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Narmada Human

2023-10-06T12:42:44Z

Wikkythug: New page

The '''Narmada Human''', originally the '''Narmada Man''', is a species of [[Homo|extinct human]] that lived in central India during the [[Chibanian|Middle]] and [[Late Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Sayak |last2=Sachdeva |first2=Mohinder Pal |title=A Glimpse Into India's Palaeoanthropological Past: Fossil Primates of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene |journal=Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India |date=28 August 2023 |doi=10.1177/2277436X231189069 |s2cid=261373099 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=S. |date=2012-12-31 |title=Loneliness of Narmada Human |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/loneliness-of-narmada-human-39817 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Down to Earth |language=en}}</ref> From a [[skull cup]] discovered from the bank of [[Narmada River]] in Madhya Pradesh in 1982, the discoverer, Arun Sonakia classified it was an [[archaic human]] and gave the name Narmada Man, with the scientific name ''H. erectus narmadensis''.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Kenneth A. R. |last2=Sonakia |first2=Arun |last3=Chiment |first3=John |last4=Verma |first4=K. K. |title=Is the Narmada hominid an IndianHomo erectus? |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=December 1991 |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=475–496 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330860404 |pmid=1776655 }}</ref> Analysis of additional fossils from the same location in 1997 indicated that the individual could be a female, hence, a revised name, Narmada Human, was introduced. It had been variously reclassified as [[Early modern human|archaic ''Homo sapiens'']], evolved ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]],'' and dubiously{{Efn|The original publications in a predatory journal ''Advances in Anthropology'' from [[Scientific Research Publishing]]|group=lower-alpha}} as a distinct species, ''Homo narmadensis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anek R. |first=Sankhyan |date=2013 |title=The Emergence of Homo sapiens in South Asia: The Central Narmada Valley as Witness |url=https://www.humanbiologyjournal.com/article/the-emergence-of-homo-sapiens-in-south-asia-the-central-narmada-valley-as-witness-5/ |journal=Human Biology Review |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=136–152}}</ref> It remains the oldest human species in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-15 |title=Still a mystery |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/science-tech/still-a-mystery/cid/1536484 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref>

== Discovery ==
The Narmada Valley is one of the earliest and richest fossil sites India. The first fossils were discovered by British Army Captain [[William Henry Sleeman]] in 1828.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dhiman |first1=Harsha |last2=Verma |first2=Vishal |last3=Singh |first3=Lourembam R. |last4=Miglani |first4=Vaibhav |last5=Jha |first5=Deepak Kumar |last6=Sanyal |first6=Prasanta |last7=Tandon |first7=Sampat K. |last8=Prasad |first8=Guntupalli V. R. |title=New Late Cretaceous titanosaur sauropod dinosaur egg clutches from lower Narmada valley, India: Palaeobiology and taphonomy |journal=PLOS ONE |date=18 January 2023 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0278242 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0278242 |pmc=9848018 |pmid=36652404 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1878242D |doi-access=free }}</ref> Sleeman found two backbones ([[caudal vertebrae]]) from the [[Lameta Formation]] at Jabalpur that were later identified as those of a dinosaur, ''[[Titanosaurus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=Guntupalli V.R. |title=Vertebrate biodiversity of the Deccan volcanic province of India: A review |journal=Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France |date=1 December 2012 |volume=183 |issue=6 |pages=597–610 |doi=10.2113/gssgfbull.183.6.597 }}</ref> Since then, many fossils of invertebrates and vertebrates have been discovered.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turvey |first1=Samuel T. |last2=Sathe |first2=Vijay |last3=Crees |first3=Jennifer J. |last4=Jukar |first4=Advait M. |last5=Chakraborty |first5=Prateek |last6=Lister |first6=Adrian M. |title=Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know? |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=January 2021 |volume=252 |pages=106740 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25206740T |s2cid=234265221 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10116065/12/Turvey_India_megafauna_paper_highlights.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-71370-6_21 |chapter=Stratigraphy, Sedimentology and Paleontology of Late Cretaceous Bagh Beds, Narmada Valley, Central India: A Review |title=Mesozoic Stratigraphy of India |series=Society of Earth Scientists Series |date=2021 |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Biplab |last2=Halder |first2=Kalyan |last3=Jha |first3=Suparna |last4=Mondal |first4=Prantik |last5=Ray |first5=Rupsa |pages=623–657 |isbn=978-3-030-71369-0 |s2cid=243574586 }}</ref> The search for prehistoric human remains in the region was inspired by the discovery of [[Stone Age]] [[hand axe]] by C.A. Hacket that was reported in 1873.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khatri |first=A. P. |date=1963 |title=Recent Exploration for the Remains of Early Man in India |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=160–182 |jstor=42929007 }}</ref>

In October 1982, the [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) assigned Arun Sonakia to explore [[Hoshangabad district]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Sonakia |first1=Arun |last2=Kennedy |first2=Kenneth A. R. |title=Skull Cap of an Early Man from the Narmada Valley Alluvium (Pleistocene) of Central India |journal=American Anthropologist |date=September 1985 |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=612–616 |doi=10.1525/aa.1985.87.3.02a00060 |jstor=678879 }}</ref> On 5 December, Sonakia found a skull cup (calvaria) lying on the surface of an [[alluvial soil]] on the northern bank of Narmada River, near Hathnora village.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-12-27 |title=Narmada human |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/science-and-technology/article30162596.ece |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref> The fossil was among several other fossils of horse, pig, ''[[Stegodon]]'' and various stone tools. After careful analysis of the skull cup as part of a prehistoric human, the discovery was officially announced by the government on 21–22 July 1983, and through the newsletter of GSI. In 1984, N. G. K. Murthy, Director of GSI Southern Region, presented the technical report to the Birla Archaeological and Cultural Geological Research Institute in Hyderabad.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Kenneth A.R. |last2=Chiment |first2=John |date=1991 |title=The fossil hominid from the Narmada Valley, India; Homo erectus or Homo sapiens? |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/view/11291/9931 |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=10 |pages=42–58|doi=10.7152/bippa.v10i0.11291 }}</ref> The same year, the first scientific paper by Sonakia appeared in the ''Records of the Geological Survey of India'' in which the fossil was described as ''Homo erectus narmadensis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sonakia |first=Arun |date=1984 |title=The skull cap of early man and associated mammalian fauna from Narmada Valley alluvium, Hoshangabad area, Madhya Pradesh, India |url=https://paleocore.org/references/815/ |journal=Records of the Geological Survey of India |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=159–172 |via=Paleo Core}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Kenneth A.R. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZXSCQAAQBAJ&dq=sonakia+narmada+1982&pg=PA188 |title=Human Origins, Genome and People of India: Genomic, Palaeontological and Archaeological Perspectives |date=2007-05-16 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=9798184241999 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=V. R. |pages=188–192 |language=en |chapter=The Narmada Fossil Hominid}}</ref>

Sonakia displayed the fossil cast at the first<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lewin |first1=Roger |title=Ancestors Worshiped: Paleoanthropologists have been discussing their agreements and disagreements in the presence of most of the world's hominid fossils |journal=Science |date=4 May 1984 |volume=224 |issue=4648 |pages=477–479 |doi=10.1126/science.224.4648.477 |jstor=1692494 |pmid=17753761}}</ref> "Ancestors exhibit" of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York during 6 to 10 April 1984.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Sonakia |first1=Arun |last2=Kennedy |first2=Kenneth A. R. |title=Skull Cap of an Early Man from the Narmada Valley Alluvium (Pleistocene) of Central India |journal=American Anthropologist |date=September 1985 |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=612–616 |doi=10.1525/aa.1985.87.3.02a00060 |jstor=678879 }}</ref> The exhibit was recorded the next year in the American Museum of Natural History's proceedings ''Ancestors, the Hard Evidence''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sonakia |first=Arun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Py2OAAAAMAAJ&q=narmada |title=Ancestors, the Hard Evidence: Proceedings of the Symposium Held at the American Museum of Natural History April 6-10, 1984 to Mark the Opening of the Exhibition "Ancestors, Four Million Years of Humanity" |date=1985 |publisher=A.R. Liss/American Museum of Natural History |isbn=978-0-8451-0249-7 |editor-last=Delson |editor-first=Eric |pages=334–338 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|1311711663}} |last1=Pietrusewsky |first1=Michael |title=''Ancestors: The Hard Evidence''. Eric Delson, editor (Book Review) |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=27 |issue=2 |date=1986 |pages=285 }}</ref> In 1985, Sonakia sought the help of french palaeontologist [[Henry de Lumley]], with whom he made further descriptions in two articles simultaneously published in January issue of ''l'Anthropologie.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lumley |first1=M. A. de |last2=Sonakia |first2=A. |date=1985 |title=Première découverte d'un Homo erectus sur le continent indien à Hathnora, dans la moyenne vallée de la Narmada |trans-title=First discovery of a Homo erectus on the Indian continent at Hathnora, in the middle Narmada valley |id={{INIST|12074337}} |journal=L'Anthropologie |language=fr |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=13–61 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lumley |first1=H. de |last2=Sonakia |first2=A. |date=1985 |title=Contexte stratigraphique et archéologique de l'Homme de la Narmada, Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, Inde |trans-title=Stratigraphic and archaeological context of Narmada Man, Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, India |id={{INIST|12074336}} |journal=L'Anthropologie |language=fr |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 }}</ref> The fossil was again identified as ''H. erectus''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bárcena |first=J. Roberto |date=1983–1985 |title=Lumley, Henry de y Sonakia, Arun: 1985. "Contexte stratigraphique et archéologique de l'homme de la Narmada, Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, Inde". L'Anthropologie, t. 89, nº 1, pp. 3-12.. París. 9 figs. y 3 cuadros. |url=http://siip2019-2021.bdigital.uncu.edu.ar/objetos_digitales/14930/volcompleto-parte5.pdf |journal=Anales de Arqueología y Etnología |volume=38-40 |issue=Segunda parte |pages=327–330 |issn=0325-0288}}</ref>

[[Kenneth A. R. Kennedy]] of Cornell University conveyed the report in the ''Records of the Geological Survey of India'' to the [[American Anthropological Association]], which published it in its September 1985 issue of ''[[American Anthropologist]].'' In it, Sonakia gave a more careful description:<blockquote>The hominid fossil specimen, presently designated as "Narmada Man," is represented by a complete right half of the skull cap, to which a part of the left parietal is attached... [Its] cranial capacity... would fall around 1,200 cc... [It] bears a number of similarities to skulls of Asian ''Homo erectus'', hence an affinity of "Narmada Man" to ''Homo erectus'' is suggested.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>Kennedy added a cautionary note that the fossil was an undetermined species of human ("hominid calvarium of ''Homo'' sp. indet.).<ref name=":3" />

== Note ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/biologie/homo-erectus-narmadensis/32394 ''Homo erectus narmadensis'' in ''Spektrum'']
* [https://www.thebetterindia.com/91960/ramapithecus-sivapithecus-narmada-man-homo-erectus-early-humans-india/ Story in The Better India]

[[Category:1982 in paleontology]]
[[Category:Fossils of India]]
[[Category:Prehistoric India]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]
[[Category:Homo erectus fossils]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals of Asia]]
[[Category:Early species of Homo]]

Moglix

2023-10-01T21:01:54Z

Wikkythug: Commencing a draft

{{COI|date=October 2023}}
{{Company infobox
| name = Moglix
| logo =
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| industry = B2B commerce
| founded = 2015, [[Singapore]]
| founder = Rahul Garg (Founder & CEO)
| hq_location = [[Singapore]]
| area_served = India, Singapore, the UK, the UAE, and the US
| num_employees = 1300+
| website = {{URL|business.moglix.com/}}
}}

'''Moglix''' is an Indian [[e-commerce]] company headquartered in [[Singapore]], established in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balachandran |first=Manu |title=Moglix: How Rahul Garg Built An Unexpected Unicorn |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/startups/moglix-how-rahul-garg-built-an-unexpected-unicorn/68373/1 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref> It operates in India, the USA, the UK, and Europe. As of January 2022, Moglix had a valuation of $2.6 billion<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Mogli(x) is ready for a higher leap |url=https://businessindia.co/magazine/moglix-is-ready-for-a-higher-leap |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=businessindia.co |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-28 |title=Moglix valuation doubles to $2.6 billion in less than a year |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/startup/moglix-valuation-doubles-to-2-6-billion-in-less-than-a-year-7998401.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en}}</ref> and once claimed to be the largest e-commerce company in the industrial goods category in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Can An Industrial Goods Platform Be Unicorn? It Takes Rahul Garg's Toolkit |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/startups/can-an-industrial-goods-platform-be-unicorn-it-takes-rahul-gargs-toolkit/68407/1 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref> The company is owned and operated by Mogli Labs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Sil |first=Debarghya |date=2023-01-06 |title=Moglix's Revenue Jumps 3X YoY To $307 Mn In FY22, Loss Widens To $22 Mn |url=https://inc42.com/buzz/moglixs-revenue-jumps-3x-yoy-to-307-mn-in-fy22-loss-widens-to-22-mn/ |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Inc42 Media |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
Moglix was founded in 2015 by Rahul Garg, a former [[Google]] executive and an alumnus of [[IIT Kanpur]] and [[Indian School of Business|ISB]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arakali |first=Harichandan |title=How Valuable Companies Are Driving Change With Innovative Approach |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/startups/how-valuable-companies-are-driving-change-with-innovative-approach/83335/1 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref> The company began its operations in August 2015 and received initial funding from [[Ratan Tata]] and [[Accel (company)|Accel Partners]] in October 2015.<ref name=":0" /> Initially, Moglix focused on [[B2B e-commerce]] before expanding into enterprise procurement and [[Software as a service|SaaS]] verticals. In December 2016, Moglix launched Green [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|GST]], a [[Software as a service|SaaS]]-based platform for manufacturing sector GST processes,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-17 |title=The 1-3-6 learning framework - Livemint |url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/wujQDzUwimAOKsnF3K87wN/The-136-learning-framework.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617210420/https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/wujQDzUwimAOKsnF3K87wN/The-136-learning-framework.html |archive-date=2018-06-17 }}</ref> and became part of the SAP Startup Studio, an accelerator program by [[SAP|SAP Labs India]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=2017-08-23 |title=Jeff Epstein joins Moglix Board of Advisors |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/startups/people/jeff-epstein-joins-moglix-board-of-advisors/articleshow/60191253.cms |access-date=2023-09-22 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In 2017, Moglix secured Series B funding from the [[International Finance Corporation]] and expanded operations to new cities, including [[Delhi]] and [[Noida]]. It also launched a subsidiary called Zoglix in the US. Moglix’s board of advisors includes [[Tata Group]] chairman [[Ratan Tata]] and Sailesh Rao, former vice president of [[Twitter]]. In August 2017, Jeff Epstein, operating partner at [[Bessemer Venture Partners]] joined the board of advisors.<ref name=":5" />

By 2020, Moglix had presence in 35 cities in India, including [[Goa]] and [[Guwahati]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2020-11-17 |title=Watch: Moglix CEO Rahul Garg on new frontiers, acquisitions |url=https://www.techcircle.in/2020/11/17/watch-moglix-ceo-rahul-garg-on-new-frontiers-acquisitions |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Techcircle |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=2020-11-10 |title=Moglix expands in India, sets up supply chain in Assam, Goa |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/moglix-expands-in-india-sets-up-supply-chain-in-assam-goa/articleshow/79144801.cms |access-date=2023-09-22 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

In 2020, the company established partnerships with government agencies and enterprises in the United Kingdom for [[Personal protective equipment|PPE]] supply.<ref name=":7" /> In 2021, Moglix launched Credlix for supply chain financing and acquired [[Singapore]]-based EXIM [[fintech]] company NuPhi.<ref name=":2" /> Moglix expanded its operations to [[Khalifa Port|Khalifa Port Free Trade Zone]] (KIZAD) in [[Abu Dhabi]].<ref name=":2" />

In 2022, Moglix invested around $5 million in [[Electric vehicle|EV]] manufacturing company [[Euler motors]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Jaspreet |date=2022-04-18 |title=Euler Motors Raises $5 Mn From Moglix; Valuation Soars To $70 Mn |url=https://inc42.com/buzz/ev-startup-euler-motors-raises-5-mn-from-moglix-valuation-soars-to-70-mn/ |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Inc42 Media |language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, Moglix announced that it operates 3,000 manufacturing plants and 40 warehouses across [[India]], [[Singapore]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]].<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" />

=== Acquisitions ===
In July 2020, Moglix acquired used machinery ecommerce platform Vendaxo in July 2021 for an undisclosed amount.<ref name=":3" />

In November 2021, Credlix, a subsidiary of Moglix, acquired [[Singapore]]-based EXIM [[fintech]] company NuPhi.<ref name=":2" />

In 2022, the company acquired a 100% stake in Zoglix as part of its expansion into the US market.'''<ref name=":72">{{Cite news |date=2023-02-17 |title=Rahul Garg left Google to transform manufacturing supply chain |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/startups/people/rahul-garg-left-google-to-transform-manufacturing-supply-chain/articleshow/98002088.cms?from=mdr |access-date= |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>'''

In October 2022, Moglix acquired global security and surveillance distribution company’s Indian arm – ADI.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Shubhobrota Dev |date=2022-10-11 |title=Moglix acquires ADI's Indian distribution unit for industrial goods |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/start-ups/moglix-acquires-adi-s-indian-distribution-unit-for-industrial-goods-11665490314024.html |access-date= |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-31 |title='Want to take Indian manufacturing supply chain capabilities to World' |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/startups/people/want-to-take-indian-manufacturing-supply-chain-capabilities-to-world/articleshow/95201525.cms |access-date=2023-09-22 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

=== Layoffs ===
In 2023 Moglix laid off 40 employees, which is 3% of its total staff.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Moglix lays off up to 3% workforce |url=https://www.vccircle.com/moglixlays-off-up-to-3-workforce |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=VCCircle |language=en-US}}</ref>

== ESOPs ==
On June 26, 2021, Moglix concluded an [[Employee Stock Ownership Plan|ESOP]] buyback program in which employees sold up to 25% of their shares, valued at $3 million.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Sneha |date=2023-08-01 |title=Moglix eyes follow-on round, Esop buyback |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/moglix-in-talks-for-30-35m-secondary-round-including-employee-stock-option-buyback-to-boost-b2b-e-commerce-platform-11690911549804.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref> Moglix also announced an expansion of its ESOP pool to $10 million, including more than 300 employees under the program.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Supriya |date=2021-07-26 |title=B2B commerce unicorn Moglix expands ESOP to $10 mn, to buyback worth $3 mn |url=https://www.techcircle.in/2021/07/26/b2b-commerce-unicorn-moglix-expands-esop-to-10-mn-to-buyback-worth-3-mn |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Techcircle |language=en}}</ref>

== Funding ==
The company got $622 Mn in funding over nine rounds from investors like [[Tiger Global Management|Tiger Global]] and Alpha Wave Global.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2023-08-14 |title=India's Unicorn Club: Here's The Comprehensive List Of 100+ Unicorns In India |url=https://inc42.com/features/indias-unicorn-club-the-comprehensive-list-of-unicorns-in-india/ |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Inc42 Media |language=en}}</ref> [[Ratan Tata]] and [[Accel (company)|Accel Partners]] were the first backers in October 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Start-ups: reinvent or perish |url=https://businessindia.co/magazine/start-ups-reinvent-or-perish |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=businessindia.co |language=en}}</ref> In 2017, Moglix received $12 million in Series B funding from the [[International Finance Corporation]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Collective Gains |url=https://www.outlookbusiness.com/enterprise-3/feature/collective-gains-4111 |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Outlook Business}}</ref>

In 2019, the company raised $26 million in Series C funding from Accel US and IFC. Then, in July 2019, it got $60 million in Series D funding from investors like Kalyan Krishnamurthy, [[Tiger Global Management|Tiger Global]], [[Sequoia Capital]], and Composite Capital.<ref name=":6" /> In 2021, Moglix turned [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorn]] with a valuation of $1 billion after a $120 million Series E funding round in May.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-17 |title=Ratan Tata-backed Moglix 13th unicorn in India this year |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/entrepreneurship/story/ratan-tata-backed-moglix-13th-unicorn-in-india-this-year-296273-2021-05-17 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

In 2022, Moglix raised $250 million as a part of its F series funding round, at a valuation of $2.6 billion.<ref name=":2" />

== Mogli Foundation ==
In 2021, Moglix established its philanthropic foundation called Mogli Foundation,<ref name=":0" /> which supports health, environmental, and scientific causes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Balachandran |first=Manu |title=Rahul Garg And Moglix: On A Mission To Impact 100 Million Lives By 2030 |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/tycoons-of-tomorrow-2021/rahul-garg-and-moglix-on-a-mission-to-impact-100-million-lives-by-2030/72611/1 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Carvalho |first=Brian |title=Startup Special: Shining A Light On Non-urban India |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/column/startup-special-shining-a-light-on-nonurban-india/68365/1 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref>

== Awards ==
* ET HR ready Organization Award — 2023<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=ET Future Ready Organisations Awards 2023: Celebrating Industry 5.0 Bootstrappers - ETHRWorld |url=https://hr.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/et-future-ready-organisations-awards-2023-celebrating-industry-5-0-bootstrappers/100138222 |access-date= |website=ETHRWorld.com |language=en}}</ref>

* 11th edition of [[SAP]] ACE Awards 2018<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-23 |title=SAP Celebrates India Inc's Digital Champions at the 11th ACE Awards |url=https://www.dqchannels.com/sap-celebrates-india-incs-digital-champions-at-the-11th-ace-awards/ |access-date= |website=DQChannels |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Ranked first [[Deloitte|Deloitte India]]'s 'Technology Fast 50 India list in 2020<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-10-27 |title=Noida-based Moglix the fastest growing Indian tech company: Deloitte India's Technology Fast 50 2018 |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/newsbuzz/noida-based-moglix-the-fastest-growing-indian-tech-company-deloitte-indias-technology-fast-50-2018/articleshow/66388616.cms |access-date= |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://business.moglix.com/}}

[[Category:Indian companies established in 2015]]
[[Category:2015 establishments in Singapore]]

Laundry

2023-09-26T20:56:12Z

Wikkythug: Washing of clothing

{{Short description|Washing of clothing and other textiles}}
[[File:Italian hanging laundry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Laundry is hung to dry above an Italian street.]]
[[File:Laundry in Paris.jpg|thumb|A [[self-service laundry]] in Paris]]
[[File:Laundry in the river.jpg|thumb|Laundry in the river in [[Abidjan]], 2006]]

'''Laundry''' refers to the washing of clothing and other textiles,<ref name="Laundry">{{cite web| url= http://www.thefreedictionary.com/laundry|title=Laundry|publisher=The Free Dictionary By Farlex|access-date=2012-05-24}}</ref> and, more broadly, their [[drying]] and [[ironing]] as well. Laundry has been part of history since humans began to wear clothes, so the methods by which different cultures have dealt with this universal human need are of interest to several branches of scholarship. Laundry work has traditionally been [[Occupational segregation|highly gendered]], with the responsibility in most cultures falling to women (formerly known as laundresses or [[washerwoman|washerwomen]]). The Industrial Revolution gradually led to mechanized solutions to laundry work, notably the [[washing machine]] and later the [[tumble dryer]]. Laundry, like cooking and child care, is still done both at home and by commercial establishments outside the home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thescrubba.com/blogs/news/how-people-used-to-wash-the-fascinating-history-of-laundry|title=How People Used to Wash: The Fascinating History of Laundry|website=The Scrubba Wash Bag}}</ref>

The word "laundry" may refer to the clothing itself, or to the place where the cleaning happens. An individual home may have a [[laundry room]]; a [[utility room]] includes but is not restricted to the function of washing clothes. An apartment building or student [[hall of residence]] may have a shared laundry facility such as a ''[[tvättstuga]]''. A stand-alone business is referred to as a [[self-service laundry]] (launderette in [[British English]] or laundromat in [[North American English]]).

==History==
=== Watercourses ===
[[File:Laundry 1806.PNG|thumb|left|"Man and woman washing linen in a brook", from [[William Henry Pyne]]'s ''Microcosm'' (1806). Unusually, this is depicted as a mixed-sex activity.]]

Laundry was first done in watercourses, letting the water carry away the materials which could cause stains and smells. Laundry is still done this way in the rural regions of poor countries. [[Agitation (action)|Agitation]] helps remove the dirt, so the laundry was rubbed, twisted, or slapped against flat rocks. One name for this surface is a beetling-stone, related to [[beetling]], a technique in the production of linen; one name for a wooden substitute is a battling-block.<ref name="Greenwood">{{cite book |last1=Katz-Hyman |first1=Martha B. |title=World of a slave : encyclopedia of the material life of slaves in the United States |last2=Rice |first2=Kym S. |date=2011 |publisher=Greenwood |others=Edited by Kym S. Rice and Martha B. Katz-Hyman |isbn=978-0313349423 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |page=303}}</ref> The dirt was beaten out with a wooden implement known as a [[washing paddle]], battling stick,<ref name="Greenwood"/> bat, beetle or club. Wooden or stone scrubbing surfaces set up near a water supply were gradually replaced by portable rub boards, eventually factory-made corrugated glass or metal [[washboard (laundry)|washboards]].

Once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or [[clothes line]]s to air dry, or sometimes just spread out on clean grass, bushes, or trees.

=== Washhouses ===
{{Main|Lavoir}}
[[File:Brogi, Carlo (1850-1925) - n. 12182 - Sanremo - Popolane al lavatojo.jpg|thumb|Washhouse in [[Sanremo]], Italy, at about the turn of the 20th century]]
[[File:Tanque das Lavandeiras - comunitario II.jpg|thumb|Washhouse in [[Cabeção]], Portugal, today. Note the two basins and inclined stone lip.]]
Before the advent of the [[washing machine]], laundry was often done in a communal setting.

Villages across Europe that could afford it built a wash-house, sometimes known by the French name of ''[[lavoir]]''. Water was channelled from a stream or spring and fed into a building, possibly just a roof with no walls. This wash-house usually contained two basins – one for washing and the other for rinsing – through which the water was constantly flowing, as well as a stone lip inclined towards the water against which the wet laundry could be beaten. Such facilities were more comfortable and convenient than washing in a watercourse. Some lavoirs had the wash-basins at waist height, although others remained on the ground. The launderers were protected to some extent from rain, and their travel was reduced, as the facilities were usually at hand in the village or at the edge of a town. These facilities were public and available to all families, and usually used by the entire village. Many of these village wash-houses are still standing, historic structures with no obvious modern purpose.

The job of doing the laundry was [[occupational segregation|reserved for women]], who washed all their family's laundry. [[Washerwoman|Washerwomen]] (laundresses) took in the laundry of others, charging by the piece. As such, wash-houses were an obligatory stop in many women's weekly lives and became a sort of institution or meeting place. It was a [[women-only space]] where they could discuss issues or simply chat (cf the concept of the [[village pump]]). Indeed, this tradition is reflected in the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] idiom "''fer safareig''" (literally, "to do the laundry"), which means to gossip.

European cities also had public wash-houses. The city authorities wanted to give the poorer population, who would otherwise not have access to laundry facilities, the opportunity to wash their clothes. Sometimes these facilities were combined with [[public baths]], see for example [[Baths and wash houses in Britain]]. The aim was to foster hygiene and thus reduce outbreaks of epidemics.

Sometimes large metal cauldrons (a "[[wash copper]]", even when not made of that metal),<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford English Dictionary|year=1989|publisher=Clarendon Press|edition= Second|volume=III|isbn=0-19-861215-X|page=908: copper 3.a}}</ref> were filled with fresh water and heated over a fire, as hot or boiling water is more effective than cold in removing dirt. A [[posser]] could be used to agitate clothes in a tub.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oldandinteresting.com/laundry-ponches-punches.aspx |title=Ponch, punch or ? |publisher=OldandInteresting.com |access-date=2014-03-06}}</ref> A related implement called a washing dolly is "a wooden stick or mallet with an attached cluster of legs or pegs" that moves the cloth through the water.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maxwell|first1=Lee|title=Save womens lives : history of washing machines|date=2003|publisher=Oldewash|location=Eaton, CO|isbn=9780972971003|page=8|edition= 1st}}</ref>

=== Washing machines and other devices ===
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2017}}
[[File:Model Steam Laundry, Colfax, Washington, circa 1900 - DPLA - 458c069b157ffc5cf13674b5e41957c2.jpg|thumb|Model Steam Laundry, Colfax, Washington, {{Circa|1900}}]]
[[File:Woman's Friend - Indiana State Museum - DSC00433.JPG|thumb|The "Woman's Friend" washing machine, {{Circa|1890}} U.S.]]
The [[Industrial Revolution]] completely transformed laundry technology. [[Christina Hardyment]], in her history from the [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851, argues that it was the development of domestic machinery that led to [[women's liberation]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardyment|first1=Christina|title=From mangle to microwave : the mechanization of household work|date=1988|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0745602061|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/frommangletomicr0000hard}}</ref>

The [[mangle (machine)|mangle]] (or "wringer" in [[American English]]) was developed in the 19th century — two long rollers in a frame and a crank to revolve them. A laundry-worker took sopping wet clothing and cranked it through the mangle, compressing the cloth and expelling the excess water. The mangle was much quicker than hand twisting. It was a variation on the [[box mangle]] used primarily for pressing and smoothing cloth.

Meanwhile, 19th-century inventors further mechanized the laundry process with various hand-operated [[washing machine]]s to replace tedious hand rubbing against a washboard. Most involved turning a handle to move paddles inside a tub. Then some early-20th-century machines used an electrically powered [[agitator (device)|agitator]]. Many of these washing machines were simply a tub on legs, with a hand-operated mangle on top. Later the mangle too was electrically powered, then replaced by a perforated double tub, which spun out the excess water in a spin cycle.

Laundry drying was also mechanized, with [[clothes dryer]]s. Dryers were also spinning perforated tubs, but they blew heated air rather than water.

=== Chinese laundries in North America ===
{{redirect|Chinese laundry}}
{{See also|Yick Wo v. Hopkins}}

In the late 19th and early 20th century, [[History of Chinese Americans#Other occupations|Chinese immigrants to the United States]] and [[History of Chinese immigration to Canada|to Canada]] were well represented as laundry workers. Discrimination, lack of English-language skills, and lack of capital kept Chinese immigrants out of most desirable careers. Around 1900, one in four ethnic Chinese men in the U.S. worked in a laundry, typically working 10 to 16 hours a day.<ref name=CHLA>{{citation|chapter=Declaration of the Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance.|pages=183–185 (including notes)|editor1-first=Judy|editor1-last=Yung|editor2-first=Gordon H.|editor2-last=Chang|editor3-first=Him Mark|editor3-last=Lai|title=Chinese American Voices|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0-520-24310-2}}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Ban Seng Hoe |title=Enduring Hardship: The Chinese Laundry in Canada|publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization|year=2004|isbn=0-660-19078-8}}</ref>

[[Chinese people in New York City]] were running an estimated 3,550 laundries at the beginning of the [[Great Depression]]. In 1933, the city's [[New York City Board of Aldermen|Board of Aldermen]] passed a law clearly intended to drive the Chinese out of the business. Among other things, it limited ownership of laundries to U.S. citizens. The [[Chinese Six Companies#New York|Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association]] tried fruitlessly to fend this off, resulting in the formation of the openly [[left-wing politics|leftist]] [[Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance]] (CHLA), which successfully challenged this provision of the law, allowing Chinese laundry workers to preserve their livelihoods.<ref name=CHLA /> The CHLA went on to function as a more general [[civil rights]] group; its numbers declined strongly after it was targeted by the [[FBI]] during the [[Red Scare#'Second Red Scare' (1947–1957)|Second Red Scare]] (1947–1957).<ref name=CHLA />

===South Africa===
From 1850 to 1910, [[Zulu people|Zulu]] men took on the task of laundering the clothes of Europeans, both Boers and British. "Laundering recalled the specialist craft of hide-dressing in which Zulu males engaged as izinyanga, a prestige occupation that paid handsomely." They created a guild structure, similar to a union, to guard their conditions and wages, evolving into "one, if not indeed the most, powerful group of African work-men in nineteenth-century Natal".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atkins |first1=Keletso E. |title=Origins of the AmaWasha: the Zulu Washermen's Guild in Natal, 1850–1910* |journal=The Journal of African History |date=1986 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=41–57 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700029194 |s2cid=162355451 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/abs/origins-of-the-amawasha-the-zulu-washermens-guild-in-natal-18501910/EA8C013C41F180165C46E7B5AB381626 |access-date=26 April 2021 |language=en |issn=1469-5138}}</ref>

===India===
In India, laundry was traditionally done by men. A washerman was called a ''dhobiwallah'', and ''[[dhobi]]'' became the name of their [[caste]] group.

A laundry-place is generally called a ''[[dhobi ghat]]''; this has given rise to place names where they work or worked, including [[Dhobi Ghat|Mahalaxmi Dhobi Ghat]] in Mumbai, [[Dhoby Ghaut]] in Singapore and [[Dhoby Ghaut, Penang|Dhobi Ghaut]] in Penang, Malaysia.

=== Philippines ===
Until the early 1980s, when washing machines became more affordable in the country. much of the laundry work in the Philippines was done manually, and this role was generally assigned to women. A professional laundrywoman was called a ''labandera.''{{cn|date=September 2023}}

===Ancient Rome===
The workers in ancient [[Rome]] who cleaned the cloth were called ''fullones'', singular ''[[fullo]]'' (cf [[fulling]], a process in wool-making, and [[Fuller's earth]], used to clean). Clothes were treated in small tubs standing in niches surrounded by low walls, known as treading or fulling stalls. The tub was filled with water and a mixture of alkaline chemicals (sometimes including urine). The fuller stood in the tub and trampled the cloth, a technique known elsewhere as [[Posting (laundering process)|posting]]. The aim of this treatment was to apply the chemical agents to the cloth so that they could do their work, the resolving of greases and fats. These stalls are so typical of these workshops that they are used to identify ''fullonicae'' in the archaeological remains.

==Laundry processes==
[[File:Women laundering in Tampere lake.jpg|thumb|Women laundering on the pier in [[Tampere]], [[Finland]]]]
Laundry processes include washing (usually with water containing detergents or other chemicals), agitation, rinsing, drying, pressing (ironing), and folding. The washing will sometimes be done at a temperature above room temperature to increase the activities of any chemicals used and the solubility of stains, and high temperatures kill micro-organisms that may be present on the fabric. However, it is advised that cotton be washed at a cooler temperature to prevent shrinking. Many professional laundry services are present in the market which offers at different price range.

Agitation helps remove dirt which is usually mobilised by surfactants from between fibres, however, due to the small size of the pores in fibres, the 'stagnant core' of the fibres themselves see virtually no flow. The fibres are nevertheless rapidly cleaned by [[diffusiophoresis]] carrying dirt out into the clean water during the rinsing process.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://physicsworld.com/a/clothes-washing-mystery-solved-by-physicists/|title=Clothes washing mystery solved by physicists|date=April 3, 2018|website=Physics World}}</ref>

===Chemicals===
Various chemicals may be used to increase the solvent power of water, such as the compounds in [[Chlorogalum|soaproot]] or yucca-root used by Native American tribes, or the ash [[lye]] (usually [[sodium hydroxide]] or [[potassium hydroxide]]) once widely used for soaking laundry in Europe. [[Soap]], a compound made from lye and fat, is an ancient and common laundry aid. Modern [[washing machine]]s typically use synthetic powdered or liquid [[laundry detergent]] in place of more traditional soap.

===Cleaning or dry cleaning===
{{main|Dry cleaning}}
[[Image:Dry clean rack.jpg|thumb|Many dry cleaners place cleaned clothes inside thin clear plastic garment bags.]]
Dry cleaning refers to any process which uses a chemical [[solvent]] other than water.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Does The Dry Cleaning Process Work?|date=30 September 2014|url=http://www.laundroxpress.com/dry-cleaning-process-work/|publisher=LX|access-date=21 November 2014|quote=Dry cleaning is the process of deep cleaning clothing without using water. Usually reserved for dress clothes and delicate fabric, it requires special equipment and detergents. Dry cleaning is typically a 5 step process. These steps are tagging the clothes, pretreating clothes, cleaning, quality checking, and ironing.}}</ref> The solvent used is typically [[tetrachloroethylene]] (perchloroethylene), which the industry calls "perc".<ref>{{cite web|title=Toxic Substances Portal - Tetrachloroethylene (PERC)|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=264&tid=48|access-date=21 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene)|url=http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/tet-ethy.html|access-date=21 November 2014}}</ref> It is used to clean delicate fabrics that cannot withstand the rough and tumble of a [[washing machine]] and [[clothes dryer]]; it can also obviate labor-intensive hand washing.

== Shared laundry rooms ==
[[File:24 Pesula Jyväskylä.jpg|thumb|24 Pesula laundry in [[Jyväskylä]], [[Finland]]]]
In some parts of the world, including North America, [[apartment building]]s and [[dormitory|dormitories]] often have laundry rooms, where residents share washing machines and dryers. Usually the machines are set to run only when money is put in a [[Currency detector|coin slot]].

In other parts of the world, including Europe, apartment buildings with laundry rooms are uncommon, and each apartment may have its own washing machine. Those without a machine at home or the use of a laundry room must either wash their clothes by hand or visit a commercial [[self-service laundry]] (laundromat, laundrette) or a laundry shop, such as [[5àsec]].

== Right to dry movement==
Some American communities forbid their residents from drying clothes outside, and citizens protesting this have created a "right to dry" movement. Many [[homeowners' associations]] and other communities in the United States prohibit residents from using a clothesline outdoors, or limit such use to locations that are not visible from the street or to certain times of day. Other communities, however, expressly prohibit rules that prevent the use of clotheslines. Some organizations have been campaigning against legislation which has outlawed line-drying of clothing in public places, especially given the increased [[greenhouse gas emissions]] produced by some types of electrical power generation needed to power electric clothes dryers, since driers can constitute a considerable fraction of a home's total energy usage.

Florida ("the Sunshine State") is the only state to expressly guarantee a right to dry, although Utah and Hawaii have passed solar rights legislation.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} A Florida law explicitly states: "No deed restrictions, covenants, or similar binding agreements running with the land shall prohibit or have the effect of prohibiting solar collectors, clotheslines, or other energy devices based on renewable resources from being installed on buildings erected on the lots or parcels covered by the deed restrictions, covenants, or binding agreements."<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.flsenate.gov/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&URL=Ch0163/SEC04.HTM&Title=-%3E2008-%3ECh0163-%3ESection%2004#0163.04|title=The 2008 Florida Statutes (chapter: Energy devices based on renewable resources)|volume=163|issue=4|year=2008|publisher=[[Florida Senate]]|access-date=2020-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503144033/http://www.flsenate.gov/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute#0163.04|archive-date=2007-05-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> No other state has such clearcut legislation.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} Vermont considered a "Right to Dry" bill in 1999, but it was defeated in the Senate Natural Resources & Energy Committee. The language has been included in a 2007 voluntary [[energy conservation]] bill, introduced by Senator [[Richard McCormack (politician)|Dick McCormack]]. Legislation making it possible for thousands of American families to start using clotheslines in communities where they were formerly banned was passed in Colorado in 2008. In 2009, clothesline legislation was debated in the states of Connecticut, Hawaii, Maryland, Maine, New Hampshire, Nebraska, Oregon, Virginia, and Vermont.

Similar measures have been introduced in Canada, in particular the province of Ontario.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}

== Common problems ==
[[File:NewBritainUnderwearWashingDirections.jpg|thumb|Directions for hand-washing New Britain Standard Hygienic Underwear, circa 1915]]

Novice users of modern laundry machines sometimes experience accidental [[Shrinkage (fabric)|shrinkage]] of garments, especially when applying heat. For wool garments, this is due to scales on the fibers, which heat and agitation cause to stick together. Other fabrics (like cotton) have their fibers stretched by mechanical force during production, and can shrink slightly when heated (though to a lesser degree than wool). Some clothes are "pre-shrunk" to avoid this problem.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=98759520|title=Why Clothes Shrink|website=NPR.org}}</ref>

Another common problem is color bleeding from dyed articles to white or pale-colored ones. Many laundry guides suggest washing whites separately from colored items.<ref>{{cite web | title=Your Guide to Washing Clothes, Including How to Keep Whites Bright and Darks from Fading | website=Martha Stewart | date=February 14, 2011 | url=https://www.marthastewart.com/267832/the-wash-cycle | access-date=March 30, 2021}}</ref> Sometimes only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a [[selling point]], as with [[Madras (cloth)|madras cloth]].

[[Laundry symbol]]s are included on many clothes to help consumers avoid these problems.

Synthetic fibers in laundry can also contribute to [[microplastic]] pollution.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1504135112 |pmid=25944930 |pmc=4426466 |title=News Feature: Microplastics present pollution puzzle |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=112 |issue=18 |pages=5547–5549 |year=2015 |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |bibcode=2015PNAS..112.5547K |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word ''laundry'' comes from [[Middle English]] lavendrye, laundry, from [[Old French]] ''lavanderie'', from lavandier.<ref name="Laundry"/>

==In culture==
[[File:0 Bruxelles - Petit Sablon - Blanchisseur.JPG|thumb|left|''The launderer'' by [[Jef Lambeaux]]]]

In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', Princess [[Nausicaa]] and her handmaidens are washing laundry by the shore when they see and rescue the ship-wrecked [[Odysseus|Ulysses]].

==See also==
*[[List of laundry topics]]
*[[Hygiene#Laundry hygiene|Laundry hygiene]]
*[[Industrial laundry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=laundry |commons=Category:Laundry |b=Laundry_separation_and_washing |n=no |q=no |s=no |v=no |voy=Laundry |species=no |d=no |display=Laundry }}

{{Laundry navbox}}
{{Clothing}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Laundry| ]]

Sardar Patel

2023-01-07T07:31:53Z

Wikkythug: Published a captivating piece.

#REDIRECT [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]

Polonnaruwa period

2022-12-11T16:19:33Z

Wikkythug: Formulated a new article outline.

{{Main|History of Sri Lanka|Kingdom of Polonnaruwa}}
{{Infobox historical era
| name = Polonnaruwa period
| start = 1017
| end = 1232
| image = File:Relief of Parakramabahu in Polonnaruwa.jpg
| alt =
| caption = [[Statue of Parakramabahu I]]
| before = [[Anuradhapura period]]
| including = {{Plainlist|
* [[Chola rule in Sri Lanka|Chola conquest]]
* [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]]}}
| after = [[Transitional period of Sri Lanka|Transitional period]]
| monarch = {{Plainlist|
* [[House of Vijayabahu]]
* [[House of Kalinga]]
* [[Lokissara]]
* [[Parakrama Pandyan II]]
* [[Kalinga Magha]]}}
| leaders =
}}
{{History of Sri Lanka}}

The '''Polonnaruwa period''' was a period in the history of [[Sri Lanka]] from 1017, after the [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura]] and when the center of administration was moved to [[Polonnaruwa]], to the end of the [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]] in 1232.

The [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]] was the second major [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] kingdom of Sri Lanka. It lasted from 1055 under [[Vijayabahu I]] until 1212 under the rule of [[Lilavati of Sri Lanka|Lilavati]]. The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa came after the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]], which was invaded by [[Chola]] forces under [[Rajaraja I]]. It also followed the [[Kingdom of Ruhuna]], in which the Sinhalese Kings ruled during Chola occupation.

==Overview==
Periodization of Sri Lanka history:
{{Smalldiv|{{Sri Lankan history overview}}}}

==Political history==
===Chola conquest (1017–1056)===
The Chola conquest began with the invasion in 993 AD, when [[Raja Raja Chola]] sent a large Chola army which conquered the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]], in the north, and added it to the [[Chola Empire]]. Most of the island was subsequently conquered and incorporated as a province of the vast [[Rajendra Chola I#Overseas conquests|Chola empire]] during the reign of his son [[Rajendra Chola]].<ref name="Chattopadhyaya">[[#Chattopadhyaya|Chattopadhyaya]], pp 7–9</ref><ref name="Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59">''Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59''</ref><ref name="KulkeKesavapany2009">{{cite book|editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&pg=PA195|year=2009|location=Singapore|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-937-2|pages=195–}}</ref><ref name="Gunawardena2005">{{cite book|author=Charles A. Gunawardena|title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWLQSMPddikC&pg=PA71|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-48-5|pages=71–}}</ref>

===Kingdom of Polonnaruwa (1056–1232)===
[[Vijayabahu I of Sri Lanka|Vijayabahu I]] (1055–1110), recaptured the whole Island and established [[Polonnaruwa]] as the new capital. King Vijayabahu married a second queen from the [[Kalinga (province)|Kalinga]] ([[Orissa, India|Orissa]]) Royal Family, and had a son, [[Vikramabâhu I of Sri Lanka|Vikramabâhu I]], and a daughter, [[Ratnavali]]. His sister, [[Mitta of Sri Lanka|Mitta]], married a [[Pandya]] Prince who had three sons. His eldest son, Manabharana, married Ratnavali. Their son was [[Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka|Parākramabāhu I]] (1153–1186) Grandson of Vijayabahu I, Prince of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]-[[Pandyan]]-[[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] descent, son of Manabharana and Vijayabahu's sister, Mitta. He was a very powerful king who was noted for his engineering,<ref>Broheir, R. L. (1937) ''Ancient Irrigation Works in Ceylon''. 3 vols.</ref> naval power, art, culture, Sinhala inscriptions, and even a Tamil edict in Uruthota ([[Kayts]]). The [[Chulavamsa]] was written by Dharmakirthi, updating the [[Mahavamsa]] to include Parakramabahu.

==See also==
* [[Mahavamsa]]
* [[Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka]]
* [[Sinhala Kingdom]]
* [[List of Sinhalese monarchs]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Polonnaruwa period topics}}
{{Sri Lanka topics}}
{{History of Asia}}

[[Category:Polonnaruwa period]]
[[Category:Ancient Sri Lanka]]

{{SriLanka-stub}}

Separate spheres

2022-03-29T14:04:28Z

Wikkythug: Published a well-researched resource.

{{Short description|Gendered separation of public and private spheres}}
[[File:Sinews of old england.jpg|thumb|''The Sinews of Old England'' (1857) by [[George Elgar Hicks]] shows a couple "on the threshold" between female and male spheres.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Barringer |first1= Tim |editor1-first= Moira |editor1-last= Donald |editor2-first= Linda | editor2-last= Hurcombe |title= Representations of gender from prehistory to the present |chapter = The Gendering of Artistic Labour in Mid-Victorian Britain | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Aot3GXO1UGQC&pg=PA154 |year= 2000 |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishers]] |location= Basingstoke |isbn= 978-0-333-64331-0 | pages= 154–56}}</ref>]]

Terms such as '''separate spheres''' and '''domestic–public dichotomy''' refer to a [[social phenomenon]] within [[modern society|modern societies]] that feature, to some degree, an [[empirical]] separation between a [[private sphere|domestic or private sphere]] and a [[Public sphere|public or social sphere]]. This observation may be controversial and is often also seen as supporting [[Patriarchy|patriarchal ideologies]] that seek to ''create or strengthen'' any such separation between spheres and to confine women to the domestic/private sphere.

The patriarchal ideology of separate spheres, based primarily on notions of biologically determined gender roles and/or patriarchal religious doctrine, claims that women should avoid the public sphere – the domain of politics, paid work, commerce and law. Women's "proper sphere", according to the ideology, is the realm of domestic life, focused on childcare, housekeeping and religion.<ref name="kuersten"/><ref>{{cite book |last1= Ryle |first1= Robyn |title= Questioning gender: a sociological exploration |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CHHz_p-j9hMC&pg=PA342 |year= 2012 |publisher= SAGE/Pine Forge Press |location= Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn= 978-1-4129-6594-1 |pages= 342–43}}</ref>

In Europe and North America,<ref>{{cite book |last1= Warne |first1= Randi R. |editor1= Jensen, Tim |editor2=Rothstein, Mikael |chapter = Making the Gender-Critical Turn | title= Secular theories on religion: current perspectives |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oFCX113Zk94C&pg=PA255 |year= 2000 |publisher= [[Museum Tusculanum Press]] |location= Copenhagen, Denmark |isbn= 978-87-7289-572-7 |pages= 249–60}}</ref> the idealization of separate spheres emerged during the [[Industrial Revolution]]. As an observable phenomenon, however, the existence of separate spheres is much older.

==History==
The idea that women should inhabit a separate domestic sphere has appeared in [[Western thought]] for centuries, extending back to the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vickery |first1=Amanda |author-link1=Amanda Vickery |title=Golden age to separate spheres? A review of the categories and chronology of English women's history |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=383–414 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X9300001X |doi-access=free }}</ref> In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', [[Aristotle]] described two separate spheres in Greek society, the home (''[[oikos]]'') and the city (''[[polis]]''). Some have interpreted his views as confining women to the private realm while men were supposed to occupy the public sphere of the ''polis''.<ref>{{cite book|last= Arendt |first= Hannah |author-link1= Hannah Arendt |title= The Human Condition |year= 1958 |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |location= Chicago | isbn = 978-0-226-02592-6 | chapter = Chapter II: The Public and the Private Realm |pages= [https://archive.org/details/humancondition000aren/page/24 24], 72|title-link= The Human Condition (book) }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tétreault |first1=Mary Ann |title=Frontier Politics: Sex, Gender, and the Deconstruction of the Public Sphere |journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=53–72 |doi=10.1177/030437540102600103 |s2cid=141033858 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= May | first1= Ann Mari | title= The 'woman question' and higher education: perspectives on gender and knowledge production in America |chapter = Gender, biology and the incontrovertible logic of choice | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rhr12MIJ1fkC&pg=PA39 |year= 2008 |publisher= [[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |location= Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA |isbn= 978-1-84720-401-1 | page= 39}}</ref> Each sphere intermingled in different ways with the other.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Household as the Foundation of Aristotle's Polis|last=Nagle|first=D. Brendan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|pages=309}}</ref> Debates over the "proper" roles of women and men continued throughout antiquity.

The modern ideology of separate spheres emerged in the wake of the Industrial Revolution.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of feminist literary theory|last1=Wells|first1=Christopher|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-415-99802-4|editor1-last=Kowaleski-Wallace|editor1-first=Elizabeth|location=London, New York|page=519|chapter=Separate Spheres|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blI0_52wIwYC&pg=PA519}}</ref> Prior to the industrialization of the Western world, family members worked side by side and the workplace was located mostly in and around the home. With the shift from home-based to factory production, men left the home to sell their labor for wages while women stayed home to perform unpaid domestic work. The separate spheres ideology reflected and fueled these changes.<ref>{{cite book|title=The concise encyclopedia of sociology|last1=Adams|first1=Michele|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4051-8353-6|editor1-last=Ritzer|editor1-first=George|location=Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.; Malden, MA|pages=156–57|chapter=Divisions of household labor|editor2-last=Ryan|editor2-first=J. Michael|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4wU64f_JYC&pg=PA156}}</ref> At the same time, [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and the French Revolution helped spread the ideas of liberty, equality and political rights, but in practice such rights were denied to women, who were seen as belonging to a different social sphere. Feminist writers like [[Olympe de Gouges]], [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] and [[Lucy Stone]] demanded political equality for women as well as men and provided searing criticisms of the "separate sphere" ideals that confined women exclusively to the domestic sphere. Theorists such as [[Friedrich Engels]] and [[Karl Marx]] have argued that following the rise of capitalism, the home lost its control of the [[means of production]] and consequently became a private, separate sphere. As a result, Engels contended, women were excluded from participating directly in the production process and relegated to the subordinate domestic sphere.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Companion to 19th-Century America|last1=Edwards|first1=Laura F.|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2001|isbn=978-0-631-20985-0|editor1-last=Barney|editor1-first=William L.|location=Malden, MA|pages=225–226|chapter=Gender and the Changing Roles of Women|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elgGfYla0hwC&pg=PA225}}</ref>

Another major commentator on the modern idea of "separate spheres" was the French political thinker [[Alexis de Tocqueville]].<ref name="kerber1988">{{cite journal |last1=Kerber |first1=Linda K. |title=Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History |journal=The Journal of American History |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=9–39 |doi=10.2307/1889653 |jstor=1889653 |s2cid=162353067 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f178/8ecf74f7e543bea5e441b60ec503614d747f.pdf }}</ref> In ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1840), in a chapter entitled ''How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes'', Tocqueville wrote: "In no country has such constant care been taken as in America to trace two clearly distinct lines of action for the two sexes and to make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways that are always different."<ref>{{cite book|last= Tocqueville |first= Alexis de |author-link1= Alexis de Tocqueville |title= Democracy in America|year= 1840 |publisher= Saunders and Otley |location= London | chapter = Chapter XII: How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0EPSjMel_-kC&pg=PA101 |page= 101}}</ref> He observed that married women, in particular, were subject to many restrictions, noting that "the independence of woman is irrecoverably lost in the bonds of matrimony", adding that "in the United States the inexorable opinion of the public carefully circumscribes woman within the narrow circle of domestic interests and duties and forbids her to step beyond it."<ref>{{cite book|last= Tocqueville |first= Alexis de |title= Democracy in America|year= 1840 |publisher= Saunders and Otley |location= London | chapter = Chapter X: The young Woman in the Character of a Wife | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0EPSjMel_-kC&pg=PA79 |pages= 79–80}}</ref> Tocqueville considered the separate spheres of women and men a positive development,<ref name="kerber1988"/> arguing:<blockquote>although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and if I were asked...to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply,—to the superiority of their women.<ref>{{cite book|last= Tocqueville |first= Alexis de |title= Democracy in America|year= 1840 |publisher= Saunders and Otley |location= London | chapter = Chapter XII: How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0EPSjMel_-kC&pg=PA106 |page= 106}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Betty Friedan]]'s ''[[The Feminine Mystique]]'' (1963) asserted that women were being forced to rely on their husbands and children as the sole sources of their identity by an historically constructed oppressive paradigm, not by any "intrinsic" predisposition. Drawing on Friedan, historian Barbara Welter identified a [[Cult of Domesticity|"Cult of True Womanhood"]], an ideal of [[femininity]] prevalent among the [[Upper class|upper]] and [[middle class]]es in the 19th century. "True women" were supposed to be pious, pure, submissive and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded as a laudable virtue as the home was considered a woman's proper sphere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Welter |first1=Barbara |title=The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860 |journal=American Quarterly |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=151–174 |doi=10.2307/2711179 |jstor=2711179 }}</ref> Unlike Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th-century historians were critical of the separate spheres ideology, seeing it as a source of women's denigration.<ref name="kerber1988"/>

In [[Woman, Culture, and Society]] (1974), [[Michelle Rosaldo]] emphasizes the idea that these separate spheres can be explained in terms of a dichotomy, in the sense that these gender-oriented domains are viewed as so totally separate that it only reinforces the ideology of gender separation and inequality. Activities given to men, versus those assigned to women, were seen as having more value and contributing greatly to the society. Adversely, the woman's so-called simpler roles of housework and childrearing were held at a much lesser value. Rosaldo argues a "universal asymmetry" between the sexes that primarily caused these separations to arise. This model mainly focuses on the generational subordination of women in relation to men throughout history and across different cultures, defining the domestic and public spheres in very black and white terms.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=no:00972854|title=Woman, culture and society|last1=Rosaldo|first1=Michelle Zimbalist|last2=Lamphere|first2=Louise|last3=Bamberger|first3=Joan|isbn=978-0804708500|language=en}}</ref>

This earlier model, has since been challenged by researchers in the field, claiming the spheres cannot be outlined in such simplistic terms. [[Woman, Culture, and Society]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|title=Gender in cross-cultural perspective|last1=Brettell|first1=Caroline|last2=Sargent|first2=Carolyn F|isbn=9780205247288|language=en|oclc = 951536398}}</ref> co-editor Louis Lamphere breaks down Rosaldo's model and discusses the spheres in different terms. Rather than assume universal asymmetry, Lamphere considers various societies worldwide. Even in some Middle Eastern cultures that place women in extreme positions of subordination, the model could not be so easily applied. This is because the domestic and public spheres are almost always overlapping in some way, regardless of a cultural female subservience or even egalitarianism. Women enter public spaces in order to fulfill duties that fall within their domestic responsibilities. Men must return to the private, or domestic, space eventually to bring home the spoils of labor from the public sphere. In this sense, there are two separate spheres created and enforced by gender ideologies; but they are not dichotomous. They, instead, form an integrated system of life in society, varying only in levels of intensities from culture to culture.<ref name="auto"/>

According to Cary Franklin, the women’s rights movements in the mid-1960s proposed that to achieve true equality between the sexes, it would be necessary for laws to be put in place to move past the simple separate spheres model and address the “interspherical impacts”. In 1966, the [[National Organization for Women]] (NOW) pushed for equality of women in society and in the workplace by means of changes in family regulation. NOW stressed the importance of focusing on structurally altering the family sphere to create gender equality in the education and workplace spheres. The family sphere acted as a catalyst, because: unless it changed, women would simply lack access to the opportunities already available to men. Franklin also pointed out that the gender inequality among the American population in the 60’s and 70’s was a major contributor to the civil rights statutes of the Second Reconstruction.<ref name=jstor506286>{{cite journal |last1=Rotman |first1=Deborah L. |title=Separate Spheres?: Beyond the Dichotomies of Domesticity |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=666–674 |doi=10.1086/506286 |jstor=506286 |s2cid=145576707 }}</ref>

Deborah Rotman, an anthropologist at Notre Dame, analyzed this concept of separate spheres among the people of [[Deerfield, Massachusetts]] in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In this community, there was a clear divide between men and women by means of a “proper allocation” in which females were given the domestic residence or sphere and the men were given the “economically productive agricultural land”. Men would migrate away from the women if agriculture was depleting in their given agricultural space. As the men were moving to work outside the home, women began to acclimate to the economic atmosphere and gain more opportunities in the public sphere with all the men working elsewhere. These women soon had various roles in the public and private spheres in Deerfield. As equal rights became part of the ideological framework in Deerfield, women found themselves voting in school boards, working on municipal water projects and fundraising as men had done before them. Despite the traditional understanding of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century of completely separate public and private spheres, the Deerfield community challenged these “dichotomies of domesticity” and paved the way for equal rights for men and women.<ref name=jstor506286/>

==Influences==

===Biological determinism===
The separation between female and male spheres was heavily influenced by [[biological determinism]],<ref name="roy">{{cite book |last1= Roy |first1= Anupama |title= Gendered citizenship: historical and conceptual explorations | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko4sVA2JRJUC&pg=PA80|year= 2005 |publisher= [[Orient Longman]] |location= New Delhi |isbn= 978-81-250-2797-3| page= 80–81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Grana |first1= Sheryl J. |title= Women and justice |chapter = 'Nature' and Biology | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5IKdJLjtbtoC&pg=PA20 |year= 2010 |publisher= [[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location= Lanham |isbn= 978-0-7425-7002-3| page= 20}}</ref> the notion that women and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to their biological and genetic makeup.<ref>{{cite book |last1= O'Brien |first1= Jodi |title= Encyclopedia of gender and society |volume= 2 | year= 2009 |publisher= SAGE Publications |location= Los Angeles |isbn= 978-1-4129-0916-7 |pages= 586, 602–603}}</ref> The idea of biological determinism was popular during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and among such thinkers as [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] who argued that women were inherently different from men and should devote themselves to [[reproduction]] and domesticity.<ref name="roy"/> Women were considered passive, dependent on men and, due to their reproductive capacity, ill-suited for life outside the domestic realm.<ref name="kimmel">{{cite book |last1= Adams |first1= Michele | last2 = Coltrane | first2 = Scott | editor1-first= Michael S. |editor1-last= Kimmel |editor1-link= Michael Kimmel |editor2-first= Jeff | editor2-last= Hearn | editor3-last = Connell | editor3-first = Raewyn |title= Handbook of studies on men and masculinities |chapter = The Cultural Ideal of Separate Spheres| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UvAZD45BMDoC&pg=PA231 |year= 2005 |publisher= SAGE Publications |location= London |isbn= 978-0-7619-2369-5| pages= 231–32}}</ref> Rousseau described women's primary duties in ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'', stating that "women's entire education should be planned in relation to men. To please men, to be useful to them, to win their love and respect, to raise them as children, to care for them as adults, correct and console them, make their lives sweet and pleasant; these are women's duties in all ages and these are what they should be taught from childhood."<ref name="roy"/>

The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply embedded in popular consciousness throughout the [[Progressive Era]].<ref name="rosenberg">{{cite book |title= Beyond separate spheres: intellectual roots of modern feminism |last= Rosenberg |first= Rosalind |author-link= Rosalind Rosenberg |year= 1982 |publisher= [[Yale University Press]] |location= New Haven |isbn= 978-0-300-02695-5 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/beyondseparatesp00rosa/page/114 114], 207, 245–46 |url= https://archive.org/details/beyondseparatesp00rosa |url-access= registration }}</ref> By the early 20th century, however, [[dissident]] [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] and other [[Social science|social scientists]] began to challenge the biological determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities between men and women and suggesting that many sex differences were socially constructed.<ref name="rosenberg"/> Despite these new insights and social and economic changes such as women's entry into the labor force, the separate spheres ideology did not disappear.<ref name="kimmel"/><ref name="rosenberg"/>

===Other influences===
{{Quote box
|quote = "Woman has no call to the ballot-box, but she has a sphere of her own, of amazing responsibility and importance. She is the divinely appointed guardian of the home...She should more fully realize that her position as wife and mother and angel of the home, is the holiest, most responsible and queenlike assigned to mortals; and dismiss all ambition for anything higher, as there is nothing else here so high for mortals."
|source = — Rev. John Milton Williams, ''Woman Suffrage'', [[Bibliotheca Sacra]] (1893)<ref>Williams, John Milton (1893). [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/bsac/1893_331_williams.pdf ''Article VII. "Woman Suffrage."''] Bibliotheca Sacra, pp. 331–43. Also available in DeBerg, Betty A. (1990). [https://books.google.com/books?id=bJkRgooQLV0C&pg=PA43 Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres]. ''Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism''. Minneapolis: [[Augsburg Fortress]]. pp. 43–58. {{ISBN|978-0-8006-2439-2}}.</ref>
|width = 30%
|align = right}}

Women's confinement to the private sphere was reinforced by cultural and legal arrangements, such as the lack of [[women's suffrage]], legal prohibitions against women undertaking professions like medicine and law and discouragement from obtaining higher education.<ref name="kuersten">{{cite book | title= Women and the law: leaders, cases and documents |chapter = Separate Spheres Doctrine |last= Kuersten |first= Ashlyn K. |year= 2003 |publisher= [[ABC-CLIO]] |location= Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn= 978-0-87436-878-9 |pages= 16–17 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AnKGWlZG_ncC&pg=PA16}}</ref>

Strong support for the separation of spheres came from [[antisuffragist]]s who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to argue that women were unfit for political participation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Susan E. |title=In Defense of Separate Spheres: Class and Status Politics in the Antisuffrage Movement |journal=Social Forces |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=327–351 |doi=10.1093/sf/65.2.327 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Hewitt |first1= Lyndi | last2 = McCammon | first2 = Holly J. | editor1-first= Hank |editor1-last= Johnston |editor2-first= John A. | editor2-last= Noakes |title= Frames of protest: social movements and the framing perspective |chapter = Explaining the suffrage mobilization: balance, neutralization and range in collective action frames | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iUZe1lLP-FcC&pg=PA39 |year= 2005 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |location= Lanham |isbn= 978-0-7425-3806-1| page= 39}}</ref> [[Antifeminism|Antifeminist]] men's groups in late 19th and early 20th century United States responded to the societal changes and shift in gender relations by advocating a return to a strict separation of spheres that would keep women from competing with men in the public sphere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimmel |first1=Michael S. |title=Men's responses to feminism at the turn of the century |journal=Gender & Society |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=261–283 |doi=10.1177/089124387001003003 |s2cid=145428652 }}</ref>

Similarly, [[Christian fundamentalism|Christian fundamentalists]] supported the separate spheres ideology and opposed women's suffrage as well as other attempts to broaden women's influence in the public sphere.<ref>{{cite book |chapter= Conservative Protestantism and the Separate Spheres |title= Ungodly women: gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism |last= DeBerg |first= Betty A. |year= 1990 |publisher= [[Augsburg Fortress]] |location= Minneapolis |isbn= 978-0-8006-2439-2 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/ungodlywomengend00debe/page/43 43–58] |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bJkRgooQLV0C&pg=PA43 |url= https://archive.org/details/ungodlywomengend00debe/page/43 }}</ref> Theological conservatism has been found to have a stable effect on the endorsement of separate spheres ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Bartkowski |first1= John P. | last2 = Xu | first2 = Xiaohe | editor1-first= Christopher G. |editor1-last= Ellison |editor2-first= Robert A. | editor2-last= Hummer |title= Religion, families and health: population-based research in the United States |chapter = Religion and Family Values Reconsidered: Gender Traditionalism among Conservative Protestants | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5rvZ4hnClO8C&pg=PA106 |year= 2010 |publisher= [[Rutgers University Press]] |location= New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn= 978-0-8135-4945-3| pages= 106–125}}</ref> Leading [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]] propagated a view of womanhood which reinforced gendered division.<ref name="ross">{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Cathy |title=Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions? |journal=Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=228–235 |doi=10.1177/026537880602300406 |s2cid=152033474 }}</ref> [[Thomas Gisborne]]'s ''An Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex'' (1797) and [[Henry Venn (Clapham Sect)|Henry Venn]]'s ''The Complete Duty of Man'' (1763) were two popular evangelical texts which described proper behavior for men and women, arguing that a woman's primary duty was to care for those in her domestic circle and obey her husband.<ref name="ross"/>

==Effects==
In her paper "Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions", Cathy Ross suggests that the separate spheres ideology had ambiguous effects on women's lives.<ref name="ross"/> She argues that while it "was clear that women were supposed to be subordinate and that home and children were their sphere", the separation of spheres enabled women "to reach out to other women in sisterhood, in solidarity, on the common ground of domesticity".<ref name="ross"/>

The ideology of separate spheres contributed to resistance to [[coeducation]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Public Schools|first1=David|last1=Tyack|first2=Elizabeth|last2=Hansot|isbn=978-0-87154-888-7|year=1992|publisher=[[Russell Sage Foundation]]|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/learningtogether00tyac/page/4 4]|url=https://archive.org/details/learningtogether00tyac|url-access=registration}}</ref> and to the emergence of gendered educational institutions such as the [[female seminary]] and [[women's college]] in [[higher education]] and the [[woman's club]] in [[continuing education]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Women's club movement|first=Christine|last=Woyshner|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_w6z4/page/477 477]|title=Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States|editor-last=Eisenmann|editor-first=Linda|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|isbn=978-0-313-29323-8|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_w6z4/page/477}}</ref> The rise of [[teaching]] as a woman's profession was also closely linked to the ideology of separate spheres, as women came to be regarded as uniquely skilled at [[classroom management]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Public Schools|first1=David|last1=Tyack|first2=Elizabeth|last2=Hansot|isbn=978-0-87154-888-7|year=1992|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/learningtogether00tyac/page/48 48], 68|url=https://archive.org/details/learningtogether00tyac|url-access=registration}}</ref> In coeducational universities in the late 19th century, the separation of spheres contributed to the emergence of [[home economics]] as a field of advanced study for the woman's sphere,<ref name="walker"/> and the [[dean of women]] as frequently the only high-ranking woman administrator in coeducational institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwartz |first1=Robert Arthur |title=How Deans of Women Became Men |journal=The Review of Higher Education |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=419–436 |doi=10.1353/rhe.1997.0011 |s2cid=145115891 }}</ref>

Although it created a space for women's academic and professional advancement, the separation of spheres also provided an excuse for keeping women out of fields not specifically marked as female.<ref>{{Cite book | last= Tolley | first= Kim | title= The Science Education of American Girls | year= 2003 | isbn=978-0-415-93472-5 | publisher= RoutledgeFalmer |location= New York| page=213}}</ref> Thus many talented women scientists were pushed into professorships in home economics rather than in their principal fields.<ref name="walker">{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=Melissa|title=Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States|editor-last=Eisenmann|editor-first=Linda|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|isbn=978-0-313-29323-8|chapter=Home Economics|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_w6z4/page/205 205]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_w6z4/page/205}}</ref> Some women educators resisted this typecasting even while working within the framework of separation. [[Frances Shimer]], founder of [[Shimer College]], which was a woman's school from 1866 to 1950, insisted that she was "in favor of the co-education of the sexes" and that the education at her school was equal to what was given to young men.<ref>{{Cite journal|title='My whole ambition has ever been to do something smart': Frances Wood Shimer, Cinderella Gregory and the 1853 Founding of Shimer College|first=Doris |last=Malkmus|journal=Journal of Illinois History|volume=6|issue=3|pages=212–213|year=2003}}</ref>

== Recent commentary ==
A 2013 study by [[Jacqueline Henke]] from [[Arkansas State University]] explores the history of the separate spheres model in the United States. Henke points out that between 1820 and 1860 (a period sometimes called the dawn of separate spheres) three parenting models were common for two-parent, mother/father families:

#Parenting duties are wholly the responsibility of mothers
#Parenting duties are separated into fatherly responsibilities and motherly responsibilities
#Parenting duties are shared equally among mothers and fathers.

According to Henke, many parenting books from this era suggested that mothers should take primary responsibility for their children. Yet, some parenting books argued that mothers and fathers should have separate childrearing duties or a completely equal distribution of childrearing responsibilities. Henke argues that, even during the height of domestic ideology and the dawn of separate spheres, parenting advice was not monolithic. Furthermore, the lived realities parents and families during this era were more diverse than the ideals of parenting books.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Henke |first1=Jacqueline |title=Separate spheres or common domestic ground: Gender ideology in parenting manuals from 1820 to 1860 |year=2013 |id={{ProQuest|1418490551}} }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Cult of Domesticity]]
*[[Gender binary]]
*[[Gender polarization]]
*[[Gender role]]
*''[[The Angel in the House]]''

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.nd.edu/~cvandenb/sepspheres.html ''Separate Spheres''], [[University of Notre Dame]], paintings which deal with the separate spheres ideology
* [http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/g/gender-ideology-and-separate-spheres-19th-century/ ''Gender Ideology & Separate Spheres in the 19th Century''], [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], an analysis of the separate spheres doctrine in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Britain

[[Category:Ideologies]]
[[Category:Gender and society]]
[[Category:Sexism]]