55th Tiger Balm Filmfare South Awards » Bollywood Spice |access-date=2011-02-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614085233/http://www.bollyspice.com/view.php/1411-happy-days-at-the-55th-tiger-balm-filmfare-south-awards.html |archive-date=2009-06-14 }}</ref>

;[[Asianet Film Awards]]:
*1998 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Director|Best Director]] – ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala''
*2005 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Script Writer|Best Script Writer]] – ''[[Udayananu Tharam]]''
*2007 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Lifetime Achievement Award|Lifetime Achievement Award]]
*2007 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Film|Best Film]] – ''Katha Parayumpol'' (producer)
*2009 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – ''[[Makante Achan]], [[Passenger (2009 film)|Passenger]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ujala-Asianet Film Awards 2010 |url=https://malayalamcinema-buzz.blogspot.com/2010/01/ujala-asianet-film-awards-2010.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126153724/https://malayalamcinema-buzz.blogspot.com/2010/01/ujala-asianet-film-awards-2010.html |archive-date=2023-11-26 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Malayalam Cinema Buzz}}</ref>
*2010 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Honour Special Jury Award|Special Jury Award]] – ''[[Aathmakatha]]''
*2018 – Best Script Writer – ''[[Njan Prakashan]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-27 |title=Asianet Film Awards 2019 |url=https://www.adgully.com/asianet-film-awards-2019-84541.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612133630/https://www.adgully.com/asianet-film-awards-2019-84541.html |archive-date=2024-06-12 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Adgully}}</ref>

;[[Ramu Kariat]] Memorial Awards
*1998 – Best Film – ''Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-02 |title=Today's politics has gone beyond satire: Sreenivasan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2023/Apr/02/express-dialogues-todays-politics-has-gone-beyond-satiresreenivasan-2561813.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403065317/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2023/Apr/02/express-dialogues-todays-politics-has-gone-beyond-satiresreenivasan-2561813.html |archive-date=2023-04-03 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>
*2010 – Best Actor – ''Aathmakatha''
;Other Awards:
*2008 – Best Script Writer – ''Katha Parayumpol''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-11-25 |title=Sreenivasan bags Annual Movie Award |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2008/sreenivasan-annual-movie-award-251108.html |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=FilmiBeat}}</ref>
*2009 – [[Sathyan (Malayalam actor)#Memorials|Sathyan Memorial Film Award]] for his outstanding contributions to Malayalam cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-12 |title=Sreenivasan wins Sathyan Memorial Award |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2009/Nov/12/sreenivasan-wins-sathyan-memorial-award-103207.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720100855/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2009/Nov/12/sreenivasan-wins-sathyan-memorial-award-103207.html |archive-date=2024-07-20 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
*2011 – Golden Friends of Kannur Expatriates Award<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-03-23 |title=Friends of Kannur Golden FOKE Award to Film Star Sreenivasan |url=https://www.indiansinkuwait.com/news/print/9982 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=IndiansInKuwait}}</ref>
*2011 – [[T. K. Ramakrishnan]] Memorial Award for exemplary contribution to public life.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-20 |title=Award for Sreenivasan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Award-for-Sreenivasan/article14690348.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720102318/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Award-for-Sreenivasan/article14690348.ece |archive-date=2024-07-20 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
*2012 – ''Bharat [[Balan K. Nair]] Film Award'' for his outstanding contributions to Malayalam cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-08-24 |title=Award for Sreenivasan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2012/Aug/24/award-for-sreenivasan-400199.html |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
*2024 – Tapasya Madampu Smriti Award for contributions to Malayalam film literature.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SV |first=Swathi |date=2024-04-23 |title=Sreenivasan Awarded Tapasya Madampi Prize for Outstanding Contributions to Cinema |url=https://en.thekarmanews.com/sreenivasan-awarded-tapasya-madampi-prize-for-outstanding-contributions-to-cinema/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720102802/https://en.thekarmanews.com/sreenivasan-awarded-tapasya-madampi-prize-for-outstanding-contributions-to-cinema/ |archive-date=2024-07-20 |access-date=2024-07-20 |website=Karma News}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Sreenivasan (actor)}}
* {{IMDb name}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Malayalam comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Artists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Malayalam screenwriters]]
[[Category:Male actors from Kerala]]
[[Category:Male actors from Kannur]]
[[Category:People from Thalassery]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:Malayalam film producers]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute alumni]]
[[Category:Film producers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Film directors from Kannur district]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Kerala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Kerala Film Critics Awards winners]]

Yashpal Singh (cricketer)

2026-03-16T23:35:27Z

Yaarzu:

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 1981)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}

{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Yashpal Singh
| image =
| country = India
| fullname = Yashpal Singh
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|11|27}}
| birth_place = Delhi, India
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling =
| role = Middle-order batsman
| club1 = Services
| year1 = 2001–2017
| club2 = [[Kolkata Knight Riders]]
| year2 = 2009
| club3 = Manipur
| year3 = 2018–2021
| club4 = Sikkim
| year4 = 2021–present
| source = [http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/36130.html ESPNcricinfo]
| date = 3 May
| year = 2025
}}

'''Yashpal Singh''' (born 27 November 1981, in Delhi, India) is an Indian [[cricketer]] who plays for [[Sikkim cricket team|Sikkim]] in domestic cricket. After 44 [[first class cricket|first class]] games, the right-handed middle order batsman boasted an average of over 60. In the one day format of the game, he had an average of over 50 after 1000 plus runs.

He made his [[First-class cricket|first class]] debut against Delhi in 2001/02 and made two half centuries against an established bowling lineup consisting of [[Amit Bhandari]], [[Sarandeep Singh]] and [[Rahul Sanghvi]]. In his next match he scored a double century against Punjab. His innings of 202 included 10 sixes.

He was picked up by the [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala]] for 2011 IPL season.

He was the leading run-scorer for [[Manipur cricket team|Manipur]] in the [[2018–19 Vijay Hazare Trophy]], with 488 runs in seven matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=12591;team=1994;type=tournament |title=Vijay Hazare Trophy, 2018/19 - Manipur: Batting and bowling averages |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref> He was also the leading run-scorer for Manipur in the [[2018–19 Ranji Trophy]], with 860 runs in eight matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=12592;team=1994;type=tournament |title=Ranji Trophy, 2018/19 - Manipur: Batting and bowling averages |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/india/content/player/36130.html ESPNcricinfo Player Profile : ESPNcricinfo]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Yashpal}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Delhi]]
[[Category:Services cricketers]]
[[Category:Kolkata Knight Riders cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:North Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Abahani Limited cricketers]]
[[Category:Partex Sporting Club cricketers]]
[[Category:Manipur cricketers]]

{{India-cricket-bio-1980s-stub}}

Wajid Khan (artist)

2026-03-15T08:56:54Z

Yaarzu: Data

{{Short description|Indian artist and sculptor based in Indore, Madhya Pradesh}}
{{Orphan|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Wajid Khan
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1981|3|10}}<ref name=indiatodayhindi/>
| birth_place = [[Madhya Pradesh]], India
| occupation = Artist, Sculptor
| years_active =
| era =
| known_for = Contributions to nail art, kinetic installations
| notable_works =
| style =
| height =
| television =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parents =
| mother =
| father =
| relatives =
| family =
| awards = [[Guinness World Record]] (2017) [[Limca Book of Records]]
}}

'''Wajid Khan''' is an Indian artist and sculptor based in [[Indore]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He is known for creating contemporary artworks using materials such as iron nails, bullets, metal, stones, and automotive parts. Khan's notable works include nail portraits of figures like [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Dhirubhai Ambani]], [[Mother Mary]] and [[Jesus]], as well as [[kinetic art]] and installations that address various social issues.<ref name=week/><ref name=Indianexpress/><ref name=Bhaskar/>

In 2017, he set a [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record]] for the largest nail sculpture<ref name=Guinness>{{cite news |title=Largest nail sculpture |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/117191-largest-nail-sculpture |publisher=Guinness World Records |date=30 December 2017}}</ref> and is featured in the [[Limca Book of Records]] for his nail art.<ref>{{cite web|title=6000 students form Gandhi portrait in record-setting bid|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/6000-students-form-gandhi-portrait-in-record-setting-bid/articleshow/71414077.cms|website=The Times of India|access-date=2024-09-21|date=2019-09-02}}</ref> His artworks are part of collections at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]]<ref name=Indianexpress/> and [[Bharat Bhavan]].<ref name=pioneer/> He appeared on the television show ''[[OMG! Yeh Hai Mera India|OMG! Yeh Mera India]]'' on [[History TV18]] in 2019.<ref name=historytv>{{cite news |title=Art Like No Other |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VejQogNQUPU |publisher=[[History TV18]] |date=9 August 2019}}</ref>

== Early life and background ==
He was born to Abdul Wahid and Roshan Ara, hailing from Songari, a village in [[Mandsaur district|Mandsaur]], Madhya Pradesh. He did not receive formal training in the arts. Before pursuing a career in art, he worked in various jobs, including at a welding shop and as a taxi driver.<ref name=indiatodayhindi>{{cite web|last=Waqas|first=Mohammad|title=बेमिसाल कलाकार वाजिद खान|url=https://www.indiatodayhindi.com/magazine/feature/story/20190904-an-artist-with-a-vision-wajid-khan-593117-2019-08-27|website=[[India Today]]|language=hi|date=2019-08-27}}</ref> He is married to Maryam Siddiqui, who is also an artist.<ref>{{cite news |title=His work not education gives him a decent life |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/indore/sunday-guest-his-work-not-education-gives-him-a-decent-life |publisher=[[The Free Press Journal]] |date=30 May 2019}}</ref>

== Work ==
His early works include a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi made from iron nails, taking three years to complete. He has also created portraits of figures like Dhirubhai Ambani, Jesus, Mary, [[Sai Baba of Shirdi|Sai Baba]], and [[Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum]] using the same technique.<ref>{{cite web |last=Vyavahare |first=Renuka |title=Bollywood celebs attend artist Wajid Khan's exhibition |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/bollywood-celebs-attend-artist-wajid-khans-exhibition/articleshow/30571093.cms|work=The Times of India |date=17 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Nair |first1=Pallavi |title=Hammer Of The Gods: Recreating Aura With Nails |url=https://wajidkhanartist.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/img-20170812-wa0008.jpg |work=The Times of India |pages=2}}</ref>

In 2013, he created a monumental wall installation titled ''Champa'', depicting a horse and a jockey. The artwork was constructed using spare parts from various automobiles and took over eight months to complete.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mishra |first=Nehal |title=Indore innovator turns junk into art |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bhopal/indore-innovator-turns-junk-into-art/story-uet2rV4f9r260Rs0y5awCI.html |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=1 July 2013 | accessdate=16 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=अब कबाड़ का कमाल करेगा दुनिया में धमाल |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/news/article/article1-story-344866.html |publisher=Live Hindustan |date=2 July 2013 |language=hi |access-date=17 December 2024 |archive-date=22 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122045638/https://www.livehindustan.com/news/article/article1-story-344866.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2014, Khan created an installation work depicting a crying girl child made from medical equipment associated with [[sex-selective abortion]]. This piece was part of [[Save the girl child]] campaign.<ref name=Bhaskar>{{cite news |title=कलाकार वाजिद अली खान ने ली वर्कशॉप, बच्चों को दिए टिप्स |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/MP-IND-wajid-ali-khan-artist-workshop-4801945-PHO.html |publisher=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |date=2014-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802154251/https://www.bhaskar.com/news/MP-IND-wajid-ali-khan-artist-workshop-4801945-PHO.html |archive-date=2 August 2021 |language=hi}}</ref>

Wajid Khan also created a portrait of Sri Lankan architect [[Geoffrey Bawa]] using stones of various sizes and shapes. The stones were arranged on a metal sheet, secured with glue. The process involved the use of tools such as tongs and tweezers to form an outline of Bawa's face.<ref name=Thehindu>{{cite news |last1=Raina |first1=Shilpa |title=A democratic space for art |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/A-democratic-space-for-art/article17069478.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=20 January 2017}}</ref>

In 2016, Wajid Khan produced a series of artworks using spoons and forks to depict various life stages, including maternal themes, dance, and birds. His spoon art employs everyday utensils as mediums for artistic expression.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Agarwal |first1=Shruti |title=सजीव आकृतियों में बदल गए निर्जीव चम्मच |url=https://www.patrika.com/news/indore/artist-wajid-khan-making-beautiful-spoon-art-1335683 |publisher=[[Patrika.com]] |date=28 Jun 2016 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=This 35 yr old Indore resident fashions sparrows out of cutlery to save the bird |url=https://www.knocksense.com/indore/indore-city/this-35-yr-old-indore-resident-fashions-sparrows-out-of-cutlery-to-save-the-bird |work=Knocksense |date=6 November 2019}}</ref>

In 2018, Khan created a 2.5-foot by 2.5-foot installation of [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] using parts from a car and motorcycle engine, forming a portrait of [[Sardar Patel]] through [[shadow art]] techniques. This piece was installed at [[Bharat Bhavan]], a public multi-arts museum in [[Bhopal]].<ref name=pioneer>{{cite news |title=Wajid Khan's art piece installed at Bharat Bhawan |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/wajid-khan---s-art-piece-installed-at-bharat-bhawan.html |publisher=[[Daily Pioneer]] |date=31 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Hitesh |title=वाजिद ने तैयार किया यूनीक आर्ट वर्क |url=https://www.patrika.com/bhopal-news/wajid-created-unique-artwork-3655201 |publisher=[[Patrika.com]] |date=1 November 2018 |language=hi}}</ref> Later that year, he was commissioned to create a 170-foot statue of [[Swami Vivekananda]] from a combination of eight metals, which was reported to be the tallest statue of Swami Vivekanand in India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Saxena |first1=Pradeep |title=Artist Wajid Khan making India's tallest Swami Vivekanand statue |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lucknow/artist-wajid-khan-making-india-s-tallest-swami-vivekanand-statue/story-dySshWhuTG9S7M67Fn7zfP.html |publisher=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=15 March 2018}}</ref>

On 2 October 2019, marking [[Gandhi Jayanti|Mahatma Gandhi's 150th birth anniversary]], Wajid Khan collaborated with the Plastic Donation Center to create a [[mosaic|human mosaic]] of Gandhi at [[TT Nagar Stadium]], Bhopal. The artwork, involving the participation of 6,000 schoolchildren, was designed to raise awareness about [[plastic pollution]].<ref>{{cite news |title=6000 students form Gandhi portrait in record setting bid |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/6000-students-form-gandhi-portrait-in-record-setting-bid/articleshow/71414077.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 October 2019}}</ref> The event was attended by officials, including [[Jitu Patwari|Jitendra Patwari]], Cabinet Minister for Higher Education, and [[Alok Sharma]], [[Mayor of Bhopal]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Plastic donation centre launched on Mahatma Gandhi birth anniv |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/state-editions/plastic-donation-centre-launched-on-mahatma-gandhi-birth-anniv.html |newspaper=[[Daily Pioneer]] |date=3 October 2019 |location=[[Bhopal]] | accessdate=16 July 2025}}</ref>

Khan made a 12×8 feet portrait of poet [[Ghalib]] using wine glasses, bottles, and jugs, which was showcased at the Urdu literary festival [[Jashn-e-Rekhta]] in December 2019.<ref name=Indianexpress/> In 2020, he created a 40-foot [[Hydra (genus)|hydra]]-like [[kinetic art]] installation made of 300 steel bowls that locked and unlocked with the wind. The artwork depicts India's societal unity, where the removal of a single bowl disrupts the balance.<ref name=Indianexpress>{{cite news |last1=Ghosh |first1=Tanushree |title=Artist Wajid Khan turns nails, bullets and automotive parts into art that tells tales |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/wajid-khan-indian-artist-installations-6341010/ |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=1 April 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200401100049/https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/wajid-khan-indian-artist-installations-6341010/#selection-831.24-831.37 |archive-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> The installation was exhibited at the Namaste Orchha Festival, organized by the [[Madhya Pradesh Tourism |Madhya Pradesh Tourism Board]], in March 2020.<ref name=week>{{cite news |last1=Bhura |first1=Sneha |title=Heavy metal: How Artist Wajid Khan nailed it |url=https://www.theweek.in/leisure/society/2020/03/12/heavy-metal-how-artist-wajid-khan-nailed-it.html |work=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |date=12 March 2020}}</ref>

In May 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Wajid Khan created a large-scale stone artwork honoring frontline workers, featuring a tribute to police officer Devendra Chandravanshi, who died from the virus. The piece included messages of gratitude in multiple languages.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Biswas |first1=Saptaparna |title=City artist pays homage to fallen #CoronaWarrior with an artwork |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/indore/city-artist-pays-homage-to-fallen-coronawarrior-with-an-artwork/articleshow/76131116.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=1 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tripathi |first1=Abhishek |title=कुछ पत्थरों से इस शहर का नाम खराब हुआ, अब 'पत्थरों' ने ही कोरोना वॉरियर्स को थैंक्यू कहा है |url=https://www.thelallantop.com/entertainment/post/indore-artist-made-an-art-with-stones-as-a-tribute-to-coronavirus-front-warrior |publisher=[[The Lallantop]] |date=2 May 2020 |language=hi}}</ref>

== Exhibitions and collections ==
Khan's works have been displayed in various museums, art festivals, and galleries. In June 2014, an exhibition featuring Khan's artworks created with iron nails was held in [[Indore]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kotwal |first1=Karishma |title=Art forms come alive in Indore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/indore/art-forms-come-alive-in-indore/articleshow/14219539.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=18 June 2012}}</ref> followed by another exhibition in February 2014 in [[Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vyavahare |first1=Renuka |title=Bollywood celebs attend artist Wajid Khan's exhibition |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Bollywood-celebs-attend-artist-Wajid-Khans-exhibition/articleshow/30571093.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 February 2014}}</ref> In March 2016, his artwork was exhibited at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]] during the Festival of Innovation (FOIN), organized by the National Innovation Foundation, [[Ministry of Science and Technology (India)|Ministry of Science and Technology]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Agrawal |first1=Shruti |title=जानिए किसके हुनर को देख राष्ट्रपति ने कहा अब ये 'आर्ट वर्क' यहीं रहेगा |url=https://www.patrika.com/new-category/president-likes-wajid-ali-s-amazing-artwork-1243914 |publisher=[[Patrika.com]] |date=16 March 2016 |language=hi}}</ref>

His installations were showcased at the India Art Festival in January 2017, held at [[Thyagaraj Stadium]] in [[Delhi]].<ref name=Thehindu/> Subsequently, he exhibited his artwork at [[Jashn-e-Rekhta]] in 2019 and displayed [[Kinetic art|kinetic installation]] at the Namaste Orchha festival in March 2020.<ref name=Indianexpress/>

Khan's works are included in the permanent collection of [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], the official residence of the [[President of India]],<ref name=Indianexpress/> and the [[Bharat Bhavan]] Museum.<ref name=pioneer/>

== Public speaking ==
In 2017, Wajid Khan delivered two [[TED (conference)|TEDx]] talks: "Art Inspirations from Life"<ref>{{cite news |title=Art Inspirations from life |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLpyV1IQvE4 |publisher=TEDx |date=26 July 2017}}</ref> in [[Pune]] in July, and "Making Everything Out of Nothing" at [[Indian Institute of Management Rohtak]] in September.<ref>{{cite news |title=Making everything out of nothing |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/wajid_khan_making_everything_out_of_nothing/transcript?subtitle=en |publisher=[[TED (conference)|TED]] |date=September 2017}}</ref> He later gave another TEDx talk at [[Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya]], [[Bhopal]] in August 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Pyjama |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/wajid_khan_the_pyjama_jan_2019?subtitle=en |publisher=[[TED (conference)|TED]] |date=August 2019}}</ref> He has delivered guest lectures and talks at various academic institutions, including the [[Indian Institute of Management Indore]],<ref>{{cite news |title=आईआईएम छात्रों को पढ़ाएगा ये 5वीं फेल युवा, दुनिया मान चुकी इसके हुनर का लोहा |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/MP-OTH-wajid-khan-from-mandsaur-madhya-pradesh-in-going-to-address-iim-students-4925090-PHO.html |publisher=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |date=7 March 2015 |location=[[Mandsaur]] |language=hi}}</ref> [[Aligarh Muslim University]],<ref>{{cite news |title=नेल से सर सैयद का चित्र बनाकर भेटं करेंगे एएमयु को |url=http://epaper.amarujala.com/ct/20161105/07.html?format=img |publisher=[[Amar Ujala]] |date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106061556/http://epaper.amarujala.com/ct/20161105/07.html?format=img |archive-date=6 November 2016 |location=[[Aligarh]] |pages=7 |language=hi}}</ref> and [[Lovely Professional University]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Wajid Khan Interacts with LPU Students |url=https://happenings.lpu.in/wajid-khan-interacts-with-lpu-students/ |work=lpu.in |date=13 April 2016}}</ref>

== Honours and records ==
Wajid Khan was listed in the [[Limca Book of Records]] under the category 'Most nails used in a portrait' for creating a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi using 150,000 nails.<ref>{{cite web |title=Most nails used for portrait |url=http://www.limcabookofrecords.in/recorddetails.aspx?recid=674 |publisher=[[Limca]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023060000/http://www.limcabookofrecords.in/recorddetails.aspx?recid=674 |archive-date=23 October 2013}}</ref> In December 2017, he was named in the [[Guinness World Records]] for creating the largest nail sculpture, a 3D [[Peace symbols|peace symbol]] made from 14,992 nails.<ref name=Guinness/>

== Media ==
In 2019, Wajid Khan's life and work were featured in Season 3 of the television infotainment show ''[[History TV18|OMG! Yeh Mera India]]'' on [[History TV18]], hosted by [[Krushna Abhishek]].<ref name=historytv/> The episode was later made available for streaming on [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{cite web |title=OMG! Yeh Mera India |url=https://www.primevideo.com/detail/OMG-Yeh-Mera-India/0MHN56IP2R0CG2HCVUTYA3035S |publisher=[[Amazon Prime Video]] |date=2019}}</ref> In 2018, a film about his life was announced, focusing on his struggles and successes, with filming locations set in [[Indore]] and [[Mandsaur]], directed by Sohini Mukherjee.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Awasthi |first1=Nidhi |title=शहर के वाजिद खान पर फिल्म बना रहा इटली का प्रोडक्शन हाउस |url=https://www.patrika.com/indore-news/italian-production-house-of-film-making-on-wajid-khan-2641022 |publisher=[[Patrika.com]] |date=13 April 2018 |language=hi}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Marcus Levine]]
* [[Günther Uecker]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Wajid}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian artists]]
[[Category:Indian sculptors]]
[[Category:Indian contemporary sculptors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sculptors]]
[[Category:Artists from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Indore]]
[[Category:World record holders]]
[[Category:Recycled art artists]]
[[Category:1981 births]]

School Master (2010 film)

2026-03-06T03:08:07Z

Yaarzu: New.

{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = School Master
| image = School_Master_(2010_film).jpeg
| caption =
| director = [[Dinesh Babu]]
| writer = Dinesh Babu
| based_on =
| producer = [[C R Manohar|C. R. Manohar]]
| starring = [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] [[Suhasini Maniratnam]] [[Tara (Kannada actress)|Tara]] [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] [[Mukesh Rishi]]
| music = [[V. Sridhar]]
| cinematography = Dinesh Babu
| editing = Narahalli Gnanesh
| studio = Golden Lion Films
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2010|1|22}}
| runtime = 137 minutes
| language = Kannada
| country = India
}}

'''''School Master''''' ({{langx|kn|ಸ್ಕೂಲ್ ಮಾಸ್ಟರ್}}) is a [[Kannada films of 2010|2010]] Indian [[Kannada language]] political-drama film directed by [[Dinesh Babu]] and produced by [[C R Manohar|C. R. Manohar]]. The film stars [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] and [[Suhasini Maniratnam]] teaming up with the director yet again after ''[[Suprabhatha]]'' (1988) and ''Hendthigeltheeni''. Also in the cast are [[Tara (Kannada actress)|Tara]], [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]], [[Devaraj]] and [[Mukesh Rishi]]. [[V. Sridhar]] composed the music for the film while the cinematography is by the director himself.

Originally slated for a 2009 release, the film met with several delays and ultimately became a [[wikt:Special:Search/posthumous|posthumous]] release of actor Vishnuvardhan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hudguru.chitraloka.com/news/12-interviews/897-school-master-delay-is-mistake-cr-manohar.html|title=School Master Delay Is Mistake - CR Manohar|publisher=Chitraloka.com|date=24 January 2010}}</ref> This was his 199th film as an actor. By December 2008, the filming portions were completed and Vishnuvardhan's dubbing took place just before his death.

The film was released on 22 January 2010 across Karnataka screens and opened to the mixed reviews from critics with [[Deccan Herald]] commenting that director Dinesh Babu failed in his direction and the film is "reduced to a sad commentary on the disconnect between filmmakers and contemporary audience taste". It turned out to be a [[box-office bomb]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Half-yearly report: Aaptarakshaka rules |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-kannada-half-year-box-office/20100624.htm |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref>

==Plot==
Master Jagannath (Vishnuvardhan) is a disciplined school teacher happily married to Meera (Suhasini). They both have a girl child named Meghana. Jagannath becomes the most favorite teacher among all the students for his unconditional love towards them. He is a close relative of the Home Minister (Avinash). His daughter is very close friends with the Minister's daughter Aditi. Meanwhile, an underworld don Appu (Mukesh Rishi) is under the captivity of the Government and his aids are in a rage to get him released. They hatch a plan to kidnap the Minister's daughter Aditi and demand the release of Appu. By mistake, they kidnap Jagannath's daughter Meghana and demand the release of Appu in exchange for Megahana. The emotional trauma undergone by Jagannath's family and the Minister's efforts in releasing the child from captivity form the rest of the story.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] as Master Jagannath
* [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] as Meera
* [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]]
* [[Mukesh Rishi]] as Appu
* [[Devaraj]]
* [[Tara (Kannada actress)|Tara]]
* [[Srinivasa Murthy]]
* [[Chitra Shenoy]]
* Baby Brunda
* Baby Prerana
}}

==Production==
In late 2008, director [[Dinesh Babu]] teamed up with [[C. R. Manohar]] of Golden Lion Film Division and roped in his favorite actor Vishnuvardhan in the lead role. He had titled the film as ''Master'' in the beginning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/master-is-school-master-kannada-news-43120|title='Master' is 'School Master'|work=Indiaglitz.com|date=19 November 2008}}</ref> The film's story was said to be inspired by the English musical ''Making Way for Tomorrow''. He also roped in [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] as the female lead. The trio had earlier worked in films like ''[[Suprabhatha]]'' and ''Hendthigeltheeni''. The initial filming occurred at a brisk pace and a major part of the film had been shot by early 2009. However, due to some creative differences with the director, the film underwent several delays. By the time this film was released, two of Vishnuvardhan's other films found theatrical release. Finally, the film was released after Vishnuvardhan's demise and was considered his last release.

== Soundtrack ==
All the songs are composed and scored by [[V. Sridhar]]. The audio launch function presided by the Jhankar Music label was held on 10 January 2010 at the Le Meridian hotel, Bangalore. Since this happened post the demise of lead actor Vishnuvardhan, the producer invited all the top stars of the film industry to attend the event. Among the attendees were [[H. D. Kumaraswamy]], [[Jayamala]], [[Rockline Venkatesh]], Sa. Ra. Govindu, K. Shivaramu and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/more-on-dr-vishnu-films-kannada-news-53368|title=More on Dr.Vishnu films|work=Indiaglitz.com|date=8 January 2010}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
! Sl No !! Song title !! Singer(s) || Lyrics
|-
| 1 || "Chinnumari Pappumari" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra]] || [[V. Manohar]]
|-
| 2 || "Ee Lokavella Guruvu" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || Doddarangegowda
|-
| 3 || "Naguvalle Chellide" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || V. Sridhar
|-
| 4 || "Jananavu Maayeyu" || [[Madhu Balakrishnan]] || [[K. Kalyan]]
|-
| 5 || "Saara Saara" || [[Suchitra|Suchithra]]|| Ram Narayan
|-
|}

== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===

A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' scored the film at 3 out of 5 stars and says "The director has failed to handle Suhasini''s character properly, and the story is confusing till the end. Avinash, Devaraj, Dharma, and Tara have done a good job. V Sridhar''s music needs special mention".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/school-master/movie-review/5498318.cms?from=mdr|title=SCHOOL MASTER MOVIE REVIEW|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 May 2016}}</ref> B S Srivani from [[Deccan Herald]] wrote "Vishnuvardhan as the school master offers some climax-time ‘gyaan’ to young students. By then, the screen gets obscured by people standing up and preparing to leave. ‘School Master’ is reduced to a sad commentary on the disconnect between filmmakers and contemporary audience taste".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/48288/school-master.html|title=School Master|work=[[Deccan Herald]]|date=22 January 2010}}</ref> A critic from [[The New Indian Express]] wrote "As far as Vishnuvardhan’s performance is concerned, he is at his best. His performance in emotional sequences, especially where he collapses after seeing Meghana’s body or where he pleads Avinash not to repeat the word ‘body’, and another scene where he tries to convince Suhasini will make the audience reach for their handkerchiefs. Suhasini has not only acted well but also dances in this film".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2010/Jan/23/a-lesson-for-parents-163777.html|title=A lesson for parents|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=23 January 2010}}</ref> A critic from [[Bangalore Mirror]] wrote "Most of the second half of the film is a revenge drama where Jagannath uses his Kalaripayutu skills to eliminate the baddies. But the entire film stands on the sensitive interplay between the characters of Vishnuvardhan and Suhasini. And not for the first time, Vishnuvardhan overpowers all others with his act".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/school-master-combo-offer/articleshow/21942948.cms|title=School Master: Combo offer|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=22 January 2010}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|13730178}}

{{Dinesh Baboo}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:School Master}}
[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2010 drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Dinesh Baboo]]

[[kn:ಸ್ಕೂಲ್ ಮಾಸ್ಟರ್]]

Kaliyugam (1973 film)

2026-03-03T21:05:07Z

Yaarzu: adding a bio - done

{{Other uses|Kaliyugam (disambiguation){{!}}Kalyug}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kaliyugam
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[K. S. Sethumadhavan]]
| producer = M. O. Joseph
| writer = [[Mundoor Sethumadhavan]] [[Thoppil Bhasi]] (dialogues)
| story = Mundoor Sethumadhavan
| screenplay = [[Thoppil Bhasi]]
| based_on = {{Based on|''Kaliyugam''|Mundoor Sethumadhavan}}<ref name="Deshabhimani">{{Cite web|title=മഷിപുരണ്ട 'മണ്ണ്‌' സാഹിത്യകവാടം തുറന്നു {{!}} Palakkad {{!}} Kerala {{!}} Deshabhimani {{!}} Monday Jan 13, 2020|url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/amp/news/kerala/news-palakkadkerala-13-01-2020/846771|access-date=2022-01-25|website=www.deshabhimani.com}}</ref>
| starring = [[Sudheer (Malayalam actor)|Sudheer]] [[Jayabharathi]] [[Bahadoor]] [[KPAC Lalitha]] [[Adoor Bhasi]] [[Muthukulam Raghavan Pillai]]
| music = [[G. Devarajan]]
| cinematography = [[Balu Mahendra]]
| editing = M. S. Mani
| studio = Manjilas
| distributor = Manjilas
| released = {{Film date|1973|04|12|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
}}

'''''Kaliyugam''''' is a 1973 Indian [[Malayalam]] film directed by [[K. S. Sethumadhavan]] and produced by M. O. Joseph. The film stars [[Sudheer (Malayalam actor)|Sudheer]], [[Bahadoor]], [[Jayabharathi]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], [[Adoor Bhasi]] and [[Muthukulam Raghavan Pillai]] in the lead roles. The film has musical score by [[G. Devarajan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=503|title=Kaliyugam|accessdate=2014-10-03|publisher=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?4241|title=Kaliyugam|accessdate=2014-10-03|publisher=malayalasangeetham.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spicyonion.com/title/kaliyugam-malayalam-movie/|title=Kaliyugam|accessdate=2014-10-03|publisher=spicyonion.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081224/http://spicyonion.com/title/kaliyugam-malayalam-movie/|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Sudheer (Malayalam actor)|Sudheer]]
*[[Bahadoor]]
*[[Jayabharathi]]
*[[KPAC Lalitha]]
*[[Adoor Bhasi]]
*[[Muthukulam Raghavan Pillai]]
*[[Sankaradi]]
*[[Sreelatha Namboothiri]]
*[[T. R. Omana]]
*[[Pala Thankam]]
*[[Paravoor Bharathan]]
*[[Philomina]]
*Ponjikkara Kalyani Amma
*S. A. Fareed
*[[S. P. Pillai]]
*Sreenu
*[[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]]
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[G. Devarajan]] and the lyrics were written by [[Vayalar]].

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Bhoomi Petta Makalallo" || [[P. Leela]], [[P. Madhuri]], Chorus || [[Vayalar]] ||
|-
| 2 || "Chottaanikkara Bhagavathi" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || Vayalar ||
|-
| 3 || "Paalam Kadakkuvolam" || [[P. Jayachandran]], Ayiroor Sadasivan || Vayalar ||
|-
| 4 || "Shivashambho Shambho" (Naranaayingane) || P. Madhuri || Vayalar ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0277063|Kaliyugam}}
{{K. S. Sethumadhavan}}

[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:1973 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1973 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. S. Sethumadhavan]]

{{1970s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Ramma Chilakamma

2026-03-03T18:11:34Z

Yaarzu: started initial pg w/ refs...

{{Short description|2001 Telugu film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Ramma Chilakamma
| image = Ramma Chilakamma.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Official poster
| native_name = 
| director = [[Tammareddy Bharadwaja]]
| writer =
| screenplay = Tammareddy Bharadwaja
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = KC Sekhar Babu
| starring = [[Sumanth]] [[Laya (actress)|Laya]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = V. N. Suresh
| editing = Murali-Ramayya
| music = [[R. P. Patnaik]]
| studio = 
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2001|7|13}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Ramma Chilakamma''''' ({{Translation|Come, parrot}}) is a 2001 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language romantic drama film directed by [[Tammareddy Bharadwaja]] and starring [[Sumanth]] and [[Laya (actress)|Laya]]. The title of the film is based on a song from ''[[Choodalani Vundi]]'' (1998).<ref name=":0" /> The film is a remake of the Tamil film ''[[Ennamma Kannu]]'' (2000).<ref name="release" /><ref name=":1" /> After being delayed, the film released on 13 July 2001<ref name="release" /> and was a box-office failure.<ref name=":2" />

== Plot ==
{{no plot|date=August 2022}}

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Sumanth]] as Kaasi
*[[Laya (actress)|Laya]] as Gayatri
*[[Jai Akash|Akash]] as Vishwa
*[[Brahmanandam]] as Brahmanandam and SP Vikram Rathore IPS (dual role)
*[[Tanikella Bharani]]
*[[Kovai Sarala]] as Simran and Simhu Darling (dual role)
*[[Ahuti Prasad]]
*Delhi Rejeshwari as Raji
*Jr. Relangi as Police Officer
*[[Ananth Babu|Ananth]] as Police Inspector
}}

== Production ==
A different film under the same name was planned with Venkat. Tammareddy Bharadwaja reused the title for this film. The title is based on a song from ''[[Choodalani Vundi]]'' (1998).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=21 November 2000 |title=Ramma Chilakamma – Sumanth teases Laya |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news75.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601053257/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news75.html |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref> The film is a remake of the Tamil film ''[[Ennamma Kannu]]'' (2000).<ref name="release">{{Cite web |date=28 June 2001 |title=Ramma Chilakamma is releasing on 13th July |url=http://idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news142.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601053246/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news142.html |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Interview with Tammareddy Bharadwaja |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_tammareddy.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724022339/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_tammareddy.html |archive-date=24 July 2013 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref> [[Jai Akash|Akash]], in his Telugu debut, played a small role in the film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 September 2001 |title=Rekha's Anandam |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news157.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601053238/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news157.html |archive-date=1 June 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_music = [[R. P. Patnaik]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://moviegq.com/movie/ramma-chilakamma-7521/songs | title=Ramma Chilakamma 2001 Telugu Movie Songs, Ramma Chilakamma Music Director Lyrics Videos Singers & Lyricists }}</ref>
| title1 = Maxylu Bikinlu
| lyrics1 = [[Kulasekhar]]
| extra1 = Ravi Varma
| title2 = Sammalori Killa
| lyrics2 = [[Kulasekhar]]
| extra2 = R. P. Patnaik
| title3 = Manasa Manasu Talupa
| lyrics3 = Guru Charan
| extra3 = [[Usha (Telugu singer)|Usha]]
| title4 = Kommala Guvvalu
| lyrics4 = [[Kulasekhar]]
| extra4 = Sandeep, [[Sunitha Upadrashta]]
| title5 = Kommala Guvvalu (Sad)
| lyrics5 = Guru Charan
| extra5 = Lenina Chowdary
| title6 = Chei Chei Chei
| lyrics6 = Guru Charan
| extra6 = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]
}}

== Release and reception ==
After being delayed, the film released on 13 July 2001.<ref name=release />

Ajay Bashyam of ''Full Hyderabad'' wrote that "''Raamma Chilakamma'' gets better after the first 45 minutes when the main story kicks in, and keeps you actually interested in knowing what's going to happen next".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ajay Bashyam |title=Raamma Chilakamma Review |url=https://movies.fullhyderabad.com/raamma-chilakamma/telugu/raamma-chilakamma-movie-reviews-202-2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621011205/https://movies.fullhyderabad.com/raamma-chilakamma/telugu/raamma-chilakamma-movie-reviews-202-2.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=Full Hyderabad}}</ref> A critic from ''indiainfo'' wrote that "TammaReddy Bhardwaja who made good films earlier, churned out this time a rather dud film with ludicrous story and bad screenplay".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://movies.indiainfo.com/telugu/reviews/index.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010813141108/http://movies.indiainfo.com/telugu/reviews/index.html | archive-date=13 August 2001 | title=Indiainfo: Tollywood masala: Movie Reviews -Ramma chilakamma disappionting fare }}</ref>

The film was a box office failure.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=28 November 2001 |title=Sumanth's Sabhash on the backtrack |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news179.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423051456/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news179.html |archive-date=23 April 2021 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1575668}}

[[Category:2001 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2001 films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Tamil films]]
[[Category:2001 romantic drama films]]

Tulasi Dalam (film)

2026-03-03T17:56:57Z

Yaarzu: Added.

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Tulasi Dalam
|image =Tulasi_Dalam.jpg
|caption =poster
| writer = R. P. Patnaik Tirumal Nag (dialogues)
| starring = Nishchal Vandana Gupta R. P. Patnaik
| director = [[R. P. Patnaik]]
| cinematography = [[Sarath Mandava]]
| producer = R. P. Patnaik
| editing = S. B. Uddhav
| country = [[India]]
| released = {{film date|df=y|2016|03|11}}
| runtime = 118 min
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| music = R. P. Patnaik
| budget =
}}
'''''Tulasi Dalam''''' is a 2016 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]] [[Horror film|horror thriller]] film directed and produced by [[R. P. Patnaik]]. The film features Nishchal and Vandana Gupta in the lead roles and [[R. P. Patnaik]] in a supporting role. The film was released worldwide on 11 March 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2016-02-29/Coming-of-age-thriller/210435|title=Coming of age thriller|work=[[The Hans India]]|date=29 February 2016|access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

==Plot==
Satvik (Nishchal Deva) who is an orphan moving to Las Vegas to be with his girlfriend, Nisha (Vandana Guptra). He stays in an apartment with a roommate, Subbu (Suneel Boddepalli). Satvik is a staunch non-believer in ghosts, and keeps rubbishing other’s beliefs too. During a heated argument, Subbu challenges Satvik to spend a night in the nearby cemetery, all by himself. Satvik accepts this challenge, and succeeds too. But that’s when the actual trouble starts. Satvik starts experiencing paranormal activities ever since he returns from the graveyard. He starts to notice the spirit of a young girl, Shanti, following him around. Giving up, he finally approaches Dr. Tilak ([[R. P. Patnaik]]) who is researching on paranormal activities. Dr. Tilak helps them solve their problems. Who exactly is Shanti? Why is she following Satvik? How does Dr. Tilak help in bringing about peace forms the rest.

==Cast==
''Source''<ref name="I"/>
{{Cast listing|
* Nischal as Satvik
* Vandana Gupta as Nisha
* [[R. P. Patnaik]] as Dr. Tilak
* [[Brahmanandam]] as a witch doctor<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Scare-in-the-bright-alley/article12387366.ece|title=Scare in the bright alley|date=18 October 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|last=Narasimham|first=M. L.|url-access=subscription|access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>
* [[Duvvasi Mohan]]
* Suneel Boddepalli as Subbu
* Anitha Chowdary
* Radha Rayasam
* Deepak Ravella
}}

== Production ==
The film marks the debut of [[R. P. Patnaik]] as a producer.<ref name="I">{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/interview-rppatnaik.html|title=
RP Patnaik interview about Tulasidalam: 'Tulasidalaam' is a concept film that no one has touched – RP Patnaik|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]|language=te|date=9 March 2016|location=Hyderabad|access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref> Nischal Deva plays a software engineer while Vandana Gupta plays a tour guide.<ref name="I"/> The film was shot for 44 days in Las Vegas.<ref name="I"/>

==Release and reception==
''Tulasi Dalam'' was released on 11 March 2016 to negative response from critics.<ref name="H"/>

Y. Sunitha Chowdary of ''[[The Hindu]]'' found out was the movie was absurd and had an underdeveloped plot.<ref name="H">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/absurd-and-underdeveloped-plot/article8344446.ece |title=Absurd and underdeveloped plot|work=[[The Hindu]]|first=Y. Sunita|last=Chowdary|url-access=subscription|date=12 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517053817/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/absurd-and-underdeveloped-plot/article8344446.ece|archive-date=17 May 2022|access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|2780498}}

[[Category:2016 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2016 horror thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian horror thriller films]]
[[Category:2016 horror films]]
[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:Films set in the Las Vegas Valley]]
[[Category:Films shot in the Las Vegas Valley]]

Poi (film)

2026-03-03T04:36:11Z

Yaarzu: expanded content

{{short description|2006 film by K. Balachander}}
{{More plot|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Poi (film).jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[K. Balachander]]
| producer = [[Prakash Raj]]
| writer = K. Balachander [[Thamira]] (dialogues)
| starring = [[Uday Kiran]] [[Vimala Raman]]
| music = [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
| cinematography = [[Biju Viswanath]]
| studio = Duet Movies
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2006|12|22}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Poi''''' ({{translation|The Lie}}) is a 2006 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic drama film]] directed by [[K. Balachander]] in his 101st and final film as a director. Produced by [[Prakash Raj]], the film starts [[Uday Kiran]] (in his Tamil debut) and [[Vimala Raman]] (in her acting debut),<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 2014 |title=Brahma of new wave Indian cinema K Balachander passes away |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141224/entertainment-tollywood/article/%E2%80%98brahma-new-wave-indian-cinema%E2%80%99-k-balachander |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028110619/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/141224/entertainment-tollywood/article/%E2%80%98brahma-new-wave-indian-cinema%E2%80%99-k-balachander |archive-date=28 October 2016 |access-date=5 August 2018 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref> while [[Geetu Mohandas]], Prakash Raj, [[Adithya Menon]], and [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] play supporting roles along with the director in a guest appearance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 December 2014 |title=End of an era: K. Balachander (1930–2014) |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/iyakunar-sigaram-k-balachander/article6697817.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621020250/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/iyakunar-sigaram-k-balachander/article6697817.ece |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=5 August 2018 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The music was composed by [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]] with cinematography by [[Biju Viswanath]]. The film was released on 22 December 2006.

== Plot ==
Valluvanar ([[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]]) is an upright political leader in [[Tamil Nadu]] who is much respected for his honesty and uprightness, and he refuses to compromise on this trait, even when his only son Kamban ([[Uday Kiran]]) finds himself in jail for no fault of his. The opposition party takes advantage of the situation and bails out Kamban, who joins the party, much to his father's embarrassment. The media laps it up, sensationalising it further. Kamban decides to leave the country until things cool down. Only his mother Vasuki (Anuradha Krishnamurthy), with whom he is close, is aware of this plan. Kamban arrives at [[Sri Lanka]] where he befriends Banerjee ([[Badava Gopi]]), a Bengali, and stays with him. One day, he finds a Tamil literary book on the beach, which he traces to Shilpa ([[Vimala Raman]]), the owner of the book. Shilpa is a college student preparing for civil services examination. The film juggles between reality and fiction, where Theepori, the fictitious father image of Kamban, advises him to fall in love. That sets in rolling the love story as Kamban persists in wooing Shilpa. She is staying with her brother's family. Shilpa is keen on realising her ambitions and feels that love and marriage often comes in the way of women's career. The rest of the story is about the emotional conflict between her career and love. After Vasuki's death, Valluvanar reaches Sri Lanka. Kamban is unaware of his mother's death. Shilpa's family meets Valluvanar. Meanwhile, Kamban goes to meet Shilpa to hand over the passport, but due to his friend's lie, he ends up thinking that Shilpa committed suicide. How the lie told to reunite the lovers gives the tragic end is the end of the story.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Uday Kiran]] as Kamban a.k.a. Bharati
*[[Vimala Raman]] as Shilpa
*[[Geetu Mohandas]] as Ramya
*[[Prakash Raj]] as Vidhi (Fate)
*[[Adithya (actor)|Adithya Menon]] as Vishnu
*[[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Valluvanar
*[[Sridhar (choreographer)|Sridhar]] as Roshan
*Anuradha Krishnamurthy as Vasuki
*[[Renuka (actress)|Renuka]] as Menaka
*[[Badava Gopi]] as Banerjee
*[[Bombay Gnanam]]
*[[K. Balachander]] as the man who plays dice with Fate
*[[Samuthirakani]] (cameo appearance)
}}

== Soundtrack ==
Music was composed by [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 December 2005 |title=Poi |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/poi/JEZmb-AJ704_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806121115/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/poi/JEZmb-AJ704_ |archive-date=6 August 2023 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics
|-
| "Azhaghana Poigale" || [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]] || [[Vairamuthu]]
|-
| "Enna Tholaithai" || [[K. S. Chithra]] || Kirithaya
|-
| "Hitler Penne" || [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], [[Sujatha Mohan|Sujatha]] || rowspan=2|[[Pa. Vijay]]
|-
| "Inge Inge Oru Paatu" || [[Shankar Mahadevan]]
|-
| "Iyakkunare" || [[Harini (singer)|Harini]], [[Sriram Parthasarathy]] || [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]]
|-
| "Kandu Pidithen" || K. Narayan || rowspan=2|Kirithaya
|-
| "Kannamoochi" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|-
| "Kutti Kutti Kavithai" || [[Pop Shalini]] || rowspan=2|Pa. Vijay
|-
| "La La La" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
|}

== Critical reception ==
Saraswathy Srinivas of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote "you expect so much from Balachander, a genuine icon of Tamil filmdom; if you leave adulation aside, though, you have to say that his latest film disappoints".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivas |first=Saraswathy |date=26 December 2006 |title=Poi: Disappointing |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/dec/26poi.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033434/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/dec/26poi.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=5 August 2018 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Nowrunning wrote "''Poi'' lacks the marks of KB's earlier films".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Mythily |date=29 December 2006 |title=Poi Tamil Movie |url=http://www.nowrunning.com/movie/2910/tamil/poi/1001/review.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101119/http://www.nowrunning.com/movie/2910/tamil/poi/1001/review.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=5 August 2018 |website=Nowrunning.com}}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''Chennai Online'' wrote "''Poi'' seems more of a self-indulgent trip for the director, crafted without any thought of audience sensibilities."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=1 January 2007 |title=Poi |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2007/12poi.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629094113/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2007/12poi.asp |archive-date=29 June 2007 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref> Lajjavathi of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the performances of star cast, music and cinematography and noted though despite some of the scenes feeling dated, she called the film as emotional struggle with true lovers.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=லஜ்ஜாவதி |date=21 January 2007 |title=பொய் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-01-21/page/n33/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240414143244/https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-01-21/page/n33/mode/2up |archive-date=14 April 2024 |access-date=14 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=32 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Reviewing the Telugu-dubbed version ''Abaddam'', ''[[Idlebrain.com|Idlebrain]]'' wrote that Balachander "is still capable of narrating a sensitive story very sensibly, but his commercial sense is completely out-dated".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mosagadu |first=Mosagallaku |title=Abaddam |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/thegoodthebadtheugly/abaddam.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621004418/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/thegoodthebadtheugly/abaddam.html |archive-date=21 June 2022 |access-date=21 June 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{K. Balachander}}
{{Prakash Raj}}
{{Biju Viswanath}}

[[Category:2006 Indian films]]
[[Category:2006 romance films]]
[[Category:2006 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vidyasagar (composer)]]
[[Category:Films shot in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Indian romance films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance films]]

72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died

2026-03-02T09:23:31Z

Yaarzu: Content refreshed with new edits

{{short description|2019 Indian biographical drama film directed by Avinash Dhyani}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = 72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died
| image = 72_Hours,_Martyr_who_never_Died.jpg
| caption = Official poster
| director = [[Avinash Dhyani]]
| producer = JS Rawat Tarun Singh Rawat Prashil Rawat
| narrator =
| music = Sunjoy Bose '''Background score:''' Aslam Keyi
| writer = [[Avinash Dhyani]]
| based_on =
| starring = [[Avinash Dhyani]] [[Mukesh Tiwari]] [[Virendra Saxena]] [[Alka Amin]] [[Shishir Sharma]] Gireesh Sahdev Prashil Rawat
| cinematography = Harish Negi
| editing = Ajay Verma
| screenplay = [[Avinash Dhyani]]
| story =
| studio = JSR Production House
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2019|1|18|}}
| runtime = 130 minutes <ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/72-hours-martyr-who-never-died/movie-review/67575654.cms|title=72 HOURS: MARTYR WHO NEVER DIED MOVIE REVIEW|publisher=Times of India|date=2019-01-18 |access-date=2020-03-25}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = [[Hindi]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died''''' is a 2019 Indian [[biographical]] [[drama]] film directed by [[Avinash Dhyani]]. The story is based on the life and times of rifleman [[Jaswant Singh Rawat]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/72-hours-martyr-who-never-died/movieshow/66828206.cms|title=72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died|publisher=Times Of India|date=2018-11-27 |access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> who fought against the encroaching Chinese army during the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]]. The film got positive reviews from both audience and critics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.glamsham.com/en/the-poster-of-72-hours-martyrs-who-never-died-is-gripping|title=We salute the poster of 72 HOURS MARTYRS WHO NEVER DIED|publisher=Glamsham|date=2018-11-27 |access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref>

==Plot==
Following the biography of [[Jaswant Singh Rawat]], this movie is set in the 1960s, when apart from economic instability, famine, and communal tension, India was ill-prepared for the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]]. Jaswant was born in an impecunious [[Garhwali Rajput]] family in [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]], [[Dehradun]], [[Uttarakhand]]. He grew up to be a responsible son, devoting his life towards study and family, but due to several incidents, he decided to join the army as a young man and received his training at Garhwal in Pauri Garhwal District and enlisted under the [[Garhwal Rifles]] Regiment. Shortly after his training, their ''paltan'' (platoon) is sent to defend from the encroaching Chinese army from the northeastern front. Due to adverse circumstances and setbacks, the infantry has to step back. However, Rifleman [[Jaswant Singh Rawat]] refuses to leave and fights against the Chinese army alone for 72 hours.

== Cast ==

*[[Avinash Dhyani]] as Rifleman [[Jaswant Singh Rawat]]
*[[Mukesh Tiwari]] as Hawaldar CM Singh Gusain
*[[Virendra Saxena]] as Shri. Guman Rawat
*[[Alka Amin]] as Leela Rawat
*[[Shishir Sharma]] as Col. S. N. Tandon
*[[Gireesh Sahdev]] as Company Commander Sher Singh
*Prashil Rawat as Rifleman Jeet Singh
*Abhishek Maindola as Nayak Laali Chaman
*Ishtiaaq Khan as Rifleman Darbaan Singh
*Sumit Gulati as Rifleman Trilok Singh Negi
*Yeshi Dema as Noora
*Naman Tiwari as Young Jaswant Singh Rawat
*Suraj Dholakhandi as Rifleman Leela Singh Rawat
* Unknown as Ram Gopal Singh

==Previews==
The first-look poster of the movie was released on 26 November 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiatvtimess.com/2018/11/27/first-look-poster-of-the-film-72-hoursmartyr-who-never-died/|title=First Look Poster of the film 72 Hours, Martyr who never died|publisher=IndiaTVTimess.com|date=2018-11-27 |access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> An official teaser was published on 17 December 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/videos/movie-promos/teaser-72-hours/|title=Teaser (72 Hours)|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=2018-12-18 |access-date=2018-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/hindi/72-hours-martyr-who-never-died-officialteaser/videoshow/67125354.cms?from=mdr|title=72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died - OfficialTeaser|publisher=Times Of India|date=2018-12-17 |access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amarujala.com/entertainment/bollywood/72-hours-biopic-of-indian-rifleman-soldier-teaser-has-been-released|title=72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died - OfficialTeaser|publisher=AmarUjala|date=2018-12-17 |access-date=2018-12-17}}</ref> The official trailer was released on 24 December 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newspost.live/trailer-of-72-hours-launch-24th-december/|title=72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died - OfficialTrailer|publisher=NEWS POST|date=2018-12-19 |access-date=2018-12-19}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = 72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Sunjoy Bose
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 18 January 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/72-hours/kZO,o0M5EUo_|title=72 Hours: Martyr Who Never Died - Original Motion Picture Soundtrack |publisher=[[Saavn]]}}</ref>
| recorded = 2018
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature Film Soundtrack]]
| length = 32:46
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1= {{YouTube|E3oYyrI2-j4|Audio Jukebox}}
}}}}

The film's soundtrack was composed by Sunjoy Bose and lyrics were penned by Vikas Chauhan, Seema Saini, Ashish Chaterjee, Sujata Devrani and Nishant Mishra.

{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length=32:46
| title1 = Sau Jahan
| extra1 = [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]
| lyrics1 = Vikas Chauhan
| length1 = 3:47
| title2 = Vandemataram
| extra2 = [[Sukhwinder Singh]], Anupriya Chatterjee
| lyrics2 = Ashish Chatterjee
| length2 = 6:24
| title3 = Tum Bepanah
| extra3 = [[Mohit Chauhan]], Priyanka Negi
| lyrics3 = Sujata Devrari, Vikas Chauhan
| length3 = 5:19
| title4 = Door
| extra4 = [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]
| lyrics4 = Seema Saini
| length4 = 4:23
| title5 = Ab toh Chal Padhe
| extra5 = Shaan, Sunjoy Bose
| lyrics5 = Nishant Mishra
| length5 = 4:20
| title6 = Ore Chanda
| extra6 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], Sunjoy Bose
| lyrics6 = Seema Saini
| length6 = 4:58
| title7 = Sau Jahan
| note7 = Reprise
| extra7 = Mohit Mishra
| lyrics7 = Vikas Chauhan
| length7 = 3:48
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|id=9390222}}

[[Category:Films set in 1962]]
[[Category:Indian biographical films]]
[[Category:Sino-Indian War films]]
[[Category:War films based on actual events]]
[[Category:2019 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2019 Indian films]]
[[Category:2019 films]]

Fired (2010 film)

2026-03-02T09:16:00Z

Yaarzu: starting info

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Fired
| image = Fired film poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| director = Sajit Warrier
| writer = {{ubl|[[Shripal Morakhia]]|Sajit Warrier}}
| producer = {{ubl|Shripal Morakhia|Ashish Bhatnagar}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Rahul Bose]]|Militza Radmilovic|[[Dinesh Lamba]]}}
| narrator =
| cinematography =
| editing = Zealot (UK)
| music = [[Raju Singh]]
| studio =
| distributor = IDream Productions
| released = {{film date|2010|01|29|df=y}}
| runtime = 90 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Fired''''' is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language [[horror film]] starring [[Rahul Bose]] and Militza Radmilovic. It is the feature film debut of director Sajit Warrier and premiered at the [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] [[Marché du Film]] on 12 May 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.indiemoviesonline.com/news/trash-cannes-190510 |title= Trash Cannes |author= Emma Rowley and Paul Martin |date= 19 May 2010 |publisher= Indie Movies Online |accessdate= 19 May 2010 |archive-date= 22 May 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100522165242/http://www.indiemoviesonline.com/news/trash-cannes-190510 |url-status= live }}</ref>

==Plot==
At the H.S.W.L HEAD OFFICE in LONDON England, the egotistical maniac Joy Mittal, the CEO of the company, decides to repair his scandal-ridden work record and prove to himself and his partners that he can, indeed, care for his family and be a competent leader in an economic meltdown which affects everyone. He is responsible for firing almost half the employees in London and implementing major cut-downs. In the turmoil that follows, he decides to sack the manager RUBY, a 29-year-old seductress with whom he has been having an affair which affects his personal and professional life. After a day of ultimate stress, Joy finally decides to finish off all his paperwork and stand proudly in front of his partners for a board meeting that will definitely change his life. The depiction of the horrific time spent by JOY at the empty office filled with the curse of people who have been recently fired is the crux of the film FIRED. It is a supernatural influence that keeps JOY haunted in his own empty office, and also the twin demons of PROZAC and insecurity which turn a happy go lucky man into a stark-raving suicidal guy. In a matter of a couple of hours, Joy turns into a pleading madman, seeing ghosts of his lover and her kid at every nook and corner. Everything around in the seemingly undistinguished office become the targets of his paranoia, fed by the crazy hallucinatory effects of his anti-depressant pills. FIRED is a real-time depiction of the last two hours in the life of a CEO who has recently fired almost half his employees, set in an empty office space, which also acts as a major character, enhancing the suspense of the film.

== Cast ==
*[[Rahul Bose]] as Joy Mittal
*[[Militza Radmilovic]] as Ruby Harmison
*[[Dinesh Lamba]] as Security Guard
*[[Naseer Abdullah]] as Mr. Kapoor

==Production==
''Fired'' was filmed in London, England. Due to depictions of nudity and some violence, the [[Central Board of Film Certification|Indian Censor Board]] gave the film's promos an [[Censor Board of India#Rating System|A rating]] which prevented them from being shown on television. The film has not been released theatrically because of these issues.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://movies.indiatimes.com/News/Censor-board-upsets-Rahul-Bose/articleshow/5311416.cms |title= Censor board upsets Rahul Bose |date= 7 December 2009 |work= Indiatimes |accessdate= 14 December 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091213043303/http://movies.indiatimes.com/News/Censor-board-upsets-Rahul-Bose/articleshow/5311416.cms |archive-date= 13 December 2009 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
Mumbai fashion designer Saisha Shinde designed the wardrobe for the film.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.screenindia.com/news/celluloid-old/488689/ |title= Celluloid Old |author= Paromita Chakrabarti |date= 13 July 2009 |work= Screen |access-date= 14 December 2009 |archive-date= 11 September 2012 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120911165922/http://www.screenindia.com/news/celluloid-old/488689/ |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091227013847/http://www.firedthefilm.com/ Official Website]
*{{IMDb title|1577050|Fired}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fired}}
[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films set in London]]
[[Category:Indian horror films]]
[[Category:Unreleased Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language horror films]]
[[Category:Films shot in London]]

Indian locomotive class HT

2026-03-01T01:04:53Z

Yaarzu:

{{Infobox locomotive
| name = Indian locomotive class HT
| image = East Indian Railways (EIR) Class HT locomotive Nr. 1251.jpg
| caption = Works photo of EIR no.1251
| powertype = Steam
| designer = [[British Standards Institution|British Engineering Standards Committee (BESC)]]
| builder = [[Beyer, Peacock & Company]] [[Hawthorn Leslie]]
| builddate = 1923–1925{{sfn|Hughes|1979|p=54}}
| totalproduction = 36 (EIR){{sfn|Hughes|1979|p=54}}
| whytetype = {{whyte|2-8-2|T}}
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676 mm}}
| over buffers = {{convert|41|ft|3+1/2|in|m|abbr=on}}
| coupleddiameter = {{convert|4|ft|3|in|m|abbr=on}}
| axleload = {{convert|17.3|LT|t|abbr=on}}
| locoweight = {{convert|90.5|t|abbr=on}}
| boilerpressure = {{convert|180|psi|0|abbr=on}}
| firearea = {{convert|27|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}
| fireboxarea =
| totalsurface = {{convert|1567+1/2|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}
| cylindercount = Two, outside
| cylindersize = {{convert|22|in|mm|abbr=on}} x {{convert|26|in|mm|abbr=on}}
| valvegear = [[Walschaerts valve gear|Walschaerts]]
| valvetype = [[Piston valves|Piston]]
| operator = [[East Indian Railway]] [[North Western State Railway]] [[Indian Railways]]
| fleetnumbers = EIR:{{sfn|Hughes|1979|p=54}}
* 6140-6171 (Beyer Peacock locomotives)
* 3599-3602 (Hawthorn Leslie locomotives)
| notes = References: {{sfn|Hughes|1979|p=54}}{{sfn|Hughes|1979|page=18}}
}}

The '''Indian locomotive class HT''' (Heavy Tank) were a class of {{whyte|2-8-2|T}} [[5 ft 6 in gauge railway|broad-gauge]] [[tank locomotive]]s that were one of seven standard broad-gauge locomotive designs developed by the [[British Standards Institution|British Engineering Standards Committee (BESC)]] (later the British Engineering Standards Association (BESA)) for the broad-gauge [[Rail transport in India|railways]] of [[British Raj|British India]].

== History ==
At the turn of the 20th century, the railways in British India utilised numerous classes of locomotives of differing designs, and there was an urgent need of standardisation: British Indian railways looked to non-British locomotive manufacturers to meet their motive power needs since British locomotive manufacturers could not meet them due to the varying degree of locomotive designs used by British Indian railways, generating complaints from British locomotive manufacturers.<ref name=historyquote>{{cite web |url=https://www.irfca.org/articles/isrs/isrs082004-steam-history.html |title=Steam in History |last=Bhandari |first=R. R. |website=IRFCA website |publisher=Indian Railways Fan Club (IRFCA) |access-date= 17 November 2024 |quote= [The inability of British locomotive manufacturers to meet demand] resulted in orders being placed on German and American manufacturers and ... protest was made on behalf of the [British locomotive manufacturers] in the British Parliament.}}</ref> This resulted in the establishment of a locomotive subcommittee of the [[BSI Group|British Engineering Standards Committee]] (BESC) who developed several standardised designs of locomotives between 1903{{efn|name=rep1}} and 1910 in three successive reports, with the HT class being a later addition to the third report of the BESC in 1910.<ref name=BESA1910>{{cite magazine |author= |title=[Third Report of the Locomotive Committee on Standard Locomotives for Indian Railways] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ7AQAAMAAJ |magazine=Indian Industries and Power |volume=7 |date=1909 |access-date=17 November 2024 |page=275}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=1 September 2020 |archive-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629075526/http://www.indiansteamrailwaysociety.in/broad-gauge.php |language=en |publisher=Indian Steam Railway Society |title=History of Steam: Broad Gauge |url=http://www.indiansteamrailwaysociety.in/history1.html}}</ref> This design was similar to locomotives delivered in 1921 to the [[Bengal Nagpur Railway]] (BNR), which were made using parts shared with other BESC designed locomotives.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Colin |title=The North British Locomotive Company |last2=Siton |first2=Alon |date=15 May 2018 |publisher=[[Amberley Publishing]]|isbn=978-1445674292}}</ref> The HT class had the same cylinder dimensions as the [[Indian locomotive class HG|HGS/HGC class]] (HG (Heavy Goods) class locomotives converted to or installed new with superheating) {{whyte|2-8-0}} locomotives,<ref name=terminalBESA/> whereas the boiler was shared with the [[Indian locomotive class PT|PT class (Passenger Tank)]] {{whyte|2-6-4|T}} locomotives.<ref name=terminalBESA>{{cite web |url=
https://jdhsmith.math.iastate.edu/term/slinbesa.htm |title=BESA steam locomotives |last=Smith |first=Jonathan |website=The terminal: Standard steam locomotives |publisher=[[Iowa State University]] |access-date= 2 September 2020}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=November 2024|reason= Does not specify other boiler dimensions other than grate area}}
[[File:Beyer_Peacock_tank_locomotive_class_HT_for_NWR_(India).jpg|left|thumb|1946 [[Beyer, Peacock & Company]] catalogue listing the HT class for the [[North Western State Railway|North Western Railway]] (NWR).]]
During the 1920s, Beyer, Peacock & Co. delivered locomotives of this design for the [[North Western State Railway|North Western Railway]] and the [[East Indian Railway Company|East Indian Railway]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.martynbane.co.uk/extras/bp-catalogue/slides/page58.html |title= Locomotives by Beyer Peacock & Co. Ltd. |last= |first= |date= |website= |publisher= |access-date=15 November 2024 |quote= |page=58}}</ref> Some were in active service as of 1978, allocated to the Dhanbad and Pathardth sheds of [[Eastern Railways]].{{sfn|Hughes|1979|p=54}}

==See also==
*[[Indian locomotive class SP]]
*[[Indian locomotive class SG]]
*[[Indian locomotive class AP]]
*[[Indian locomotive class HP]]
*[[Indian locomotive class HG]]
*[[Indian locomotive class PT]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=rep1|This BESC report was compiled in 1903, but was not published until 1905.}}
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Hugh |author-link= |date=1979 |title=Steam locomotives in India, Part 3 – Broad Gauge |url=https://archive.org/details/steamlocomotives0000hugh/mode/2up |location=Harrow, Middlesex |publisher=Continental Railway Circle |page= |isbn=9780950346946|url-access=registration}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Indian locomotive class HT}}

{{Broad gauge locomotives of India|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Beyer, Peacock locomotives]]
[[Category:Hawthorn Leslie and Company locomotives]]
[[Category:Steam locomotives of India]]
[[Category:2-8-2T locomotives]]
[[Category:5 ft 6 in gauge locomotives]]
[[Category:Railway locomotives introduced in 1923]]

Shrikrishna Saral

2026-02-27T08:16:11Z

Yaarzu: New.

{{Short description|Hindi poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
'''Shri Krishna Saral''' (1 January 1919 – 2 September 2000) was an Indian poet and writer.<ref>{{Cite news |title=राष्ट्रकवि श्रीकृष्ण सरल जयंती पर हुआ कार्यक्रम |publisher=[[दैनिक भास्कर]] |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/MAT-MP-OTH-c-25-368320-NOR.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312132855/http://www.bhaskar.com/news/MAT-MP-OTH-c-25-368320-NOR.html |archive-date=12 March 2016}}</ref> Most of his works are about Indian revolutionaries, 15 of which are ''mahakavyas'' (epics). He is hailed as a '[[Yug Charan|Yug-Charan]]' for his nationalist poetry reminiscent of the sacrificial traditions of Indian soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_gVVwTFArvAC|title=Sākshātkāra|date=2009|publisher=Ma. Pra. Śāsana Sāhitya Parishad|language=hi|quote=विमर्श का विषय रखा गया था ' युग चारण श्रीकृष्ण सरल ' जिसकी अध्यक्षता श्री बलवीर सिंह ' करुण ' ने की ।|access-date=2022-09-09|archive-date=2022-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927131923/https://books.google.com/books?id=_gVVwTFArvAC|url-status=live}}</ref> "[[Mai Amar Shahido ka Charan]]" composed by him is a very popular [[Hindi]] language poem.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9W9jAAAAMAAJ|title=महावली: आधुनिक संदर्भ में पवन-पुत्र पर प्रेरक महाकाव्य|last=सरल|first=श्रीकृष्ण|date=2005|publisher=सत्काल|isbn=978-81-87859-50-5|language=hi|access-date=2022-09-09|archive-date=2022-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927131923/https://books.google.com/books?id=9W9jAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Sahitya Akademi]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]] confers the annual "Shri Krishna Saral Award" for poetry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=मध्य-प्रदेश साहित्य अकादमी |url=http://mpsahityaacademy.org/prizes.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302112645/http://mpsahityaacademy.org/prizes.html |archive-date=2 March 2017 |access-date=1 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=नई दुनया |url=https://www.naidunia.com/madhya-pradesh/bhopal-national-and-regional-multidisciplines-of-literature-by-the-academy-awards-announced-255108 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304214511/http://naidunia.jagran.com/madhya-pradesh/bhopal-national-and-regional-multidisciplines-of-literature-by-the-academy-awards-announced-255108 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=1 August 2015}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Shri Krishna Saral was born on 1 January 1919 in Ashok Nagar in [[Guna district|Guna]] district of Madhya Pradesh. His father's name was Shri Bhagwati Prasad and mother's name was Yamuna Devi. Saral worked as a Professor in Government School of Education, [[Ujjain]]. He was involved with Indian revolutionaries and after retiring from the post of teacher, he remained engaged in literature. He was decorated by various organizations with 'Bharat Gaurav', 'National Poet', 'Kranti-Kavi', 'Kranti-Ratna', 'Abhinav-Bhushan', 'Manav-Ratna', 'Best Kala-Acharya' etc.

He was inspired by [[Rajarshi]] Purushottamdas Tandon, and remained in contact with Vidyavati ji, mother of Shaheed [[Bhagat Singh]], and was close to prominent revolutionaries, whom he made the subject of his literary activities. He called himself '''Shahido ka Charan''<nowiki/>' or '[[Charan]] of the martyrs'. Well-known litterateur Pt. [[Banarsidas Chaturvedi]] stated that- 'Shri Saral has done proper Shradh of Indian martyrs.' The great revolutionary Pt Parmanand has said – 'Saral is a living martyr'.

In the latter part of his life, Saral was influenced by religion and spirituality and wrote three epics – Tulsi Manas, Saral Ramayana and Sitayan. Saral authored and published 124 texts including 15 epics, and had himself sold 500,000 copies of his works. He traveled to 10 countries with his own expenses for his research the India revolutionaries. To meet the expenses, Saral even sold his personal immovable property and wife's jewellery. Over the course of his life, he suffered five heart attacks.

Saral died on 2 September 2000.

== Works ==
Saral has penned a total of 124 texts. For the compilation of facts on [[Subhas Chandra Bose|Netaji Subhash]], he himself traveled twelve countries where Netaji and his army had fought for the freedom of India.

He wrote a book called 'Krantikari Kosh', in which he presented the history of the Indian independence movement. It is published in five different parts.

* Krantikari Kosh 1
* Krantikari Kosh 2
* Krantikari Kosh 3
* Krantikari Kosh 4
* Krantikari Kosh 5
* Mahavali<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9W9jAAAAMAAJ |title=महावली: आधुनिक संदर्भ में पवन-पुत्र पर प्रेरक महाकाव्य |date=2005 |publisher=सत्काल |page=320 |isbn=9788187859505 |access-date=30 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220106/https://books.google.co.in/books/about/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80.html?id=9W9jAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Itihas-Purush Subhash<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.delhipubliclibrary.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=12161 |title=इतिहास-पुरूष सुभाष |publisher=नई दिल्ली प्रतिभा प्रतिष्ठान 2006 |access-date=30 July 2015 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927131946/https://delhipubliclibrary.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=12161 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Jai Hind<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.delhipubliclibrary.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=14055 |title=जय हिंद |publisher=दिल्ली सत्साहित्य प्रकाशन 2006 |access-date=30 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305034336/http://www.delhipubliclibrary.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=14055 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''Novels''':- Sun of Chattagaon , Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajguru, Jai Hind, Dusara Himalaya, Yatindranath Das, Badha Jatin, Ramprasad Bismil.

'''Essay-Collection''':-Anamola Vachana, Jiyo to aise jiyo, Yuvakom se do-do batem, Vichara aura Vicharaka, Jivana-Rahasya, Meri Srijana-Yatra.

'''Epics''':- Chandrashekhar Azad, Sardar Bhagat Singh, Subhash Chandra, Bagi Kartar, Shaheed Ashfaq Ulla Khan, Kanti Jwalkama, Ambedkar Darshan, Swarajya Tilak, Vivek Shree, Jai Subhash.

'''Poetry''' '''Collection''':- Kiran Kusum, Kavya Geeta, Rashtra-Veena, Saral Dohavali, Kranti Ganga, Sral Mahakavya Granthavali, Jaihind Ghazale, Saral Muktak, Inquilabi Ghazale, Quami Ghazale, Bagi Ghazale, Shaheed Ghazale, Jivant Ahuti, Shringar Geet, Shahido ki Kavya Gathaen, Rshtra ki Chinta, Kavya Kathanak, Vivekanjali, Rashtra Bharati, Rakta Ganga, Kavya Mukta, Maut ke Ansu, Bharat ka Khoon Ubalta hai, Maharani Ahilyabai, Adbhut Kavi Sammelan, Watan Hamara, Head Masterji ka pajama, Mujhko yah Dharti Pyari Hai, Kavya Kusum, Sneha Saurabh, Bachhon ki Phulwari, Smriti-Puja, Bapu-Smriti-Granth, Kavi aur Sainik, Mukti-Gaan.

'''Memoirs''': – Krantikariyon ki Garjana

'''Miscellaneous''':-

Sanskriti ke aloka [[stambha]], Sansara ki prachina sabhyataem, Hindi jnana prabhakara, Desha ke divane, Shikshavid subhasha, Sansara ki mahana atmaem, Krantikari shahidom ki sansnritiyam, Subhasha ki rajanaitika bhavishyavaniyam, Netaji subhasha darshana, Netaji ke sapanom ka bharata, Kulapati subhasha, Desha ke prahari, Senadhyaksha subhasha, Krantivira, Desha ke dulare, Ajivana krantikari, Shahidom ki kahaniyam, Rashtrapati subhashachandra bosa, Balidana gathaem, Shahida-chitravali, Kranti-kathaem, Subhasha ya gandhi, Kranti itihasa ki samiksha, Rani chenamma, Netaji subhasha jarmani mem, Krantikari andolana ke manoranjaka prasanga, Nara-nahara naragundakara, [[Alluri Sitarama Raju|Alluri sitarama raju]], Rasabihari bosa, Dr. Champakaramana pillai, Chidambaram pille, Padmanama ayangara, Vasudeva balavanta phadake, Baba prithvisinha ajada, Karatarasinha saraba, Krantikarini durga bhabhi, Subramanyama shiva, Banchi ayyara.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090423104745/http://www.kavitakosh.org/kk/index.php?title=%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B2 श्रीकृष्ण सरल की रचनाएँ कविता कोश में]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181220230628/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NnFnDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false क्रान्तिकारी कोष, द्वितीय खण्ड] (गूगल पुस्तक ; लेखक – श्रीकृष्ण सरल)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215044837/http://books.google.co.in/books?id=wC_O2AUuTVEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false क्रान्तिकारी कोश, चतुर्थ खण्ड]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121026221658/http://panchjanya.com/arch/2000/10/15/File25.htm साहित्यिक दधीचि श्रीकृष्ण 'सरल' थे 'अमर शहीदों का चारण'] – सन्तोष व्यास
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205019/http://rajasthanpatrika.patrika.com/story/india/quot-simple-quot-picked-up-his-pen-nation-and-culture-296271.html राजस्थान पत्रिका]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305040442/http://www.bhaskar.com/news/MAT-MP-OTH-c-202-57632-NOR.html दैनिक भास्कर]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306033405/http://www.anubhuti-hindi.org/gauravgram/shrikrishna_saral/ अनुभूति]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181022153422/http://aviramsahitya.blogspot.com/2018/05/blog-post_10.html श्रीकृष्ण 'सरल' जन्म-शताब्दी वर्ष के उपलक्ष्य में विशेष सामग्री]

[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]

N. Rangaswamy

2026-02-25T06:38:23Z

Yaarzu:

{{short description|9th Chief Minister of Puducherry since 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Tamil name|Natesan Krishnasamy Gounder|Rangaswamy}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = N. Rangaswamy
| image = N Rangaswamy.jpg
| caption = Rangaswamy in 2015
| office = Chief Minister of Puducherry
| order = 9th
| subterm = '''Cabinet'''
| suboffice = [[Fourth Rangaswamy ministry|Rangaswamy IV]]
| term_start = 7 May 2021
| term_end =
| lieutenant_governor = {{ubl |[[Tamilisai Soundararajan]] (2021–24)|[[C. P. Radhakrishnan]] (2024) |[[Kuniyil Kailashnathan]] (2024–)}}
| predecessor = ''[[President's rule]]''
| constituency = [[Thattanchavady Assembly constituency|Thattanchavady]]
| term_start1 = 16 May 2011
| term_end1 = 6 June 2016
| lieutenant_governor1= {{ubl |[[Iqbal Singh (politician, born 1945)|Iqbal Singh]] (2011–2013) |[[Virendra Kataria]] (2013–2014) |[[A. K. Singh]] (2014–2016)}}
| constituency1 = [[Kadirkamam Assembly constituency|Kadirgamam]]
| predecessor1 = [[V. Vaithilingam]]
| successor1 = [[V. Narayanasamy]]
| predecessor2 = [[P. Shanmugam (Pondicherry politician)|P. Shanmugam]]
| successor2 = V. Vaithilingam
| lieutenant_governor2= {{ubl|[[Mukut Mithi]] (2006–2008) |[[Bhupinder Singh Thakur|Bhopinder Singh]] (2008)|[[Govind Singh Gurjar]] |[[Rajani Rai]] |[[K. R. Malkani]] (2002–2003) |[[P. S. Ramamohan Rao]] (2003–2004) |[[Nagendra Nath Jha]] (2004) |[[Madan Mohan Lakhera]] (2004–2006) |[[Mukut Mithi]] (2006)}}
| term_start2 = 27 October 2001
| term_end2 = 4 September 2008
| constituency2 = Thattanchavady
| office3 = 12th [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Puducherry Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition]] in [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
| predecessor3 = V. Vaithilingam
| successor3 = [[R. Siva]]
| term_start3 = 22 August 2016
| term_end3 = 22 February 2021
| constituency3 = [[Indira Nagar Assembly constituency|Indira Nagar]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|last=yes|Other ministerial positions
| titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey;
}}
{{Infobox officeholder|embed=yes
| office4 = Minister for Agriculture and Co-operation in the [[Government of Puducherry]]
| term_start4 = 4 June 1991
| term_end4 = 13 May 1996
| 1blankname4 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata4 = V. Vaithilingam
| office5 = Minister for Tourism, Education, Public Works, Civil Aviation and Art & Culture in the [[Government of Puducherry]]
| term_start5 = 26 May 1996
| term_end5 = 18 March 2000
| 1blankname5 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata5 = [[R. V. Janakiraman]]
| office6 = Minister for Public Works, Agriculture and Forests in the [[Government of Puducherry]]
| term_start6 = 22 March 2000
| term_end6 = 26 October 2001
| 1blankname6 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata6 = P. Shanmugam
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
}}
| office7 = [[President (corporate title)|President]] of [[All India N.R. Congress]]
| term_start7 = 7 February 2011
| predecessor7 = ''Office established''
| 1blankname7 = General Secretary
| 1namedata7 = M. N. Balan N. S. Jayabal
| term_end7 =
| term_start4 = 16 May 2016
| term_end4 = 22 February 2021
| party = [[All India NR Congress]] (since 2011)
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]] (1990–2011)
| birth_name = Natesan Krishnasamy Gounder Rangasamy
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1950|08|04|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], [[French India]]

| residence = Thilaspet, [[Puducherry (city)|Puducherry]]
| parents =
}}
'''Natesan Krishnasamy Gounder Rangaswamy''' (born 4 August 1950) is an Indian politician who is serving as the [[Chief Minister of Puducherry]] since May 2021. He has previously served as the chief minister from 2001 to 2008 and from 2011 to 2016. He is the founding president of the political party [[All India N.R. Congress]] (AINRC), which was formed after a breakaway from the [[Indian National Congress]] in 2011.

Born in 1950, Rangaswamy completed his [[Bachelor of Commerce]] from [[Tagore Arts College]] and [[Bachelor of Laws]] from Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College in [[Puducherry (city)|Puducherry]] in 1977. He contested his first election as the Congress candidate from [[Thattanchavady Assembly constituency]] during the [[1990 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]]. He was elected as a member of the [[Pondicherry Legislative Assembly]] for four consecutive times from the same constituency, having first won in [[1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1991]]. He served as a cabinet minister from 1991 to 2001, under three different chief ministers. He became the chief minister of Pondicherry for the first time in October 2001, and was re-appointed to the position after the Congress won the [[2006 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|2006 assembly elections]].

Rangaswamy stepped down as the chief minister in August 2008 after internal issues within the party. Citing reconcilable differences, he formed his own party, AINRC, and contested in the [[2011 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2011 assembly elections]]. He was elected as a member from the [[Kadirkamam Assembly constituency|Kadirkamam constituency]] and was sworn in the chief minister for the third time in May 2016. He served as the [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Puducherry Legislative Assembly|leader of the opposition]] in the assembly from August 2016 to February 2021. His party won the [[2021 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2021 assembly elections]] as a part of the [[National Democratic Alliance]] and he was sworn in as the chief minister for the fourth time on 7 May 2021.

==Early life==
Natesan Krishnasamy Gounder Rangaswamy was born on 4 August 1950 in [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] to parents Natesan Krishnasamy and Panchali.<ref name="One">{{cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/politicians/n-rangaswamy-71787.html|title=N Rangaswamy|work=[[One India]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://py.erss.in/|title=Emergency Response Support System|work=[[Government of Puducherry]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> He got his [[Bachelor of Commerce]] degree from [[Tagore Arts College]] and [[Bachelor of Laws]] from Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Puducherry in 1977.<ref name="One"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.myneta.info/Puducherry2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=317|title= N Rangasamy|work=My Neta|access-date=11 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="Jagran">{{cite web|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/n-rangasamy-biography-1620384879-1|title=N Rangaswamy|work=[[Jagranjosh]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref>

==Political career==
Rangaswamy contested his first election as the [[Indian National Congress]] candidate from [[Thattanchavady Assembly constituency]] during the [[1990 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name="One"/><ref name="IT">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/puducherry/story/puducherry-profile-of-all-india-n-r-congress-chief-n-rangasamy-133706-2011-05-12|title=Rangasamy's clean image helped him humble Congress in Puducherry|date=12 May 2011|work=[[India Today]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> However, he lost the elections to V. Pethaperumal of the [[Janata Dal]] (JD) by 982 votes.<ref>{{cite web|title=1990 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3431-puducherry-1990/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917130547/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3431-puducherry-1990/|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|archive-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> However, the fall of the JD-led government led to the elections to the [[Pondicherry Legislative Assembly]] in [[1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1991]]. Rangaswamy contested from the same constituency, and was elected as a member of the legislative assembly, after defeating Pethaperumal by 7,260 votes.<ref name="IT"/><ref>{{cite web|title=1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3433-puducherry-1991/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917135604/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3433-puducherry-1991/|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|archive-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> He was appointed as the minister of agriculture and co-operation in the cabinet led by [[V. Vaithilingam]].<ref name="Jagran"/><ref name="IT"/> After he won the [[1996 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1996 assembly elections]],<ref>{{cite web|title=1996 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3434-puducherry-1996/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917135105/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3434-puducherry-1996/|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|archive-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> he was appointed as the minister for tourism, education, public works, civil aviation and art & culture in the [[R. V. Janakiraman]] cabinet.<ref name="Jagran"/> He won the [[2001 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|2001]] assembly elections from Thattanchavady, defeating Pethaperumal for the third time.<ref>{{cite web|title=2001 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3436-puducherry-2001/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927050359/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3436-puducherry-2001/|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|archive-date=27 September 2021 }}</ref> He served as the minister for public works, agriculture and forests in the [[Government of Puducherry|Pondicherry government]] under the [[Chief Minister of Puducherry|chief ministership]] of [[P. Shanmugam (Pondicherry politician)|P. Shanmugam]] from March 2000 to October 2001.<ref name="Jagran"/><ref name="IT"/>

[[File:N. Rangaswamy, Pondicherry.jpg|thumb|left|Rangaswamy in 2014]]

Rangaswamy was appointed as the chief minister of Puducherry on 27 October 2001.<ref name="One"/><ref name="Jagran"/> After he led the Congress to victory in the [[2006 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|2006 assembly elections]], in which he was elected for the fourth consecutive time from the same constituency, he was re-appointed as the chief minister for the second time in May 2006.<ref name="One"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rediff.com/election/2006/may/13ptn1.htm|title=N Rangasamy appointed Pondicherry CM|date=13 May 2006|work=[[Rediff]]|access-date=28 June 2022}}</ref> However, following an internal strife within the Congress party, and faced with revolt from his fellow lawmakers, Rangaswamy offered his resignation as the chief minister on 28 August 2008, and was succeeded by Vaithiligam as the chief minister on 4 September 2008.<ref name="Jagran"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/rangasamy-resigns-as-pondy-cm-28981-2008-08-28|title=Rangasamy resigns as Pondy CM|work=[[India Today]]|date=28 August 2008|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> Later, on 21 January 2011, he resigned his position as the member of the legislative assembly, and quit the Congress party.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/Rangasamy-quits-Congress-resigns-as-MLA/article15526156.ece|title=Rangasamy quits Congress, resigns as MLA|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=21 January 2011|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2011/Jan/21/rangasamy-quits-congress-220806.html|title=Rangasamy quits Congress|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=21 January 2011|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref>

[[File:The Chief Minister of Puducherry, Shri N. Rangaswamy calling on the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, in New Delhi on March 16, 2015.jpg|thumb|left|Rangaswamy with prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] in March 2015]]

Ahead of the [[2011 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2011 assembly elections]], Rangaswamy announced the formation of a new party, [[All India N.R. Congress]] (AINRC), on 7 February 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Rangasamy-files-application-for-floating-new-party/article15131844.ece|title=Rangasamy files application for floating new party|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=8 February 2011|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> In the assembly elections held in April 2011, AINRC contested the elections in an alliance with the [[J. Jayalalithaa]]-led [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK), and won 15 out of the 17 seats it contested.<ref name="Jagran"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/puducherry/story/ainrc-aiadmk-front-secures-majority-in-puducherry-133702-2011-05-12|title=AINRC-AIADMK front secures majority in Puducherry|work=[[India Today]]|date=12 May 2011|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> However, after the results, AINRC formed the government independently, with the support of an [[Independent politician|Independent]], which enabled it to get a majority in the 30-seat assembly.<ref>{{cite web|work=[[The Economic Times]]| url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/jayalalithaa-accuses-puducherry-cm-of-betrayal/articleshow/8455005.cms?from=mdr|title=Jayalalithaa accuses Puducherry CM of betrayal|date=20 May 2011|access-date=30 June 2022 }}</ref> Rangaswamy won from the [[Kadirkamam Assembly constituency]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3438-puducherry-2011/|title=Puducherry General Legislative Election 2011|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> and was sworn in the chief minister of Puducherry for the third time on 16 May 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2011/puducherry/story/rangasamy-sworn-in-as-puducherry-chief-minister-133849-2011-05-15|title=Rangasamy sworn in as Puducherry Chief Minister|work=[[India Today]]|date=15 May 2011|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref>

In the [[2016 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2016 assembly elections]], AINRC was not part of any coalition after the AIADMK refused an alliance, and contested alone in all the 30 seats.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-tamil-nadu-polls-2016-no-alliance-with-ainrc-says-aiadmk-in-puducherry-2203235|title=Tamil Nadu polls 2016: No alliance with AINRC, says AIADMK in Puducherry|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]| date=18 April 2016|access-date=30 June 2022 }}</ref> Though Rangaswamy won from the [[Indira Nagar Assembly constituency]],<ref name="One"/> the party won only eight seats in the assembly. Hence, Rangaswamy resigned as the chief minister on 6 June 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/puducherry2016/Live-Puducherry-Assembly-election-results-2016/article60512135.ece|title=Puducherry CM Rangasamy resigns|date=6 June 2016|access-date=1 June 2025|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> He later served as the [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Puducherry Legislative Assembly|leader of the opposition]] in the Puducherry assembly from August 2016 to February 2021.<ref name="One"/>

After the Puducherry government led by [[V. Narayanasamy]] lost a [[trust vote]] in the assembly in February 2021,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/congress-loses-puducherry-narayanasamy-blames-bjp/article33901435.ece|work=[[Business Line]]|date=22 February 2021|title=Congress loses Puducherry|access-date=13 May 2023|archive-date=13 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513204654/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/congress-loses-puducherry-narayanasamy-blames-bjp/article33901435.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[2021 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2021 legislative assembly elections]] were held in April 2021. The AINRC became part of the [[National Democratic Alliance]] and allied with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) and the AIADMK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/puducherry-election-2021-ut-registers-81-64-polling-as-congress-led-sda-locks-horns-with-nda-in-bid-to-regain-turf-9502581.html|title=Puducherry Election 2021: UT registers 81.64% polling as Congress-led SDA locks horns with NDA in bid to regain turf|work=[[Firstpost]]|date=6 April 2021|access-date=11 August 2022|archive-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811151409/https://www.firstpost.com/politics/puducherry-election-2021-ut-registers-81-64-polling-as-congress-led-sda-locks-horns-with-nda-in-bid-to-regain-turf-9502581.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The NDA won 16 seats with AINRC winning 10 of the 16 seats it contested in the elections.<ref name="Result">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/puducherry-assembly-polls-2021/story/puducherry-election-results-2021-full-list-of-winners-1798043-2021-05-02|title=Puducherry Election Results 2021: NDA wins in Pondy by bagging 16 seats, here's the list of winners|work=[[India Today]]|date=3 May 2021|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> While Rangaswamy won from Indira Nagar,<ref name="Result"/> he lost from the [[Yanam Assembly constituency|Yanam constituency]] against independent candidate [[Gollapalli Srinivas Ashok]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/13417-puducherry-general-legislative-election-2021/|title=Puducherry General Legislative Election 2021|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> He was sworn in as the chief minister of Puducherry for the fourth time on 7 May 2021 with the support of the BJP and independents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/ainrcs-rangasamy-sworn-in-as-puducherry-chief-minister-for-fourth-time/article34506931.ece|title=AINRC’s Rangasamy sworn-in as Puducherry Chief Minister for fourth time|date=7 May 2021|access-date=1 June 2025|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Policies and governance ==
Rangaswamy is known as "junior [[Kamaraj]]" for his simple lifestyle, and soft-spoken nature.<ref name="IT"/> He earned the title "Makkal Mudhalvar" (people’s chief minister) for his reforms in education, poverty alleviation, and public welfare.<ref name="Jagran"/> During his tenure as chief minister, he had focused on regional development, local administrative reforms, and improved civic infrastructure.<ref name="One"/> He introduced several welfare and development schemes such as the "Perunthalaivar Kamarajar Housing Scheme" to make Puducherry a hut-free region by providing a {{INRconvert|0.1|m}} subsidy for concrete houses, the "Rajiv Gandhi Breakfast Scheme" offering breakfast and milk to government school students, the "Kamaraj Education Assistance Scheme" reimbursing tuition fees for under privileged students studying in professional colleges under the government quota, distribution of free text books and other equipments to school students, and pension scheme for the aged. He also implemented drinking water facilities through construction of overhead tanks.<ref name="One"/><ref name="Jagran"/><ref name="IT"/>

==Elections contested and results==
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Year
! Constituency
! colspan="2" | Party
! Votes
! %
! colspan="3" | Opponent
! Votes
! %
! Result
! Margin
! %
|-
! [[1990 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|rowspan=5|[[Thattanchavady Assembly constituency|Thattanchavady]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
| 8,521
| 46.00
|{{Party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=3}}
|rowspan=4|V. Pethaperumal
| 9,503
| 51.31
|{{no2|Lost}}
|{{no2|982}}
|{{no2|5.30}}
|-
! [[1991 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| 12,545
| 69.71
| 5,285
| 29.37
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|7,260}}
|{{yes2|40.34}}
|-
! [[1996 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| 9,989
| 42.95
| 7,699
| 33.11
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|2,290}}
|{{yes2|9.85}}
|-
! [[2001 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| 14,323
| 58.90
|{{Party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}
| 8,769
| 36.06
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|5,554}}
|{{yes2|22.84}}
|-
! [[2006 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| 27,024
| 90.16
|{{Party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|T. Gunasekaran
| 2,026
| 6.76
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|24,998}}
|{{yes2|83.40}}
|-
! [[2011 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|[[Kadirkamam Assembly constituency|Kadirgamam]]
|{{Party name with color|All India N.R. Congress|rowspan=5}}
| 16,323
| 70.02
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|V. Pethaperumal
| 6,566
| 28.16
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|9,757}}
|{{yes2|41.86}}
|-
! [[2011 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|rowspan=2|[[Indira Nagar Assembly constituency|Indira Nagar]]
| 20,685
| 83.77
|rowspan=2|V. Aroumougam
| 4,008
| 16.23
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|16,677}}
|{{yes2|67.54}}
|-
! [[2016 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| 15,463
| 52.53
| 12,059
| 41.09
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|3,404}}
|{{yes2|11.44}}
|-
! [[2021 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|[[Yanam Assembly constituency|Yanam]]
| 16,477
| 47.20
|{{Party name with color|Independent|shortname=IND}}
|[[Gollapalli Srinivas Ashok]]
| 17,132
| 49.07
|{{no2|Lost}}
|{{no2|655}}
|{{no2|1.88}}
|-
! [[2021 Puducherry Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|[[Thattanchavady Assembly constituency|Thattanchavady]]
| 12,978
| 55.02
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|K. Sethu
| 7,522
| 31.89
|{{yes2|Won}}
|{{yes2|5,456}}
|{{yes2|23.13}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|N. Rangaswamy}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef|before = [[P. Shanmugam|P Shanmugam]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Chief Minister of Puducherry]]|years =27 October 2001 – 4 September 2008}}
{{s-aft|after=[[V. Vaithilingam|V Vaithilingam]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before = [[V. Vaithilingam|V Vaithilingam]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Chief Minister of Puducherry]]|years = 16 May 2011 – 6 June 2016}}
{{s-aft|after=[[V. Narayanasamy|Narayanasamy]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before = ''[[President's rule]]''}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Chief Minister of Puducherry]]|years = 7 May 2021 - }}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{Chief ministers of Puducherry}}
{{Current Indian chief ministers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rangaswamy, N}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Chief ministers of Puducherry]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Puducherry]]
[[Category:All India NR Congress politicians]]
[[Category:Indian political party founders]]
[[Category:Chief ministers from Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in Puducherry]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Puducherry]]
[[Category:Pondicherry MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Pondicherry MLAs 1996–2001]]
[[Category:Pondicherry MLAs 2001–2006]]
[[Category:Puducherry MLAs 2006–2011]]
[[Category:Puducherry MLAs 2011–2016]]
[[Category:Puducherry MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:Puducherry MLAs 2021–2026]]

Rajkanwar Singh Sandhu

2026-02-09T06:05:14Z

Yaarzu: started first bio from scratch

{{Short description|Indian sport shooter}}{{BLP sources|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Rajkanwar Singh Sandhu
| nationality = [[India|Indian]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2002|08|13}}
| birth_place = [[Patiala]], [[Punjab]], India
| occupation = [[Shooting sports|Shooter]]
| country = {{IND}}
| sport = [[Shooting sports|Shooting]]
| event = [[25 meter rapid fire pistol]] [[25 meter standard pistol]] [[25 meter center fire pistol]] [[50 meter free pistol]] [[10 meter air pistol]] [[25 meter sports pistol]]
| medaltemplates = {{MedalCountry | {{IND}} }}
{{MedalSport|Men's [[Pistol shooting]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF World Shooting Championships|ISSF World Championship]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2018 ISSF World Shooting Championships|2018 Changwon]] | standard Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalGold|[[2018 ISSF World Shooting Championships|2018 Changwon]] | sports Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Shooting Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 Asian Shooting Championships|2025 Shymkent]]|25 m center fire pistol}}
{{MedalGold|2025 Shymkent|25 m center fire pistol team}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2019 Asian Shooting Championships|2019 Doha]]| sports Pistol Jr (Team) }}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 Asian Shooting Championships|2023 Korea]]|25m Rapid Fire Jr. Men (Team)}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF Junior World Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 ISSF Junior World Championships|2023 Korea]] | 25m Rapid Fire Jr Men (Team)}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF Junior World Cup]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2018 ISSF Junior World Cup|2018 Australia]] | Rapid Fire Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2018 ISSF Junior World Cup|2018 Suhl]] | Standard Pistol Jr}}
{{MedalGold|[[2018 ISSF Junior World Cup|2018 Suhl]] | Standard Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalGold|[[2018 ISSF Junior World Cup|2018 Suhl]] | Sports Pistol Jr(Team)}}
{{MedalGold|[[2019 ISSF Junior World Cup|2019 Suhl]] | Sports Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2019 ISSF Junior World Cup|2019 Suhl]] | Standard Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2019 ISSF Junior World Cup|2019 Suhl]] | Rapid Fire Pistol Jr (Team)}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2022 ISSF Junior World Cup|2022 Germany]] | 25 m Sports Pistol Men}}
{{MedalGold|[[2022 ISSF Junior World Cup|2022 Germany]] | 25 m Standard Pistol (Mix-Team)}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 ISSF Junior World Cup|2023 Germany]] | 25 m Rapid Fire Pistol Jr Men (Team)}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 ISSF Junior World Cup|2023 Korea]] | 25 m Rapid Fire Pistol Jr Men (Team)}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ FISU World University Championships ]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2024 FISU World University Championship |2024 Delhi]] | 25m Rapid Fire Pistol Men }}
| show-medals = yes
}}

'''Rajkanwar Singh Sandhu''' (born 13 August 2002) is an Indian professional sport shooter from [[Patiala]], [[Punjab]]. He competes in various pistol shooting disciplines, including the 10m Air Pistol, 25m Rapid Fire Pistol, 25m Standard Pistol, 25m Centre Fire Pistol, 25m Sports Pistol, and 50m Free Pistol. Sandhu has represented India at several international shooting competitions, including the [[Asian Shooting Championships]], [[ISSF World Shooting Championships|ISSF World Championship]], [[ISSF Junior World Championships]] and the [[ISSF Junior World Cup]].

== Career ==
Sandhu has represented India at several international shooting competitions, including the [[Asian Shooting Championships]], [[ISSF World Shooting Championships|ISSF World Championship]], [[ISSF Junior World Championships]] and [[ISSF Junior World Cup]],<ref name="yps shooter">{{cite news |title=YPS shooter shines in Germany |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/chandigarh/yps-shooter-shines-in-germany-819132/ |access-date=2025-07-19 |work=The Tribune}}</ref><ref name="lpu student">{{cite web |title=LPU student wins silver in ISSF Junior World Cup 2022 |url=https://happenings.lpu.in/lpu-student-wins-silver-in-issf-junior-world-cup-2022/ |access-date=2025-07-19 |publisher=LPU Happenings}}</ref><ref name="issf world junior">{{cite news |title=ISSF World Junior Championship: Indian team wins silver in men's 25m rapid fire pistol |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/issf-world-junior-championship-indian-team-wins-silver-in-mens-25m-rapid-fire-pistol/articleshow/102020275.cms |access-date=2025-07-19 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

* [https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/chandigarh/yps-shooter-shines-in-germany-819132/ YPS shooter shines in Germany – Tribune India]
* [https://happenings.lpu.in/lpu-student-wins-silver-in-issf-junior-world-cup-2022/ LPU student wins silver – LPU Happenings]
* [https://www.thehindu.com/sport/rajkanwar-wins-junior-mens-sports-pistol/article65546198.ece Rajkanwar wins Junior Men's Sports Pistol – The Hindu]
* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/issf-world-junior-championship-indian-team-wins-silver-in-mens-25m-rapid-fire-pistol/articleshow/102020275.cms ISSF World Junior Championship: Indian Team Wins Silver – Times of India]
* https://sportstar.thehindu.com/shooting/gold-rush-continues-for-juniors-gurpreet-adds-senior-silver-at-issf-wc/article24943451.ece
* https://www.indianshooting.com/fnews/vijayveer-sidhu-is-junior-world-champion-in-25m-standard-pistol/
* https://khelnow.com/shooting/2023-11-asian-shooting-championships-2023-indian-medallists

== External links ==

* [https://www.issf-sports.org/athletes/athlete.ashx?personissfid=SHINDM1308200201 ISSF athlete profile]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sandhu, Rajkanwar Singh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Indian male sport shooters]]
[[Category:ISSF pistol shooters]]
[[Category:Indian sportspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]

{{India-sportshooting-bio-stub}}

Natural resources of India

2026-02-05T13:32:44Z

Yaarzu: new!

{{Short description|Natural resources in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2013}}

The total [[arable land|cultivable area]] in [[India]] was reported as 155,369,076 hectares<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Bank |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA?locations=IN|work=Arable land Hectares India India) graph|accessdate=14 March 2023}}</ref> (52.3% of its total land area)<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Bank |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations=IN|work=Arable land (% of land India) graph|accessdate=14 March 2023}}</ref> as of 2020, and is shrinking due to over-farming, increased livestock grazing, deforestation, urban growth, and severe weather events.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aljazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2019/9/12/our-land-is-no-use-any-more-indias-struggle-to-save-its-farms|work='Our Land is of use': India's Struggle to Save its Farms|accessdate=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Health Organization (WHO)|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/climate-change-land-degradation-and-desertification|work=Climate Change: land Degradation and Desertification|accessdate=14 March 2023}}</ref> India has a total water surface area of 314,070 km2.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Atlas|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/features/countries-by-area.html|work=Countries by Area|date=28 January 2021 |accessdate=14 March 2023}}</ref>

India's major [[mineral]] resources include [[coal]] (Fourth largest reserves in the world), [[iron]] ore, [[manganese]] ore (Seventh largest reserve in the world as in 2013), [[lithium]] ore (sixth largest reserve in the world as in 2023),<ref>{{cite news|title=Manganese Ore India plans to up production, invest Rs 1,200 cr in phases|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/manganese-ore-india-plans-to-up-production-invest-rs-1200-cr-in-phases/1056288/|newspaper=The Indian Express|date=8 January 2013|location=Nagpur, India}}</ref> [[mica]], [[bauxite]] (fifth largest reserve in the world as in 2013),<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news |date=18 April 2013 |title=UPDATE 2-India's top court keeps bauxite mining ban, eases some iron ore curbs |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-bauxite-idUSL3N0D52VS20130418}}</ref> [[chromite]], [[natural gas]], [[diamond]]s, [[limestone]] and [[thorium]]. India's [[oil reserves]], found in [[Bombay High]] off the coast of [[Maharashtra]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]] and in eastern [[Assam]] meet 25% of the country's demand.<ref name="Datt-1">{{cite book |author1=Datt, Mihir Bhojani |author2=Vivek Sundharam, K.P.M. |name-list-style=amp | title=Indian Economy | pages =90,97,98,100 | chapter = 7}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{cite web| title =CIA - The World Factbook - India| publisher =CIA| date =2007-09-20| url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/| access-date =2007-10-02| archive-date =18 March 2021| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india| url-status =dead}}</ref>

A national level agency [[National Natural Resources Management System]] (NNRMS) was established in 1983 for integrated natural resources management in the country. It is supported by the [[Planning Commission (India)]] and the [[Department of Space]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nnrms.gov.in/index.htm|title=About NNRMS|publisher=NNRMS, Department of Space|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505205600/http://www.nnrms.gov.in/index.htm|archive-date=5 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Coal ==
{{Main|Coal mining in India}}

[[File:Coal mine in Dhanbad, India.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Coal mine in [[Dhanbad]] district of [[Jharkhand]] state]]
Coal mining in India started in 1774 through the [[East India Company]] in the [[Raniganj Coalfield]], which is along the western bank of the [[Damodar River]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. Growth of Indian coal mining started when steam locomotives were introduced in 1853. Production increased to million tonnes. Production reached 30 million tonnes in 1946. After [[Indian independence movement|Independence]], the National Coal Development Corporation was set up and colleries were owned by the railways. India consumes coal mainly for the power sector. Other industries like cement, fertilizer, chemical and paper rely on coal for energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coal.nic.in/abtcoal.htm|title=Coal Mining in India: The Past|publisher=Ministry of Coal, Indian Government|access-date=22 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831225354/http://www.coal.nic.in/abtcoal.htm|archive-date=31 August 2013}}</ref>

== Oil ==
{{main|Oil and gas industry in India}}

India had about 100 million [[tonne]]s of proven oil reserves as of April 1978, or 1 billion barrels as per [[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] estimate for 2020,<ref name="eia1">{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Brief Overview - India|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=IN|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> which is the second-largest amount in the [[Asia-Pacific|Asia-Pacific region]] behind China.<ref name="eia2">{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/India/Oil.html|title=Energy Information Administration (EIA)|publisher=Statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=2007-10-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018085903/http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/India/Oil.html|archive-date=18 October 2007}}</ref> Most of India's crude oil reserves are located on the western coast ([[Mumbai High]]) and in the southeastern parts of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the offshore [[Bay of Bengal]] and in the state of [[Rajasthan]]. The combination of rising [[oil consumption]] and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly [[energy dependency|dependent]] on imports to meet its consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about 33.69 million tonnes of crude oil as of April 2010<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Statistics on Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas|url=http://petroleum.nic.in/petstat.pdf|date=2011–2012|publisher=Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Indian Government|access-date=22 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416073251/http://petroleum.nic.in/petstat.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> or 877 thousand barrels per day as per EIA estimate of 2009.<ref name="eia1" /> During 2006, India consumed an estimated {{convert|2.63|Moilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} of [[oil]].<ref name="IPM-0506">{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm|title=International Petroleum Monthly 2005-2006|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=2 July 2013}}</ref> The EIA estimates that India registered oil demand growth of {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} during 2006. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India's resources mostly in Rajasthan.<ref name="IPM-0506" />

India's state-owned [[Oil and Natural Gas Corporation]] (ONGC) is the largest oil company in India. ONGC is the leading sport in India's downstream sector, accounting for roughly three-fourths of the country's oil output during 2006, as per Indian government estimates.<ref name="eia2" /> As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the effort, the [[Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas]] crafted the New Exploration License Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100% equity possession in oil and natural gas projects.<ref name="eia2" /> However, to date, only a handful of oil fields are controlled by foreign firms. India's downstream sector is also dominated by state-owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past recent years.

== Natural gas ==
[[File:ONGC Oil Platform.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Oil and gas processing platform at [[Bombay High]]]]
As per the Ministry of Petroleum, Government of India, India has {{convert|1437|e9m3|e12cuft}} of confirmed natural gas reserves as of April 2010. A huge mass of India's [[natural gas]] production comes from the western offshore regions, particularly the [[Mumbai High]] complex. The onshore fields in [[Assam]], [[Tripura]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Gujarat]] states are also major producers of natural gas. As per EIA data, India produced {{convert|996|e9cuft|m3}} of natural gas in 2004.<ref name="eia3">
{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/India/NaturalGas.html|title=Energy Information Administration (EIA)|publisher=Statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=2007-10-27|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018085858/http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/India/NaturalGas.html|archive-date=18 October 2007}}</ref> India imports small amounts of natural gas. In 2004, India consumed about {{convert|1089|Gcuft|m3|abbr=on}} of natural gas, the first year in which the country showed net natural gas imports. During 2004, India imported {{convert|93|Gcuft|m3|abbr=on}} of [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG) from [[Qatar]].<ref name="eia3" />

As in the oil sector, India's state-owned companies account for the bulk of natural gas production. ONGC and [[Oil India Limited]]. are the leading companies with respect to production volume, while some foreign companies take part in upstream developments in joint-ventures and production sharing contracts. [[Reliance Industries]], a privately owned Indian company, also has a role in the natural gas sector as a result of a large natural gas find in 2002 in the [[Krishna Godavari basin]].<ref name="eia3" />

The [[GAIL|Gas Authority of India Ltd]]. (GAIL) holds an effective control on natural gas transmission and allocation activities. In December 2006, the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas issued a new policy that allows foreign investors, private domestic companies, and Government oil companies to hold up to 100% equity stakes in pipeline projects. While GAIL's domination in natural gas transmission and allocation is not ensured by statute, it will continue to be the leading player in the sector because of its existing natural gas infrastructure.<ref name="eia3" />

== Nuclear ==
India's proven nuclear reserves include [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].

=== Uranium ===
[[Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research|AMD]] has established 433 thousand tonnes in-situ of [[uranium oxide]] resource across 47 uranium deposits.<ref>{{cite web | title = Press Release:Press Information Bureau | url = https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2153552 | date = 2025-09-30 | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20250930091152/https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2153552 | archivedate = 2025-09-30 }}</ref>

In 2003, following a directive from the Central Ministry of Environment and Forests, a uranium mining project in the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (in [[Nalgonda District]], [[Telangana]]) sparked public outcry, as 3,000 sq. kilometres were to be allocated for the project.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.wildlifewatch.in/news/1004
|title = Tiger reserve in Andhra made to shrink legally
|date = 7 January 2008
|publisher = Wildlifewatch.in
|access-date = 2008-05-22
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080210015459/http://www.wildlifewatch.in/news/1004
|archive-date = 10 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = ublic outcry greets uranium mining project in AP
| url = https://www.downtoearth.org.in/environment/ublic-outcry-greets-uranium-mining-project-in-ap-13407
| date = 2025-09-30
| archiveurl = https://archive.today/20250930092319/https://www.downtoearth.org.in/environment/ublic-outcry-greets-uranium-mining-project-in-ap-13407
| archivedate = 2025-09-30 }}</ref>

In 2007, India was able to extract 229 tonnes of U3O8 from its soil.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/euratom/ar/last.pdf 2007 Annual report of the Euratom Supply Agency]</ref>
On 19 July 2011, Indian officials announced that the Tumalapalli mine in the Andhra Pradesh state of India could provide more than 170,000 tonnes of uranium, making it the world's largest uranium mine. Production of the ore is slated to begin in 2012.<ref>{{cite web
| url= https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jADv2cDnhH_pZW5A4GXfXNK6V-YQ?docId=CNG.7e4a598f9713cc3df378c520326d27b1.531
| archive-url= https://archive.today/20130125030955/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jADv2cDnhH_pZW5A4GXfXNK6V-YQ?docId=CNG.7e4a598f9713cc3df378c520326d27b1.531
| url-status= dead
| archive-date= 25 January 2013
| title = India reveals 'world's biggest' uranium discovery
| date = 19 July 2011 | agency= Agence France-Presse}}</ref>

The [[Department of Atomic Energy]] (DAE) recently discovered that the upcoming mine in [[Tummalapalle uranium mine|Tumalapalli]] has close to 49,000 tonnes of uranium reserves. This could help India's nuclear power aspirations as it is three times the original estimate of the area's deposits.<ref>url: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14196372, title:India: 'Massive' uranium find in Andhra Pradesh, Source: BBC</ref>

=== Thorium ===
The IAEA's 2005 report estimates India's reasonably assured reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India's reserves at 650,000 tonnes.<ref name="fuel">{{cite book|url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TE_1450_web.pdf|title=IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle – Potential benefits and challenges|page=45}}</ref> A government of India estimate, shared in the country's Parliament in August 2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes.<ref name="pib">{{cite news|title=Availability of Thorium |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=74293|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|access-date=27 March 2012|date=10 August 2011}}</ref> The Indian Minister of State [[V. Narayanasamy]] stated that as of May 2013, the country's thorium reserves were 11.93 million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO2<ref name="rsus3721">{{cite web |url=http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rsus3721.pdf |title=DETAILS OF THORIUM RESERVES |date=10 May 2012 |website=[[Department of Atomic Energy]] (India) |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-date=19 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919031237/http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rsus3721.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>), with a significant majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%).<ref>{{cite news |title=Over 1.25 MT thorium reserve found in 3 years |agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/over-1-25-mt-thorium-reserve-found-in-3-years-113081400960_1.html |newspaper=[[Business Standard]]|date=14 August 2013 |access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> Both the IAEA and OECD appear to conclude that [[India]] may possess the largest share of world's thorium deposits.

== Biotic resources ==
[[Biotic material|Biotic resources]] are obtained from living and organic material. These include forest products, wildlife, crops and other living organisms. Most of these resources are renewable because they can be regenerated by themselves. [[Fossil fuels]] are considered as biotic because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels are non-renewable.<ref name="NIOS">{{cite web |title=Our resources |url=http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/316courseE/ch19.pdf |access-date=1 August 2013 |publisher=NIOS, Ministry of Human Resource Development}}</ref>

=== Population ===
{{Main|Demographics of India}}

India is the world's most populated country, having surpassed China in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hertog |first1=Sara |last2=Gerland |first2=Patrick |last3=Wilmoth |first3=John |date=24 April 2023 |title=UN DESA Policy Brief No. 153: India overtakes China as the world's most populous country {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-153-india-overtakes-china-as-the-worlds-most-populous-country/#:~:text=In%20April%202023,%20India%27s%20population,to%20grow%20for%20several%20decades. |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=United Nations}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=2023-04-24 |title=India overtakes China to become world's most populous country |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/24/india-overtakes-china-to-become-worlds-most-populous-country |access-date=2023-04-29 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Although population growth in India has slowed, the country's population is expected to grow and hit a peak of 1.7 billion people by 2064.<ref name=":9" /> India's [[Sub-replacement fertility|replacement level]] [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] is 2, as of 2023.<ref name=":10" /> Replacement levels in the country's larger states range from 1.6 for Punjab and West Bengal, and 3 for Bihar.<ref name=":10" /> India's [[Sub-replacement fertility|replacement level]] [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] is 2, as of 2023.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news |last=IANS |date=2023-04-20 |title='Big news' is India's population growth is below replacement level: UN expert |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/big-news-is-indias-population-growth-is-below-replacement-level-un-expert/articleshow/99629102.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-05-02 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> As of 2023, the average age of India's population is 28.2 years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jha |first=Abhishek |date=2023-04-20 |title=World population data: Average Indian 10 years younger than Chinese |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/indias-median-age-is-10-years-younger-than-china-s-says-unfpa-report-asia-s-median-age-is-31-9-years-youngest-continent-is-africa-at-18-8-years-101681931441033.html |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

India being the world's most populated country has been stated to be an asset for the country.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Rajvanshi |first=Astha |date=2023-01-20 |title=How India's Record-Breaking Population Will Shape the World |url=https://time.com/6248790/india-population-data-china/ |access-date=2023-05-02 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Patranobis |first=Sutirtho |date=2023-04-12 |title=Population trends on Chinese social media as India to become most populous |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/india-set-to-surpass-china-as-world-s-most-populous-country-this-month-says-un-report-101681301218646.html |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vohra |first=Anchal |date=28 April 2023 |title=Population Control Is Back in India |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/04/28/population-control-is-back-in-india/ |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref> Being the most populated country in the world could further reinforce India's claim for a permanent seat in the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Atanu |date=2023-04-26 |title=India's population growth: Boon or bane? |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/indias-population-growth-boon-or-bane/article66782272.ece |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=The Hindu Business Line |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=12 July 2022 |title=India becoming world's most populous country may strengthen its claim for permanent UNSC membership: UN official |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/india-becoming-worlds-most-populous-country-may-strengthen-its-claim-for-permanent-unsc-membership-un-official-411724 |access-date=3 May 2023 |website=The Tribune}}</ref> India's young and large population also has advantages for the country's economy. The country's working-age population is projected to reach 1 billion people by 2031.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last1=Dotto |first1=Carlotta |last2=Mogul |first2=Rhea |date=2023-04-28 |title=How India's population exploded to overtake China's and what's next |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/04/28/asia/india-population-overtakes-china-graphics-intl-hnk-dst-dg/index.html |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> India's working-age population growth is accounting for 23% of the world's working-age population growth between 2020 and 2025.<ref name=":11" /> India's large labour force is young, lower paid, English speaking, digitally learned and entrepreneurial, making the country an especially appealing destination for Western corporations that are looking to diversify their manufacturing centres from China.<ref name=":11" />

=== Forestry ===
{{Main|Forestry in India}}
As of 2020, India had the 10th largest forest cover in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahbandeh |first=M |date=2022 |title=Ten countries with most forest area 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/238893/ten-countries-with-most-forest-area/ |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> From 2010 to 2020, India was the country with the 3rd largest maximum average annual net gains in forest area and accounted for 2% of the world's total forest area.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahapatra |first=Richard |date=23 July 2020 |title=India among top 10 countries gaining forest area in the world: FAO |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/forests/india-among-top-10-countries-gaining-forest-area-in-the-world-fao-72454 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=Down To Earth |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, India's total forest cover was 80.9 million hectares, which is 24.62% of the country's land area.<ref name=":12" /> According to the India State of Forest Report of 2021, India's [[forest cover]] increased by 2,261 square kilometres from 2019 to 2021.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Yadav |first=Pooja |date=2023-03-12 |title=Explained: National Mission For A Green India |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/news/explained-national-mission-for-a-green-india-594843.html |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=Indiatimes |language=en-IN}}</ref> According to the same report, in 17 states and union territories, more than 33% of land was covered in forests.<ref name=":12" /> [[Madhya Pradesh]] is the state with the largest area of forest cover and [[Mizoram]] has the highest forest cover as a percentage of the total area of the state.<ref name=":12" /> The [[Indian Forest Service]] is responsible for conservation and biodiversity protection in India's forests.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ANI |date=2022-12-21 |title=President Murmu calls for sustainable management of forest resources |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/president-murmu-calls-for-sustainable-management-of-forest-resources-122122101306_1.html |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=Business Standard |language=en-US}}</ref> The country's forests are governed by the [[National Forest Policy, 1988|National Forest Policy,1988]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aggarwal |first=Mayank |date=2020-01-13 |title=India's missing a clear forest policy and its jungle dwellers are the worst off |url=https://qz.com/india/1783965/indias-missing-forest-policy-is-hurting-tribals-the-most |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref>

India has moist and dry [[Tropical forest|tropical]], [[Temperate forest|temperate]] and [[Subtropics|subtropical]] [[Montane ecosystems|montane]], [[Alpine climate|alpine]] and [[Shrubland|scrub]] forests.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last1=Kresek |first1=Kai |last2=Duraisami |first2=Marie |date=2020-07-02 |title=What's Happening In India's Forests? |url=https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/whats-happening-in-india-forests |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=Global Forest Watch Content}}</ref> India has a large forest economy.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Chhatre |first=Ashwini |date=2022-08-19 |title=The forest economy must be nurtured |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/the-forest-economy-must-be-nurtured/article65788549.ece |access-date=2023-05-08 |website=The Hindu Businessline |language=en}}</ref> The forests support the livelihood of approximately 275 million people, who depend on India's forests for food, [[Firewood|fuelwood]], [[fodder]] and [[Forest product|other products]].<ref name=":13" /> Non-timber forest products, are the largest unorganized economic sector in the country, with a sector having revenue that exceeds $788 million.<ref name=":13" /> Raw materials from India's forests are used in many industries, which include processed foods and confectionery, pharmaceuticals, alternative medicine, cosmetics and perfumery, and paper and pulp.<ref name=":14" />

===Fish===
{{Main|Fishing in India}}

As of 2020, India ranks second in aquaculture and third in [[Fishery|fisheries]] production.<ref name=":22" /> Fisheries contributes 1.07% to India's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) and employs 145 million people, as of 2020.<ref name=":22">{{Cite news |date=14 February 2020 |title=India's Blue Economy net getting bigger |publisher=Financial Express |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/indias-blue-economy-net-getting-bigger-country-ranks-third-in-fisheries-and-second-in-aquaculture/1867607/ |access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref> According to the [[Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying]], fish production increased from 7.52 lakh tonnes in the year 1950–51 to 125.90 lakh tonnes in the year 2018–19, an increase of seventeen times.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Fish production in india every year |url=http://dof.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-08/HandbookonFS2018.pdf |access-date= |website=}}</ref> During the 2021 fiscal year, India's fish production was 14.73 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minhas |first=A |date=18 January 2023 |title=India: fish production volume |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/912145/india-fish-production-volume/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> From 2021 to 2022, $7.76 billion worth of marine products were exported from India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=IANS |date=2023-02-13 |title=India's seafood exports likely to reach all-time high of US $ 8 billion |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/indias-seafood-exports-likely-to-reach-all-time-high-of-us-8-billion/articleshow/97861780.cms |access-date=2023-05-18 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India has a long history in fishing and aquaculture.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Shridhar |first=Tarun |date=29 September 2021 |title=The Indian Subcontinent – A Cradle Of Aquaculture |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/the-indian-subcontinent-a-cradle-of-aquaculture/396006 |access-date=18 May 2023 |website=Outlook}}</ref> [[Aquaculture]] is carried out in fresh water bodies and [[brackish water]] bodies.<ref name=":15" /> In Indian rivers more than 400 species of fish are found, many of which are economically important. [[Shrimp]], [[sardine]]s, [[mackerel]]s, [[carangid]], [[croakers]] and other varieties are available. Major fish species available are [[carp]], [[catfish]], [[murrel]] and [[weed fish]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fisheries management - India |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7560e/w7560e03.htm |access-date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(AOUN)}}</ref>

==Abiotic resources==
Abiotic resources are obtained from the non-living and non-organic material. Some of the resources, like water and air, are renewable. Other resources like minerals are non-renewable and exhaustible because they cannot be regenerated. Minerals have many categories like metallic, non-metallic and minor minerals.

===Metallic minerals===
Metallic minerals are the minerals which contain one or more metallic elements. They occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits. Metallic minerals available in India are [[gold]], [[cobalt]], [[zinc]], [[iron ore]], [[manganese ore]], [[bauxite]], [[silver]], [[lead]], [[tin]], [[copper]] and [[chromite]].<ref name="Bureau">{{cite web|url=http://www.mines.gov.in/writereaddata%5CContentlinks%5C1ed4a15b370646d7be2c6defb2ecf6c9.pdf|title=National Mineral Scenario|publisher=Ministry of Mines, Government of India|access-date=13 June 2013}}{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

====Chromite====
Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron. It is the only commercial source of chromium. As of 2022, India accounts for 20% of the world's production of chromite.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tribune News Service |date=12 November 2022 |title=GSI to step up exploration of chromite in Ladakh |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/j-k/gsi-to-step-up-exploration-of-chromite-in-ladakh-450439 |access-date=14 April 2023 |website=The Tribune}}</ref> As of 2022, India is also the world's 4th largest chromium producer and the country's chromium production was 4.2 million MT in the same year.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Pistilli |first=Melissa |date=27 February 2023 |title=Top 5 Chromium-producing Countries (Updated 2023) |url=https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/industrial-metals-investing/chromium-investing/top-chromium-producing-countries/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Investing News Network |language=en}}</ref> As of 2010, India had 200 million tonnes of resource. [[Odisha]] accounts for 98% of India's chromite deposits.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Express News Service |date=1 March 2023 |title=Gold reserves found in three districts: Odisha Minister |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bhubaneswar/2023/mar/01/gold-reserves-found-in-three-districts-odisha-minister-2552044.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Minor amount of resources are available from [[Manipur]], [[Nagaland]], Karnataka, [[Jharkhand]], Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="Chromite">{{cite web |date=October 2012 |title=Chromite - Indian Minerals Year book - 2011 |url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Chromite.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811033857/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Chromite.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2013 |access-date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Government of India}}</ref> It is mostly mined by opencast method. Chromium provides additional strength to the alloys and it is resistant to corrosion, so it is mainly used in metallurgical applications. It can withstand sudden temperature changes, so it is used in [[Refractory|refractories]]. It is also used in chemical applications.<ref name="Chromite" /> In 2020, Tata Steel Mining, a subsidiary of [[Tata Steel]], started chromite mining operations in Odisha.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Our Bureau |date=2020-11-06 |title=Tata Steel arm starts chromite mining operations in Odisha |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/commodities/tata-steel-arm-starts-chromite-mining-operations-in-odisha/article33041509.ece |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=The Hindu Business Line |language=en}}</ref>

==== Cobalt ====
Vedanta Limited is India's leading cobalt producer, which the company became by acquiring Nicomet in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zachariah |first=Reeba |date=2021-12-21 |title=Vedanta buys bankrupt nickel, cobalt co Nicomet |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/vedanta-buys-bankrupt-nickel-cobalt-co-nicomet/articleshow/88399238.cms |access-date=2023-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

====Copper====
{{main|Copper production in India}}

[[File:KausambiCastCopperCoin1stCenturyBCEInscribedKosabi.jpg|thumb|200px|right|1st-century B.C. copper coin signifies the usage of copper in India since ancient times.]]
Copper has been used in India since ancient times. In 2022, the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] found copper [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] figures and weapons that could potentially date back to 1600 to 2000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salaria |first=Shikha |date=2022-06-25 |title=ASI finds copper figures and weapons dating back 3,800 years in Mainpuri |url=https://theprint.in/india/asi-finds-copper-figures-and-weapons-dating-back-3800-years-in-mainpuri/1012119/ |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> Details of copper mining and metallurgy are available in ancient works like the [[Arthashastra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kauṭalya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FFJz72h5qjUC&dq=copper+mining+arthashastra&pg=PP10 |title=The Arthashastra |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-14-044603-6 |editor-last=Rangarajan |editor-first=L.N. |location=New Delhi |pages=297–300 |language=en |translator-last=Rangarajan |translator-first=L.N.}}</ref> In India, consumers of copper include the [[real estate]], home appliance manufacturing and [[Renewable energy in India|renewable energy]] sectors, such as [[electric vehicle]]s, [[solar power]] and [[wind turbine]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Industry Outlook Team |date=17 November 2022 |title=India pace global trend with robust copper demand this year |url=https://www.theindustryoutlook.com/machinery-and-equipment/news/india-pace-global-trend-with-robust-copper-demand-this-year-nwid-3378.html |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=www.theindustryoutlook.com}}</ref> As of 2019, India has approximately 2% of the world copper reserves and the country accounts for 0.2% of the world's copper production.<ref name=":0" /> India does not have a large number of copper mines and the mines in the country are primarily concentrated in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jagasheth |first=Urvisha |date=2019 |title=Indian Copper Industry- Trends and Outlook |url=https://www.careratings.com/uploads/newsfiles/Copper%20September%202019%20update.pdf |access-date=15 March 2023 |website=CARE Ratings |pages=1–2 }}</ref> [[Sterlite Copper]], [[Hindalco Industries]] and [[Hindustan Copper]] are the three companies that dominate India's copper industry.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kiran |first=Niti |date=2019-12-11 |title=India's copper production shrinks 6.4%; Sterlite Copper, Hindustan Copper see massive slump in output |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy-politics/story/india-refined-copper-production-shrinks-64-sterlite-copper-hindustan-copper-see-massive-slump-in-output-241040-2019-12-11 |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

====Gold====
As of 2020, India's gold production was 1.6 tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Press Trust of India |date=2022-03-17 |title=India's gold mine output 1.6 tonnes in 2020; may rise to 20 tonnes/yr: WGC |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-s-gold-mine-output-1-6-tonnes-in-2020-may-rise-to-20-tonnes-yr-wgc-122031700860_1.html |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=Business Standard |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, the [[Reserve Bank of India]] had total gold reserves of 787.4 tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Mukesh |date=20 January 2023 |title=India's gold market in December: retail demand sluggish and imports tumbled |url=https://www.gold.org/goldhub/gold-focus/2023/01/indias-gold-market-december-retail-demand-sluggish-and-imports-tumbled |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=World Gold Council |language=en}}</ref> India had the world's 9th largest gold reserves in 2022, and also became the world's 4th largest gold recycling country in the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DNA Web Team |date=25 March 2022 |title=Top 10 countries with highest gold reserve, this is where India stands |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-top-10-countries-with-the-highest-gold-reserves-know-where-india-stands-us-germany-italy-france-russia-china-2941389 |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Wadhwa |first=Puneet |date=2022-06-21 |title=India now the fourth largest gold recycling country: World Gold Council |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/india-now-the-fourth-largest-gold-recycling-country-world-gold-council-122062100700_1.html |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=Business Standard |language=en}}</ref> The country has increased its organised gold refining capacity, with an increase from just 300 tons in 2013 to approximately 1,800 tons in 2021.<ref name=":4" /> India has only 0.75% of total world gold production.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=9 December 2013 |title=Gold production in India |url=https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/india-2/production-and-distribution-of-gold-in-india/19753 |access-date= |website=}}</ref> As of 2022, the [[Hatti Gold Mines|Hutti Gold Mine]], located in the [[Raichur district]] of [[Karnataka]], is the only significant gold producer in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=17 March 2022 |title=India's gold mine output 1.6 tonnes in 2020; may rise to 20 tonnes/year: WGC |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/market/commodities/indias-gold-mine-output-1-6-tonnes-in-2020-may-rise-to-20-tonnesyear-wgc/2464212/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref>

====Iron ore====
{{Main|Iron and steel industry in India}}

As of 2023, India is the world's 4th largest exporter of iron ore.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Shan |first=Lee Ying |date=1 February 2023 |title=Iron ore prices could rally as one leading producer remains reluctant to share, analyst says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/01/iron-ore-prices-may-rally-as-india-remains-reluctant-to-share-analyst.html |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> The country also accounts for 9.2% of the world's iron ore production as of 2023.<ref name=":2" /> In 2021, the value of India's iron ore exports were $4.2 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garside |first=M |date=17 November 2022 |title=Iron ore exports leading countries 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1247850/leading-exporting-countries-of-iron-ore/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> As of 2019, India has the world's 7th largest iron ore reserves, with reserves of 5.5 billion tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NS Energy Staff Writer |date=29 June 2021 |title=Seven countries with the largest iron ore reserves in the world in 2019 |url=https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/world-iron-ore-reserves-countries/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=NS Energy |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Hematite]] and [[magnetite]] are the most prevalent iron ores found in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tandon |first=Tulika |date=2021-02-27 |title=Iron Ore Reserves and Production in India: Know about Jiling Langlota and Guali mines of Odisha |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/all-about-iron-ore-reserves-and-production-in-india-new-mines-in-odisha-and-other-details-1614246683-1 |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=Jagran Josh}}</ref> The major amount of hematite is found in [[Odisha|Orissa]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Goa]]. Minor amounts of hematite are found in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Most magnetite is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and [[Tamil Nadu]]. Minor amounts of magnetite are found in Assam, Bihar, [[Goa]], Jharkhand, [[Kerala]], Maharashtra, [[Meghalaya]] and [[Nagaland]]. Mining is done by the opencast method. Iron ore is mainly used for manufacturing of [[pig iron]], [[sponge iron]] and [[steel]]. It is also used in coal washeries, cement and glass industries.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2012 |title=Iron ore - Indian Minerals year book - 2011 |url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Iron%20ore.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810234413/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Iron%20ore.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2013 |access-date=1 August 2013 |publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Government of India}}</ref> As of 2021, [[National Mineral Development Corporation|NMDC]] is India's largest [[Public sector undertakings in India|public sector]] iron ore producing company.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SNS |date=2021-11-12 |title=India's largest iron ore producing Public Sector company delivers best ever results |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/indias-largest-iron-ore-producing-public-sector-company-delivers-best-ever-results-1503024179.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=The Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref> As of 2023, Vedanta Limited is the country's largest private company in iron ore production and the second largest producer overall in India.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2023-03-02 |title=Capital is necessary for growth, says Vedanta Resources |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/capital-is-necessary-for-growth-says-vedanta-resources/articleshow/98368075.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-04-13 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> Tata Steel is another prominent private company that mines iron ore.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Punj |first=Vivek |date=2021-11-27 |title=Tata Steel focuses on increasing iron ore production to 45 mtpa in 5 yrs |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/tata-steel-focuses-on-increasing-iron-ore-production-to-45-mtpa-in-5-yrs-11638031063390.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

==== Lithium ====
In February 2023, the [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) found 5.9 million metric tonnes of lithium in [[Reasi district|Reasi District]] of [[Jammu]], making India the country with the world's 7th largest lithium resources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malik |first=Irfan Amin |date=17 February 2023 |title=What lies ahead for India's lithium village in Jammu |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/what-lies-ahead-for-indias-lithium-village-in-jammu-10105591.html |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mohan |first=Vishwa |date=2023-02-10 |title=GSI discovery makes India 7th largest Lithium resource |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gsi-discovery-makes-india-7th-largest-lithium-resource/articleshow/97807112.cms |access-date=2023-02-20 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In April 2023, the process for auctioning mining rights for the lithium was started.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Narayan |first1=Subhash |last2=Mishra |first2=Mihir |date=2023-04-10 |title=J&K govt may hire SBI Cap to advise on lithium auction |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jammu-kashmir-to-auction-lithium-mines-may-hire-sbi-caps-as-advisor-india-targets-30-ev-adoption-by-2030-lithiummining-evadoption-11681063399442.html |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=Mint |language=en}}</ref> Lithium reserves of 1600 tonnes were also found in [[Karnataka]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=IANS |date=2023-02-27 |title=After J&K, Karnataka next in turn for good news on lithium in Mandya |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/after-jammu-karnataka-next-in-turn-for-good-news-on-lithium-in-mandya/articleshow/98235547.cms |access-date=2023-04-22 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=V. Rishi |date=2021-08-13 |title=Atomic Minerals Directorate looks for lithium in Karnataka, Rajasthan |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/atomic-minerals-directorate-looks-for-lithium-in-karnataka-rajasthan/article35890816.ece |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=www.thehindubusinessline.com |language=en}}</ref> Between 2023 and 2024, the GSI will also undertake lithium exploration in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand due to the topographical and geological similarities to [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Law |first=Abhishek |date=17 April 2023 |title=India to look for lithium in Uttarakhand, Himachal |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/india-to-look-for-lithium-in-uttarakhand-himachal/article66747247.ece |access-date=23 April 2023 |website=The Hindu BusinessLine}}</ref>

====Manganese====
As of 2021, India is the world's 7th largest producer of manganese.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Pistilli |first=Melissa |date=21 September 2022 |title=Top 10 Manganese-producing Countries |url=https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/battery-metals-investing/manganese-investing/top-manganese-producing-countries/ |access-date=2023-03-16 |website=Investing News Network |language=en}}</ref> The country produced 600,000 tonnes of manganese in 2021.<ref name=":1" /> The majority of the manganese produced in India is used in steel production.<ref name=":1" /> It is found in Karnataka, [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]]. As of 2022, [[MOIL]] is India's largest producer of manganese ore and operates 11 mines.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=4 April 2022 |title=Manganese ore miner MOIL's FY22 turnover grows 22 pc to Rs 1,436 crore |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/manganese-ore-miner-moils-fy22-turnover-grows-22-pc-to-rs-1436-crore/articleshow/90645039.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-11-29}}</ref>

==== Nickel ====
As of 2023, Vedanta Limited is India's sole producer of [[nickel]].<ref name=":5" /> 93% of the country nickel resources are found in Odisha.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nair |first1=Purnima M. |last2=Avachat |first2=Hitesh M. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Nickel Industry |url=https://www.careratings.com/uploads/newsfiles/Nickel%20Industry.pdf |website=CARE Ratings |page=3 }}</ref>

==== Silver ====
As of 2022, India is the 11th largest silver producer in the world.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=GlobalData |date=2023-04-06 |title=Silver production in India and major projects |url=https://www.mining-technology.com/data-insights/silver-in-india/ |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Mining Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> The country also accounts for 3% of the world's silver production.<ref name=":7" /> India's largest silver mine is the Sindesar Khurd Mine, in Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ShieldSquare Captcha |url=https://www.globaldata.com/data-insights/mining/india--five-largest-silver-mines-in-2090706/#:~:text=The%20five%20largest%20silver%20mines,mmtpa%20of%20ROM%20in%202021. |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=GlobalData |language=en}}</ref> [[Hindustan Zinc|Hindustan Zinc Limited]] (HZL) is India's largest silver producer.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=21 April 2023 |title=Hindustan Zinc Becomes Fifth Largest Silver Producer Globally |url=https://www.businesswireindia.com/hindustan-zinc-becomes-fifth-largest-silver-producer-globally-84168.html#:~:text=Udaipur,%20Rajasthan,%20India:&text=Hindustan%20Zinc,%20India%27s%20leading%20zinc,top%2020%20silver-producing%20countries. |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Business Wire India |language=en}}</ref> As of 2022, HZL is also the world's 5th largest silver producer.<ref name=":8" />

====Zinc====
As of 2022, India has the world's 6th largest zinc reserves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Garside |first=M |date=26 February 2023 |title=Zinc reserves worldwide by country 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/273639/global-zinc-reserves-by-country/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> There is evidence that zinc production took place in Rajasthan in the 6th century BC.<ref name=":3" /> References to medicinal uses of zinc are present in the [[Charaka Samhita]], written between 300 and 500 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Philosopher's Wool or White Snow {{!}} Hindustan Zinc |url=https://www.hzlindia.com/ask_for_zinc/philosophers-wool-or-white-snow-zinc-always-and-forever/ |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=Hindustan Zinc}}</ref> Mines in [[Zawar]], Rajasthan, date back to the 9th century and are among the oldest evidence of zinc mines in India.<ref name=":3" /> Zinc is recovered from a number of different zinc ores. The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate and oxide.<ref name="Portal">{{cite web |url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,745800&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |title=Zinc |publisher=Geological Survey of India, Ministry of Mines, Government of India |access-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811093822/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,745800&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |archive-date=11 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zinc is used in [[Galvanization|galvanisation]], batteries, electrical goods and equipment, hardware, communication equipment, musical instruments and machinery.<ref name="Portal" /> It is also used as white pigment in paints.<ref name="Portal" /> HZL is the country's largest integrated producer of zinc and as of 2023, the company an 80% market share in primary zinc production in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhalerao |first=Mayur |date=2023-03-21 |title=Hindustan Zinc to pay Rs26 per share as interim dividend |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/hindustan-zinc-to-pay-rs26-per-share-as-interim-dividend-11679407999290.html |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=Mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=SI Reporter |date=2023-03-22 |title=Hindustan Zinc surges 5% on announcing liberal interim dividend |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/hindustan-zinc-surges-5-on-announcing-liberal-interim-dividend-123032200182_1.html |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=Business Standard |language=en}}</ref> As of 2023, HZL is also the second largest integrated zinc producer in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Press Trust of India |date=2 February 2023 |title=Government To Sell Some Stake In Hindustan Zinc Ltd This Fiscal: DIPAM Secretary |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/business/government-to-sell-some-stake-in-hindustan-zinc-ltd-this-fiscal-dipam-secretary-news-258898 |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=Outlook}}</ref> [[Rampura Agucha]], owned by HZL, is the world's largest underground zinc mine as of 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wayne |first=Michael |date=29 November 2022 |title=Zinc Pioneers: Hindustan Zinc |url=https://www.theceomagazine.com/executive-interviews/mining-metals/hindustan-zinc/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=The CEO Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> India's 5 largest zinc mines are located in Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=India: Five Largest Zinc Mines in 2021 |url=https://www.globaldata.com/data-insights/mining/india--five-largest-zinc-mines-in-2090715/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=GlobalData |language=en}}</ref> A minor amount of resources are available in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra states.<ref name="Portal" />

===Non-metallic minerals===
Non-metallic minerals are those which do not yield new products on melting. They are generally associated with sedimentary rocks. Non-Metallic minerals available from India are
[[phosphorite]], [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], gypsum, [[garnet]], [[wollastonite]], [[vermiculite]], [[ochre]], [[perlite]], [[bentonite]], [[asbestos]], [[cadmium]], [[felspar]], soapstone, [[Kaolinite|kaolin]], [[sillimanite]], limestone, [[diatomite]], [[pyrophyllite]], [[fluorite]], [[vanadium]], [[dunite]], [[ilmenite]], [[gallium]] and [[zircon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2011.htm|title=Indian Minerals Year Book 2011|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines|access-date=13 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508161506/http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2011.htm|archive-date=8 May 2013}}</ref>
[[File:AlmandinInde.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Almandine (garnet group) from Rajasthan]]

====Garnet group====
It is a group of complex silicate minerals and has similar chemical compositions. There are three groups of garnet - aluminum-garnet group, chromium-garnet group, and iron-garnet group. The minerals in aluminium-garnet group are [[almandine]], [[grossular]]ite, [[pyrope]], and [[spessartine]]. The mineral in Iron-garnet group is [[andradite]]. The mineral in chromium-garnet group is [[uvarovite]]. Garnet group minerals occur in different rock types.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geo.umn.edu/courses/1001/minerals/garnet.shtml|title=Garnet Group|publisher=Department of Geology, University of Minnesota, U.S.A|access-date=1 August 2013}}</ref> It is a hard substance. It is resistant to chemical exposure. It is used as a semi-precious stone and also in abrasives, [[sand blasting]], water filtration materials and [[Water jet cutter|water jet cutting]]. Garnets are available in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Chhattisgarh]], Jharkhand, [[Kerala]], Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. It is also found in beach sands of Kerala, Orissa and Tamil Nadu states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Garnet.pdf|title=Garnet - Indian Minerals Year Book - 2011|date=October 2012|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Government of India|access-date=10 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811032004/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Garnet.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> In 2007–08, India produced 8,73,000 tonnes.<ref name="Geological">{{cite web|url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/peer_reviewed_base_document_com_iv.pdf|title=INDUSTRIAL & FERTILIZER MINERALS|year=2011|publisher=Geological Survey of India|access-date=2 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016124047/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/peer_reviewed_base_document_com_iv.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2013}}</ref>

====Wollastonite====
It is a meta-silicate of calcium. It is mostly white in color and occurs as bladed or needle like crystals. In 2010, India had 16 million tonnes of resource. Most of the deposits are available in Rajasthan ([[Dungarpur]], Pali, [[Sirohi]] and [[Udaipur]] districts). Minor amount of deposits are found in [[Gujarat]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Wollastonite">{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Wollastonite.pdf|title=Wollastonite - Indian Minerals Year book - 2011|date=October 2012|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Government of India|access-date=10 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811040249/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Wollastonite.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> It is mainly used in ceramic industries and metallurgical applications. It is also used as a filler in wall tiles, paint, rubber and plastic. India is one of the largest reserves. In 2011, India produced 150,000 tons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/wollastonite/mcs-2012-wolla.pdf|title=WOLLASTONITE|date=January 2012|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=21 June 2013|archive-date=29 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429194007/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/wollastonite/mcs-2012-wolla.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is mined by opencast method. It is also used as a substitute for short-fibre asbestos in brake-linings. [[Central Building Research Institute]] has found that wollastonite can be used as substitute for chrysotile asbestos in cement products.<ref name="Wollastonite"/>

====Sillimanite group====
[[File:Sillimanite-k302a.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Sillimanite from Orissa]]
It is a group of metamorphic minerals - [[sillimanite]], [[kyanite]] and [[andalusite]]. It looks like a crystal. These are polymorphs of alumino-silicate. These are formed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The three minerals are calcined to form [[mullite]]. Mainly used as refractory materials.<ref name="australia"/>
As of 2010, India had 66 million tonnes of sillimanite, 100 million tonnes of Kyanite and 18 million tonnes of Andalusite as a resource. Most of the resources are found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and [[Assam]]. A minor amount of resources are found in [[Jharkhand]], Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, [[Meghalaya]], Rajasthan and [[West Bengal]]. Granular sillimanite is available in beach sands of South India. Sillimanite refractory bricks are used in steel, glass and petrochemical industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Kyanite%20-Sillim.pdf|title=Kyanite, Sillimanite and Andalusite - Indian Minerals Year book - 2011|date=October 2012|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines, India|access-date=10 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811072312/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Kyanite%20-Sillim.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> In 2004, India produced 14,500 tonnes of sillimanite and 6200 tonnes of kyanite.<ref name="australia">{{cite web|url=http://www.resources.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/238207/Sillimanite.pdf|title=Sillimanite group|publisher=Division of Resources and Energy, Government of Australia|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=28 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328115925/http://www.resources.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/238207/Sillimanite.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Ilmenite====
It is a compound of iron and titanium. It will be iron-black or steel-gray in color. It is a non-toxic material used in biomedical substances. [[Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology]] has developed an environmentally friendly technology for processing ilmenite.<ref>{{cite news|title=Plan to set up tech plant|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111025/jsp/orissa/story_14663470.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201105702/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111025/jsp/orissa/story_14663470.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 December 2011|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=25 October 2011|location=Bhubaneswar, India}}</ref>
It is also used in production of titanium dioxide pigment. It is available in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Mining is done at [[Chavara]], [[Chatrapur]], [[Aluva]] and [[Manavalakurichi]] by [[Indian Rare Earths]] limited.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/unit.asp|title=Unit profile|publisher=IREL, Department of Atomic Energy|access-date=10 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113114214/http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/unit.asp|archive-date=13 January 2016}}</ref> As of 2013, India has 21% of the world's reserves and constitutes 6% of the world's production.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mining industry association requests export duty rollback|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-22/india-business/37935479_1_export-duty-fimi-indian-mineral-industries|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130702105732/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-22/india-business/37935479_1_export-duty-fimi-indian-mineral-industries|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2013|date=22 March 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

====Pyrophyllite====
It is a hydrous alumino-silicate. It is chemically inert, has high melting point and low electrical conductivity. It is used in refractories, foundry dressings, pesticides, ceramics and rubber. It is available as hydrothermal deposits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.resources.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/238200/Pyrophyllite.pdf|title=Pyrophyllite|publisher=Division of Resources and Energy, Government of Australia|access-date=2 July 2013}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The physical and optical properties are pyrophyllite are similar to [[talc]]. It is also used in electrical insulators, sanitary-ware and in the glass industry. As of 2010, India had 56 million tonnes of this resource. Most of the resources are found in Madhya Pradesh ([[Chhatarpur]], [[Tikamgarh]] and [[Shivpuri]] districts). The remaining resources are found in Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In 2010, India produced 1.5 million tonnes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Pyrophyllite.pdf|title=Pyrophyllite - Indian Minerals year book - 2011|date=October 2012|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines, Government of India|access-date=1 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810231949/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Pyrophyllite.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2013}}</ref>

===Minor minerals===
[[File:Quartzite rocks at a hillock near Anandapuram.jpg|thumb|Quartzite rocks in North Coastal Andhra Pradesh]]
[[File:White Marble Rocks at Bhedaghat.jpg|thumb|White marble rocks in Madhya Pradesh]]
Minor minerals available are building stone, brick earth, [[quartzite]], marble, [[granite]], gravel, clay and sand. These are mainly used in [[building construction]]s.<ref name="Bureau"/> [[Environmental impact of mining]] these minerals was significant over a period of time even the area was small. Impacts were increasing [[water scarcity]], damage to river beds and adverse effects on [[biodiversity]]. So from 2012 onwards, mining of these minerals are to be done after clearance from the [[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment and Forests]].<ref>{{cite news|title=MoEF's clearance must for mining minor minerals, too: Supreme Court|url=http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/moefs-clearance-must-mining-minor-minerals-too-supreme-court|newspaper=Down to Earth|date=7 March 2012|location=India|archive-date=10 November 2013|access-date=8 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110012218/http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/moefs-clearance-must-mining-minor-minerals-too-supreme-court|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Marble====
[[Marble]] is a metamorphosed limestone formed by re-crystallization. It is available in different colours and textures. Marble deposits are available in many states of India.<ref name="Marble"/> It has been used in India for a long time. It was used in construction of Temples, Tombs and Palaces. Now it is also used for flooring in homes and offices. It is preferred for flooring because of its durability and water resistance.<ref>{{cite news|title=Marble remains best flooring option|url=http://www.hindu.com/pp/2009/01/17/stories/2009011750230300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426171517/http://www.hindu.com/pp/2009/01/17/stories/2009011750230300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 April 2009|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 January 2009}}</ref> Marbles which are economically important are available in Rajasthan, Gujarat, [[Haryana]], Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. As of 2010, there was 1931 million tonnes of resource, including all grades of marble. Based on the chemical composition, types of Marble available are Calcite, [[Dolomitic]], [[Siliceous]] Limestone, Serpentine and [[Travertine]] marbles. Other than construction, it is used in Paint and Agricultural lime.<ref name="Marble">{{cite web|url=http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Marble.pdf|title=Indian minerals year book - 2011 - Marble|date=October 2012|publisher=Indian Bureau of Mines|access-date=14 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811043215/http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_Marble.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Mining in India]]
* [[Geological Survey of India]]
* [[MOIL Limited]]
* [[Geology of India]]
* [[Agriculture in India]]
* [[Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute]]
* [[National Environmental Engineering Research Institute]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Asia topic|Natural resources of}}

[[Category:Resource economics]]
[[Category:Mining in India]]
[[Category:Economy of India]]
[[Category:Natural resources by country|India]]

Gold Cup (India)

2026-02-04T22:56:13Z

Yaarzu: starting a pg

{{Short description|International women's association football tournament}}
{{Infobox football tournament
| logo = Gold Cup (India).svg
| caption =
| organiser = [[All India Football Federation|AIFF]]
| founded = {{start date and age|2019}}
| region = [[India]]
| teams = 4
| current champions = {{fbw|MYA}} (1st title)
| most successful team = {{fbw|MYA}} (1 title)
| current =
}}

The '''Gold Cup''' is a 4-team women's [[association football|football]] tournament organised by the [[All India Football Federation]] (AIFF).<ref>{{cite web|title=Hero Gold Cup|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/competitions/hero-gold-cup|publisher=AIFF|access-date=8 January 2023|archive-date=8 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108103653/https://www.the-aiff.com/competitions/hero-gold-cup|url-status=live}}</ref> It was launched in 2019 with the first edition being held at the [[Kalinga Stadium]] in association with the Government of Odisha.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hero Gold Cup 2019|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/calendar?event=20&month=0&year=2019|publisher=AIFF|access-date=8 January 2023|archive-date=8 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108103655/https://www.the-aiff.com/calendar?event=20&month=0&year=2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The tournament naming rights were purchased by [[Hero MotoCorp]] which also sponsors the national team.<ref>{{cite web|title=INDIAN WOMEN TO PLAY IRAN ON OPENING DAY OF HERO GOLD CUP|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9457|publisher=AIFF|access-date=2023-01-08|archive-date=2019-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202043705/https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9457|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://odishasuntimes.com/hero-gold-cup-india-to-face-iran-in-opener-at-odishas-kalinga-stadium/|title=Hero Gold Cup: India to face Iran in opener at Odisha's Kalinga Stadium|date=1 February 2019|access-date=8 January 2023|archive-date=23 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423034710/https://odishasuntimes.com/hero-gold-cup-india-to-face-iran-in-opener-at-odishas-kalinga-stadium/|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

The first edition was held in 2019, which was won by [[Myanmar women's national football team|Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite web|title=MYANMAR DEFEAT NEPAL TO CLINCH HERO GOLD CUP TITLE|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/myanmar-defeat-nepal-to-clinch-hero-gold-cup-title|publisher=AIFF|date=15 February 2019|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=24 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924005157/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/myanmar-defeat-nepal-to-clinch-hero-gold-cup-title|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Myanmar beat Nepal 3-1 to clinch Hero Gold Cup women's international tournament|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/myanmar-beat-nepal-3-1-to-clinch-hero-gold-cup-womens-international-tournament/articleshow/68014927.cms|work=The Times of India|date=15 February 2019|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221625/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/myanmar-beat-nepal-3-1-to-clinch-hero-gold-cup-womens-international-tournament/articleshow/68014927.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Results==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; width: 100%; text-align: center;"
|-
!Year!!Host!!Winner!!Runner-up!!3rd Place!!4th Place
|-
|2019 ''[[2019 Gold Cup (India)|Details]]''
|[[Bhubaneswar]]
|'''{{fbw-big|MYA}}'''
|{{fbw-big|NEP}}
|{{fbw-big|IND}}
|{{fbw-big|IRN}}
|-
|}

==Medal summary==
{{Medals table
| caption =
| host =
| flag_template = fbw
| event =
| team =
| gold_MYA = 1 | silver_MYA = 0 | bronze_MYA = 0
| gold_NEP = 0 | silver_NEP = 1 | bronze_NEP = 0
| gold_IND = 0 | silver_IND = 0 | bronze_IND = 1
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.the-aiff.com/competitions/hero-gold-cup Hero Gold Cup]

{{Football in India}}
{{International women's football}}

[[Category:International association football competitions hosted by India]]
[[Category:2019 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Recurring sporting events established in 2019]]
[[Category:Women's international association football invitational tournaments]]

{{India-footy-competition-stub}}

Bachi, Belagavi

2026-02-03T15:35:51Z

Yaarzu: creating a stub

{{one source|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bachi
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Belgaum district|Belagavi]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
}}

'''Bachi''' is a village in [[Belgaum taluka]] of [[Belgaum district|Belagavi district]] in the southern state of [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. According to the 2011 Census of India, the population was 956 individuals. The village is listed in the Primary Census Abstract for Belgaum District with village code 597721.<ref>{{cite web
|title=PCA TV: Primary Census Abstract at town, village & ward level – Karnataka (District Belgaum) – Census of India 2011
|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/study/PC11_PCA-TV-2901
|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India
|access-date=27 January 2026
}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Settlements in Belagavi district}}

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

[[Category:Villages in Belagavi district]]

{{Belgaum-geo-stub}}

Priya's Shakti

2026-01-31T15:22:45Z

Yaarzu: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|Graphic novel}}
{{Infobox graphic novel 
| title = Priya's Shakti
| foreigntitle =
| image =
| imagesize = 
| caption =
| alt =
| publisher = Rattapallax
| date = 2014
| origpublication =
| origissues =
| origdate = [[2014 in comics|2014]]
| origisbn =
| creators = {{plainlist|
*[[Ram Devineni]]
*[[Dan Goldman (writer)|Dan Goldman]]
}}
| transpublisher =
| transdate =
| transisbn =
| pages =
| translator =
| previous =
| next =
}}
'''''Priya's Shakti''''' is a [[graphic novel]] by [[Ram Devineni]] and [[Dan Goldman (writer)|Dan Goldman]], Illustrated by [[Sid Fini]], [[Melanconnie]] and [[Faebian Ceruleo]], whose heroine, Priya, is a "modern-day female superhero", a rape survivor who rides a flying tiger. Issued in 2014, it was followed by ''Priya's Mirror'' (2016), ''Priya and the Lost Girls'' (2019), ''Priya and the Wolves'' (2020), ''Priya and the Swarm'' (2021), ''Priya and the Twirling Wind'' (2022), and ''Priya and Sahas'' (2023).

== Background and production ==

Indian American film maker Ram Devineni was inspired to create ''Priya's Shakti'' in response to the [[Delhi bus rape]] in 2012. He travelled around India and parts of southeast Asia for almost a year, consulting with activists against gender-based violence and also with sociologists, philosophers and poets,<ref name=NBC>{{Cite news |author=Jennifer Chowdhury |title = India's Newest Heroine Breaks Rape-Talk Taboo with Comic Book |publisher=NBC News |url = https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/indias-newest-heroine-breaks-rape-talk-taboo-comic-book-n268481 |date=16 December 2014 |orig-year=15 December 2014 }}</ref> before collaborating with American comic book designer Dan Goldman, whom he met in New York, to create a graphic novel.<ref name=launch>{{cite news |author= Geeta Pandey |date=7 December 2014 |title=India's new comic 'super hero': Priya, the rape survivor |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30288173 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name=Fast>{{cite web |author=P. Claire Dodson |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/3064317/acid-attacks-and-augmented-reality-how-priyas-mirror-is-using-tech-to |title=Acid Attacks And Augmented Reality: How Priya's Mirror Is Using Tech To Change India |website=Fast Company |date=28 October 2016 }}</ref> Produced in Hindi and English, the comic was available as a free download and was launched at Mumbai Comicon in December 2014, two years after that case.<ref name=launch/><ref name=Grauniad>{{cite news |author=Alison Flood |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/dec/18/india-comic-superhero-tackle-rape-women-priyas-shakti-parvati |title=Indian comic creates female superhero to tackle rape |newspaper=The Guardian |date=18 December 2014 |access-date=2 June 2015 }}</ref><ref name=BBC>{{cite news |author=Geeta Pandey |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50406618 |title=Priya: India's female comic superhero returns to rescue 'stolen girls' |publisher=BBC News |date=25 November 2019 }}</ref> The project's social impact director was Lina Srivastava; in partnership with Aapne Aap Worldwide, an [[NGO]] helping women in India and the US, a #standwithpriya selfie campaign was organised<ref name=Grauniad/> and copies were distributed in schools.<ref name=NBC/> An exhibition appeared in locations around the world including New York, Torino, Barcelona, London, Sheffield, Rome and Dubai.<ref name=exhibit>{{Cite news|title = Groundbreaking Augmented Reality Exhibit Coming to New York's City Lore Gallery |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/04/23/idUSnMKWR6wXKa+1e6+MKW20150423|publisher = Reuters|date = 23 April 2015 |type=press release |url-status = dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310200450/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSnMKWR6wXKa+1e6+MKW20150423 |archive-date=10 March 2016 }}</ref>

''Priya's Shakti'' was India's first [[augmented reality]] comic book;<ref name=Reuters>{{cite news |author=Nita Bhalla |url=http://news.trust.org//item/20141217170700-p24nf |title=Rape survivor turns "superhero" in India's first digital comic |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation |date=17 December 2014 |access-date=25 November 2019 }}</ref> scanning pages with [[Blippar]] brought up animations and true stories,<ref name=NBC/> and the [[Artivive]] app is now used.<ref name=Huff>{{cite web |author=Binjal Shah |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/entry/priyas-shakti-indian-superhero-comicbook_in_5dda0be8e4b0d50f3290f48d |title=India's First Female Superhero Takes On Sex Trafficking |website=Huffington Post India |date=24 November 2019 }}</ref> Associated murals in [[Mumbai]] and other cities could also be scanned with a smart phone to play video.<ref name=NBC/>

==''Priya's Shakti''==
''Priya's Shakti'' tells the story of Priya, a villager from India who is gang raped by men in her village. When she tells her family of her ordeal, they shun her saying she has brought shame on them. The village elders also blame her for "provoking" the men. Ashamed and scared, she flees to the forest to end her life. But the goddess [[Parvati]], queen to the god [[Shiva]], sees her plight and seeks to help her. She enters Priya's body and confronts the men who raped her. The men do not realize Parvati is inside Priya and try to rape her again. Angered, the goddess takes her true form. Meanwhile, Shiva is awakened from his slumber and sees how mortal men are treating his wife. Furious, he curses all mankind to impotency. But Parvati's idea prevails: Priya becomes a superpowered champion of women's rights, who will work to end violence against women by changing society.<ref name=launch/><ref name=Reuters/><ref name=Huff/> In the title of the comic, ''Shakti'' means "strength".<ref name=NBC/> Her tiger nature manifests as a flying tiger on which she rides, called Sahas, "courage" in Hindi.<ref name=BBC/>

== ''Priya's Mirror'' ==
In ''Priya's Mirror'', the second comic in the series, released in October 2016 at the [[New York Film Festival]] in English, Hindi, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, Priya and [[acid attack]] survivors combat the demon king Ahankar, himself an abuse victim.<ref name=Huff/> In a partnership with the Last Mask Campaign, readers could use Snapchat-style filters to share images of their faces as they would be after an acid attack, as a show of solidarity.<ref name=Fast/><ref name=National/> The comic was written by Devineni with Indian film maker and writer [[Paromita Vohra]], again with art by Goldman.<ref name=National>{{cite news |author=Priti Salian |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/priya-s-mirror-highlights-issues-of-gender-inequality-and-violence-against-women-1.151583 |title=Priya's Mirror highlights issues of gender inequality and violence against women |newspaper=The National |date=1 October 2016 |access-date=25 November 2019 }}</ref> An augmented reality exhibit and interview at [[Lincoln Center]] were part of the release.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.filmlinc.org/nyff2016/films/priyas-mirror/ |title=Convergence: Priya's Mirror |publisher=New York Film Festival 2016 |access-date=25 November 2019 }}</ref>

== ''Priya and the Lost Girls'' ==
''Priya and the Lost Girls'' appeared in December 2019 and was scripted by Indian American actress and playwright [[Dipti Mehta]], who researched [[sex trafficking]] for her one-woman show, ''Honour''; [[Ruchira Gupta]], the founder of Apne Aap, also collaborated on it.<ref name=Huff/> Priya finds all the girls have vanished from her village, including her sister, Lakshmi; she rescues them from an underground brothel city run by the demon Rahu, who turns any women who resist to stone, but the rescued girls must then also stand up for their rights against the villagers who refuse to take them back, scorning them as "lepers".<ref name=BBC/> Devineni chose this theme for the third comic in the series after visiting the red light district of [[Sonagachi]] in Kolkata and talking to women who were in the sex trade after being tricked, or believing they had no other way to earn a living.<ref name=BBC/><ref name=Huff/>

== Awards and recognition ==
''Priya's Shakti'' received a grant from the 2014 Tribeca Film Institute New Media Fund, supported by the Ford Foundation.<ref name=NBC/> [[UN Women]] named the heroine a 2014 Gender Equality Champion.<ref name=exhibit/>

''Priya's Mirror'' was funded by the [[World Bank]] WEvolve programme and received the Special Jury Prize at the 2017 FilmGate Interactive Media Festival in Miami.<ref>{{cite news |author=Priti Salian |url=https://scroll.in/article/830288/how-the-world-bank-got-involved-with-a-comic-book-series-on-crimes-against-women |title=How the World Bank got involved with a comic book series on crimes against women |website=Scroll.in |date=26 February 2017 |access-date=25 November 2019 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Comics|Feminism|India}}

* [[Blank Noise]]
* [[List of feminist comic books]]
* [[Rape in India]]
* [[Sexism in India]]
* [[Women in India]]

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last=Bahree |first=Megha |date=December 16, 2014 |title=Meet Priya: A Comic Book Character Out To Fight Rape |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/meghabahree/2014/12/16/meet-priya-a-comic-book-character-out-to-fight-rape/ |journal=Forbes |access-date=December 19, 2014 }}
*{{cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Rhitu |date=December 16, 2014 |title=India's New Comic Book Hero Fights Rape, Rides On The Back Of A Tiger |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/goatsandsoda/2014/12/16/371209381/indias-new-comic-book-hero-fights-rape-rides-on-the-back-of-a-tiger |publisher=NPR |access-date=December 19, 2014 }}
*{{cite news |author= |date=December 17, 2014 |title=Comic book for women's rights launched |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/448085/comic-book-womens-rights-launched.html |newspaper=Deccan Herald |agency=DHNS |location=Delhi |access-date=December 22, 2014 }}
*{{cite news |last=Lazarus |first=Susanna Myrtle |date=December 16, 2014 |title=More Power to the Pencil |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/priyas-shakti-rape-survivor-augmented-reality-comic-ram-devineni-dan-goldman/article6689200.ece |newspaper=Hindu |access-date=December 19, 2014 }}
*Smears, Ali. Mobilizing Shakti: Hindu Goddesses and Campaigns Against Gender-Based Violence. Religions 2019, 10(6), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060381
*{{cite news |last=Srivastava |first=Lina |date=December 17, 2014 |title=An Interactive Fight Against Gender-Based Violence: Priya's Shakti |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lina-srivastava/priyas-shakti_b_6336632.html |publisher=HuffingtonPost.com |access-date=December 19, 2014 }}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.priyashakti.com/ Official website]
*[https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5d67c06afe0d04000149aba7/1568392857329-IAWT0BRMWGA3U8SLCLZ5/ke17ZwdGBToddI8pDm48kAt72yGFwHZjoxtmj75n0VMUqsxRUqqbr1mOJYKfIPR7LoDQ9mXPOjoJoqy81S2I8N_N4V1vUb5AoIIIbLZhVYy7Mythp_T-mtop-vrsUOmeInPi9iDjx9w8K4ZfjXt2dv608ZF5SQ066zrusfA3lZsto2GUPSkfCkjYhXQIm1t1CjLISwBs8eEdxAxTptZAUg/banner1.png?format=2500w Priya Shakti riding her tiger]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Priya's Shakti}}
[[Category:Pantheon Books graphic novels]]
[[Category:2014 graphic novels]]
[[Category:Graphic novels about women]]
[[Category:Feminist comics]]
[[Category:Fiction about gang rape]]
[[Category:Indian graphic novels]]
[[Category:Graphic novels set in India]]

Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography of a Dalit

2026-01-18T21:09:39Z

Yaarzu: adding new bio

{{Short description|Autobiography by dalit writer Manoranjan Byapari}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography of a Dalit
| image = File:Interrogating_My_Chandal_Life,_An_Autobiography_of_a_Dalit.jpeg
| caption =
| author = Manoranjan Byapari
| translator = Sipra Mukherjee
| title_orig = Itibritte Chandal Jivan (2014)
| orig_lang_code = bn
| country = India
| language = English (translated), Bengali (original)
| subject = Autobiography, Dalit experience, caste
| genre = Memoir, autobiography
| publisher = Sage Publications India
| media_type = Print (hardcover & paperback)
| pages = 357
| isbn = 978-93-813-4530-6
| published = 2018
}}

'''''Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography of a Dalit''''' is an autiobiography by Indian dalit writer and activist [[Manoranjan Byapari]]. The original work in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] was titled ''Itibritte Chandal Jivan'' and published in 2014, followed by its English translation by Sipra Mukherjee in 2018 by [[Sage Publishing]]. The book chronicles the experience of being a Dalit from [[Namasudra|Namashudra]] or Chandal community of Bengal in the post-partition India.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Debdatta |last2=Banerjee |first2=Sarbani |date=2025-05-04 |title="I am not anyone's servant. I am my own master": In conversation with Manoranjan Byapari |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17449855.2025.2463056 |journal=Journal of Postcolonial Writing |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=413–424 |doi=10.1080/17449855.2025.2463056 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mondal |first1=Arijit |last2=Jana |first2=Ujjwal |date=2023-02-24 |title=Mapping the Poetics of Memory: A Critical Reading of Manoranjan Byapari's Interrogating My Chandal Life as Cultural Archive |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2455328X221150558 |journal=Contemporary Voice of Dalit |doi=10.1177/2455328X221150558 |language=EN|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: ইতিবৃত্তে চণ্ডালজীবন {{!}} Concealing Caste: Narratives of Passing and Personhood in Dalit Literature {{!}} Oxford Academic |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/55915/chapter-abstract/439326012?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=academic.oup.com |language=en}}</ref> It is considered to be the first autobiography by a Bengali dalit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad |last2=Pal |first2=Bidisha |date=2018-05-06 |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography of a Dalit by Manoranjan Byapari, translated by Sipra Mukherjee |url=http://rupkatha.com/v10n227 |journal=Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.21659/rupkatha.v10n2.27|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The memoir presents an intersectional account of dalit struggle and poverty, especially in the context of post-partition India when Bengal was partitioned into [[East Bengal]] and [[West Bengal]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Mahadevan-Dasgupta |first=Uma |date=2018-10-20 |title=Uma Mahadevan-Dasgupta reviews Interrogating My Chandal Life by Manoranjan Byapari |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/interrogating-my-chandal-life-review-everyman-on-the-margins/article25263122.ece |access-date=2025-07-27 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Uma Mahadevan-Dasgupta writing for ''[[The Hindu]]'' noted the simplicity of prose but "dense with memories, ... [that] it gives the sense that more is left unsaid."<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2018 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Indian autobiographies]]
[[Category:Dalit literature]]

{{2010s-autobio-novel-stub}}

Yakshi (novel)

2026-01-16T12:06:03Z

Yaarzu: small changes

{{short description|1967 novel by Malayattoor Ramakrishnan}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Yakshi
| image = Yakshi novel.jpg
| author = [[Malayattoor Ramakrishnan]]
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam]]
| genre = Literature Novel
| published = 1967 ([[D.C. Books]])
| isbn = 81-7130-500-8
}}
'''''Yakshi''''' is a [[Malayalam]] novel written by [[Malayattoor Ramakrishnan]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Growth of the novel in India, 1950-1980 |last=Rajan |first=P. K. |page=64 |year=1989 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-259-8 }}</ref> The novel follows a college lecturer, Srinivasan, who is disfigured in an accident in his college lab. He meets a beautiful woman who is willing to accept him despite his disfigurement. But after a while, Srinivasan begins to doubt that the woman is not all she appears - or even human. In 1968, the novel was adapted into a [[Yakshi (film)|film with same name]] starring [[Sathyaneshan Nadar|Sathyan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja |url-access=registration |last=Rajadhyaksha |first=Ashish |author2=Paul Willemen |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja/page/143 143] |year=1999 |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] }}</ref> In 1993, ''Yakshi'' was shown in [[BBC]]'s ''Off the Shelf'' program as 12 episodes. In 1995, [[Hema Malini]] directed a telefilm in Hindi for Zee TV titled ''Mohini'' with [[Sudesh Berry]] and [[Madhoo]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/romancing-angels-vampires-and-zombies/article17622790.ece|title=Romancing angels, vampires and zombies|last=Mondal|first=Sayantan|date=2017-03-24|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-07-06|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 2013, a contemporary retelling of the novel titled ''[[Akam (film)|Akam]]'' was released.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.akamthefilm.com/ |title="Akam film" |access-date=2012-01-02 |archive-date=2011-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231022935/http://akamthefilm.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Plot==

Yakshi narrates the story of Srinivasan, a young handsome scientist and lecturer, who is working in a college in Kerala. Srinivasan is doing research on the Yakshis (Vampire). He is in love with Vijayalakshmi, one of the students at the college.

In the chemistry laboratory, he is met with an unexpected accident, leaving almost half of his face damaged. Everyone who used to adore him begins to hate him and avoids him because of his disfigurement. Even Vijayalakshmi deserts him. He is thus infected by an intense inferiority complex and experiences mental trauma.

A mysterious woman, Ragini, befriends Srini and despite his damaged face, begins to love him. Srini marries Ragini. Eventually, he starts to question whether Ragini is human or a ghost

==Main characters==
* Srinivasan - the protagonist
* Ragini - Srinivasan's wife/mysterious woman
* Chandrasekharan - Srinivasan's best friend
* Anandan - Srinivasan's neighbour
* Vjayalakshmi - Srinivasan's ex-girlfriend
* Vanaja - Srinivasan's student
* Kalyaniamma - Anandan's wife
* Karthyayaniamma- Anandan's servant
* Thankam - Chandrasekharan's wife
* Professor Kurup - Sreenivasan's colleague

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.dcbooks.com/book-search/yakshi/BUK Yakshi from DC Books]

{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Malayalam novels]]
[[Category:Indian novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Novels by Malayattoor Ramakrishnan]]
[[Category:Novels set in India]]
[[Category:DC Books books]]
[[Category:1967 Indian novels]]

{{1960s-novel-stub}}

Zunbil dynasty

2026-01-16T08:17:32Z

Yaarzu:

{{Short description|Royal dynasty south of the Hindu Kush}}
{{Infobox country
| common_name = Zunbils
| native_name = Zunbils
| status = Empire
| era = Early Middle Ages
| capital = [[Ghazni]]
| common_languages = [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]
| year_start = 680
| year_end = 870<ref name="MA283">{{cite journal |last1=ALRAM |first1=MICHAEL |title=From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle |date=2014 |volume=174 |pages=282–285 |jstor=44710198 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/44710198.pdf |issn=0078-2696}}</ref><ref name="KHM16"/>
| p1 = Alchon Huns
| p2 = Nezak Huns
| p3 = Tokhara Yabghus
| p4 = Turk Shahis
| s1 = Saffarid dynasty
| s2 = Samanid dynasty
| s3 = Lawik dynasty
| flag_s1 =
| image_flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| symbol_type =
| image_map =
{{Continental Asia in 800 CE|center||{{Location map~|Continental Asia|lat=32.5|long=67|position=left|mark=Orange dot (semi-transparent).png|marksize=15}}||none}}
| image_map_caption = {{center|Approximate location of the Zunbils ([[File:Orange dot (semi-transparent).png|10px]]), and contemporary polities {{c.|800}}}}
| image_map2 = {{Location map+
|Hindu-Kush
|float = center
|border=none
|width = 300
|caption =
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief=yes
|places =
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=32.5|N |long=66.3|E |label= |label_size=|mark=Zunbil territory.png|marksize=120}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=39.1|N |long=65.3|E |label='''''[[Bukhar Khudahs|KHUDAHS]]''''' |position=left |label_size=90|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=39.766667|N |long=64.433333|E |label=[[Bukhara|Bukhara]] |position=top |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=40|N |long=71.5|E |label='''''[[Principality of Ushrusana|AFSHINS]]''''' |position=left |label_size=90|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=39.1|N |long=68.2|E |label='''''[[Ikhshids of Sogdia|IKHSHIDS]]''''' |position=left |label_size=90|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=36.728611|N |long=68.868056|E |label=[[Kunduz|Kundus]]|position=right |label_size=100|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=39.7|N |long=66.983333|E |label=[[Samarkand|Samarkand]] |position=top |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.341944|N |long=62.203056|E |label=[[Herat|Herat]] |position=top |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=37.3|N |long=63.5|E |label=[[Yabghus of Tokharistan|'''''TOKHARA YABGHUS''''']] |position=right |label_size=100|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=36.766667 |N |long=66.9|E |label=[[Balkh|Balkh]] |position=right |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=36.3|N |long=70.5|E |label=[[Turk Shahis|'''TURK SHAHIS''']]|position=bottom |label_size=100|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=33.2|N |long=66.2|E |label=[[Zunbils|'''''ZUNBILS''''']]|position=bottom |label_size=100|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.825|N |long=67.833333|E |label=[[Bamiyan|Bamiyan]]|position=top |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=31.583056|N |long=64.369167|E |label=[[Lashkargah|Bost]]|position=top |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon Brown.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=31.616667|N |long=65.716667|E |label=[[Kandahar|Kandahar]]|position=bottom |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon Brown.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=33.549167|N |long=68.423333|E |label=[[Ghazni|Ghazni]]|position=left |label_size=90|mark=Capital mark.svg|marksize=15}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.525278|N |long=69.178333|E |label=[[Kabul|Kabul]]|position=right |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush|lat=31|N |long=74|E |label=[[India|INDIA]]|position=bottom |label_size=130|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=35.920833|N |long=74.308333|E |label=[[Gilgit|Gilgit]]|position=bottom |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=37.5|N |long=74.3|E |label='''''[[Patola Shahis|PATOLA SHAHIS]]'''''|position=bottom |label_size=90|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.5|N |long=74.75|E |label='''''[[Karkota Empire|KARKOTA DYNASTY]]'''''|position=bottom |label_size=90|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.016667|N |long=72.433333|E |label=[[Hund (village)|Hund]]|position=bottom|label_size=90|mark=Button Icon White.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=34.737663|N |long=66.763899|E |label=[[Alkhis|Tang-i Safedak]]|position=left |label_size=90|mark=Button Icon Brown.svg|marksize=7}}
{{location map~ |Hindu-Kush |lat=36|N |long=64.5|E |label='''''[[Guzgan|GUZGAN]]'''''|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
}}
| image_map2_caption = {{center|[[Ghazni]], the capital, and other important cities of the Zunbils (brown dots), {{c.|725}}}}
| title_leader =
| leader1 =
| year_leader1 =
| leader2 =
| year_leader2 =
| leader3 =
| year_leader3 =
| religion =[[Buddhism]] [[Zoroastrianism]]
| today = [[Afghanistan]]
}}

'''Zunbil''', also written as '''Zhunbil''', or '''Rutbils of Zabulistan''',<ref name="PG15">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |title=The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. THE RUTBILS OF ZABULISTAN AND THE "EMPEROR OF ROME" | last1 = Alram | first1 = Michael| last2 = Filigenzi | first2 = Anna | last3 = Kinberger | first3 = Michaela | last4 = Nell | first4 = Daniel | last5 = Pfisterer | first5 = Matthias | last6 = Vondrovec | first6 = Klaus |website=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905090203/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase15?language=en |archive-date= 5 September 2016 |access-date= 22 December 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> was a royal dynasty south of the [[Hindu Kush]] in present southern [[Afghanistan]] region. They were a dynasty of [[Hephthalite]] origin.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=Andre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H43zDwAAQBAJ&dq=khalaj+kushana&pg=PA63 |title=The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700–1800 CE |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=63}}</ref> They ruled from circa 680 AD until the Saffarid conquest in 870 AD.<ref name="PG15"/><ref name="KHM16">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |title=16. THE HINDU SHAHIS IN KABULISTAN AND GANDHARA AND THE ARAB CONQUEST |website=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316041852/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase16?language=en |archive-date= 16 March 2016 |access-date= 22 December 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Zunbil dynasty was founded by Rutbil (Turkic: ''Iltäbär''), the elder brother of the [[Turk Shahi]] ruler (either [[Barha Tegin]] or [[Tegin Shah]]), who ruled over the [[Hephthalite]] kingdom from his capital in [[Kabul]].<ref name="PG15"/><ref name="KHM14"/><ref name="Wink1996">Andre Wink, '' Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol.1, (Brill, 1996), 115;"''"The Zunbils of the early Islamic period and the Kabulshahs were almost certainly epigoni of the southern-Hephthalite rulers of Zabul.''"</ref><ref>History of Civilizations of central Asia, B A Litivinsky Zhang Guang-Da, R Shabani Samghabadi, p.376</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|page=69|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first=Cameron A.|last=Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Śahis: An Analysis of Their History, Archaeology, Coinage and Palaeography|first=Abdur|last=Rehman|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University|pages=58–67|year=1979}}</ref> The Zunbils are described as having Turkish troops in their service by Arabic sources like ''[[Tarikh al-Tabari]]'' and ''[[Tarikh-i Sistan]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in Asia: South Asia|page= 15|publisher=Magnes Press|year=1984|author=[[Raphael Israeli]], Anthony Hearle Johns}}</ref> However the term "Turk" was used in an inaccurate and loose way.<ref name=":2" />

The faith of this community has not been researched as much. According to the interpretation of Chinese sources by Marquarts and de Groots in 1915, the king of Ts'ao is said to have worn a crown with a golden fish head and was related to the Sogdians. The Temple of the Zun was recognizable by a large fish skeleton on display; this would indicate a related merchantry deity.<ref name="Miya">H. Miyakawa und A. Kollautz: ''Ein Dokument zum Fernhandel zwischen Byzanz und China zur Zeit Theophylakts'' In: ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'', S. 14 (Anhang). De Gruyter Januar 1984. {{ISSN|1868-9027}}.</ref> In addition to that Marquarts states the Zunbils to have worshipped a [[solar deity]] which might have been connected to Aditya ([[Surya]]). However, according to [[Shōshin Kuwayama]] there was a clear dichotomy between worshipers of the Hindu god Surya and followers of Zhun. This is exemplified by the conflict between Surya and Zhun followers, which led to the followers of Zhun migrating southwards towards [[Zabulistan]] from Kapisa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kuwayama|first=Shoshin|url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/48769/1/34%281%29_25.pdf|title=Historical Notes on Kāpiśī and Kābul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries|publisher=|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{ref|a}} According to André Wink the god Zhun was primarily [[Hinduism|Hindu]], though parallels have also been noted with [[Bon|pre-Buddhist religious and monarchy practices]] in [[Tibet]] and had Zoroastrian influence in its ritual.<ref name=Wink118/><ref name=CE/> Other scholars such as H. Schaeder and N. Sims-William have connected it with [[Zurvan]].<ref name="sinoplatonic" />

Their territory included between what is now the city of [[Zaranj]] in southwestern Afghanistan and [[Kabulistan]] in the northeast, with [[Zamindawar]] and [[Ghazni]] serving as their capitals.<ref>André Wink, "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill 1990, p. 118</ref> In the south their territory reached at times the cities of Rakhwad ([[al-Rukhkhaj]]) and [[Lashkargah|Bost]] (near [[Kandahar]]).<ref name="PG15"/>

The title Zunbil can be traced back to the [[Middle-Persian]] original Zūn-dātbar, 'Zun the Justice-giver'. The geographical name Zamindawar would also reflect this, from Middle Persian 'Zamin-i dātbar' (Land of the Justice-giver).<ref>[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|Bosworth, Clifford Edmund]]. 2002. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill. Zamindawar. p.439.</ref>

==Zabulistan under the Turks==
{{see also|Muslim conquest of Sistan|Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Umayyad campaigns in India}}
[[File:Arabsumf1.png|thumb|325px|right|The Zunbils were affected by [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]].
{{legend|yellow|Desert areas ([[Registan Desert]] and [[Thar Desert]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|Zunbils}}
{{legend|#FFDEAD|[[Turk Shahis]]}}
{{legend|#9932CC|[[Karkota dynasty|Kingdom of Kashmir]]}}
{{legend|#DEB887|[[Brahman dynasty of Sindh|Kingdom of Sindh]] (c. 632– 711 CE) then, [[Caliphal province of Sind]] (712-854 CE)}}
{{legend|#E0FFFF|[[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka Kingdom]] (c.475–c.776 CE)}}
]]
During more than two centuries of their rule, the [[Tokhara Yabghus]], followed by the [[Turk Shahis]] and the Zunbils were consistently an obstacle to the eastward expansion of Muslims forces.

===Early Arab incursions in Zabulistan===
====Rashiduns====
About 643-644 AD, [[Muslim conquest of Sistan|the Arabs raided Sistan]] for the first time, and then started to attack the Turkic territory from the southwest.<ref name="HJK58"/>

In 653-4 AD, an army of around 6,000 Arabs was led by general [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], and they arrived to the shrine of Zoon in Zamindawar. It is reported that Samura "broke off a hand of the idol and plucked out the rubies which were its eyes in order to persuade the [[marzbān]] of Sīstān of the god's worthlessness."<ref>André Wink, "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill 1990. p 120</ref> Samura explained to the marzbān: "my intention was to show you that this idol can do neither any harm nor good."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English_Articles/Amir_Kror_and_His_Ancestry.htm |title=Amir Kror and His Ancestry |work=Abdul Hai Habibi |publisher=alamahabibi.com |access-date=August 14, 2012}}</ref>

====Umayyad Caliphate====
Circa 665 AD, the Arabs under [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura]], a general of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and caliphal governor of [[Sijistan]], captured Kabul for the first time, critically weakening the [[Nezak Huns]].<ref name="MA283"/><ref name="KHM13">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase13?language=en |title= The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 13. The Turk Shahis in Kabulistan| last1 = Alram | first1 = Michael| last2 = Filigenzi | first2 = Anna | last3 = Kinberger | first3 = Michaela | last4 = Nell | first4 = Daniel | last5 = Pfisterer | first5 = Matthias | last6 = Vondrovec | first6 = Klaus |website=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828064427/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase13?language=en |archive-date= 28 August 2016 |access-date= 22 December 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="HJK58">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun Jin |title=The Huns |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34090-4 |pages=58–59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 |language=en}}</ref> But the Turkic ruler [[Barha Tegin]] was soon able to mount a counter-offensive and repulse the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul and [[Zabulistan]] (around [[Ghazni]]), as well as the region of [[Arachosia]] as far as [[Kandahar]], and founding the new dynasty of the [[Turk Shahis]] circa 665 AD.<ref name="HJK58"/><ref name="KV183"/>

Rutbil is first mentioned to have existed during his time, as his earliest mention in Arab sources dates to 666 CE.{{sfn|Rehman|1976|pp=47}} Rutbil may have been the brother or nephew of Barha Tegin, and may have been appointed as the governor in [[Zabulistan]] by Barha Tegin after he conquered the region from [[Ghar-ilchi]].<ref name=":0"/>{{sfn|Rehman|1976|pp=58-67}}<ref name="KHM14"/>

Rutbil and the king of Kabul campaigned together against the Arabs after [[Abdur Rahman ibn Samura]] was replaced as the governor of [[Sistan]]. [[Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi]] upon assuming governorship in 671 CE attacked Rutbil at [[Lashkargah|Bost]], and drove him to [[Arachosia|al-Rukhkhaj]].<ref name=":0"/> Rabi's successor [[Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra]] continued the war upon being appointed in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to negotiate a peace treaty for both [[Kabulistan|Kabul]] and [[Zabul]], in which the governor of [[Sistan]] acknowledged control of these territories by Rutbil and the King of Kabul.<ref name=":0"/>

==Establishment of the Zunbils (680 CE)==
Around the time the first ruler of the Turk Shahis [[Barha Tegin]] died, his dynasty split into two kingdoms. From 680 AD, [[Tegin Shah]] became the king of the [[Turk Shahis]], and ruled the area from [[Kabulistan]] to [[Gandhara]] as well as Zabulistan.<ref name="KV183">{{cite book |last1=Vondrovec |first1=Klaus |title=Coins, Art and Chronology II - The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands (Coinage of the Nezak) |page=183 |url=https://www.academia.edu/880242 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="KHM14"/> His title was "Khorasan Tegin Shah" (meaning "Tegin, King of the East"), and he was known in Chinese sources as ''Wusan teqin sa''.<ref name="KHM14">{{cite web |url=http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase14?language=en |title=14. KABULISTAN AND BACTRIA AT THE TIME OF "KHORASAN TEGIN SHAH" |website=Pro.geo.univie.ac.at |publisher=Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905094603/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase14?language=en |archive-date= 5 September 2016 |access-date= 22 December 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> His grand title probably refers to his resistance to the peril of the [[Umayyad caliph]] from the west.<ref name="KHM14"/>

In 680-683 AD, Rutbil split from his brother the Shahi of Kabul according to [[al-Tabari]], and established the Zunbil dynasty, paying temporary allegiance to Salm ibn Ziyad, the Arab governor of Sistan.<ref name="SUNY Press">{{cite book |last1=al-Tabari |title=The History of al-Tabari Vol. 14: The Conquest of Iran A.D. 641-643/A.H. 21-23 |date=16 June 2015 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2039-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRjsrA5tfLIC&pg=PA76 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Rehman|1976|pp=66}} The area of Zabulistan came to be ruled by Rutbil, also spelled Zibil or Jibul (from Turkic: ''Iltäbär'' "Commander").<ref name="KHM14"/><ref name="HC379">{{cite book |last1=Dani |first1=Ahmad Hasan |last2=Litvinsky |first2=B. A. |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750 |date=January 1996 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103211-0 |pages=379–380 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA379 |language=en}}</ref>

The relationship between the two relatives was at times antagonistic, but they fought together against Arab incursions.<ref name="KHM14"/> Rubtil issued coins derived from Sassanian prototypes, with a [[Bactrian script]] legend on the obverse, a [[Pahlavi script]] legend on the reverse, and a short [[Brahmi script]] legend in the name of [[Vāsudeva|Śrī Vākhudevaḥ]] ("His Highness the Majestic Lord"):

[[File:Sahi Tigin. Circa 710-720 CE.jpg|thumb|300px|A coin of the Rutbils, minted in Zabulistan circa 720 AD, closely imitating the coinage of Sasanian ruler [[Khosrau II]] ([[File:Coinage of Khosrau II with Anahita in flames. 591-628 CE.jpg|30px|Coinage of Khosrau II with Anahita in flames. 591-628 CE]]). [[Anahita]] in flames on the reverse.<ref name="PG15"/>]]
{{blockquote|
Obverse: ''yypwlh. wtyp’ / GDH / ’pzwt'' 
''PWN ŠMY yzt’ yypwl bgyh. wtyp’ wh. m’n’n mlt’n MLK’'' 
King Jibul, [his] glory increased!
In the name of god, Jibul, the Majestic Lord [is] King of brave men 
 
Reverse: ''Śrī Vākhudevaḥ / pncdh. z’wlst’n / ’pl plm’n yzd’n'' 
His Highness the Majestic Lord / [minted in his] 15th [regnal year in] Zavulistan, by the order of the gods.
|Coin legend of Rutbil<ref name="HC379"/>}}

According to Anthony McNicoll, "the Zunbils ruled in the [[Kandahar]] area for nearly 250 years until the late 9th century AD".<ref>Excavations at Kandahar 1974 & 1975 (Society for South Asian Studies Monograph) by Anthony McNicoll</ref> Their main capital Zamindawar was located in the present-day [[Helmand Province]] of [[Afghanistan]]. The shrine of Zoon was located about three miles south of [[Musa Qala]] in Helmand, which may still be traced today. Some believe that the Sunagir temple mentioned by the famous Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] in 640 AD pertains to this exact house of worship.<ref name="Habibi">{{Cite web |url=http://alamahabibi.net/English_Articles/Zoor_or_zoon_temple.htm|title=The Temple of Zoor or Zoon in Zamindawar |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]] |year=1969|publisher=alamahabibi.com |access-date=August 14, 2012}}</ref>

===Umayyad Caliphate offensives (698-700 CE)===
In 698 [[Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra]], governor of [[Sijistan]] and a military commander of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], led an 'Army of Destruction' against the Zunbils. He was defeated and was forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons, and take an oath not to invade the territory of the Zunbils again.<ref name="Hugh Kennedy">{{cite book|first=Hugh|last=Kennedy|title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&q=Hugh+Kennedy%2CThe+Great+Arab+Conquests%27+%22army+of+destruction%22&pg=PT128|publisher=Hachette UK|year= 2010|isbn=9780297865599|page=128}}</ref>

About 700, [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]] appointed [[Ibn al-Ash'ath]] as commander of a huge Iraqi army, the so-called "Peacock Army", to subdue the troublesome principality of [[Zabulistan]].<ref name="HK">Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests', 2007, pages 194-198</ref> During the campaign, al-Hajjaj's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al-Ash'ath and the army to rebel. After patching up an agreement with the Zunbils, the army started on its march back to Iraq. On the way, a mutiny against al-Hajjaj developed into a full-fledged anti-Umayyad rebellion.<ref name="HK"/>

The Arabs regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils, and in 711 [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] managed to force them to pay tribute.<ref name="JLL167">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en|page=167}}</ref> In 725–726, [[Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf]], governor of [[Sistan]] failed to do so.<ref name="JLL167"/> The Arabs would not be able to obtain tribute from the Zunbils again until 769 CE, when [[Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybanl]] defeated them near [[Ghazni]].<ref name="JLL167"/>

===Khuras and his son Alkhis, lords of Ghazni (714-715 CE)===
[[File:Sero. Contemporary of Sahi Tigin. Circa late 7th-early 8th century CE. Göbl, Hunnen Em. 243.jpg|thumb|300px|Type of the coins excavated in Tang-i Safedak (Göbl, Hunnen Em. 243), next to the inscription of [[Alkhis]]. [[Bactrian script]] legend ''σηρο'' "''Sero''" (contemporary of [[Sahi Tigin]]). Circa late 7th-early 8th century CE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en|pages=172}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Late Hunnic, Turkic and Arab-Hephthalite Issues, page 7 |url=http://grifterrec.org/y/hunnic/arab-eph_turkic_7.html |website=grifterrec.org}}</ref>]]
The Bactrian inscription of Tang-i Safedak, dated to around 714/15 CE, mentions the dedication of a stupa by [[Alkhis]], son of Khuras, lord of "Gazan", thought to be [[Ghazni]]. Alkhis is considered as the patron of the second period of florescence of the Buddhist sanctuary of [[Tapa Sardar]], characterized in this period by the creation of hybrid Sinicized-Indian Buddhist art.<ref name="GV433">{{cite journal |last1=Verardi |first1=Giovanni |last2=Paparatti |first2=Elio |title=From Early to Late Tapa Sardār: A Tentative Chronology |journal=East and West |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1/4 |page=433 |jstor=29757657 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757657 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref><ref name="JLL"/>

{{blockquote|[[File:Tang-i Safedak inscription.jpg|left|thumb|Tang-i Safedak inscription]]"(It was) the year 492, the month Sbol, when I, Alkhis son of Khuras, lord of Gazan, established this stupa (as) a (pious) foundation(?) in Ragzamagan(?). (At that time) when there was a Turkish ruler and an Arab ruler, the deyadharma (meritorious gifts) made by me were kept . . . , and afterwards I made this Zinaiaka-deyadharma in the willing belief which I had towards the huddha-sastra and in great faith (Sraddha) and in ... Whatever merit (''punya'') may arise hereby, now and (in) the future, may I, Alkhis, and my parents and wife and brothers (and) sons and (other) relatives too-may each (and) every one (of us) attain (his) own desire. Homage to the buddhas."|Bactrian inscription of Tang-i Safedak. translation by [[Nicholas Sims-Williams]].<ref name="JLL">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en}}</ref>}}

===Vassalage to the Yabghus of Tokharistan===
{{main|Yabghus of Tokharistan}}
[[File:Ghazni_City,_2010.jpg|thumb|The city of [[Ghazni]] was the capital of the Zunbils.]]
According to Chinese sources, in particular the chronicles of the ''[[Cefu Yuangui]]'', the Turks in Kabul were vassals of the Yabghus of [[Tokharistan]]. When a young brother of the Yabghu Pantu Nili, named Puluo (僕羅 ''Púluó'' in Chinese sources), visited the court of the [[Tang dynasty]] in [[Xi'an]] in 718 AD, he gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuwayama |first1=S. |title=Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium: a collection of the papers |date=2002 |publisher=Kyoto University |page=139 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39251127.pdf}}</ref> Puluo described the power of "the kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognise the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan.<ref name="SW1057"/> This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 AD, formed of the territories north and south of the [[Hindu Kush]], including the areas of [[Kabul]] and [[Zabul]].<ref>"The account herewith quoted as 3.5. shows that this king of Tokhara had political power to control the principalities belonging to the Governors-General to the north and the south of the Hindukush, not to mention the Yuezhi Governor General." in {{cite journal |last1=Kuwayama |first1=Shoshin |title=Chinese Records on Bamiyan: Translation and Commentary |journal=East and West |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1/4 |pages=153, 3–5 |jstor=29757642 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757642 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref> Finally, Puluo reaffirmed the loyalty of Yabghu Pantu Nili towards the Tang dynasty.<ref name="SW1057">{{cite journal |last1=Sims-Williams |first1=Nicholas |title=Nouveaux document bactriens du Guzgan (note d'information) |journal=Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres |date=2002 |volume=146 |issue=3 |page=1057 |doi=10.3406/crai.2002.22500 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2002_num_146_3_22500}}</ref>

Part of the Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is:

{{blockquote|On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year of the Kaiyuan era, Ashi Tegin Puluo writes to the emperor: Tokhara Yabghu, his elder brother, is controlling as his subordinates two hundred and twelve persons, such as the local kings of various states, ''dudu'' (Governors-General), and ''cishi'' (heads of regional governments). The king of Zabul rules two hundred thousand soldiers and horses, the king of Kabul two hundred thousand, each king of [[Khuttal]], [[Chaghaniyan|Chaghanian]], ''Jiesu'', [[Shighnan|Shughnan]], ''Evdal'', Kumedha Wa'khan, [[Guzgan]]an, [[Bamiyan]], ''Lieyuedejian'', and [[Badakhshan]] fifty thousand."|Cefu Yuangui 3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 AD.<ref name="SK">{{cite journal |last1=Kuwayama |first1=Shoshin |title=Chinese Records on Bamiyan: Translation and Commentary |journal=East and West |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1/4 |pages=143–144 |jstor=29757642 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757642 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref>}}

===Chinese influence===
{{see also|Protectorate General to Pacify the West}}

====Tang dynasty investiture====
A few Zunbil rulers are named in Chinese sources, especially ''Shiquer'' or ''Zigil'' (Chinese:誓屈爾 ''Shìqū'ér''), ruler of Zabulistan from 720 CE and for a few years until 738.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en|page=166}}</ref> A Chinese account from the ''[[Tangshu]]'' mentions how [[Zabulistan]] (Chinese: 誓䫻 ''Shìyù'') was a vassal to the [[Turk Shahis|Kabul Shah]] around 710-720 CE, and how the Zunbil ruler, named "Shiquer", was recognized by the Chinese court in 720 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Alram |title=Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity: The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford |date=1 February 2021 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-46066-9 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=稲葉穣 |first1=Inaba Minoru |title=From Caojuzha to Ghazna/Ghaznīn: Early Medieval Chinese and Muslim Descriptions of Eastern Afghanistan |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=2015 |volume=49 |issue=1–2 |pages=99–100 |doi=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |jstor=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |issn=0021-910X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Shiquer received the title of ''Gedaluozhi Xielifa'' (Chinese: 葛達羅支頡利發). The word "''Geluodazhi''" in this extract (Chinese: 葛罗达支, pronounced in [[Early Middle Chinese]]: kat-la-dat-tcǐe), is thought to be a transliteration of the ethnonym [[Khalaj people|Khalaj]].<ref name="DB1052">{{cite book|last1=Balogh|first1=Dániel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105|title=Hunnic Peoples in Central and South Asia: Sources for their Origin and History|date=12 March 2020|publisher=Barkhuis|isbn=978-94-93194-01-4|page=105|language=en}}</ref> ''Xielifa'' is the known Chinese transcription of the Turkish "[[Iltäbär]]", hence Shiquer was "Iltäbär of the Khalaj":<ref>Original Chinese in [[Cefu Yuangui]], book 0964 冊府元龜 (四庫全書本)/卷0964 "九月遣使冊葛達羅支頡利發誓屈爾為謝䫻國王葛達羅支特勒為𦋺賔國王", simplified Chinese "九月遣使册葛达罗支颉利发誓屈尔为谢䫻国王葛达罗支特勒为𦋺賔国王", "In September [720 CE] ambassadors recorded that Gedalouzhi Xielifa Shiquer was enthroned as king of Zabulistan, ''Gedaluozhi Tele'' was enthroned as king of [[Jibin]]." see {{cite book|last1=Inaba|first1=Minoru|url=https://www.academia.edu/7838558|title=From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia, in "Coins, Art and Chronology II The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderland"|date=2010|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|isbn=978-3700168850|location=Vienna|page=452}} also " 開元八年，天子冊葛達羅支頡利發誓屈爾為王。至天寶中數朝獻。" "In the eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), the Emperor approved the enthronement of Gedalouzhi Xielifa Shiquer. Their envoys came to the royal court several times until the Tianbao era (742–756)." in {{cite journal|last1=稲葉穣|first1=Inaba Minoru|date=2015|title=From Caojuzha to Ghazna/Ghaznīn: Early Medieval Chinese and Muslim Descriptions of Eastern Afghanistan|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097|journal=Journal of Asian History|volume=49|issue=1–2|page=100|doi=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097|jstor=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |issn=0021-910X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

{{blockquote|The people from ''Tujue'' (Turks), ''Jibin'' ([[Kabul]]), and ''Tuhuoluo'' ([[Tokhara Yabghus|Tokharistan]]) live together in this country [Zabulistan]. Jibin recruits from among them young men to defend against ''Dashi'' (Arabs). They sent an envoy to the Tang in the first year of Jingyun (710) to present gifts. Later, they subjugated themselves to Jibin. In the eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), the Emperor approved the enthronement of ''Gedalouzhi'' ("[[Khalaj people|Khalaj]]") ''[[Zabulistan|Xielifa]]'' ("[[Iltäbär]]") Shiquer. Their envoys came to the royal court several times until the Tianbao era (742–756).|[[Old Book of Tang]], Book 221: account of Zabulistan (谢䫻 ''Xiėyù'').<ref>Original Chinese: "谢䫻居吐火罗西南本曰漕矩吒或曰漕矩显庆时谓诃达罗支武后改今号东距罽賔东北帆延皆四百里南婆罗门西波斯北护时健其王居鹤悉那城地七千里亦治阿娑你城多郁金瞿草瀵泉灌田国中有突厥罽賔吐火罗种人𮦀居罽賔取其子弟持兵以御大食景云初遣使朝贡后遂臣罽賔开元八年天子册葛达罗支颉利发誓屈尔为王至天宝中数朝献" in {{cite web |title=唐书 (四库全书本)/卷221下 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆 |url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7221%E4%B8%8B |website=zh.wikisource.org |language=zh-Hans}}, also: {{cite journal |last1=稲葉穣 |first1=Inaba Minoru |title=From Caojuzha to Ghazna/Ghaznīn: Early Medieval Chinese and Muslim Descriptions of Eastern Afghanistan |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=2015 |volume=49 |issue=1–2 |pages=99–100 |doi=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |jstor=10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/jasiahist.49.1-2.0097 |issn=0021-910X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>}}

====Visit by Hyecho (726 CE)====
[[File:Hiecho on Zabulistan.jpg|thumb|Hyecho's description of Zabulistan]]
In 726 CE, the Korean Buddhist monk [[Hyecho]] visited Zabulistan (谢䫻国 ''Xiėyùguó'') and recorded that Kabul and Zabul were ruled by Turkic kings, who followed Buddhism. According to him, the King of Kabul was the uncle of the king of Zabul.<ref name="MA16">{{cite book |last1=Alram |first1=Michael |title="The numismatic legacy of the Sasanians in the East", in Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity: The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford |date=1 February 2021 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-46066-9 |page=16 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |language=en}}</ref>

{{blockquote|From [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa]] I travelled further west and after seven days arrived at the country of Zabulistan which its people call ''She-hu-lo-sa-t'a-na''. The native are Hu people; the king and cavalry are Turks. The king, a nephew of the king of Kapisa, himself controls his tribe and the cavalry stationed in this country. It is not subject to other countries, not even his own uncle. Though the king and the chiefs are Turks, they highly revere the [[Three Jewels]]. There are many monasteries and monks. [[Mahayana]] Buddhism is practiced. There is a great Turkish chief called Sha-tuo-kan, who once a year lays out his gold and silver, which is much more than the king possesses. The dress, customs, and products of this land are similar to those of Kapisa, but the languages are different.|[[Hyecho]] on Zabulistan, "[[Wang ocheonchukguk jeon|An account of travel to the five Indian kingdoms]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Sandhya |title=THE INDIA THEY SAW (VOL-1) |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |isbn=978-81-8430-106-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1EkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA333 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Original Chinese: 又從此罽賓國西行至七日謝䫻國。彼自呼云社護羅薩他那。土人是胡。王及兵馬。即是突厥。其王即是罽賓王姪兒。自把部落兵馬住此於國。不屬餘國。亦不屬阿叔。此王及首領。雖是突厥。極敬三寶。足寺足僧。行大乘法。有一大突厥首領。名娑鐸幹。每年一迴。設金銀無數。多於彼王。衣著人風。土地所出。與罽賓王相似。言音各別。 in {{cite web |title=遊方記抄第1卷 CBETA 漢文大藏經 |url=http://tripitaka.cbeta.org/T51n2089_001 |website=tripitaka.cbeta.org}}</ref>}}

====Chinese artistic influences (680-750 CE)====
Chinese artistic influences, on top of nomical political influence, are discernable in the artistic creations under the Zunbils around that time, as seen in the Buddhist monastery of [[Tepe Sardar]]. During the period from 680 to 720 CE, essentially Indian post-[[Gupta]] start to blend with Chinese stylistic influences, "a Chinese touch" discernable in Buddhist works of art.<ref name="GV436">{{cite journal |last1=Verardi |first1=Giovanni |last2=Paparatti |first2=Elio |title=From Early to Late Tapa Sardār: A Tentative Chronology |journal=East and West |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1/4 |pages=436–437 |jstor=29757657 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757657 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref>

A full-blown "Chinese phase" is attributed to the period from 720 to 750 CE, corresponding to the last major phase of construction and decorations of Buddhist monuments before the Arab conquests.<ref name="GV438">{{cite journal |last1=Verardi |first1=Giovanni |last2=Paparatti |first2=Elio |title=From Early to Late Tapa Sardār: A Tentative Chronology |journal=East and West |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1/4 |pages=438–442 |jstor=29757657 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757657 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref> This construction period was possibly marked by the patronage of [[Alkhis]], a contemporary ruler of the [[Zabul]] area who was probably of the same ethnicity as the nearby [[Turk Shahis]] of [[Kabul]] and a member of the Zunbils,<ref name="JLL">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en}}</ref> or his successors.<ref name="GV438"/> The period sees a marked evolution in the facial types of the statues, with the Chinese-Indian traits of the previous period moving markedly towards [[Tang dynasty]] styles, and clearly following Tang prototypes.<ref name="GV438"/> Such phenomenon is also seen in the site of [[Ajina Tepe|Adzina Tepe]].<ref name="GV438"/> It is thought that Buddhism was particularly strong in China during the rule of Empress [[Wu Zhao]] (624-705 CE), and that, together the several missions of Chinese pilgrims to Afghanistan and India, Chinese monks settled in [[Ghazni]] from around 700 CE.<ref name="GV438"/> This activity mirrored the active development of monasteries in [[Xinjiang]] during the 7th-8th centuries, and highlight a broad territorial unity of Buddhist kingdoms in Western Central Asia at that time, based on intense exchanges and a westward influence of Chinese Buddhism and artistic styles.<ref name="GV438"/>

The influence of Chinese artistic styles vanishes after the Anshi rebellion.

===Abbasid Caliphate claim to overlordship (750 CE)===
{{ Annotated image
| image=South Asia non political, with rivers.jpg
| width=290
| image-width = 290 
| image-left=0 | image-top=0| float = right
| annotations =
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|215|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|185|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|70|34|[[Turk Shahis|TURK SHAHIS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|75|130|[[Maitrakas|MAITRAKAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|90|[[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|GURJARA PRATIHARAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|185|110|[[Pala Empire|PALA EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|35|47|[[Zunbils|'''ZUNBILS''']]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|95|160|[[Chalukya dynasty|CHALUKYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|5|63|[[Abbasid Caliphate|ABBASID CALIPHATE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|140|5|[[Tang dynasty|TANG DYNASTY]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|55|90|[[Caliphal province of Sind|CALIPHAL SIND]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
|caption={{center|The Zunbils in South Asia, circa 750 CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |access-date=2022-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
}}
Arabic sources recount that, after the [[Abbasids]] came to power in 750, the Zunbils made submissions to the third [[Abbasid]] [[Caliph]] [[al-Mahdi]] (r. 775–785), but these appear to have been nominal acts,<ref>Al-Ya'qubi, ''Historiae,'' p. 479; al-Tabari, v. 30: p. 143</ref> and the people of the region continued to resist Muslim rule.<ref>For example, joining Rafi' ibn Layth's rebellion and reneging on tribute agreements: al-Ya'qubi, ''Historiae,'' p. 528; al-Baladhuri, pp. 203-04</ref> The Muslim historian [[Ya'qubi]] (died 897/8) in his ''Ta'rikh'' ("History"), recounts that al-Mahdi asked for, and apparently obtained, the submission of various [[Central Asia]]n rulers, including that of the Zunbils.<ref name="SK44">{{cite journal |last1=Kuwayama |first1=Shoshin |title=Historical Notes on Kapisi and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries |journal=ZINBUN |date=1999 |volume=34 |page=44 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39183379.pdf}}</ref> The original account by Ya'qubi reads:

{{blockquote|Al-Mahdī sent messengers to the kings, calling on them to submit, and most of them submitted to him. Among them were the king of Kābul Shāh, whose name was [[Khingal|Ḥanḥal]]; the king of [[Tabaristan|Ṭabaristān]], the [[Ispahbadh|Iṣbahbadh]]; the king of [[Soghdia]], the [[Ikhshid|Ikhshīd]]; the king of Tukhāristān, [[Sharwin I|Sharwin]]; the king of [[Bamiyan]], the Shīr; the king of [[Ferghana|Farghana]], ------ ; the king of [[Usrushana|Usrūshana]], [[Afshin|Afshīn]]; the king of the [[Karluks|Kharlukhiyya]], Jabghūya; the king of [[Sijistān]], Zunbīl; the king of Turks, [[Tarkhan]]; the king of [[Tibet]], Ḥ-h-w-r-n; the king of [[Sind]], al-Rāy; the king of [[China]], [[Son of Heaven|Baghbür]]; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the [[Toquz Oghuz|Tughuz-ghuz]], Khāqān.|[[Ya'qubi]] (died 897/8), ''Ta'rikh'' ("History")<ref name="AY1138">{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Mathew S. and al. |title=The Works Of Ibn Wāḍiḥ Al Yaʿqūbī |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004364165 |pages=1138–1139, note 2959 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-works-of-ibn-wadih-al-yaqubi/The%20Works%20of%20Ibn%20W%C4%81%E1%B8%8Di%E1%B8%A5%20al-Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb%C4%AB%20volume%203/page/1138/mode/2up?}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=A. |title=New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis |journal=Ancient Pakistan |date=2002|page=41|url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf}}</ref>}}

In 769 CE, the Arabs were again able to obtain tribute from the Zunbils after nearly half a century, when [[Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybanl]] defeated them near [[Ghazni]].<ref name="JLL167"/>

Arab destructions are documented around 795 CE, as the Muslim writer [[Kitāb al-buldān]] records the destruction of a ''Šāh Bahār'' (“Temple of the King”), thought to be [[Tepe Sardar]], at that time: he recounts that the Arabs attacked the ''Šāh Bahār'', "in which were idols worshipped by the people. They destroyed and burnt them".<ref name="AIAM">{{cite web |title=The Buddhist site of Tapa Sardar |url=https://ghazni.bradypus.net/buddhist_sites |website=ghazni.bradypus.net |publisher=Archives of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan |access-date=2020-11-14 |archive-date=2021-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125155642/https://ghazni.bradypus.net/buddhist_sites |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====End of the Turk Shahis (822 CE)====
In 815 CE, the [[Abbasids]] led by caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] defeated the Kabul branch of the [[Turk Shahi]]s, in what was essentially a political retribution: hoping to take advantage of the [[Great Abbasid Civil War]] (811-819 AD), the Turk Shahi ruler, named "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, had invaded parts of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}<ref name="MA20">{{cite book|last1=Alram|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|title="The Numismatic legacy of the Sasanians in the East" in Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity: The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford|date=1 February 2021|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-46066-9|pages=20–21|language=en}}</ref> The Turk Shahis not only had to convert to Islam but also had to cede key cities and regions.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}} Another campaign against the Gandhara branch seem to have followed soon, with the Caliphate reaching [[Indus River]], and imposing a critical defeat.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}} A new dynasty, the [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty, took over in Gandhara and Kabul in 822 CE.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}} The Zunbils were unaffected by [[Al-Ma'mun]]'s raids and continued to rule for about two more decades, before getting embroiled in the conflict to eventual extinction.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}

==Saffarids Conquest (870 CE)==
[[File:مجسمه امیر یعقوب لیث صفاری در زابل.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar]] (r. 861–879 AD), conqueror of the Zunbils ([[Dezful]], Iran)]]
The Zunbils were finally defeated in 870 AD by the Muslim conqueror [[Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar]] (r. 861–879 AD, founder of the [[Saffarid dynasty]]), who conquered the entire Zunbil territory from his base in Sistan.<ref name="PG15"/>

Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar started his eastern conquests in 870/871 CE, when he marched against the Kharijites of [[Herat]], and defeated them. He then marched towards [[Karukh]], and defeated another Khariji leader who was named Abd al-Rahman.{{sfn|Bosworth|1975|p=110}} His army would then march to [[Ghazni|Ghazna]], conquering the Zunbils, and further to [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]] and [[Kabul]], pushing the [[Hindu Shahis]] to the East, conquering these territories in the name of Islam by appointing Muslim governors. From there they moved to north of the [[Hindu Kush]] and by 870 AD the whole of Khorasan was brought under Saffarid control. The [[Panjshir Valley]] was now under Ya'qub's control, which made him able to mint silver coins.<ref>''Pandjhir'', Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VIII, 258.</ref>

According to [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], the Saffarids achieved, for the first time, Muslim expansion in eastern Afghanistan, after more than two centuries of plundering raids by the Muslim governors of [[Sistan]] and fierce resistance from the rulers of the region.<ref>"One of the most important aspects of early [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]] policy of significance for the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|spread of Islam in Afghanistan]] and on the borders of India long after their empire had collapsed was that of expansion into east Afghanistan. The early [[Arab people|Arab]] governors of Sistan had at times penetrated as far as [[Ghazni Province|Ghazna]] and [[Kabul]], but these had been little more than slave and plunder raids. There was a fierce resistance from the local rulers of these regions, above all from the line of Zunbils who ruled in Zamindavar and Zabulistan and who were probably epigoni of the southern [[Hepthalite]] or Chionite kingdom of Zabul; on more than one occasion, these Zunbils inflicted sharp defeats on the Muslims. The Zunbils were linked with the Turk-Shahs of the Turk Shahi dynasty; the whole river valley was at this time culturally and religiously an outpost of the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian world]], as of course it had been in the earlier centuries during the heyday of the [[Buddhist]] [[Gandhara]] civilization." in {{harvnb|Bosworth|1975}}.</ref>

The [[Hindu Shahis]], setting up defenses in [[Gandhara]], continued the resistance to the eastern expansion of Islam until circa 1026 CE.

== Religion ==
In his travel diaries, the Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] reported in the early 700s that the temple of the Indo-Iranian god Zun/Sun(Surya) was in the region. He also reported there were numerous Buddhist stupas in the area of Zabul. There were dozens of Hindu temples and hundreds of Buddhist monasteries.<ref name="PG15"/> In addition, drawing many pilgrims.<ref name="PG15"/> According to Wink, it was clear that Zunbils ruled over a predominately Indian realm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&q=Al-Hind:+Early+medieval+India+and+the+expansion+of+Islam,+7th-11th+centuries+By+Andr%C3%A9+Wink+%C2%B7+2002 |title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries |date=2002 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-0-391-04173-8 |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref>

===Buddhism===
[[File:Tapa Sardar Buddhist monastery.jpg|thumb|The last phase of the [[Tapa Sardar]] Buddhist monastery in [[Ghazni]], dates to the time of the Zunbils.<ref name="ghazni.bradypus.net">For panorama images of the site see: {{cite web |title=The Buddhist site of Tapa Sardar |url=https://ghazni.bradypus.net/buddhist_sites |website=ghazni.bradypus.net |publisher=Italian Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan}}</ref>]]
[[File:Head of Buddha from Tapa Sardar, Afghanistan (3rd to 5th century AD). As shown in the exhibition 'Afghanistan - Rescued Treasures of Buddhism' at Náprstek Museum of Asian, African and American Cultures, Prague.jpg|thumb|Head of Buddha from [[Tapa Sardar]], Afghanistan (3rd to 5th century AD).]]
In 726 CE, the Korean Buddhist monk [[Hyecho]] visited Zabulistan (谢䫻国 ''Xiėyùguó'') and recorded that Kabul and Zabul were ruled by Turkic kings, who followed Buddhism.<ref name="MA16"/> The last phase of the [[Tapa Sardar]] Buddhist monastery in [[Ghazni]], dates to the time of the Zunbils.<ref name="ghazni.bradypus.net"/>

=== Zhun===
{{main|Zhun}}
The Zunbils worshiped a deity called Zhūn (or Zūn), from whom they derived their name.<ref name="Wink2002">{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA118 |title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries |date=2002 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-0-391-04173-8 |page=118 |language=en}}</ref> He is represented with flames radiating from his head on coins. Statues were adorned with gold and used rubies for eyes. [[Xuanzang|Huen Tsang]] calls him "sunagir".<ref name="Habibi" />

The origin and nature of Zhun is disputed. M. Shenkar in his study comes to the conclusion that Zhun was possibly connected to the deity of the river Oxus, the modern river Amudarya. Furthermore, he holds it most likely that Zhun was the greatest deity worshiped in Zabulistan.<ref name="sinoplatonic"/> F. Grenet believes that Zhun might have been connected with the Iranian solar deity [[Mithra]].<ref name="sinoplatonic"/> Zhun has been linked with the [[Hindu god]] [[Surya|Aditya]] at [[Multan]], [[Bon|pre-Buddhist religious]] and [[Imperial cult|kingship practices]] of [[Tibet]] as well as [[Shaivism]].<ref name=CE>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 344|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth]]}}</ref> Some scholars have considered the cult to be neither Buddhist nor Zoroastrian, but primarily Hindu.<ref name="Afridi">{{Cite journal |last=Afridi |first=Gulman sher |title=Etymology of Zhunbil and Identity of the Rulers of Kabul and Zabul in Seventh -Ninth Centuries C.E |url=https://www.academia.edu/38605352 |journal=Journal of Asian Civilisation |language=en}}</ref> Scholars point out the connections between the deity Zhun/Zun and [[Shiva]].<ref name="Afridi"/>

His shrine lay on a sacred mountain in [[Zamindawar]] and another at a temple in [[Sajawand|Sakkawand]]. Originally he appears to have been brought at Zamindawar by Hepthalites, displacing an earlier god on the same site. Parallels have been noted with the pre-Buddhist monarchy of [[Tibet]], next to [[Zoroastrian]] influence on its ritual. Whatever his origins, he was certainly superimposed on a mountain and on a pre-existing mountain god while merging with Shaiva doctrines of worship.<ref name=Wink118>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA118|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest - Volume I|year=1991|publisher=Brill|pages=118, 119|isbn=9004095098}}</ref>

==== Zurvan hypothesis ====
Other scholars however have connected Zun with the Sassanid Zoroastrian deity [[Zurvanism|Zurvān]], the deity of time.
{{Blockquote
|text=''"Regarding origin of Žuna, Xuanzang had only mentioned that it was initially brought to Kapisa, later Begram from "far" and later moved to Zabul. There is no consensus as to who brought it and when. By identifying Žun with Sassanian Zurvān, the cult of Žun or *Zruvān can be viewed in a much wider context of Iranian history and religious developments. Žun, Like Zurvān, most likely represented the "god of time", a heresy in Zoroastrianism, which originated in response to the religious reforms introduced during second half of Achaemenid Empire. The cosmopolitan nature of the god is consistent with the variety of religions practiced in the region prior to the [[Islamization]] of Afghanistan."''<ref name="Afridi"/>}}
According to Gulman S, its Afghan followers were, most probably, initially Zoroastrians. Mention of Žun and its devotees disappeared with the end of Žunbil dynasty of Zabulistan in 870. Its followers, according to Ibn Athir, accepted Islam.<ref name="Afridi"/>

According to N. Sims-Williams:<ref name="sinoplatonic" />
{{Blockquote|"It is not unlikely that Zhun derives from the Iranian Zurwan."}}

Ulf Jäger states: We should interpret "Zhun" as the name of the ancient Iranian deity of time, "Zurwan".<ref name="sinoplatonic">{{cite book |last1=Jäger |first1=Ulf |title=Sino-Platonic Papers: A Unique Alxon-Hunnic Horse-and-Rider Statuette (Late Fifth Century CE) from Ancient Bactria / Modern Afghanistan in the Pritzker Family Collection, Chicago |date=2019 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |location=Philadelphia, PA |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf |access-date=29 September 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]
* [[Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan]]
* [[Religion in Afghanistan]]
* [[Taank Kingdom|Taank kingdom]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book| chapter = The Tahirids and Saffarids
| last = Bosworth | first = C.E. | year = 1975
| author-link = Clifford Edmund Bosworth
| title = The Cambridge History of Iran: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs
| editor1-last = Frye | editor1-first = Richard Nelson
| editor2-last = Fisher | editor2-first = William Bayne
| editor3-last = Boyle | editor3-first = John Andrew
| volume = IV
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 978-0-521-20093-6
}}
*{{Cite thesis|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis: An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/11229 |publisher=Australian National University |date=January 1976 |language=en|first=Abdur|last=Rehman|type=Ph.D. thesis}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/658410/Zunbil Zunbil] on ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

{{Authority control}}

== Notes ==
:1.{{note|a}}''"Xuanzang's story is simple, but suggests a historical background:there happened a conflict between the two religious groups, the Surya group and the Zhuna group"''.

[[Category:History of the Turkic peoples]]
[[Category:Dynasties of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Hephthalites]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 870s]]

Paragon Restaurant

2026-01-04T17:20:58Z

Yaarzu:

{{Short description|Indian restaurant}}
{{Distinguish|Paragon (restaurant)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Paragon Group restaurants
| logo = [[File:Paragonrestlogo.jpg|200px|Paragon Restaurant logo]]
| type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = [[Calicut]], [[Kerala (state)|Kerala]] ({{Start date|1939}})
| founder = Govindan Panchkail
| location_city = Kannur Road, [[Calicut]], [[Kerala (state)|Kerala]]
| location_country = India.
| area_served = India, UAE
| key_people = Sumesh Govind (Chairman, President and CEO)
| industry = [[Restaurant]] and [[Catering]]
| genre = [[Casual Dining]]
| services = [[Asian Cuisine]]
| homepage = {{URL|paragonrestaurant.net}}
}}

'''Paragon restaurant''' is an [[Indian restaurant]] known for the variety of [[Malabar coast|Malabar cuisines]] in Kerala and [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nikita |first=Jui |date=2021-08-27 |title=Kerala Parotta, Beef Ularthiyathu, Mutton VarattiyathuKarama- This Karama Restaurant Nails Malabar Cuisine |url=https://curlytales.com/calicut-paragon-restaurant-in-karama-is-a-must-visit-for-foodies-in-dubai/ |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=Curly Tales |language=en-US}}</ref> It was founded in 1939 by Govindan Panhikeyil in [[Calicut]], [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodrigues |first=Janice |date=2020-05-19 |title=Calicut Paragon owner shares tips on what he thinks restaurants need to do to survive the pandemic |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/food/calicut-paragon-owner-shares-tips-on-what-he-thinks-restaurants-need-to-do-to-survive-the-pandemic-1.1021214 |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref>

Calicut Paragon was awarded the ''Best Budget Time Out Award 2012'' and the ''Best Coastal Food Award at the Foodie Awards 2013'' which was sponsored by Times Now. {{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The [[restaurant]] garnered further acclaim with top celebrity chefs such as [[Silvena Rowe]] and Vineet Bhatia recommending the restaurant.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shekar |first=Mrinal |date=14 August 2013 |title=Chef Silvena Rowe in the city |url=https://gulfnews.com/friday/art-people/chef-silvena-rowe-in-the-city-1.1220000 |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=[[Gulf News]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Monteath |first=Nicola |date=2014-02-09 |title=Flying high |url=https://www.bbcgoodfoodme.com/chef-interviews/flying-high/ |access-date=2023-03-07 |website=[[BBC Good Food]] Middle East |language=en-US}}</ref> After initially offering a fusion of the Malabar region’s Mappila and [[Thiyya|Thiyya Cuisines]].

== See also ==
* [[Kayees Rahmathulla Hotel]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*http://www.paragonrestaurant.net/

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:Restaurants in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Companies based in Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1939]]
[[Category:Restaurants established in 1939]]

{{India-cuisine-stub}}
{{Kerala-stub}}

Sakunthala (1932 film)

2026-01-02T01:38:25Z

Yaarzu: Stub.

{{short description|1932 Telugu film by Sarvottam Badami}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sakuntala
| image = Sakunthala (1932 film).jpg
| director = [[Sarvottam Badami]]
| starring = [[Surabhi Kamalabai]] [[Yadavalli Suryanarayana]] Bakurapanda Venkata Rao Nellore Nagaraja Rao
| studio = Select Pictures
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1932}}
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}

'''''Sakunthala''''' is a 1932 [[Telugu-language]] film directed by [[Sarvottam Badami]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&dq=shakuntala+sarvottam+badami&pg=RA15-PA1975 |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-94325-7 |page=1975 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vittal |first=Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgYRwrtyPAIC&dq=shakuntala+sarvottam+badami&pg=PA73 |title=Reflections: Experiences of a Bureaucrat's Wife |date=2007 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-81-7188-471-1 |page=73 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarvottam Badami |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/people/sarvottam-badami |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=Cinemaazi |language=en}}</ref> Produced by Select Pictures,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sakuntala (1933) |url=https://indiancine.ma/BBY/info |access-date=21 October 2024 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> it was based on the renowned play ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Abhignana Sakuntalam]]'' by [[Kalidasa]], the film features [[Surabhi Kamalabai]] in the titular role of [[Shakuntala|Sakuntala]] and [[Yadavalli Suryanarayana]] as [[Dushyanta]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Sakuntala 1932 Telugu movie advertisement |date= |work= |url=https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82:Sakuntala_1932_Telugu_movie_advertisement.png |access-date=21 October 2024 |publisher=[[Telugu Wikipedia]]}}</ref> It is among the first ten [[Sound film|talkie films]] made in Telugu cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2023 |title=తెలుగులో వచ్చిన మొదటి 10 తెలుగు చిత్రాలు ఇవే.. |url=https://tv9telugu.com/web-stories/first-10-movies-in-telugu-film-industry-au87 |access-date=21 October 2024 |website=[[TV9 Telugu]] |language=te}}</ref>

An advertisement promoted it as, "another extraordinary Telugu talkie for the Andhra region, surpassing even the grandness of ''[[Sri Rama Paduka Pattabhishekam|Paduka Patabhisheka]]''."<ref name=":0" /> Notably, ''Sakuntala'' marked the beginning of comedic roles in Telugu cinema. It features fishermen who catch a fish that has swallowed Sakuntala's ring, leading to humorous interactions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raavi Kondala Rao |author-link=Raavi Kondala Rao |title=నవ్వుల నవాబులు... మన తారలు |url=http://eenaduintelugu.blogspot.com/2013/05/blog-post_3711.html |access-date=21 October 2024 |website= |language=te |archive-date=21 October 2024 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20241021091037/http://eenaduintelugu.blogspot.com/2013/05/blog-post_3711.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Cast ==
Source: <ref name=":0" />

* [[Surabhi Kamalabai]] as [[Shakuntala|Sakuntala]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2023 |title="శకుంతల" పాత్రలో నటించిన హీరోయిన్స్ వీళ్లే.. |url=https://tv9telugu.com/web-stories/do-you-know-these-heroines-who-played-shankuntala-role-in-movies-au55 |access-date=21 October 2024 |website=[[TV9 Telugu]] |language=te}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2023 |title=సమంత కన్నా ముందు శకుంతలగా నటించిన హీరోయిన్స్ వీరే.. |url=https://ntvtelugu.com/web-stories/indian-actresses-who-played-shaakuntala-on-screen |access-date=21 October 2024 |website=[[NTV (India)|NTV]] |language=te}}</ref>
* [[Yadavalli Suryanarayana]] as [[Dushyanta]]
* Bakurapanda Venkata Rao
* Nellore Nagaraja Rao

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt0155162}}

[[Category:1932 films]]
[[Category:1932 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:1930s Telugu-language films]]

Ashok Singh Moirangmayum

2025-12-15T22:05:50Z

Yaarzu: creating a bio

{{short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Western name order|Moirangmayum Ashok Singh}}
{{Meitei name|Moirangmayum|Ashok|Singh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Ashok Singh
| fullname = Ashok Singh Moirangmayum
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1993|04|07|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Manipur]], India
| height = {{height|m=1.68|precision=0}}
| currentclub = [[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]
| clubnumber = 3
| position = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
| years1 = 2016–2019
| clubs1 = [[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]]
| caps1 = 41
| goals1 = 1
| years2 = 2019–
| clubs2 = [[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/sports/football/9-keralites-in-gokulam-kerala-fc-squad-for-durand-cup-1.4022340 |title = 9 Keralites in Gokulam Kerala FC squad for Durand Cup| work=English.Mathrubhumi | date=7 August 2019 }}</ref>
| caps2 = 0
| goals2 = 0
}}
'''Ashok Singh Moirangmayum''' ({{langx|mni|Moirangmayum Ashok Singh}}, born 7 April 1993) is an Indian professional [[association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Defender (association football)|defender]] from [[Manipur]] who currently plays for [[Gokulam Kerala F.C.]] in the [[I-League]].

==Career==

===Gokulam Kerala fc===
On 5 July 2019, it was announced that Ashok Singh signed for [[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]] in the [[I-League]]

==Career statistics==
{{updated|7 September 2019}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|League Cup
!colspan="2"|Domestic Cup
!colspan="2"|Continental
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goal
|-
|rowspan="4"|[[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]]
|[[2016–17 I-League 2nd Division|2016-17]]
|[[I-League 2|I-League 2nd Division]]||15||1||—||—||0||0||0||0||15||1
|-
|[[2017–18 I-League|2017–18]]
|[[I-League]]||10||0||2||0||0||0||0||0||12||0
|-
|{{nowrap|[[2018–19 I-League|2018–19]]}}
|[[I-League]]||16||0||—||—||0||0||0||0||16||0
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!41!!1!!2!!0!!0!!0!!0!!0!!43!!01
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]
|[[2019–20 I-League|2019–20]]
|[[I-League]]||0||0||—||—||1||0||0||0||1||0
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!0!!0!!0!!0!!1!!0!!0!!0!!1!!0
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!41!!1!!0!!0!!1!!0!!0!!0!!44!!1
|}

==Honours==
'''Gokulam Kerala'''
*[[Durand Cup]]: [[2019 Durand Cup|2019]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/durand-cup-2019-final-mohun-bagan-vs-gokulam-kerala-live-streaming-score-updates-goals-kolkata-indian-football-suhair-francisco-marcus-joseph-ubaid/article29243177.ece |title = Durand Cup: Gokulam Kerala beats Mohun Bagan 2-1 to win title| date=24 August 2019 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Soccerway|moirangmayum-ashok-singh/525029}}

{{Gokulam Kerala FC squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Ashok}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Footballers from Manipur]]
[[Category:NEROCA FC players]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Men's association football defenders]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Gokulam Kerala FC players]]

{{India-footy-defender-stub}}

Manoj–Babli honour killing case

2025-12-14T10:15:46Z

Yaarzu: stub!

{{Short description|2007 honour killing and subsequent court case in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{good article}}
The '''Manoj–Babli honour killing case''' was the [[honour killing]] of [[India]]n newlyweds Manoj Banwala and Babli in June 2007 and the subsequent court case which historically convicted defendants for an honour killing. The accused in the murder included relatives of Babli (grandfather Gangaraj, who is said to have been a Khap leader,<ref>[http://dainiktribuneonline.com/2010/03/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE/ मनोज-बबली हत्याकांड में पांच को मौत की सजा, दो को उम्रकैद, March - 31 - 2010]</ref> brother, maternal and paternal uncles and two cousins). Relatives of Manoj, especially his mother, defended the relationship.<ref name="prakash_2010">{{cite web
| last = प्रकाश
| first = अजय
| title = घरवाली नहीं, घरवालियों की जीत,
| website = जनज्वार ब्लॉग
| date = Apr 14, 2010
| url = http://janjwar.blogspot.com/2010/04/blog-post_14.html
| access-date = October 30, 2025}}
</ref>

The killing was ordered by a ''[[khap]] [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]]'' (''khap''), a religious [[Caste system in India|caste]]-based council among [[Jat people|Jats]], in their Karora village in [[Kaithal district]], [[Haryana]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/CHD-manoj-babli-honour-killing-in-haryana-4819122-NOR.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726024803/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/CHD-manoj-babli-honour-killing-in-haryana-4819122-NOR.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 July 2015|title=Manoj-Babli honor killing case: This mother challenged dreaded khap; here are chilling details|work=Dainik Bhaskar|date=25 November 2014|access-date=21 March 2018}}</ref> The ''khap'' passed a [[decree]] prohibiting marriage against [[Norm (sociology)|societal norms]]. Such caste-based councils are common in the inner regions of several Indian states, including Haryana, [[Punjab]], western [[Uttar Pradesh]] and parts of [[Rajasthan]], and have been operating with government approval for years.<ref name=ht/> In any event, the state government expressed no concern about the ruling of the ''khap panchayat''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Marriage-murder-judgment-it-was-all-wrong/articleshow/5758853.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054912/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-04/india/28143211_1_village-in-kaithal-district-khap-jat-community|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Marriage, murder, judgment, it was all wrong|last=Sengupta|first=Nandita|date=4 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|access-date=8 April 2010}}</ref>

Among Jats the marriage within the same gotra is restricted and such marriage is considered invalid.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhattacharya |first=Astrologer Nita |date=2024-02-08 |title=Why One Should Not Marry in the Same Gotra? - Namoastro |url=https://www.namoastro.com/blog/why-one-should-not-marry-in-the-same-gotra/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250419134527/https://www.namoastro.com/blog/why-one-should-not-marry-in-the-same-gotra/ |archive-date=19 April 2025 |access-date=2025-05-26 |work=Namoastro |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>The Khap panchayat's ruling was that Manoj and Babli belonged to the Banwala [[gotra]], a [[Jat]] community, and were therefore considered to be siblings ( brother–sister relationship) and any union between them would be invalid and [[incestuous]]. Nevertheless, the couple went ahead with their marriage, following which they were abducted and killed by Babli's relatives.<ref name=ht>{{cite journal|date=14–27 July 2007 |title=All for 'honour' |journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |volume=24 |issue=14 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2414/stories/20070727003103500.htm |access-date=8 April 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412144515/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2414/stories/20070727003103500.htm |archive-date=12 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name=the_australian>{{cite news|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/india-at-odds-as-caste-culture-turns-to-killing/story-e6frg6so-1225849033844|title=India at odds as caste culture turns to killing |date=3 April 2010|first=Amanda|last=Hodge|publisher=[[The Australian]] |access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

Lal Bahadur Khowal the lawyer representing Manoj's family said that "The police was refusing to arrest the criminal, Ganga Raj. News reports pointed out how Panchayats around Haryana were being held in his favour and how khaps were issuing warnings against his arrest. A senior police officer made a statement in court saying that Ganga Raj can’t be arrested because his arrest could create a law and order situation. He said this in court! I was shocked to see a lawful authority unwilling to arrest an alleged criminal citing law and order."<ref>{{Citation |title=Dashing hopes, Emboldening khaps - The High Court verdict on the Manoj Babli case {{!}} NewsClick |date=2011-03-18 |url=https://www.newsclick.in/dashing-hopes-emboldening-khaps-high-court-verdict-manoj-babli-case |access-date=2023-08-04 |language=en}}</ref>

Lal Bahadur Khowal expressed satisfaction with the court's decision, stating that the superintendent of police has been directed to take appropriate action against the negligent police officials. He praised the verdict, believing it will send a powerful message and restore the common man's trust in the judiciary. he said, adding, “Lighter punishment would have been a mockery of justice.”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-03-30 |title=5 get death sentence in Haryana honour killing case {{!}} The India Post The India Post |url=https://www.theindiapost.com/headline/5-get-death-sentence-in-haryana-honour-killing-case/ |access-date=2023-08-04 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In March 2010, a [[Karnal]] district court sentenced the five perpetrators to death, the first time an Indian court had done so in an honour killing case. The khap head who ordered but did not take part in the killings received a [[Life imprisonment|life sentence]], and the driver involved in the abduction a seven-year prison term. According to [[Minister for Home Affairs (India)|Home Minister]] [[P. Chidambaram]], the [[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]]-led [[Government of India|central government]] was to propose an amendment to the [[Indian Penal Code]] (IPC) in response to the deaths of Manoj and Babli, making honour killings a "distinct offense".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100328/main4.htm|title=Who gave khaps the right to kill: PC|first=Vibha|last=Sharma|work=[[Tribune Company]]|publisher=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|date=28 March 2010|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref name=te/><ref name=TOI>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Should-honour-killing-be-dealt-as-murder/articleshow/6150868.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120418/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-10/india/28276511_1_honour-killings-vani-gopal-sharma-ganga-raj|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Should honour killing be dealt as murder?|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 July 2010|access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref>

==Background==
Manoj's and Babli's families lived in Karora Village, [[Kaithal]]. Manoj's mother, Chanderpati Berwal, had four children, of whom Manoj was the eldest.<ref name=ht/><ref name=joshi>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Haryana-village-boycotts-honour-killing-victim-s-family-again/Article1-523841.aspx|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125075111/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Haryana-village-boycotts-honour-killing-victim-s-family-again/Article1-523841.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2013|title=Haryana village boycotts honour killing victim's family, again|last=Joshi|first=Vishal|date=27 March 2010|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=27 May 2010}}</ref> Chanderpati was widowed at the age of 37, when Manoj was only 9.<ref name=ht/> Manoj owned an electronics repair shop at Kaithal<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Haryana+court+convicts+7+for+honour+killing.-a0222289585|title=Haryana court convicts 7 for honour killing|date=26 March 2010|work=The Free Library|publisher=[[Mail Today]]|access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/6-convicted-in-Haryana-honour-killing-case/articleshow/5724543.cms |title=6 convicted in Haryana honour killing case |date=25 March 2010 |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]] |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=28 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328233556/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/6-convicted-in-Haryana-honour-killing-case/articleshow/5724543.cms |archive-date=28 March 2010 }}</ref> and was the only member of his family earning a livelihood.<ref name=ht/><ref name=te/> Manoj's cousin, Narender, lived with the family and worked in [[Panchkula]].<ref name=indiatoday/>

Babli's mother, Ompati, also had four children, including eldest son, Suresh.<ref name=indiatoday/> Like Manoj, Suresh was the only bread winner of the family.<ref name=Siwach>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Judge-calls-for-new-law-to-deal-with-honour-killings/articleshow/5749037.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120423/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-01/india/28123564_1_honour-killings-chandrapati-woman-judge|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Judge calls for new law to deal with honour killings|first=Sukhbir|last=Siwach|author2=Manoj Dhaka|date=1 April 2010|publisher=The Times Group|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=27 May 2010}}</ref> Babli was still studying in school.<ref name=Lohumi/> Ompati is a widow.{{#tag:ref|Conflicting reports exist as to when Ompati's husband died. According to the judge of the case, Vani Gopal Sharma, her husband died two years before the murder.<ref name=Siwach/> According to a quote from Ompati, her husband died of trauma after the murder.<ref name=dailypioneer/> ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'' reported that Ompati's husband had died when her "children were very young".<ref name=Gayatri2/>|group=note}}

==Development of the relationship and subsequent marriage==
[[File:Manoj Banwala (23) and Babli (19), after their marriage, April 2007.jpg|right|thumb|210px|alt=Newlyweds garlanded with marigolds|Manoj and Babli after their marriage in Chandigarh in April 2007]]
In 2005, Manoj and Babli began to show interest in each other.<ref name=Lohumi>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100326/haryana.htm#1|title=6 of girl's kin held guilty |first=Bhanu P.|last=Lohumi|work=[[Tribune Company]]|publisher=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|date=25 March 2010|access-date=3 May 2010|location=Karnal}}</ref> Manoj was four years older than Babli. All residents of Karora village belong to the same clan, Banwala, a Jat community, and marrying within the clan is considered [[incest]].<ref name=te>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100331/jsp/nation/story_12285441.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208071052/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100331/jsp/nation/story_12285441.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 February 2011|first=Gajinder|last=Singh|title=Death for honour killings|date=31 March 2010|publisher=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |access-date=4 April 2010|location=Calcutta, India}}</ref><ref name=NDTV>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/news/cities/karnal-honour-killing-sentencing-today-18699.php|title=Karnal honour killing: Death sentence for 5, life for 1 |date=30 March 2010|publisher=[[NDTV|NDTV Convergence Limited]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/six-to-be-sentenced-today-for-honour-killing/596849/|title=Six to be sentenced today for 'honour killing'|first=Mandakini|last= Gahlot|date=29 March 2010|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> Chanderpati recalled, "We knew about Babli long before they decided to marry each other. She would call up often and I would sermonise to her about staying away from Manoj, fearing the fallout of such an alliance. They were, however, unconcerned and chatted for hours together. If I did walk into the room while they were talking, Manoj would quickly disconnect the phone and run off to avoid any questioning." She continued, "I even went to Babli's house and told her mother that Manoj and Babli were seeing each other. I asked her to dissuade Babli or quickly marry her off before word of their dalliance spread."<ref name=Gayatri>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100331/khapdiktat.htm#3|title=A love story with a full stop|first=Geetanjali|last=Gayatri|date=30 March 2010|work=Tribune Company|access-date=4 April 2010|location=Kaithal}}</ref>

On 5 April 2007, says Chanderpati, " The following morning, Babli's uncle came by to speak with Manoj. According to Chanderpati, "He said he had come to recover some money that Manoj had borrowed. I told him that Manoj was away for an exam. He accepted a cup of tea and left. We only discovered late in the evening that Babli, too, was missing and the two had run away." Instead of sleeping in the shop and studying in the night for his exam the next day, Manoj had eloped with Babli to [[Chandigarh]] on the night of 5th April 2007. Two days later, on 7 April at a [[Durga]] temple in Chandigarh, Manoj "married" Babli in an informal (and legally invalid) ceremony simply by applying vermilion to the parting of Babli's hair.<ref name=Gayatri/>

Furious with the marriage and fornication, Babli's family asked for intervention from the local ''khap panchayat,''<ref name=NDTV/> which annulled the so-called marriage.<ref name=TOI/> The ''khap'' also announced a social boycott on Manoj's family. Anyone who kept ties with them would be fined [[Indian rupees|Rs.]] 25,000.<ref name=joshi/><ref name=indiatoday/> Ompati claims to have tried to persuade her family that Babli did nothing dishonourable, and that she and Manoj would move back home soon.<ref name=ht/>

==Court appearance==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=27em|border=1px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=true|quote=The court gave them protection but Manoj called us one day to say that Babli's relatives had been chasing them and that the policemen entrusted with protecting them had left them alone, so they were leaving for Delhi. He said his cellphone had run out of balance and that we should call him. But when we called him after about an hour, his phone was switched off and there was no communication with them after that.|salign=right|source=—Chanderpati<ref name=indiatoday/>}}
On 26 April, Babli's family filed a [[First Information Report]] (FIR) against Manoj and his family for kidnapping Babli.<ref name=Gupta/> On 15 June, Manoj went to court with Babli, testifying that they had married in conformity with the law and that he did not kidnap Babli. The judge ordered police protection for the two.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Villagers-defend-honour-killing/articleshow/2168601.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104075747/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-07-03/india/27974438_1_haryana-village-bus-driver-babli|url-status=live|archive-date=4 November 2012|title=Villagers defend 'honour killing'|first=Ramaninder K. |last=Bhatia|date=3 July 2007|publisher=The Times Group|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref name=diktat>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-31/india/28114517_1_manoj-and-babli-khap-ganga-raj|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811055836/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-31/india/28114517_1_manoj-and-babli-khap-ganga-raj|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Five to hang for khap death diktat|last=Siwach|first=Sukhbir|date=31 March 2010|publisher=The Times Group|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref> Chandrapati did not attend the trial so that Babli's family would not be aware that Manoj and Babli were in town.<ref name=Gayatri/>

After the trial, Manoj and Babli, accompanied by a team of five police officers assigned to them for protection, left for Chandigarh. The police left them at Pipli and slipped away.<ref name=Gupta>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070703/haryana.htm#1|title=Honour killing rocks state, again|last=Gupta|first=Yoginder|author2=Satish Seth|date=2 July 2007|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=9 April 2010|location=Chandigarh}}</ref><ref name=deccan>{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/op-ed/feudal-justice-feudal-crime-034|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405163127/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/op-ed/feudal-justice-feudal-crime-034|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 April 2023|title=Feudal justice for a feudal crime|last=Sen |first=Antara Dev|date=3 April 2010|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=10 April 2010}} </ref> Suspecting foul play, Manoj and Babli did not continue toward Chandigarh, instead boarding a bus for [[Karnal]].<ref name=deccan/> According to a statement filed by Chanderpati, later that day, around 3:40 pm, she received a call from a Pipli telephone booth from Manoj, who said that the police had deserted them, and Babli's family members were trailing them, so they would try to take a bus to [[Delhi]] and call her back later. Babli asked for acceptance from Chanderpati, who replied affirmatively.<ref name=Gayatri2>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100329/main6.htm|title=Now, slain boy's mother faces life threat|last=Gayatri|first=Geetanjali|date=28 March 2010 |work=Tribune Company|access-date=7 September 2010}}</ref> That was the last time Manoj's family heard from the couple.<ref name=ht/><ref name=indiatoday>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/Story/90863/Honourable+justice.html?complete=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026002739/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/Story/90863/Honourable+justice.html?complete=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 October 2010|title=Honourable justice|date=1 April 2010|first=Arvind|last=Chhabra|work=Indian Times|access-date=29 April 2010}}</ref><ref name=hindustan>{{cite web|url=http://epaper.hindustantimes.com/CWArticle.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212215708/https://epaper.hindustantimes.com/CWArticle.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 February 2021 |title=Death verdict for 5 in Karnal honour killing |date=13 April 2010 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=29 April 2010 }}</ref>

On 20 June, Chanderpati's complaint regarding the kidnapping was filed as an FIR at the Bhutana police station following media pressure on the police.<ref name=Lohumi/>

==Kidnapping and murder==
The couple's bus left for Delhi, but ''en route'' at 4:30 pm, Babli's relatives stopped the bus near Raipur Jatan village, about {{convert|20|km|mi|}} from Pipli. They kidnapped the couple in a [[Mahindra Scorpio|Scorpio]] [[SUV]] driven by Mandeep Singh.<ref name=outlook>{{cite web|url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?678281|title=5 Get Death Sentence in Haryana Honour Killing Case Karnal|date=30 March 2010|publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|access-date=4 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331210944/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?678281|archive-date=31 March 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kuldip Thekedar,<ref name=tribuneindia2/> a road contractor, witnessed the kidnapping and filed a complaint at the Butana police station in Karnal district, giving the [[Vehicle registration plate|licence plate]] number of the Scorpio.<ref name=ht/><ref name=tribuneindia3>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100331/khapdiktat.htm#1|title=Police drove them to death|first=Bhanu P.|last=Lohumi|date=30 March 2010|work=Tribune Company|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

Later, Chanderpati ascribed the murder to the unauthorised withdrawal of the couple's security team ignoring the orders given by the district and sessions judge (DSJ) of Kaithal.<ref name=cs>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Honour-killing-Notice-to-Haryana-CS/articleshow/2273042.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054916/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-08-11/chandigarh/27977589_1_babli-head-constable-police-officers|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Honour killing: Notice to Haryana CS|publisher=The Times Group|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=11 August 2007|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> Upon receiving no further news, Chanderpati's nephew, Narendra Singh traced the contractor, and after he was shown a photo of the couple, the contractor recognised the couple. The family then understood that Manoj and Babli were the victims of the kidnapping.<ref name=ht/>

After the kidnapping, the couple were beaten. Babli's brother Suresh forced her to consume pesticide, while four other family members pushed Manoj to the ground, her uncle Rajinder pulling a [[noose]] around Manoj's neck and strangling him in front of Babli.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Brutality-of-honour-killing-shocks-court/articleshow/5753302.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054939/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-02/chandigarh/28115027_1_ganga-raj-rajender-and-baru-ram-vani-gopal-sharma|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Brutality of honour killing shocks court|first=Sukhbir|last=Siwach|date=2 April 2010|publisher=The Times Group|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> They wrapped the bodies in [[gunny sack]]s<ref name=indiatoday/> and dumped them in Barwala Link Canal in [[Hisar district]]. On 23 June, nine days later, their mutilated bodies, hands and feet tied, were fished out of the canal by Kheri Chowki police.<ref name=Lohumi/> After [[autopsy]],<ref name=dc/> police preserved Manoj's shirt and Babli's anklet<ref name=tribuneindia3/> and cremated the bodies as unclaimed on 24 June.<ref name=deccan/><ref name=hindustan/> On 1 July the family identified them by the remnants of their clothing.<ref name=indiatoday/> The accused were subsequently arrested.

Police discovered a number of articles in the Scorpio used to kidnap the couple—parts of Babli's anklet, two buttons from Manoj's shirt, and torn photographs of the couple. Manoj's purse was found on one of the accused.<ref name="Lohumi2"/><ref name=Siwach2>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Khap-leader-convicted-for-honour-killing/articleshow/5725165.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120506/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-26/india/28119933_1_babli-khap-manoj|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Khap leader convicted for 'honour killing'|last=Siwach|first=Sukhbir|date=26 March 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref>

==Court judgement==
As no Karnal lawyer would take up the case, Manoj's family had to find lawyers from [[Hisar, Haryana|Hisar]].<ref name=tribuneindia4>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100331/khapdiktat.htm#4|title=They are both alive, claims the defence|first=Geetanjali|last=Gayatri|author2=Bhanu P. Lohumi|date=31 March 2010|work=Tribune Company|access-date=7 June 2010}}</ref><ref name=dailypioneer2>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/245539/Manoj-Bubbly-murder-case-sentence-today.html |title=Manoj-Bubbly murder case sentence today |date=30 March 2010 |first=Nitish |last=Sharma |work=The Pioneer |publisher=CMYK Printech Ltd. |access-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616065959/http://www.dailypioneer.com/245539/Manoj-Bubbly-murder-case-sentence-today.html |archive-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref> Advocate Lal Bahadur Khowal,<ref name="outlook" /> Cornel Omparkash, and Rakesh Manjhu from [[Hisar, Haryana]] accepted the case.<ref name="dailypioneer2" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/245900/Five-get-death-for-honour-killings.html |title=Court cracks down on medieval system of justice |date=31 March 2010 |first=Nitish |last=Sharma |work=The Pioneer |publisher=CMYK Printech Ltd. |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616070104/http://www.dailypioneer.com/245900/Five-get-death-for-honour-killings.html |archive-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref> Later on Adv. Sunil Rana from Karnal also accepted the case, arguing on their behalf [[Prosecutor|public prosecutor]] Sunil Rana<ref name=outlook/><ref name=tribuneindia2/> and Lal Bahadur Khowal argued that the couples' clothes recovered from the canal and photographs from the Scorpio established that day's happenings. Lal Bahadur Khowal also cited the contractor's statement and the last phone call from Manoj, in which Manoj had related that Babli's relatives were trailing them.<ref name=tribuneindia4/> However, the contractor "turned hostile" and withdrew his statement.<ref name="Lohumi2">{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100329/main6.htm#2|title=Haryana khap killings: Sentence today|first=Lohumi|last=Bhanu P.|date=28 March 2010|work=Tribune Company|access-date=7 September 2010}}</ref>

Arguing for the defence was lawyer Jagmal Singh.<ref name=dailypioneer2/> He asserted that there was no evidence against the accused and that it was all contrived by the media, no evidence that the ''khap panchayat'' ever met to discuss the fate of the couple, and no evidence indicating that Manoj and Babli were dead. The cremated bodies recovered from the canal were never confirmed to be those of Manoj and Babli.<ref name=tribuneindia4/>

On 29 March 2010, after 33 months of 50 hearings{{#tag:ref|Reports differed as to the number of hearings. Some said 50,<ref name=outlook/><ref name=dc/> while others said 76.<ref name=indiatoday/>|group=note}} with 41 witnesses, the Karnal District court found the accused guilty of murder, kidnapping, conspiracy, and destroying evidence under respective sections in the IPC.{{#tag:ref|Sections 302, 364, 120B, and 21.<ref name=dc>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-29/india/28113376_1_khap-panchayat-ganga-raj-baru-ram|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120428/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-29/india/28113376_1_khap-panchayat-ganga-raj-baru-ram|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Court defers sentencing in Karnal honour killing till Tuesday|date= 29 March 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref name=tribuneindia/>|group=note}} The next day, 30 March, for the first time in Haryana state history, a death penalty verdict was announced in the [[double murder]] case for the five accused. All were related to Babli, and included her brother Suresh, cousins Gurdev and Satish, paternal uncle Rajender, and maternal uncle Baru Ram.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Men-kill-to-protect-honour-kin-bear-brunt/articleshow/5761509.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118222906/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-05/chandigarh/28122512_1_baru-ram-manoj-and-babli-honour|url-status=live|archive-date=18 November 2011|first=Vijay|last=Sabharwal|title=Men kill to protect honour, kin bear brunt|date=5 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref> The leader of the ''khap panchayat'' Ganga Raj (52),<ref name=indiatoday/> was given a life sentence for conspiracy,<ref name=cn/><ref name=abc>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/03/31/2860828.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402224034/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/03/31/2860828.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 April 2010|first=Sally|last=Sara|title=Five to be executed for honour killings|date=31 March 2010|publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News Australia]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref name=BBC>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8595168.stm|title=Death penalty in India 'honour killings' case |date=30 March 2010 |publisher=[[BBC News Online]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> while the driver, Mandeep Singh, held guilty of kidnapping, was given a jail term of seven years.<ref name=BBC/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/haryana/Death-sentence-for-five-in-Haryana-honour-killing-case/Article1-525002.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605102710/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/haryana/Death-sentence-for-five-in-Haryana-honour-killing-case/Article1-525002.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 June 2011|title=Five 'honour killers' get death|date=30 March 2010|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|publisher=HT Media Limited|access-date=9 April 2010|location=Karnal}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news614876.html|title=Karnal court to deliver verdict against Khap Panchayat killers|work=ZeeNews.com|publisher=[[Press Trust of India]]|access-date=28 April 2010|location=Haryana}}</ref> The court asked the Haryana government to provide a compensation of Rs. 100,000 to Chanderpati, who had filed the case.<ref name=diktat/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/mar/30/five-get-death-in-karnal-honour-killing-case.htm|title=5 get death in Karnal honour killing case|date=30 March 2010|work=[[Rediff.com]]|publisher=Rediff News Bureau|access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref> Ganga Raj was fined Rs. 16,000, and the other six convicts Rs. 6,000 each.<ref name=tribuneindia/>

The court also accused six police personnel of dereliction of duty and directed the [[Superintendent of Police (India)|SSP]] of Kaithal to take action against them.<ref name=thehindu/> The personnel included head constable Jayender Singh, sub-inspector Jagbir Singh, and the members of the escort party provided to the couple.<ref name=dailypioneer>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/245899/Verdict-a-deterrent-for-%E2%80%98Taliban-style-courts%E2%80%99.html |title=Victim's kin unhappy with sentence |date=31 March 2010 |work=[[The Pioneer (Indian newspaper)|The Pioneer]] |publisher=CMYK Printech Ltd. |access-date=29 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616065909/http://www.dailypioneer.com/245899/Verdict-a-deterrent-for-%E2%80%98Taliban-style-courts%E2%80%99.html |archive-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name=tribuneindia>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100331/main1.htm|title=5 get death for 'honour killing': First capital punishment for such crime in Haryana|date=31 March 2010|first=Bhanu P.|last=Lohumi|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> They claimed that the couple wanted them to leave.<ref name=tribuneindia3/> The SSP's statement was that "[i]t is correct that the deceased couple had given in writing not to take police security any further, but Jagbir Singh was well aware that there was a threat to their lives from the relatives of the girl." The report stated that Jayender informed Gurdev Singh of the location of the police and that of Manoj and Babli over his mobile phone.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Honour-over-love-Over-100-killed-every-yr/articleshow/4818395.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120515/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-25/india/28174070_1_honour-killings-kaithal-court-manoj-and-babli|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|last=Siwach|first=Sukhbir|title=Honour over love: Over 100 killed every yr|date=25 July 2007|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref> Jayender was dismissed from the police force, and both he and Jagbir were penalised by a cut of two increments.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2008/20080608/haryana.htm#5|title=Cops held guilty of failing in duty|date=7 June 2008|first=Swati|last=Sharma|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=4 April 2010|location=Chandigarh}}</ref>

In her verdict, district judge Vani Gopal Sharma stated, "This court has gone through sleepless nights and tried to put itself in the shoes of the offenders and think as to what might have prompted them to take such a step."<ref name=tribuneindia2>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100401/haryana.htm#6|title=Court castigates police role|date=31 March 2010|work=[[Tribune Company]]|publisher=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=30 April 2010|location=Karnal}}</ref> "Khap panchayats have functioned contrary to the constitution, ridiculed it and have become a law unto themselves."<ref name=the_australian/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7540025/India-sentences-five-men-to-death-for-honour-killings.html|title=India sentences five men to death for 'honour killings'|date=31 March 2010|publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph#Website|The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=28 April 2010|location=London}}</ref>

Khowal<ref name=outlook/> was satisfied with the decision, "Out of seven accused, five have been given death sentences. This will send a strong message to the public that law is greater than the khap."<ref name=thehindu>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article329247.ece|title=Death penalty for 5 involved in honour killing in Haryana|date=30 March 2010|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=28 April 2010|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> However, he was disappointed that "the leader [Ganga Raj] got away with death penalty because he intentionally disappeared during the killing."<ref name=cn/> Narendra said, "We will appeal in High Court for death penalty to the main accused, Ganga Raj. We respect the court's decision but he should be punished so that the instigators of the crime get the punishment. Also it is important that it is a very clear message so that no khap gives such directions, ever."<ref name=thehindu/> Seema seconded Narendra's concerns, "We would have been happier if the main accused was also given the death sentence. The decision of the panchayat was not justified and people should not to be allowed to misuse their power. We have fought this battle alone when no one was supporting us." She requested more security for her family, "They tried to bribe us to withdraw the case then they threatened that they would kill us if we didn't withdraw the FIR. Even after the decision we're afraid of a backlash from the Khap Panchayat."<ref name=thehindu/>

==Aftermath==

===Historical significance===
The case was the first resulting in the conviction of ''khap panchayats''<ref name=diktat/><ref name=cn>{{cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/5-get-death-penalty-in-honour-killing-case/112360-3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401130645/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/5-get-death-penalty-in-honour-killing-case/112360-3.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 April 2010|title=5 get death penalty in honour killing case|date=31 March 2010|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100428/jsp/opinion/story_12388910.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513083757/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100428/jsp/opinion/story_12388910.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 May 2010|title=A Matter of Honour|date=28 April 2010|work=The Telegraph|access-date=4 April 2010|location=Calcutta, India}}</ref> and the first capital punishment verdict in an honour killing case in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2010/04/15/a-disgrace-to-the-village|title=A disgrace to the village|date=15 April 2010|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/24/AR2010052404075.html|title=5 sentenced to death in honor killing of Indian couple from same clan|date=25 May 2010|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=7 June 2010|first=Rama|last=Lakshmi}}</ref> The [[Indian media]] and legal experts hailed it as a "landmark judgement", a victory over these infamous assemblies, which acted for years with impunity as parallel judicial bodies. Also, few honour killing cases went to court, and this was the first case in which the groom's family in an honour killing filed the case.<ref name=the_australian/><ref name=abc/><ref name=thehindu/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/indian-honour-killing-men-face-death-20100331-rcqo.html|title= Indian 'honour killing' men face death |date=31 March 2010|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|publisher=[[Fairfax Media]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> In a statement to the press, former Home Minister Chidambaram slammed the ''khap panchayats'', asking tersely, "Who are these khap panchayats? Who gave them the right to kill in the name of honour?"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesnow.tv/Home-Minister-slams-kangaroo-courts/articleshow/4341626.cms|title=Home Minister slams kangaroo courts|date=28 March 2010|publisher=[[Times Now]]|access-date=4 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226092730/http://www.timesnow.tv/Home-Minister-slams-kangaroo-courts/articleshow/4341626.cms|archive-date=26 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Surat Singh, director of the Haryana Institute of Rural Development, [[Nilokheri]], anticipated that the verdict will end the diktats of ''khap panchayats''. The ''khaps'' had never worried before because their "political bosses refrained people from acting against them. With this verdict, those who try to impose a medieval order on society will think twice".<ref name=indiatoday/> Political analyst Ranbir Singh agreed that the judgement will "act as a deterrent".<ref name=indiatoday/> Additional [[Advocate General#India|Advocate General]] Arun Walia hailed the decision: "before passing ruthless judgments, the members will surely take note of this decision".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/245899/Verdict-a-deterrent-for-%E2%80%98Taliban-style-courts%E2%80%99.html |title=Verdict a deterrent for 'Taliban-style courts' |date=31 March 2010 |publisher=[[The Pioneer (Indian newspaper)|The Pioneer]] |access-date=16 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616065909/http://www.dailypioneer.com/245899/Verdict-a-deterrent-for-%E2%80%98Taliban-style-courts%E2%80%99.html |archive-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref>

The honour killing inspired Ajay Sinha to produce a film titled ''Khap—A Story of Honour Killing'' starring [[Om Puri]], [[Yuvika Chaudhary]], [[Govind Namdeo]], [[Anuradha Patel]], and [[Mohnish Behl]], to raise awareness about the ''khap''{{'}}s diktats.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/-Khap-should-be-made-tax-free-/675946/|title=Khap should be made tax-free|date=3 September 2010|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Ajai-Sinha-all-set-for-Khap/articleshow/6014187.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120520/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-06-05/news-interviews/28305674_1_khap-babli-film|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Ajai Sinha all set for 'Khap'|last=Shah|first=Kunal M.|date=5 June 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> It will cost ₨25–30 million and was expected to enter theatres by late July 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/entertainment/ajay-sinha-to-bring-honour-killing-issue-on-celluloid_100375633.html|title=Ajay Sinha to bring honour killing issue on celluloid|last=Bhirani|first=Radhika|date=5 June 2010|work=[[Indo-Asian News Service]]|publisher=Thaindian News|access-date=9 September 2010|archive-date=22 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722025709/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/entertainment/ajay-sinha-to-bring-honour-killing-issue-on-celluloid_100375633.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sinha claimed that the film is based on not one distinct killing but many. He considered the film "a protest against such traditions and practice".<ref name=outlook2>{{cite news|url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?687544|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131011959/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?687544|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 January 2013|title=Bollywood Lines Up Films Based on Honour Killings|last=Sharma|first=Raj Kumar|date=15 July 2010|publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> For research, Sinha had visited Haryana and spoken to ''khap'' members.<ref name=outlook2/>

===Chanderpati===
Days after the verdict, a ''[[The Times of India]]'' headline hailed Chanderpati, who struggled years for justice, as "Mother Courage" for having done "what even top politicians and bureaucrats have shied away from doing—taken on the dreaded khap panchayats."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Mother-courage-She-took-on-khaps-to-avenge-son-bahu/articleshow/5748623.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054907/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-01/india/28136711_1_khap-panchayat-karnal-sessions-court-chandrapati|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Mother courage: She took on khaps to avenge son, bahu|last=Bhatia|first=Ramaninder K.|author2=Sukhbir Siwach|date=1 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> Chanderpati now lives with her two daughters and remaining son under the protection of two policemen. She withdrew her daughter Rekha from public school and sent Vinod to a school in another district.<ref name=joshi/> Chanderpati also reported threats from villagers, "The villagers have threatened to eliminate us. I am enemy number one and my son is a culprit. We've been told our ordeal can end if we withdraw the police case but we refused. So, the nightmare continues."<ref name=Gayatri2/>

Chanderpati has stated she intends to continue until Ganga Raj is sentenced to death:<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/02/stories/2010040256640100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405192752/http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/02/stories/2010040256640100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 April 2010|title=Villages still in trauma after 'honour-killing' verdict|first=Vrinda|last= Sharma|date=2 April 2010|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 April 2010|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> "Our fight has not ended here. We will not rest till he [Ganga Raj] also gets the death penalty."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/honour-killing-grooms-family-wants-death-for-all-convicted_100341437.html|title=Honour killing: Groom's family wants death for all convicted|date=30 March 2010|work=IANS|publisher=Thaindian News|access-date=7 June 2010|archive-date=6 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406070608/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/honour-killing-grooms-family-wants-death-for-all-convicted_100341437.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''khap panchayats'' remain defiant even after the verdict.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/Caste-panchayats-vow-to-continue-tradition/articleshow/5748652.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054948/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-01/jaipur/28124693_1_khap-panchayats-sarpanch-jat-community|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Caste panchayats vow to continue tradition|first=Anindo|last= Dey|date=1 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-02/india/28145012_1_manoj-and-babli-gotra-khaps|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811055328/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-02/india/28145012_1_manoj-and-babli-gotra-khaps|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Mother invites ire of other khaps|date=2 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> "The verdict has done justice to my son's death, but it has not changed the way the village works," Chanderpati said.<ref name=thehindu3>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2010/04/02/stories/2010040256640100.htm|title=Villages still in trauma after 'honour-killing' verdict|first=Vrinda|last=Sharma|date=2 April 2010|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 April 2010|location=Chennai, India|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406193219/http://www.thehindu.com/2010/04/02/stories/2010040256640100.htm |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> "I am fighting but my son died only because the girl's male relatives could kill their own sister. Families allow themselves to be instigated. As long as men can kill their own daughters, what change will there be?"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-toi/all-that-matters/What-real-change-if-men-still-kill-their-daughters/articleshow/5758456.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054932/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-04/all-that-matters/28127911_1_police-protection-manoj-village|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=What real change, if men still kill their daughters?|first=Nandita|last=Sengupta|date=4 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

===Vani Gopal Sharma===
Judge Vani Gopal Sharma has supposedly been receiving threats since her verdict in the case.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100416/haryana.htm#1|title=Vani Gopal Sharma seeks transfer; fears for her life after honour killing verdict|work=Tribune Company|date=15 April 2010|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> The High Court had directed adequate security to be provided to her, but later she again informed the High Court of the failure to increase security. She sought transfer to [[Panchkula]], a city near Chandigarh.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Facing-khap-ire-Haryana-judge-seeks-transfer/articleshow/5823100.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120528/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-17/india/28118932_1_honour-killings-vani-gopal-sharma-khap|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Facing khap ire, Haryana judge seeks transfer|date=17 April 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> She requested this shortly after her verdict was denounced vehemently by the ''khap panchayats''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/249531/Karnal-judge-seeks-transfer-%E2%80%98for-safety%E2%80%99.html |title=Karnal judge seeks transfer 'for safety' |date=16 April 2010 |work=The Pioneer |publisher=CMYK Printech Ltd. |access-date=20 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616070200/http://www.dailypioneer.com/249531/Karnal-judge-seeks-transfer-%E2%80%98for-safety%E2%80%99.html |archive-date=16 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_judge-who-awarded-death-to-honour-killers-seeks-transfer_1372314|title=Judge who awarded death to honour killers seeks transfer|date=17 April 2010|first=Ajay|last=Bharadwaj|work=DNA India|publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd.|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> The police chief of Karnal district, Rakesh Kumar Arya, claimed that Sharma did not complain about inadequate security.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100407/main4.htm|title=SP, DC in dock over security to judge|first=Saurabh|last=Malik|author2=Manish Sirhindi|work=Tribune Company|date=6 April 2010|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref> "There is no truth in reports that Karnal's Additional District Sessions Judge wants to move out of the district on account of inadequate security," he said. "I don't know whether any such request was made, but it looks unlikely."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesnow.tv/Threatened-Karnal-judge-requests-for-transfer/articleshow/4343252.cms|title=Threatened Karnal judge requests for transfer|publisher=Times Now|date=18 April 2010|access-date=20 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311101710/http://www.timesnow.tv/Threatened-Karnal-judge-requests-for-transfer/articleshow/4343252.cms|archive-date=11 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===''Khap'' protests===
A ''maha khap panchayat'' (grand caste council)<ref name=khabrein>{{cite news|url=http://www.khabrein.info/news/Divisions_among_Khap_leaders__another_meeting_called_May_23_1271168464/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721222513/http://www.khabrein.info/news/Divisions_among_Khap_leaders__another_meeting_called_May_23_1271168464/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=21 July 2011|title=Divisions among Khap leaders, another meeting called May 23|work=khabrein.info|date=13 April 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> representing 20{{#tag:ref|There were different reports of the number of ''khap panchayats'' comprising the ''maha khap panchayat''. Some sources reported 20,<ref name=khabrein/><ref name=BBC2/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Will-Khap-defy-the-constitution/articleshow/5793945.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120533/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-13/india/28149783_1_gotra-marriages-khap-panchayats-khap-leaders|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Will Khap defy the constitution?|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|date=13 April 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> while others recorded 36,<ref name=globalpost/><ref name=indianexpress/> and one even said 200.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/news/india/khap-panchayats-meet-in-haryana-remain-defiant-19905.php|title=Khap panchayats meet in Haryana, remain defiant|first=Vikram|last=Chowdhary |date=13 April 2010|publisher=NDTV|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref>|group=note}} ''khap panchayats'' of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan held a meeting on 13 April 2010, in [[Kurukshetra]] to challenge the court verdict and support those sentenced to death in the case.<ref name=thehindu2>{{cite news|url=http://beta.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/article424506.ece|title=Khap panchayat: signs of desperation?|first=Jagmati|last=Sangwan|work=The Hindu|date=7 May 2010|access-date=14 June 2010|location=Chennai, India|archive-date=18 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618171237/http://beta.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/article424506.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=BBC2>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8617576.stm|title=India caste councils back men over 'honour killings'|work=[[BBC News]]|date=13 April 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref><ref name=globalpost>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/print/5548234|title=India: Incest, or star-crossed love? A north Indian caste wants laws changed to match honor-killing codes|first=Jason|last=Overdorf|work=[[GlobalPost]]|date=5 May 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> They planned to raise money for the families of the convicts to hire top lawyers for the appeal.<ref name=globalpost/> Each family in Haryana that was part of a ''khap panchayat'' was to contribute ₨10.<ref name=globalpost/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_khaps-collect-money-for-honour-killers-kin_1370284|title=Khaps collect money for honour killers' kin|work=DNA India|publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd.|date=12 April 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> They also demanded that the [[Hindu Marriage Act]] be amended to ban same-gotra marriages.<ref name=thehindu2/>

The ''khaps'' threatened to boycott any [[Member of Parliament|MP]] and assembly member from Haryana who did not back the ''khaps'' request.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/khap-panchayats-threatens-mps-delhi-blockade/116033-3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013054933/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/khap-panchayats-threatens-mps-delhi-blockade/116033-3.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 October 2012|title=Khap panchayats threaten MPs, Delhi blockade|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|date=24 May 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> They also blocked the Kurukshetra-Kaithal highway in protest.<ref name=khabrein/><ref name=indianexpress>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/amend-hindu-marriage-act-demand-khaps/606139/0|title=Amend Hindu Marriage Act, demand Khaps|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=14 April 2010|access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref>

Dissatisfied with the decision at the April meeting, the ''maha khap panchayat'' called another meeting on 23 May in [[Jind]] to discuss their plans.<ref name=khabrein/>

===Developments in honour killing law===
{{Quote box|align=right|width=27em|border=1px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=true|quote=The vilest crimes are committed in the name of defending the honour of the family or women and we should hang our heads in shame when such incidents take place in India in the 21st century.|salign=right|source=—[[P. Chidambaram]], in response to a calling attention notice in the [[Rajya Sabha]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/honour-killings-a-shame-on-india-chidambaram_100224214.html|title=Honour killings a shame on India: Chidambaram|date=28 July 2009|work=[[Indo-Asian News Service]]|publisher=Thaindian News|access-date=4 April 2010|archive-date=8 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008070903/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/honour-killings-a-shame-on-india-chidambaram_100224214.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
After the court judgement, state authorities began to take on the ''khap panchayats'', and consequently, many village [[sarpanch]]es (village heads) supporting these councils were suspended.<ref name=TOI2/> Top Jat leader and former minister [[Randeep Surjewala|Shamsher Singh Surjewala]] said, "The diktats and fatwas issued by so-called gotra khaps on breaking of marriages and other similar issues would lead to 'Talibanisation' of society as such decisions were illegal and against the constitution."<ref name=diktat/><ref name=TOI2>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Law-tightens-noose-around-khaps/articleshow/5740898.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811054924/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-30/chandigarh/28132980_1_khap-panchayats-khap-leaders-illegal-bodies|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Law tightens noose around khaps|first=Sukhbir|last= Siwach|date=30 March 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

On 5 August 2010, in a [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] session, Chidambaram proposed a bill that included "public stripping of women and externment of young couples from villages and any 'act which is humiliating will be punished with severity{{'"}} in the definition of honour killing<ref name=Faraz/> and that would "make khap-dictated honour killings a distinct offence so that all those who participate in the decision are liable to attract the death sentence".<ref name=TOI/> He insinuated that the proposed law would place the "onus of proof on the accused".<ref name=Faraz>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100806/nation.htm#1|title=Law on honour killings soon: PC|last=Ahmad|first=Faraz|work=Tribune Company|date=5 August 2010|access-date=16 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Haryana-against-honour-killing-law/articleshow/6423703.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103120539/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-08-24/india/28311582_1_honour-killings-karnal-court-khap-leader|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Haryana against honour killing law|first=Sukhbir|last= Siwach|date=24 August 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> A July 2010 ''[[The Times of India]]'' article anticipated that the bill would not pass in the monsoon session of Parliament in the same year.<ref name=TOI/>
{{clear}}

==Appeal in High Court==
Following the verdict, the accused appealed to the Punjab and Haryana High Court. Ganga Raj's appeal for parole was declined. On 13 May 2010, the court admitted the appeal of him and the other six convicts challenging the court's verdict.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/Honour-killing--HC-admits-appeal-against-guilty-verdict/618514|title=Honour killing: HC admits appeal against guilty verdict|date=14 May 2010|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=20 May 2010|location=Chandigarh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?681978|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719185145/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?681978|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 July 2012|title=HC Admits Appeal of 7 Convicts in Double Murder Case|date=13 May 2010|publisher=Outlook|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100514/haryana.htm#5|title=Honour killing: Convicts' appeal admitted|work=Tribune Company|date=13 May 2010|access-date=20 May 2010}}</ref>

On 11 March 2011, the Punjab and Haryana High Court commuted the death sentence awarded to four convicts – Babli's brother Suresh, uncles Rajender and Baru Ram and Gurdev in the Manoj–Babli honour killing case to life imprisonment. Ganga Raj, said to be the prime conspirator, and another convict Satish were acquitted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/article1530800.ece|title=Death sentence commuted in Manoj-Babli case|date=12 March 2011|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=21 March 2011|location=New Delhi}}</ref> In an interview to [[NewsClick]], Manoj's relatives – Seema and Chanderpati affirmed that they would challenge Ganga Raj's and Satish's acquittal in the [[Supreme court|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://newsclick.in/india/dashing-hopes-emboldening-khaps-high-court-verdict-manoj-babli-case|title=Dashing hopes, Emboldening khaps – The High Court verdict on the Manoj Babli case|date=18 March 2011|publisher=Newsclick|access-date=21 March 2011|location=New Delhi}}</ref> The Punjab and Haryana High Court also directed the state Government of Haryana to pay a compensation of Rs 600,000 to Manoj's mother Chanderpati.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/manoj-babli-honour-killing-state-to-pay-rs-6-lakh-to-victims-family/story-0Pg6Io4WGwKReUBa7NVXZP.html|title= Manoj-Babli honour-killing: State to Pay Rs 6 lakh to victims' family}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
The 3 June 2012, episode, ''[[Satyamev Jayate (Season 1)#Episode 5: Intolerance to Love|Intolerance to Love]]'' of TV series, ''[[Satyamev Jayate (TV show)|Satyamev Jayate]]'', hosted by actor [[Aamir Khan]], featured an interview with Manoj's sister Seema and mother Chandrapati Banwala. The episode discussed this incident along with other cases in the episode.<ref>{{cite web| title = Review: Satyamev Jayate Ep 5 touches draconian tradition of honour killings|publisher=DNA India| url = http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/1697729/review-review-satyamev-jayate-ep-5-touches-draconian-tradition-of-honour-killings|date= 4 June 2012| access-date = 2013-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Satyamev Jayate speaks up for lovers!| url =https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/Satyamev-Jayate-speaks-up-for-lovers/articleshow/13808018.cms| archive-url =https://archive.today/20130103095947/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-04/tv/32030254_1_aamir-khap-panchayat-love-marriage| url-status =live| archive-date =3 January 2013|date=4 June 2012| work = [[The Times of India]]| access-date = 2013-08-17}}</ref>

In August 2013, senior journalist Chander Suta Dogra, published a book, ''Manoj and Babli: A Hate Story'' (Penguin) based on the honour killing case.<ref>{{cite web| title = Skeletons in the closet|work=Hindustan Times| url = http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/DontMiss/Skeletons-in-the-closet/Article1-1102640.aspx| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130817074218/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/DontMiss/Skeletons-in-the-closet/Article1-1102640.aspx| url-status = dead| archive-date = 17 August 2013|date=3 August 2013| access-date = 2013-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Honour Bound|work=The Indian Express| url =http://www.indianexpress.com/news/honour-bound/1151496/|date= 6 August 2013| access-date = 2013-08-17 }}</ref>

In 2015, a Bollywood Hindi film ''[[Guddu Rangeela]]'' used Manoj–Babli honour killing case in its storyline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/guddu-rangeela-inspired-by-manoj-babli-honour-killing-case/|title='Guddu Rangeela' inspired by Manoj-Babli honour killing case|date=26 June 2015}}</ref> Also in 2015, the Bollywood film ''[[NH10 (film)|NH10]]'' was released to critical and public acclaim with a story-line loosely based on this case.

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|author=Chander Suta Dogra|title=Manoj and Babli: A Hate Story|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Apsvw-Z36ywC|year=2013|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-702-6}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==External links==
* [https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090426/spectrum/main1.htm In the Name of Justice] at ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]''
* [https://twocircles.net/2010may19/ban_killings_name_honor.html ''Khap panchayats'']
* [http://memini.co/memini/manoj-and-babli/ Manoj & Babli remembered internationally]
{{Honor killing}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Manoj-Babli honour killing case}}
[[Category:Honour killing in India]]
[[Category:2007 murders in India]]
[[Category:2010 in case law]]
[[Category:Indian case law]]
[[Category:Caste-related violence in India]]
[[Category:Jat]]
[[Category:2000s in Haryana]]
[[Category:Crime in Haryana]]
[[Category:June 2007 in India]]

Badalwas

2025-11-28T00:14:55Z

Yaarzu: creating a info

{{Multiple issues|
{{Orphan|date=May 2024}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=March 2022}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Badalwas
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| area_total_km2 = 60
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 4000 approx.
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| area_footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]] [[Marwari language|Marwadi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 332023
| registration_plate = [[Vehicle registration plates of India|RJ23]]
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|RJ-IN]]
| footnotes =
| area_rank =
| unit_pref = Metric
| native_name =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Badalwas city
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline = Shekhawati1.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| governing_body =
| coordinates = {{coord|27.4647|N|75.0836|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder = Thakur Ajit Singh Shekhawat
| named_for =
| government_type = rural
| area_total_sq_mi = 1643 hectares
}}

[[File:Badalwas.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Badalwas city.jpg|thumb]]
'''Badalwas''' is a village in [[Sikar]] tehsil of [[Sikar district]] in [[Rajasthan]], India. It is situated 18 kilometres from [[Sikar]]. This is an old historical village founded 600 years ago.

== Old mansions ==
* Thakur Ranjeet Singh mansion - Jeevraj singh shekhawat
* thakur Deep Singh Mansion
* rao ji ka kotadi

== Popular places ==
* Raghunathji ka Mandir, [[:hi:बाडलवास|Badalwas]]
* Shahid Amarchand Jhunjhar ji temple, Badalwas
* Karni Mata Mandir jalya
* Shivsnakar Mahadev ka mandir
* Shree Shati Mata
* Mawdi Mata Ji, Badalwas
* Baba Ramdevji Temple, Bus stand Badalwas
* Shree krani mata Temple, Badalwas
* Gorana, [[Badalwas city|Badalwas]]

== Population data ==
The total number of families is 700. In Badalwas village population of children with age 0-18 is 446 which makes up 13.73% of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Badalwas village is 947 which is higher than Rajasthan state average of 928. Child Sex Ratio for the Badalwas as per census is 828, lower than Rajasthan average of 888.population data 2011

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Cite web |title=Badalwas, Sikar {{!}} Village {{!}} GeoIQ |url=https://geoiq.io/places/Badalwas/EsDcyVyv6P |access-date=2022-03-01 |website=geoiq.io}}
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220216055640/https://www.indiagrowing.com/Rajasthan/Sikar/Sikar/Badalwas Article title]}}
*https://www.getatoz.com/postoffice/badalwas/332023{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*https://www.newsnationtv.com/pincodes/rajasthan/sikar/badalwas-bo{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sikar| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Sikar district]]
[[Category:Thar Desert]]

{{Jaipurdivision-geo-stub}}

Shodhan Rai

2025-11-26T13:49:44Z

Yaarzu: Stub

{{Short description|Indian bodybuilder}}
{{BLP sources|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shodhan Rai
| image =
| birthname = Shodhan Rai
| birth_date = 25 December
| birth_place = [[Bangalore]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education = [[KLE Society]], [[Bangalore University]]
| occupation = Natural Pro BodyBuilder, Internationally Certified Fitness Consultant
| alias =
| status =
| title =
| family = J N Rai, Maya Rai, Shweth Rai
| spouse =
| children =
| relatives =
| networth =
| awards = Ekalavya Award 2013, INBA 'Hall of Fame'
| URL =
}}

'''Shodhan Rai''' (born 25 December) is an internationally acclaimed Natural Bodybuilder from [[Mangalore]]. He was awarded the [[Ekalavya Award]] for sports in 2014 by the [[Government of Karnataka]]. He is also an internationally certified fitness consultant.

He has represented India in various International Natural Bodybuilding Competitions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/367206/shodhan-roshan-represent-india.html |title=Shodhan, Roshan to represent India Bangalore |date=November 5, 2013 |website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=October 2021}}
[[Ekalavya Award]] for sports in 2014 by [[Government of Karnataka]]
Winner of "Ekalavya Award 2013", highest honours by the Karnataka Govt. for a sportsperson.
* ‘HALL OF FAME’ by INBA PNBA World Natural Bodybuilding Association (naturalbodybuilding.com) in 2024 in Las Vegas, U.S.A.

* 1 X SILVER, 1 x BRONZE at Natural Olympia 2025, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 1 x GOLD, 2 x SILVER at the World Cup 2025, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* 2 x SILVER at the Natural Universe 2025, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
* 3 x GOLD at the Asia Pacific 2025, Tokyo, Japan.
* 1 x BRONZE, 2 x 4th place at Natural Olympia 2024, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 1 x GOLD, 2 x SILVER, 1 x BRONZE at the World Cup 2024, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* 4 x GOLD, 1 x SILVER at the International Natural Championships 2024, Auckland, New Zealand.
* BRONZE at Natural Olympia 2023, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 2 x GOLD, 1 x SILVER at the Natural World Cup 2023, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* SILVER, BRONZE, 2 x 4th at the International Pacific Rim 2023, Auckland, New Zealand.
* GOLD at the Natural World Cup 2022, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* 7th at the Natural Olympia 2022, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* BRONZE at the Natural Olympia 2019, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* SILVER at the Natural Universe 2019, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* 2 x GOLD, 1 x SILVER, BEST POSER at the Natural World Cup 2019, Sydney, Australia.
* BRONZE at the Natural Olympia 2018, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* SILVER at the Natural Universe 2018, Brisbane, Australia.
* BRONZE at the Natural Olympia 2017, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* GOLD at the Natural World Cup 2017, Los Angeles, U.S.A.
* GOLD at the Natural Universe 2017, Auckland, New Zealand.
* SILVER at the Natural Olympia 2016, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 7th at the Natural World 2016, Budapest, Hungary.
* 8th at the Natural Olympia 2015, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 8th at the Natural World 2015, Dubai, U.A.E.
* 6th at the Natural Olympia 2014, San Diego, U.S.A.
* 8th at the Natural Olympia 2013, San Diego, U.S.A.
* 6th at the Musclemania 2013, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* 5th at the Natural Olympia 2012, Reno, U.S.A.
* Represented India at the Musclemania 2012, Las Vegas, U.S.A.
* SILVER at the Asia Pacific 2012, Auckland, New Zealand.
* 8th at the Mr.Universe 2011, Hamburg, Germany.
* 6th at the Asia Pacific 2011, Boracay Island, Philippines.
* SILVER at the Asia Pacific 2010, Rarotonga, Cook Islands, New Zealand.
* SILVER at the Asia Pacific 2009, Christchurch, New Zealand.
* 8th at the Mr.World 2008, Athens, Greece.
* 7th at the Indo-Pak 2004, Islamabad, Pakistan.
* BRONZE at the Mr. Universe 2001 (U-21), Charney les Macon, France.
* Winner of Mr.India, Mr.Karnataka in the category/class.
* Winner of Mr.Bangalore 2001.
* Winner of Mr. Bangalore University, 2001 and 2002.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekalavya_Award
https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/bengalurean-wins-gold-medal/articleshow/115635126.cms

https://kannada.asianetnews.com/sports/natural-bodybuilder-shodhan-rai-karnataka-talented-bodybuilder-kannada-prabha-special-story-kvn-rnj82z

https://kpepaper.asianetnews.com/editionname/BENGALURU/KANPRABHA_BG/page/10/article/KANPRABHA_BG_20250514_10_6%0A

https://epaper.samyukthakarnataka.com/editionname/Bangalore/SMYK_BANG/page/12/article/SMYK_BANG_20250515_12_2

==External links==
*http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=199210 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923222948/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=199210 |date=23 September 2015 }}

*https://www.indulgexpress.com/life-style/mind-and-body/2024/Jul/05/ekalavya-awardee-shodhan-rai-talks-about-eating-right-his-dad-being-his-first-coach-and-lots-more

*https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/flexing-muscles-in-brisbane/articleshow/65971495.cms

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rai, Shodhan}}
[[Category:Tulu sportspeople]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Indian male bodybuilders]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{India-sport-bio-stub}}

Arun Kumar (Bihar politician)

2025-11-25T21:24:34Z

Yaarzu: updated information further and improved wording

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Arun Kumar
| office = Member of the [[Lok Sabha]]
| image = Arun Kumar Politician.jpg
| caption =
| constituency = [[Jahanabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jahanabad]]
| successor =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
| party = [http://Janata%20Dal%20(United) Janata dal (united)]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1959|10|02|df=y}}
| birth_place = Maniyawan, [[Jehanabad district|Jehanabad]], [[Bihar]]
| spouse = Nirmala Kumari
| children = 1 son, 1 daughter
| residence = [[Patna]], [[Bihar]]
| alma_mater = [[Magadh University]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
| website = {{Url|http://www.drarunkumar.in}}
| term_start = 2014
| term_end = 2019
| office2 = Member of the [[Bihar Legislative Council]]
| termstart2 = 1993
| termend2 = 1999
| term = 1999–2004
| prior_term = 1
| otherparty = [[Bahujan Samaj Party|Bahujan samaj party]] (2024-2025)
[[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)]](2021-2024)
}}

'''Arun Kumar''' is an Indian politician who represented [[Jahanabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jahanabad constituency]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/indian-parliament/arun-kumar-0|title=Arun Kumar {{!}} National Portal of India|website=www.india.gov.in|access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref> in [[Lok Sabha]]. He won the seat in the [[2014 Indian general election]] and 1999, and he is a founding member of the [[Rashtriya Samata Party (Secular)]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constituencywise-All Candidates|url=http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0436.htm?ac=36|accessdate=2014-05-17|archive-date=17 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135259/http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0436.htm?ac=36|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Satyendra Kumar">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/lok-sabha-elections-2014/news/Contest-between-good-work-and-Narendra-Modi-wave-in-Jehanabad/articleshow/33712825.cms |title=Contest between 'good work' and Narendra Modi wave in Jehanabad |first=Satyendra |last=Kumar |work=The Times of India |date=14 April 2014 |accessdate=2014-05-17}}</ref> He is the founder and head of [[Gyan Bharti Model Residential Complex]] school in [[Hisua]], [[Nawada district|Nawada]]. He often visits the school during Annual Day functions as chief guest.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/bihar/nawada/news/nitish-modi-join-arun-jaitley-044028-3720702.html|title=सृजन घोटाले में संलिप्त हैं नीतीश-मोदी: अरुण|last=Automation|first=Bhaskar|date=2019-01-22|website=Dainik Bhaskar|language=hi|access-date=2019-02-10}}</ref> He was a close friend of dreaded don turned politician of Bihar ex MP [[Anand Mohan Singh]] of Saharsa. He founded Bharatiya Sab Log Party in 2020. His brother [[Anil Kumar (Bihar politician)|Anil Kumar]] is a member of legislative assembly from [[Tikari Assembly constituency|Tikari]] assembly constituency in Bihar.

== Bhartiya Sab Log Party ==
Bhartiya Sab Log Party (abbr. BSLP) was founded by Arun Kumar and [[Yashwant Sinha]] before [[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly elections]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anshuman |first=Kumar |title=Veteran BJP leader Yashwant Sinha enters Bihar polls fray; Announces a new front |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/veteran-bjp-leader-yashwant-sinha-enters-bihar-polls-fray-announces-a-new-front/articleshow/76658859.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-04-09}}</ref> BSLP fought on 30 seats in 2020 Bihar Elections but couldn't manage to win any one of them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=भारतीय सबलोग पार्टी का संगठन विस्तार पर जोर |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/muzaffarpur/story-emphasis-on-expansion-of-organization-of-bharatiya-sablog-party-4307440.html |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=Hindustan |language=hindi}}</ref> In January 2022, BSLP merged with [[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=बिहार में अकेले पड़ते चिराग पासवान को मिला बड़ा साथ, पूर्व सांसद से मुलाकात के बाद अटकलें तेज |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-ljp-mp-chirag-paswan-got-a-big-support-while-falling-alone-in-bihar-speculation-intensifies-after-meeting-bharatiya-sablog-party-chief-and-former-mp-dr-arun-kumar-21805345.html |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-30 |title=चिराग पासवान को मिला नीतीश कुमार के प्रबल विरोधी का साथ, मांझी को भी न्योता |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/patna-former-mp-of-jehanabad-doctor-arun-kumar-supports-chirag-paswan-bramk-3639594.html |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=चिराग की पार्टी में हुआ पूर्व सांसद अरुण कुमार के दल का विलय, नीतीश सरकार को उखाड़ फेंकने का लिया संकल्प |url=https://news4nation.com/news/former-mp-arun-kumar-s-party-merged-with-chirag-s-party-resolved-to-overthrow-the-nitish-government-915944 |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=news4nation.com}}</ref> BSLP inaugurated a Film city on name of Late Actor [[Sushant Singh Rajput]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-03 |title=आज करेंगे शिलान्यास: भारतीय सबलोग पार्टी के राष्ट्रीय अध्यक्ष आज करेंगे फिल्म सिटी का शिलान्यास |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/bhagalpur/sultanganj/news/the-national-president-of-the-indian-peoples-party-will-lay-the-foundation-stone-of-film-city-today-127579580.html |access-date=2022-04-09 |website=Dainik Bhaskar |language=hi}}</ref>

{{Infobox Indian political party|name=Bharatiya Sab Log Party|eci=Registered|symbol=|leader=[[Yashwant Sinha]]|president=Arun Kumar|foundation=2020|founder=Arun Kumar|merged=[[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)]]|split=[[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]]|colorcode=green|website={{Url|http://www.bhartiyasablogparty.in/}}}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{16th LS members from Bihar}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumar, Arun}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Bihar]]
[[Category:People from Jehanabad district]]
[[Category:Rashtriya Lok Samata politicians]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Samata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas) politicians]]
[[Category:Janata Dal (United) politicians]]

Sandhya Mendonca

2025-11-02T23:48:29Z

Yaarzu: New.

{{short description|Indian writer, editor and publisher}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
[[File:Sandhya Mendonca 2022.jpg|alt=Woman Author & Media Entrepreneur|thumb|Sandhya Mendonca, Indian Author & Publisher]]
'''Sandhya Mendonca''' is an Indian writer, author, biographer, editor and publisher. Born in [[Bengaluru]] (Bangalore) in the state of Karnataka, India, she gained a BA in Economics, Political Science & Sociology from St. Joseph's College of Arts & Science and an MA in Political Science specialising in International Relations from [[Bangalore University]]. She has a Diploma in Public Relations from the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. She lives in Bengaluru.

== Career ==
Sandhya Mendonca worked as a journalist <ref>{{cite web|url=http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/checking-out-election-campaigning-at-ulsoor-lake|title=Checking out election campaigning at Ulsoor Lake -|date=10 April 2014|website=Banglaore.citizenmatters.in|accessdate=14 December 2017}}</ref> for over sixteen years before co-founding a media company with her husband and veteran journalist Allen Mendonca (1960 - 2009), Raintree Media,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wearethecity.in/female-entrepreneur-sandhya-mendonca-md-editor-in-chief-of-raintree-media/|title=Female Entrepreneur: Sandhya Mendonca – MD & Editor in Chief of Raintree Media - WeAreTheCity India - Events, Network, Advice for Women in India|date=14 November 2014|website=Wearethecity.in|accessdate=14 December 2017}}</ref> of which she is the Managing Director & Editor-in-Chief. She is also the mentor at [http://thegoodcity.in/ TheGoodCity.in], a web and mobile-based curated content platform, and the Festival Director of [https://www.undertheraintreefestival.com Under The Raintree women's cultural festival],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2017/oct/31/arts-festival-thats-all-about-women-1688650.html|title=Arts festival that's all about women|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-02-13}}</ref> India's first multi-arts festival curated by women.

A native Kannadiga, Mendonca is a chronicler of the cultural history of the state of Karnataka through books published by Raintree Media such as ''Karnataka - A Cultural Odyssey,'' ''Raj Bhavan Bangalore - Through the Ages'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/books/2013/nov/26/snapshots-of-a-historic-state-541827.html|title=Snapshots of a Historic State|website=Newindianexpress.com|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> ''Marvels of Karnataka & more'' and many others''.'' She is the co-author of ''Marvels of Mysore & More'', published in 2012. This book has been hailed by author [[Shashi Deshpande]], and editor-in-chief of ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]'', Krishna Prasad. In 2015, ''Marvels of Karnataka & More''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2015/jan/22/marvels-of-karnataka-released-708190.html|title='Marvels of Karnataka' Released|website=Newindianexpress.com|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> was translated into Kannada as ''Karnatakada Vismayagalu'' (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕದ ವಿಸ್ಮಯಗಳು).

Her book ''Disrupt and Conquer - How TTK Prestige Became A Billion Dollar Company''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Disrupt and Conquer: How TTK Prestige Became a Billion-Dollar Company|last1=Jagannathan|first1=T. T.|last2=Mendonca|first2=Sandhya|date=2018-05-16|publisher=Penguin Portfolio|isbn=9780670090174|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flipkart.com/disrupt-and-conquer/p/itmf3jeyndmzmgzn|title=Disrupt and Conquer - Buy Disrupt and Conquer Online at Best Prices in India - Flipkart.com|website=Flipkart.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref> co-authored with Mr. TT Jaggannathan (Chairman of [[TTK Group]]), was published by [[Penguin Random House]] in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://upgrad.com/blog/7-reasons-why-it-is-not-important-to-have-a-business-degree-to-start-a-business/|title=7 Reasons Why a Business Degree is Not Important to Run a Business|date=2018-05-16|work=UpGrad Blog|access-date=2018-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> It featured in Amazon Editor's picks of Memorable Books of 2018, and Best of Business & Leadership of 2018.

Random House also published her earlier book on the REVA electric car ''Reva EV - India's Green Gift to the World'' (co-authored with Dr. SK Maini), in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangalore.explocity.com/article/sandhya-mendonca-unveils-the-story-of-reva/|title=Sandhya Mendonca unveils the story of Reva|website=Banglore.explocity.com|accessdate=14 December 2017}}</ref> Her autobiographical stories are published in the ''Chicken Soup for the Indian Couples' Soul'' & ''Chicken Soup for the Indian Singles' Soul'' series, both a part of the international [[Chicken Soup for the Soul]] series, published in India by Tata Westland in 2012.

In 2019, she edited and published the Augmented Reality embedded ''Innovate Bengaluru'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/top-bengaluru-stories/ar-embedded-book-on-bengaluru-innovators-728575.html|title=AR-embedded book on Bengaluru innovators|date=2019-04-14|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> which features the top 100 innovators and enablers in Bengaluru's ecosystem. The book was launched in April 2019 at the Innovate Bengaluru Festival,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.deccanheraldepaper.com/?pub=pp3-20190414_2&article=913889505|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219032611/http://www.deccanheraldepaper.com/?pub=pp3-20190414_2&article=913889505|url-status=usurped|archive-date=19 December 2024|title=Deccan Herald E-Paper|website=www.deccanheraldepaper.com|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> which brought together over 300 Icons, Inventors, Entrepreneurs, Emerging Leaders, Enablers and Investors.

She co-authored with [[Nafees Fazal]], the latter's memoir, 'Breaking Barriers - The Story of a Liberal Muslim Woman's Passage in Indian Politics' published by Konark Publishers in 2022.<ref>{https://www.amazon.in/BREAKING-BARRIERS-Liberal-Passage-Politics/dp/8195678688</ref>

She co-authored ‘Busted - Debunking Management Myths with Logic, Experience And Curiosity’ with Ashok Soota, a pioneer of the Indian IT industry and Peter de Jager, a Canadian management consultant. It was published by HarperCollins Publishers / Harper Business in 2023. https://www.amazon.in/Busted-Ashok-Soota-ebook/dp/B0CB97C5J4

She extensively edited the autobiography of Justice Shivaraj V Patil, former Supreme Court judge, Chief Justice of Rajasthan High Court and judge of the Madras and Karnataka High Courts. It was published by Sparsh Foundation in 2024. https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2024/Jan/22/justice-shivaraj-patil-releases-memoir

Mendonca hosts a podcast and talk show "Spotlight with Sandhya" that features one-to-one conversations on inspirations and journeys.
She writes a fortnightly column, Female Gaze, for The Sunday Guardian.https://sundayguardianlive.com/user/sandhyatsggmail-com

== Arts ==
Mendonca is an amateur actor and has acted in an original play about child sexual abuse ''Shadows on the Wall'' written and directed by [[Vijay Nair (author)|Vijay Nair]] and a comedy about golf ''Sliced Balls'' written by [[Poile Sengupta]]. She most recently acted in ''Robi's Garden'' directed by veteran director Vijay Padaki of [http://bangalorelittletheatre.org Bangalore Little Theatre]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/lounge/series-of-comedies/articleshow/60451987.cms|title=Series of comedies - Bangalore Mirror -|work=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=2018-02-13}}</ref> She has written lyrics to a ballad ''' In This Moment''', set to music by Sriram Aravamudan.

In 2009, Mendonca started an informal initiative in memory of her husband, Under the Raintree,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2013/aug/01/under-the-raintree-teased-by-teen-taal-held-in-trance-by-bhairavi-502590.html|title=Under the Raintree: Teased by teen taal, held in trance by Bhairavi|website=Newindianexpress.com|access-date=14 December 2017}}</ref> that hosted play readings, artistic interactions and concerts. Starting with the dramatised reading of [[Anita Nair|Anita Nair's]] ''Nine Faces of Being'' when it was a work in progress to concerts and talks, this initiative engages artistes with audiences in informal, intimate settings.

In 2015, Mendonca was inspired to form the [https://www.facebook.com/SheCollectiveHub/ SHE Collective Hub], giving expression to the voices of women through poetry and art for social good. In sync with artists like Shan Re and Romicon Revola, poets Poile Sengupta & Kavita Rajshekar, among others, she offered the forum of SHE Collective Hub to [http://casafoundation.in The Casa Foundation], [https://www.hutindia.org the House of Hope] and the [http://dreamindianetwork.net/ Dream India Network]. The House of Hope provides 24-hour care to over a hundred AIDS-affected orphans and their siblings. Dream India Network nurtures the most vulnerable and socially excluded children and provides them a safe haven.

In 2017, both these initiatives coalesced, and Mendonca created [https://www.undertheraintreefestival.com Under The Raintree women's cultural festival].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/claiming-her-space/articleshow/62445226.cms|title=Claiming her space - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-01-22}}</ref> Held over three days in Ravindra Kalakshetra, Bengaluru, the festival had more than 200 participating artistes. More than 6000 people attended the festival.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.indulgexpress.com/life-style/society/2017/nov/11/a-cultural-festival-by-women-for-women-will-be-hosted-in-bengaluru-4678.html|title=A cultural festival by women, for women, will be hosted in Bengaluru|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/attend-a-festival-curated-by-women-about-women-but-open-to-all/article20451147.ece|title=Attend a festival, curated by women, about women, but open to all|last=R|first=Shilpa Sebastian|date=2017-11-15|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-01-22|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The 2nd edition in Nov 2017, was registered at  the United Nations Partnerships for SDGs,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=32793|title=Under The Raintree Women's Cultural Festival - United Nations Partnerships for SDGs platform|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref> and provided the stage for 42 events across 7 stages, featuring the voices of over 150 Writers, Poets, Musicians, Artists and Scientists.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epaper.newindianexpress.com/c/44901512|title=Clipping of Express Publications - The New Indian Express-Bengaluru|website=epaper.newindianexpress.com|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/Olive/ODN/TimesOfIndia/shared/ShowArticle.aspx?doc=TOIBG/2019/10/18&entity=Ar01909&sk=0B2D4364&mode=text#|title=Cultural festival to empower women - The Times Of India - Bangalore, 10/18/2019|website=epaper.timesgroup.com|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/Olive/ODN/MumbaiMirror/shared/ShowArticle.aspx?doc=BGMIR/2019/10/23&entity=Ar02502&sk=8EFA72AB&mode=text|title=Feminism and a fest - Bangalore Mirror, 10/23/2019|website=epaper.timesgroup.com|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=#undertheraintree Festival 2019 After movie - women's cultural festival|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6GHKM9daPw|language=en|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref>

== Speaker Events ==
Mendonca frequently speaks and moderates panels at literary, industry and corporate events such as:
* Speaker at Graduation Day 2023 of The Yenepoya Institute of Arts, Science, Commerce, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University, Mangaluru, October 2023
* Expert Talk at Garden City University, Bangalore, October 2023
* Workshop at Indus Business Academy, September and October 2023
* 4th Dr Maya Rao Kathak & Choreography Conference, May 2022
* 'Aura with Author', Dayanand Sagara College of Engineering, June 2022
* Mompower, July 2022

*The inaugural session of Dell Women Entrepreneur Network (DWEN) on: "Innovation through Collaboration"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesswireindia.com/dell-technologies-announces-the-launch-of-dell-women-entrepreneur-network-dwen-chapter-in-india-64048.html|title=Dell Technologies Announces the Launch of Dell Women's Entrepreneur Network (DWEN) Chapter in India|website=www.businesswireindia.com|access-date=2019-07-10}}</ref>
*"Are we truly winning in this rat race", a panel discussion organised by GoFloaters in 2019
*"Is this the easiest time to be a woman?", a panel discussion organised by the [[Inner Wheel Club]], Bengaluru, in 2019
*TEDx Ramaiah Medical College, speaking about "Culture as a Change Agent" in 2018<ref>{{Citation|last=TEDx Talks|title=Culture- A Change Agent {{!}} Sandhya Mendonca {{!}} TEDxRamaiahMedicalCollege|date=2018-08-20|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evyWIXk9Hi8|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref>
*(WO)Manifesto, a discussion about women's representation in politics in 2018<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://bengaluru.citizenmatters.in/women-come-together-in-bengaluru-to-prepare-manifesto-with-gender-lens-24347|title=Women come together in Bengaluru to prepare manifesto with gender lens {{!}}|date=2018-04-30|work=Citizen Matters, Bengaluru|access-date=2018-05-17|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/opinion/sunday-read/women-for-the-win/articleshow/64045253.cms|title=Women for the win|website=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=2018-05-17}}</ref>
* The release of ''Lingayata Philosophy'', authored by Basrur Subba Rao in 2016
* "U25 LIT Fest", organised by the Under25 Club in 2016
* "Forging Links, Leveraging Networks - An International Business Convention for Entrepreneurial Women", organised by eMERGE in 2016
* "Celebrating International Women's Day", hosted by [[Accenture]] in 2015
* The release of ''A Lifetime in Choreography'', the autobiography of [[Maya Rao]] in 2014 <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/hPoqKRykCDhyxQHaXCT19N/How-Kathak-breached-the-northsouth-divide.html|title=How Kathak breached the north-south divide|last=Narayan|first=Shoba|date=26 July 2014|website=Livemint.com|accessdate=14 December 2017}}</ref>

== Awards and recognition ==
* Sandhya Mendonca was conferred the Desha Snehi award from the India Development Foundation for qualitative journalism and humanitarian concern in November 2015.
* She received the Global Achievers Foundation award for outstanding contribution to national unity & economic growth in February 2016.
* The Institution of Engineers, Karnataka State Centre, felicitated her for yeoman service to society in March 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://ieiksc.org/currentnews/Apr2016.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214183615/http://ieiksc.org/currentnews/Apr2016.pdf |archivedate=14 December 2017 |accessdate=2017-03-28 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* She received the Shrama Saadhana Shining Star award for achieving success through professional excellence from the ISBR, ELCIA & PRCI in May 2016.
*[[Garden City University]] honoured her as an inspirational woman on International Women's Day, 2019.
*She was conferred the 'Distinguished Leadership Award' at the 'Corporate Excellence Awards 2022'  by the University of Engineering & Management and the Institute of Engineering & Management in September 2022.
*She was presented with the title 'Global Woman Leader' at the 10th World Women Leadership Congress in February 2023.
*She's the charter president of the Rotary Bangalore Social and a past member of the Rotary Club of Bangalore, Mendonca is also a [[Paul Harris Fellow]] of the International Rotary fellowship.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mendonca, Sandhya}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Writers from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Women writers from Karnataka]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesswomen]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesspeople]]

Kerala Film Critics Association Awards 2022

2025-10-23T05:45:53Z

Yaarzu: adding new details

{{Short description|Annual Indian film awards ceremony}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox film awards
| number = 46
| award = Kerala Film Critics Association Awards
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| presented_date =
| site =
| host =
| organizer = Kerala Film Critics Association
| website =
| best_film =
| most_wins =
| most_nominations =
| best_critic =
| network =
| last = [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards 2021|45]]
| next = [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards 2023|47]]
}}
The '''46th [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]]''', honouring the best [[Malayalam films]] released in 2022, were announced in May 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala Film Critics Awards: Darshana Rajendran, Kunchacko Boban are best actors; B 32 Muthal 44 Vare and Headmaster named best film |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/kerala-film-critics-awards-darshana-rajendran-kunchacko-boban-best-actors-b-32-muthal-44-vare-headmaster-win-8624128/ |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=46th Kerala Film Critics Awards: Kunchako Boban, Darshana named best actors |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2023/may/23/46th-kerala-film-critics-awards-kunchako-boban-darshana-named-best-actors-2577619.html |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala Film Critics Awards: Kunchacko Boban, Darshana Rajendran win Best Actor awards; Mahesh Narayanan named Best Director |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/100444407.cms |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Film Critics Awards; Kunchacko Boban best actor, Darshana best actress |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/film-critics-awards-kunchacko-boban-best-actor-darshana-best-actress-1.8579110 |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[Mathrubhumi]] |date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala Film Critics Awards: Kunchacko Boban, Darshana Rajendran share acting honours |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2023/05/23/kerala-film-critics-awards-headmaster-sruthi-saranyam.html |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[Malayala Manorama]] |date=23 May 2023}}</ref>

==Winners==
=== Main awards ===
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Film|Best Film]]: ''Headmaster'' ([[Rajeevnath]]), ''[[B 32 Muthal 44 Vare]]'' (Shruthi Sharanyam)
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]]: [[Kunchacko Boban]] - ''[[Nna Thaan Case Kodu]]''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]: [[Darshana Rajendran]] - ''[[Jaya Jaya Jaya Jaya Hey (film)|Jaya Jaya Jaya Jaya Hey]]'', ''[[Purusha Pretham]]''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Director|Best Director]]: [[Mahesh Narayanan]] - ''[[Ariyippu]]''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Second Best Film|Second Best Film]]: ''Vettapattikalum Ottakarum''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Popular Film|Best Popular Film]]: ''[[Nna Thaan Case Kodu]]'', ''[[Malikappuram]]''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]: [[Thampy Antony]] (''Headmaster''), [[Alencier Ley Lopez]] (''[[Appan (film)|Appan]]'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]: [[Hannah Reji Koshy]] (''[[Kooman (film)|Kooman]]''), [[Garggi Ananthan]] (''Ekan Anekan'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]]: [[Shihabuddin Poythumkadavu]] and Sunny Joseph (''Bhoomiyude Uppu''), Shruthi Sharanyam (''[[B 32 Muthal 44 Vare]]'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Story|Best Story]]: [[M. Mukundan]] (''[[Mahaveeryar]]'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]: [[Kavalam Sreekumar]] (''Headmaster'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]]: Vinayak Sasikumar (''[[Ini Utharam]]'', ''My Name is Azhagan'', ''[[The Teacher (2022 film)|The Teacher]]'', ''Keedam'')
* Best Background Score: Ronnie Raphael (''Headmaster'')
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]: [[K. S. Harisankar]] - "Enthinente Nenjinullile" from ''[[Aanandam Paramanandam]]'', [[Ravisankar]] - "Mazhayil" from ''Maadan''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]]: [[Nithya Mammen]] - "Aayiraththiri" from ''Headmaster''
* [[Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Best Cinematographer|Best Cinematographer]]: Abraham Joseph (''[[Kumari (2022 film)|Kumari]]'')
* Best Editor: Sreejith Sarang (''[[Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)|Jana Gana Mana]]'')
* Best Child Artist: Master Akash Raj (''Headmaster''), Baby Deva Nandha (''[[Malikappuram]]'')
* Best Art Director: Jotish Shankar (''[[Ariyippu]]'', ''[[Malayankunju]]'')
* Best Sound Recording: [[Vishnu Govind]] (''[[Malayankunju]]'')<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-08-05 |title=Does Fahadh Faasil's 'Malayankunju' mark a new chapter in Indian cinema with its brilliant sound design? |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/does-fahadh-faasils-malayankunjumark-a-new-chapter-in-indian-cinema-with-its-brilliant-sound-design/article65715214.ece |access-date=2023-06-13 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* Best Makeup Artist: Amal Chandran (''[[Kumari (2022 film)|Kumari]]'')
* Best Costume Design: Dhanya Balakrishnan (''[[Pathonpatham Noottandu]]'')
* Best Children's Film: [[5 Seeds]], ''Standard V-B''
* Best Film on National Integration: ''[[Saudi Vellakka]]''
* Best Biographical Film: ''Ayisha''
* Best Historical Film: (''[[Pathonpatham Noottandu]]'')
* Best Film on Environment: ''[[Vellarikka Pattanam]]'', ''Akkuvinte Padachon''
* Best Non-Malayalam Film: ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]''

=== Honorary awards ===
* [[Chalachitra Ratnam Award]]: [[K. P. Kumaran]]
* [[Ruby Jubilee Award]]: [[Kamal Haasan]]
* [[Chalachitra Prathibha Award]]: [[Shobana]], [[Vijayaraghavan]], [[Vineeth]], [[Gayathri Ashokan]], Mohan D. Kurichy

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [https://www.keralafilmcritics.com/2020/10/film-critics-awards-complete-list-from.html "List of recipients of the Kerala Film Critics Association Awards"] (in Malayalam)
* [https://www.keralafilmcritics.com/2023/05/2022-32-44.html "Kerala Film Critics Association Awards 2022: Official press release"] (in Malayalam)

{{Kerala Film Critics Association Awards}}

[[Category:2022 Indian film awards]]
[[Category:Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|2022]]

Thoi Singh Huidrom

2025-10-11T10:16:35Z

Yaarzu:

{{short description|Indian footballer (born 2004)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Western name order|Huidrom Thoi Singh}}
{{Meitei name|Huidrom|Thoi|Singh}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Thoi Singh
| image =
| caption =
| full_name = Thoi Singh Huidrom
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2004|05|04|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Manipur]], India
| height =
| position = [[Forward (association football)|Forward]]
| currentclub = [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
| clubnumber = 19
| youthyears1 = 2015–2021
| youthclubs1 = [[Reliance Foundation Youth Sports|Young Champs Academy]]
| youthyears2 = 2021–2023
| youthclubs2 = [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru Youth]]
| youthyears3 = 2023–2025
| youthclubs3 = [[NorthEast United FC#Reserves and academy|NorthEast United Youth]]
| years1 = 2023
| clubs1 = [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru B]]
| caps1 = 6
| goals1 = 1
| years2 = 2023–
| clubs2 = [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
| caps2 = 18
| goals2 = 0

| nationalyears1 = 2025–
| nationalteam1 = [[India national under-23 football team|India U23]]
| nationalcaps1 = 1
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| club-update = 23 May 2025 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update = 10 October 2025 (UTC)
}}
'''Thoi Singh Huidrom''' ({{langx|mni|Huidrom Thoi Singh}}, born 4 May 2004) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Forward (association football)|striker]] for the [[Indian Super League]] club [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]].

==Club career==
===Bengaluru ===
Since 2015, Thoi Singh was trained at the [[Reliance Foundation Youth Sports|Young Champs Academy]]. He played for five years at the academy before joining [[Bengaluru FC]].<ref name="ISL transfer">{{cite web |title=We wanted to win something for NorthEast United: Huidrom Thoi Singh |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/we-want-to-win-something-for-northeast-united-fc-huidrom-thoi-singh |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=22 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522211650/https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/we-want-to-win-something-for-northeast-united-fc-huidrom-thoi-singh |archive-date=22 May 2025 |date=26 June 2024}}</ref> From 2021 to 2023 he represented the [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|youth team]] of Bengaluru in the [[Reliance Foundation Development League|Development League]]. He won the [[2022 Reliance Foundation Development League|2022]] and [[2023 Reliance Foundation Development League|2023]] Development League with Bengaluru.<ref name="RFDL1">{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |first=Sourav |last=Modak |title=Bengaluru FC hold Kerala Blasters to emerge inaugural RFDL champions |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/bengaluru-fc-hold-kerala-blasters-to-emerge-inaugural-rfdl-champions/articleshow/91523676.cms |access-date=22 May 2025 |website=The Times of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227124519/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/bengaluru-fc-hold-kerala-blasters-to-emerge-inaugural-rfdl-champions/articleshow/91523676.cms |archive-date=27 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="RFDL2">{{cite web |title=Bengalurur FC crowned RFDL champion after a thrilling title defence against Sudeva Delhi FC |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/bengaluru-fc-crowned-rfdl-champion-after-a-thrilling-title-defence-against-sudeva-delhi-fc |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=22 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213061700/https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/bengaluru-fc-crowned-rfdl-champion-after-a-thrilling-title-defence-against-sudeva-delhi-fc |archive-date=13 December 2024 |date=14 May 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was also part of the main team of Bengaluru for the [[2022–23 Indian Super League]] but did not play any match in the top tier league. However, he represented [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru reserve team]] in six matches at the [[2022–23 I-League 2nd Division]], the third tier league of Indian football. He scored his first senior goal in this season.<ref name="ANI">{{cite news |title=ISL: NorthEast United FC sign talented youngster Thoi Singh |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/football/isl-northeast-united-fc-sign-talented-youngster-thoi-singh20230802001654/ |access-date=22 May 2025 |work=[[Asian News International]] |date=2 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="AIFF">{{cite web |title=Huidrom Thoi Singh profile |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/56734?type=club |publisher=[[All India Football Federation]] |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="ISL">{{cite web |title=Thoi Singh pofile |url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/players/forward-144497-thoi-singh-huidrom-profile |publisher=[[Indian Super League]] |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>

===NorthEast United===
For the [[2023–24 in Indian football|2023–24 season]] he signed [[Indian Super League]] (ISL) club [[NorthEast United FC]].<ref name="ISL transfer"/> In the same season he won the [[2024 Durand Cup]] with NorthEast United.<ref name="Durand">{{cite news |title=NorthEast United win maiden Durand Cup title with a brilliant comeback victory |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/football/northeast-united-win-maiden-durand-cup-title-with-a-brilliant-comeback-victory20240831221005/ |access-date=22 May 2025 |work=[[Asian News International]] |date=31 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240831183344/https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/football/northeast-united-win-maiden-durand-cup-title-with-a-brilliant-comeback-victory20240831221005/ |archive-date=31 August 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> For the [[2024–25 in Indian football|2023–24 season]] he played thirteen matches for the club in the ISL. NorthEast United reached the [[2025 Indian Super League playoffs|playoffs]] of the [[2024–25 Indian Super League]]. Though he is a part of the main team of NorthEast United, he also played in the Development league for the club from 2023 to 2025.<ref name="ISL transfer"/><ref name="ANI"/><ref name="ISL"/>

==International career==
In May 2025, [[India national under-23 football team|India under-23]] head coach [[Naushad Moosa]] listed Thoi Singh in the 29-members probable squad for two friendlies that will be held in Tajikistan in June 2025.<ref>{{cite web |title=Naushad Moosa names 29-member probable squad for India U23s |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/naushad-moosa-names-29-member-probable-squad-for-india-u23s |publisher=[[All India Football Federation]] |access-date=22 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522171716/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/naushad-moosa-names-29-member-probable-squad-for-india-u23s |archive-date=22 May 2025 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Career statistics==
===Club===
{{updated|22 May 2025}}<ref name="Soccerway">{{Soccerway|huidrom-thoi-singh/681002}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|[[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]
!colspan="2"|[[Durand Cup]]
!colspan="2"|Continental
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goal
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru B]]
|[[2022–23 Bengaluru FC season|2022–23]]
|[[I-League 2]]
|6||1||colspan="2"|–||3||1||colspan="2"|–||9||2
|-
! colspan="2"| Total
!6!!1!!colspan="2"|–!!3!!1!!colspan="2"|–!!9!!2
|-
|rowspan="3"|[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
|[[2023–24 NorthEast United FC season|2023–24]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Indian Super League]]
|5||0||1||0||1||0||0||0||7||0
|-
|[[2024–25 NorthEast United FC season|2024–25]]
|13||0||2||0||5||2||0||0||20||2
|-
! colspan="2"| Total
!18!!0!!3!!0!!6!!2!!0!!0!!27!!2
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!24!!1!!3!!0!!9!!3!!0!!0!!36!!4
|}

==Honours==
'''[[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru FC B]]'''
* [[Reliance Foundation Development League|Development League]]: [[2022 Reliance Foundation Development League|2022]],<ref name="RFDL1"/> [[2023 Reliance Foundation Development League|2023]]<ref name="RFDL2"/>

'''[[NorthEast United FC]]'''
* [[Durand Cup]]: [[2024 Durand Cup|2024]],<ref name="Durand"/> [[2025 Durand Cup|2025]]<ref name="Durand1">{{cite news |title=NEUFC 6-1 DHFC HIGHLIGHTS: NorthEast United thrashes Diamond Harbour to retain Durand Cup title |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/northeast-united-fc-vs-diamond-harbour-live-score-updates-durand-cup-2025-final-neufc-v-dhfc-goals-highlights/article69966129.ece |work=Sportstar |date=24 August 2025 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal bar|India|Association football|Biography}}
* [https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/56734?type=club Thoi Singh] at AIFF
* [https://www.indiansuperleague.com/players/forward-144497-thoi-singh-huidrom-profile Thoi Singh] at ISL
* {{Soccerway|681002}}

{{NorthEast United FC squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Huidrom Thoi}}
[[Category:2004 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Footballers from Manipur]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:NorthEast United FC players]]
[[Category:Bengaluru FC players]]
[[Category:I-League 2 players]]
[[Category:Indian Super League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Men's association football forwards]]
[[Category:India men's youth international footballers]]