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Redmi 4X

2023-10-06T10:58:40Z

Wikibio: Created page with '{{Short description|Android-based smartphone manufactured by Xiaomi Inc.}} {{Infobox mobile phone | name = Xiaomi Redmi 4X (Xiaomi Redmi 4 in India) | codename = santoni | logo =  | logosize = 250px | image = Redmi 4X.jpg | imagesize = 200px | alt = | caption = | brand = Redmi | similar_models = | manufacturer = Xiaomi | slogan...'

#REDIRECT [[Xiaomi Redmi 4X]]

Kathiababa Ka Sthan,Vrindavan

2023-09-17T02:46:50Z

Wikibio: Created

{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Kathia Baba Ka Sthan Temple, Vrindavan
| image = Kathiababa Ka Sthan, Vrindavan Main Entrance.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India Uttar Pradesh
| map_caption = Location in [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| native_name = काठियाबाबा का स्थान मंदिर, वृन्दावन
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Mathura]]
| location = [[Vrindavan]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Radha Krishna]]
| facade_direction =
| temple_tank =
| tower =
| coordinates = {{coord|27.3429|77.4152|type:landmark_region:IN-UP|display=inline,title}}
| festivals =
| architecture = [[Nagara architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website =
{{URL | https://srikathiababa.org}}
}}
'''Kathiababa Ka Sthan Temple''' is located on [[Vrindavan]] Gurukul Road, [[Mathura district|Mathura District]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]The architectural style and beauty of this ashram is reminiscent of [[Kathia Baba|Kathiababa]] architecture of many ancient times. This temple is the main temple of the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] community and is popularly known as Kathiababa Ka Sthan Temple (Headquarters).<ref>{{Cite news |title=The flag of Kumbh Mela will be taken out from Kathiababa Ka Sthan temple on elephants, horses and camel |work=Amarujala.com |url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/agra/vrinadavan-kumbh-shri-ganesh-vrindavan-news-agr478670767}}</ref> [[Nimbarka Sampradaya|Nimbarka]] temples and ashrams of all countries of the world are run from this temple.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vaishnav Kumbh starts with hoisting of the flag in Vrindavan, the city of faith at Kathiababa Ka Sthan Temple, the event will continue for 40 days |work=Amarujala.com |url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/agra/kumbh-purva-vaishnava-baithak-begins-today-in-vrindavan}}</ref>

==Location==
[[File:Radha Vrindavanbihari Couple Lord Kathiababa Ka Sthan, Vrindavan.jpg|thumbnail|Radha Vrindavanbihari Couple Lord ]]
Kathiababa Ka Sthan is located on Vrindavan Gurukul Road in Uttar Pradesh, India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Title: Vrindavan Kumbh Mela:हाथी, घोड़ा और ऊंटों की सवारी के साथ निकलेगी कुंभ मेला की ध्वजा - Vrindavan Kumbh Mela 2021 Date Shobhayatra Will Held On Basant Panchami In Vrindavan - Amar Ujala |url=https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://staticimg.amarujala.com/assets/images/2021/02/01/vrindavan-kumbh-mela-site_1612164410.jpeg?w%3D480&dpr=2.6&tbnid=PuqueMxrK6J2WM&vet=1&imgrefurl=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/uttar-pradesh/agra/vrindavan-kumbh-mela-2021-date-shobhayatra-will-held-on-basant-panchami-in-vrindavan&docid=_Frg_XO7EMp-1M&w=1200&h=810&hl=en&shem=canimge&source=sh/x/im/can/1&sfr=vfe |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.google.com |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
Sri Sri Kathiababa Ka Sthana is located at Prana Kendra Gurukul Road in Vrindavan, Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Bengal's first Nimbarka Mahant of Nimbarka Sampradaya community, former president of Kumbh Mela, aka Tarakishore Chowdhury/ Sri Sri 108 Swami Santadasji Kathia Baba He went on Braj Parikrama many times with Gurudev and always kept an eye on Gurudev's merits and demerits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/bhilwara/news/bhagwat-katha-and-vishnu-mahayagya-started-in-kathiababa-ashram-shri-ram-darbar-on-may-6-in-ashram-129747451.html|title=महायज्ञ का आयोजन: काठियाबाबा आश्रम में भागवत कथा व विष्णु महायज्ञ शुरू, आश्रम में 6 मई काे श्रीराम दरबार|website=Dainik Bhaskar}}</ref> Sri Tara Kishore Chowdhury planned to build an Ashram for Gurudev on the land that Chinnu Singh had donated to Sri Sri Kathia Babaji Maharaj. With Gurudev's permission, he started building a large ashram. He used to send money from Calcutta and under the supervision of Sri Sri Kathia Babaji Maharaj, “Kathiababa Ka Sthana” was built in Vrindavan. But before the ashram was completed, Sri Sri Kathiya Babaji Maharaj became a Brahmin after celebrating the mortal body. Even after the demise of his Gurudev, Sri Tarakishore continued the work of building the ashram. Rather, he had to borrow about thirty two thousand rupees to complete this work. But by the grace of Sri Sri Gurudev, he repaid that loan within a short time. He completed this ashram in 1901 AD with his own hands. This ashram is a place of prayer for devotees and followers of Nimbarka Sampradaya of Hinduism not only in Vrindavan not only in India but also from all over the world. Since its inception, the ashram has had a positive impact on the worship of the Hindu Vaishnava saints and devotees. This ashram continues to carry the tradition and history of Hinduism till today.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shweta |title=वृन्दावन कुंभ मेला: हरिद्वार महाकुम्भ से पहले वृंदावन में लगेगा "कुम्भ मेला" |url=https://www.religionworld.in/vrindavan-kumbh-mela-kumbh-mela-to-be-held-in-vrindavan-before-haridwar-mahakumbh/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Religion World |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Festival==
[[File:84 Krosh Vajra Parikrama Rashbiharidas Kathiababa- 2016.jpg|thumbnail|84 Krosh Vajra Parikrama 2016 ]]
* 84 Krosh Vajra Parikrama- Entire Vrindavan Pada Vajra was circumambulated by Sri Sri 108 Swami Rasviharidas Kathiababa Maharaj and all Saints-Vaishnavas, devotees of Nimbarka Sampradaya community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kumbh Mela 2021: वृंदावन के यमुनातट पर श्रद्धालुओं को आकर्षित करेगी हठयोगियों की साधना, दिखेगा अनूठा दृश्य... |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/religion/kumbh-mela-2021-date-time-haridwar-news-the-pilgrimage-of-hathayogis-will-attract-devotees-at-yamunaat-of-vrindavan-unique-view-rdy |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref>
* Lord Krishna Janmashtami Tithi, Radha Rani's Janmashtami Tithi, [[Nimbarkacharya|Nimbarka Jayanti]] Mahotsav, [[Ramdas Kathiababa]] Apparition and Tirovavah Mahotsav, Santadasji Kathiya Baba Apparition and Tirovavah Mahotsav, Dhananjaya Das Kathiyababa Apparition and Tirovabha Mahotsav, Current Archayya Sri Sri 108 '''Swami Rasbiharidas Kathiababa'''<nowiki/>'s appearance Mahamahotsav, Chandan Yatra, Rath Yatra Festival, Dola Yatra, Ras Yatra.

==Management==
The ashram is currently managed and directed by Nimbarka Sampradaya community's 57th Acharya Brajvidehi Srimahant Ananta Srivibhushit Sri Sri 108 Swami Rasbiharidas Kathiyababa Maharaj and the ashram has its own management committee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=मथुरा: कठिया बाबा की यात्रा में लोगों ने बिछाए पलक पांवड़े, बैंडबाजों पर झूमे श्रद्धालु |url=https://www.amritvichar.com/article/283369/mathura-people-laid-eyelids-on-kathia-babas-journey-devotees-danced-on-bandwagons |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.amritvichar.com |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Title: Know history of Vrindavan Kumbh, elephants used to be the center of attraction - Vrindavan Kumbh का जानें इतिहास, हाथियों का रेला होता था आकर्षण का केंद्र - News Nation |url=https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://cdn5.newsnationtv.com/images/2021/02/15/vrindavan-kumbh-57.jpg&tbnid=zw3A92uD8WKUGM&vet=1&imgrefurl=https://www.newsnationtv.com/religion/kumbh/know-history-of-vrindavan-kumbh-elephants-used-to-be-the-center-of-attraction-177590.html&docid=g12vnTCdtpirxM&w=1280&h=720&hl=en&shem=canimge&source=sh/x/im/can/1&sfr=vfe |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.google.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newsnationtv.com/religion/kumbh/know-history-of-vrindavan-kumbh-elephants-used-to-be-the-center-of-attraction-177590.html|title= Vrindavan Kumbh का जानें इतिहास, हाथियों का रेला होता था आकर्षण का केंद्र|access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.newsnationtv.com}}</ref>

==Photos==

{{Empty section}}

==See also==
* [[Ramdas Kathiababa]]
* [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]]
* [[Nimbarkacharya]]
* [[Kathia Baba|Kathiababa]]

==External links==

{{Empty section}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Mathura district]]
[[Category:Radha Krishna temples]]
[[Category:20th-century Hindu temples]]

List of datasets in computer vision and image processing

2023-09-16T15:48:54Z

Wikibio: New page content.

{{machine learning bar|Related articles}}
This is a list of datasets for machine learning research. It is part of the [[list of datasets for machine-learning research]]. These datasets consist primarily of images or videos for tasks such as [[object detection]], [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition]], and [[multi-label classification]].

==Object detection and recognition==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" | Dataset Name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|Ego 4D
|A massive-scale, egocentric dataset and benchmark suite collected across 74 worldwide locations and 9 countries, with over 3,670 hours of daily-life activity video.
|Object bounding boxes, transcriptions, labeling.
|3,670 video hours
|video, audio, transcriptions
|Multimodal first-person task
|2022
|<ref name="ego4d">{{cite arXiv|last1=Grauman |first1=Kristen |last2=Westbury |first2=Andrew |last3=Byrne |first3=Eugene |last4=Chavis |first4=Zachary |last5=Furnari |first5=Antonino |last6=Girdhar |first6=Rohit |last7=Hamburger |first7=Jackson |last8=Jiang |first8=Hao |last9=Liu |first9=Miao |last10=Liu |first10=Xingyu |last11=Martin |first11=Miguel |last12=Nagarajan |first12=Tushar |last13=Radosavovic |first13=Ilija |last14=Ramakrishnan |first14=Santhosh Kumar |last15=Ryan |first15=Fiona |last16=Sharma |first16=Jayant |last17=Wray |first17=Michael |last18=Xu |first18=Mengmeng |last19=Xu |first19=Eric Zhongcong |last20=Zhao |first20=Chen |last21=Bansal |first21=Siddhant |last22=Batra |first22=Dhruv |last23=Cartillier |first23=Vincent |last24=Crane |first24=Sean |last25=Do |first25=Tien |last26=Doulaty |first26=Morrie |last27=Erapalli |first27=Akshay |last28=Feichtenhofer |first28=Christoph |last29=Fragomeni |first29=Adriano |last30=Fu |first30=Qichen |last31=Gebreselasie |first31=Abrham |last32=Gonzalez |first32=Cristina |last33=Hillis |first33=James |last34=Huang |first34=Xuhua |last35=Huang |first35=Yifei |last36=Jia |first36=Wenqi |last37=Khoo |first37=Weslie |last38=Kolar |first38=Jachym |last39=Kottur |first39=Satwik |last40=Kumar |first40=Anurag |last41=Landini |first41=Federico |last42=Li |first42=Chao |last43=Li |first43=Yanghao |last44=Li |first44=Zhenqiang |last45=Mangalam |first45=Karttikeya |last46=Modhugu |first46=Raghava |last47=Munro |first47=Jonathan |last48=Murrell |first48=Tullie |last49=Nishiyasu |first49=Takumi |last50=Price |first50=Will |last51=Puentes |first51=Paola Ruiz |last52=Ramazanova |first52=Merey |last53=Sari |first53=Leda |last54=Somasundaram |first54=Kiran |last55=Southerland |first55=Audrey |last56=Sugano |first56=Yusuke |last57=Tao |first57=Ruijie |last58=Vo |first58=Minh |last59=Wang |first59=Yuchen |last60=Wu |first60=Xindi |last61=Yagi |first61=Takuma |last62=Zhao |first62=Ziwei |last63=Zhu |first63=Yunyi |last64=Arbelaez |first64=Pablo |last65=Crandall |first65=David |last66=Damen |first66=Dima |last67=Farinella |first67=Giovanni Maria |last68=Fuegen |first68=Christian |last69=Ghanem |first69=Bernard |last70=Ithapu |first70=Vamsi Krishna |last71=Jawahar |first71=C. V. |last72=Joo |first72=Hanbyul |last73=Kitani |first73=Kris |last74=Li |first74=Haizhou |last75=Newcombe |first75=Richard |last76=Oliva |first76=Aude |last77=Park |first77=Hyun Soo |last78=Rehg |first78=James M. |last79=Sato |first79=Yoichi |last80=Shi |first80=Jianbo |last81=Shou |first81=Mike Zheng |last82=Torralba |first82=Antonio |last83=Torresani |first83=Lorenzo |last84=Yan |first84=Mingfei |last85=Malik |first85=Jitendra |title=Ego4D: Around the World in 3,000 Hours of Egocentric Video |class=cs.CV |eprint=2110.07058}}</ref>
|K. Grauman et al.
|-
|Visual Genome
|Images and their description
|
|108,000
|images, text
|Image captioning
|2016
|<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s11263-016-0981-7|title=Visual Genome: Connecting Language and Vision Using Crowdsourced Dense Image Annotations|journal=International Journal of Computer Vision|volume=123|pages=32–73|year=2017|last1=Krishna|first1=Ranjay|last2=Zhu|first2=Yuke|last3=Groth|first3=Oliver|last4=Johnson|first4=Justin|last5=Hata|first5=Kenji|last6=Kravitz|first6=Joshua|last7=Chen|first7=Stephanie|last8=Kalantidis|first8=Yannis|last9=Li|first9=Li-Jia|last10=Shamma|first10=David A|last11=Bernstein|first11=Michael S|last12=Fei-Fei|first12=Li|arxiv=1602.07332|s2cid=4492210}}</ref>
|R. Krishna et al.
|-
|Berkeley 3-D Object Dataset
|849 images taken in 75 different scenes. About 50 different object classes are labeled.
|Object bounding boxes and labeling.
|849
|labeled images, text
|Object recognition
|2014
|<ref name=":6">Karayev, S., et al. "[http://alliejanoch.com/iccvw2011.pdf A category-level 3-D object dataset: putting the Kinect to work]." ''Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops''. 2011.</ref><ref>Tighe, Joseph, and [[Svetlana Lazebnik]]. "[http://152.2.128.56/~jtighe/Papers/ECCV10/eccv10-jtighe.pdf Superparsing: scalable nonparametric image parsing with superpixels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806022752/http://152.2.128.56/~jtighe/Papers/ECCV10/eccv10-jtighe.pdf }}." ''Computer Vision–ECCV 2010''. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. 352–365.</ref>
|A. Janoch et al.
|-
|Berkeley Segmentation Data Set and Benchmarks 500 (BSDS500)
|500 natural images, explicitly separated into disjoint train, validation and test subsets + benchmarking code. Based on BSDS300.
|Each image segmented by five different subjects on average.
|500
|Segmented images
|Contour detection and hierarchical image segmentation
|2011
|<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Arbelaez|first1=P.|last2=Maire|first2=M|last3=Fowlkes|first3=C|last4=Malik|first4=J|title=Contour Detection and Hierarchical Image Segmentation|journal=IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence |volume=33|issue=5|pages=898–916|url=http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Projects/CS/vision/grouping/papers/amfm_pami2010.pdf|access-date=27 February 2016|doi=10.1109/tpami.2010.161|pmid=20733228|s2cid=206764694}}</ref>
|[[University of California, Berkeley]]
|-
|{{anchor|COCO}}Microsoft Common Objects in Context (COCO)
|complex everyday scenes of common objects in their natural context.
|Object highlighting, labeling, and classification into 91 object types.
|2,500,000
|Labeled images, text
|Object recognition
|2015
|<ref>{{cite arXiv | eprint=1405.0312 | last1=Lin | first1=Tsung-Yi | last2=Maire | first2=Michael | last3=Belongie | first3=Serge | last4=Bourdev | first4=Lubomir | last5=Girshick | first5=Ross | last6=Hays | first6=James | last7=Perona | first7=Pietro | last8=Ramanan | first8=Deva | last9=Lawrence Zitnick | first9=C. | last10=Dollár | first10=Piotr | title=Microsoft COCO: Common Objects in Context | year=2014 | class=cs.CV }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Russakovsky | first1 = Olga | display-authors = et al | year = 2015 | title = Imagenet large scale visual recognition challenge | journal = International Journal of Computer Vision | volume = 115 | issue = 3| pages = 211–252 | doi=10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y| arxiv = 1409.0575 | hdl = 1721.1/104944 | s2cid = 2930547 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cocodataset.org/|title=COCO – Common Objects in Context|website=cocodataset.org}}</ref>
|T. Lin et al.
|-
|SUN Database
|Very large scene and object recognition database.
|Places and objects are labeled. Objects are segmented.
|131,067
|Images, text
|Object recognition, scene recognition
|2014
|<ref>Xiao, Jianxiong, et al. "Sun database: Large-scale scene recognition from abbey to zoo." ''Computer vision and pattern recognition (CVPR), 2010 IEEE conference on''. IEEE, 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1310.1531|last1=Donahue|first1=Jeff|title=DeCAF: A Deep Convolutional Activation Feature for Generic Visual Recognition |last2=Jia|first2=Yangqing|last3=Vinyals|first3=Oriol|last4=Hoffman|first4=Judy|last5=Zhang|first5=Ning|last6=Tzeng|first6=Eric|last7=Darrell|first7=Trevor|class=cs.CV|year=2013}}</ref>
|J. Xiao et al.
|-
|[[ImageNet]]
|Labeled object image database, used in the [[ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge]]
|Labeled objects, bounding boxes, descriptive words, SIFT features
|14,197,122
|Images, text
|Object recognition, scene recognition
|2009 (2014)
|<ref>Deng, Jia, et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Li_Jia_Li/publication/221361415_ImageNet_a_Large-Scale_Hierarchical_Image_Database/links/00b495388120dbc339000000/ImageNet-a-Large-Scale-Hierarchical-Image-Database.pdf Imagenet: A large-scale hierarchical image database]."''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2009. CVPR 2009. IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2009.</ref><ref name=":02"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Russakovsky|first1=Olga|last2=Deng|first2=Jia|last3=Su|first3=Hao|last4=Krause|first4=Jonathan|last5=Satheesh|first5=Sanjeev|last6=Ma|first6=Sean|last7=Huang|first7=Zhiheng|last8=Karpathy|first8=Andrej|last9=Khosla|first9=Aditya|last10=Bernstein|first10=Michael|last11=Berg|first11=Alexander C.|last12=Fei-Fei|first12=Li|display-authors=5|title=ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge|journal=International Journal of Computer Vision|volume=115|issue=3|pages=211–252|doi=10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y|arxiv=1409.0575|hdl=1721.1/104944|s2cid=2930547}}</ref>
|J. Deng et al.
|-
|Open Images
|A Large set of images listed as having CC BY 2.0 license with image-level labels and bounding boxes spanning thousands of classes.
|Image-level labels, Bounding boxes
|9,178,275
|Images, text
|Classification, Object recognition
|2017
(V7 : 2022)
|<ref>Ivan Krasin, Tom Duerig, Neil Alldrin, Andreas Veit, Sami Abu-El-Haija, Serge Belongie, David Cai, Zheyun Feng, Vittorio Ferrari, Victor Gomes, Abhinav Gupta, Dhyanesh Narayanan, Chen Sun, Gal Chechik, Kevin Murphy. "OpenImages: A public dataset for large-scale multi-label and multi-class image classification, 2017. Available from https://github.com/openimages."</ref>
|
|-
|TV News Channel Commercial Detection Dataset
|TV commercials and news broadcasts.
|Audio and video features extracted from still images.
|129,685
|Text
|Clustering, classification
|2015
|<ref>Vyas, Apoorv, et al. "[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2683546 Commercial Block Detection in Broadcast News Videos]." ''Proceedings of the 2014 Indian Conference on Computer Vision Graphics and Image Processing''. ACM, 2014.</ref><ref>Hauptmann, Alexander G., and Michael J. Witbrock. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c21/6db7892fa3f515d816f84893bfab1137f0b2.pdf Story segmentation and detection of commercials in broadcast news video]." ''Research and Technology Advances in Digital Libraries, 1998. ADL 98. Proceedings. IEEE International Forum on''. IEEE, 1998.</ref>
|P. Guha et al.
|-
|Statlog (Image Segmentation) Dataset
|The instances were drawn randomly from a database of 7 outdoor images and hand-segmented to create a classification for every pixel.
|Many features calculated.
|2310
|Text
|Classification
|1990
|<ref>Tung, Anthony KH, Xin Xu, and Beng Chin Ooi. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anthony_Tung/publication/221214229_CURLER_Finding_and_Visualizing_Nonlinear_Correlated_Clusters/links/55b8691a08aed621de05cd92.pdf Curler: finding and visualizing nonlinear correlation clusters]." ''Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data''. ACM, 2005.</ref>
|[[University of Massachusetts]]
|-
|[[Caltech 101]]
|Pictures of objects.
|Detailed object outlines marked.
|9146
|Images
|Classification, object recognition.
|2003
|<ref>Jarrett, Kevin, et al. "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/5459469/ What is the best multi-stage architecture for object recognition?]." ''Computer Vision, 2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on''. IEEE, 2009.</ref><ref>[[Svetlana Lazebnik|Lazebnik, Svetlana]], [[Cordelia Schmid]], and Jean Ponce. "[https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00548585/document Beyond bags of features: Spatial pyramid matching for recognizing natural scene categories]."''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2006 IEEE Computer Society Conference on''. Vol. 2. IEEE, 2006.</ref>
|F. Li et al.
|-
|Caltech-256
|Large dataset of images for object classification.
|Images categorized and hand-sorted.
|30,607
|Images, Text
|Classification, object detection
|2007
|<ref>Griffin, G., A. Holub, and P. Perona. ''Caltech-256 object category dataset California Inst''. Technol., Tech. Rep. 7694, 2007. Available: http://authors.library.caltech.edu/7694, 2007.</ref><ref>Baeza-Yates, Ricardo, and Berthier Ribeiro-Neto. ''Modern information retrieval''. Vol. 463. New York: ACM press, 1999.</ref>
|G. Griffin et al.
|-
|COYO-700M
|Image-Text Pair Dataset
|10 billion pairs of alt-text and image sources in HTML documents in CommonCrawl
|746,972,269
|Images, Text
|Classification, Image-Language
|2022
|<ref>{{Citation |title=🐺 COYO-700M: Image-Text Pair Dataset |url=https://github.com/kakaobrain/coyo-dataset |publisher=Kakao Brain |access-date=2022-11-03}}</ref>
|
|-
|SIFT10M Dataset
|SIFT features of Caltech-256 dataset.
|Extensive SIFT feature extraction.
|11,164,866
|Text
|Classification, object detection
|2016
|<ref>Fu, Xiping, et al. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9da2/abae3072fd9fcff0e13b8f00fc21f22d0085.pdf NOKMeans: Non-Orthogonal K-means Hashing]." ''Computer Vision—ACCV 2014''. Springer International Publishing, 2014. 162–177.</ref>
|X. Fu et al.
|-
|LabelMe
|Annotated pictures of scenes.
|Objects outlined.
|187,240
|Images, text
|Classification, object detection
|2005
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Heitz | first1 = Geremy | display-authors = et al | year = 2009 | title = Shape-based object localization for descriptive classification | journal = International Journal of Computer Vision | volume = 84 | issue = 1| pages = 40–62 | doi=10.1007/s11263-009-0228-y| citeseerx = 10.1.1.142.280 | s2cid = 646320 }}</ref>
|[[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]]
|-
|PASCAL VOC Dataset
|Large number of images for classification tasks.
|Labeling, bounding box included
|500,000
|Images, text
|Classification, object detection
|2010
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Everingham | first1 = Mark | display-authors = et al | year = 2010 | title = The pascal visual object classes (voc) challenge | url = https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-pascal-visual-object-classes-voc-challenge(88a29de3-6220-442b-ab2d-284210cf72d6).html| journal = International Journal of Computer Vision | volume = 88 | issue = 2| pages = 303–338 | doi=10.1007/s11263-009-0275-4| hdl = 20.500.11820/88a29de3-6220-442b-ab2d-284210cf72d6 | s2cid = 4246903 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felzenszwalb | first1 = Pedro F. | display-authors = et al | year = 2010 | title = Object detection with discriminatively trained part-based models | journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence | volume = 32 | issue = 9| pages = 1627–1645 | doi=10.1109/tpami.2009.167| pmid = 20634557 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.153.2745 | s2cid = 3198903 }}</ref>
|M. Everingham et al.
|-
|[[CIFAR-10]] Dataset
|Many small, low-resolution, images of 10 classes of objects.
|Classes labelled, training set splits created.
|60,000
|Images
|Classification
|2009
|<ref name=":02">Krizhevsky, Alex, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E. Hinton. "[http://papers.nips.cc/paper/4824-imagenet-classification-with-deep-convolutional-neural-networks.pdf Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks]." ''Advances in neural information processing systems''. 2012.</ref><ref name=":12">Gong, Yunchao, and [[Svetlana Lazebnik]]. "Iterative quantization: A procrustean approach to learning binary codes." ''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2011 IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2011.</ref>
|[[Alex Krizhevsky|A. Krizhevsky]] et al.
|-
|CIFAR-100 Dataset
|Like CIFAR-10, above, but 100 classes of objects are given.
|Classes labelled, training set splits created.
|60,000
|Images
|Classification
|2009
|<ref name=":02"/><ref name=":12"/>
|A. Krizhevsky et al.
|-
|CINIC-10 Dataset
|A unified contribution of CIFAR-10 and Imagenet with 10 classes, and 3 splits. Larger than CIFAR-10.
|Classes labelled, training, validation, test set splits created.
|270,000
|Images
|Classification
|2018
|<ref>{{cite web|title=CINIC-10 dataset|url=http://www.bayeswatch.com/2018/10/09/CINIC/|website=Luke N. Darlow, Elliot J. Crowley, Antreas Antoniou, Amos J. Storkey (2018) CINIC-10 is not ImageNet or CIFAR-10|access-date=2018-11-13}}</ref>
|Luke N. Darlow, Elliot J. Crowley, Antreas Antoniou, Amos J. Storkey
|-
|Fashion-MNIST
|A MNIST-like fashion product database
|Classes labelled, training set splits created.
|60,000
|Images
|Classification
|2017
|<ref>{{Citation|title=fashion-mnist: A MNIST-like fashion product database. Benchmark :point_right|url=https://github.com/zalandoresearch/fashion-mnist|publisher=Zalando Research|access-date=2017-10-07}}</ref>
|Zalando SE
|-
|notMNIST
|Some publicly available fonts and extracted glyphs from them to make a dataset similar to MNIST. There are 10 classes, with letters A-J taken from different fonts.
|Classes labelled, training set splits created.
|500,000
|Images
|Classification
|2011
|<ref>{{cite web|title=notMNIST dataset|url=http://yaroslavvb.blogspot.com/2011/09/notmnist-dataset.html|website=Machine Learning, etc|access-date=2017-10-13}}</ref>
|Yaroslav Bulatov
|-
|Linnaeus 5 dataset
|Images of 5 classes of objects.
|Classes labelled, training set splits created.
|8000
|Images
|Classification
|2017
|<ref>Chaladze, G., Kalatozishvili, L. (2017). ''Linnaeus 5 dataset''. ''Chaladze.com''. Retrieved 13 November 2017, from http://chaladze.com/l5/</ref>
|Chaladze & Kalatozishvili
|-
|11K Hands
|11,076 hand images (1600 x 1200 pixels) of 190 subjects, of varying ages between 18 – 75 years old, for gender recognition and biometric identification.
|None
|11,076 hand images
|Images and (.mat, .txt, and .csv) label files
|Gender recognition and biometric identification
|2017
|<ref>{{cite arXiv|last=Afifi|first=Mahmoud|title=Gender recognition and biometric identification using a large dataset of hand images|eprint=1711.04322|class=cs.CV}}</ref>
|M Afifi
|-
|CORe50
|Specifically designed for Continuous/Lifelong Learning and Object Recognition, is a collection of more than 500 videos (30fps) of 50 domestic objects belonging to 10 different categories.
|Classes labelled, training set splits created based on a 3-way, multi-runs benchmark.
|164,866 RBG-D images
|images (.png or .pkl)
and (.pkl, .txt, .tsv) label files
|Classification, Object recognition
|2017
|<ref>{{Cite arXiv|last1=Lomonaco|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Maltoni|first2=Davide|title=CORe50: a New Dataset and Benchmark for Continuous Object Recognition|eprint=1705.03550|class=cs.CV}}</ref>
|V. Lomonaco and D. Maltoni
|-
|OpenLORIS-Object
|Lifelong/Continual Robotic Vision dataset (OpenLORIS-Object) collected by real robots mounted with multiple high-resolution sensors, includes a collection of 121 object instances (1st version of dataset, 40 categories daily necessities objects under 20 scenes). The dataset has rigorously considered 4 environment factors under different scenes, including illumination, occlusion, object pixel size and clutter, and defines the difficulty levels of each factor explicitly.
|Classes labelled, training/validation/testing set splits created by benchmark scripts.
|1,106,424 RBG-D images
|images (.png and .pkl)
and (.pkl) label files
|Classification, Lifelong object recognition, Robotic Vision
|2019
|<ref>{{Cite arXiv|last1=She|first1=Qi|last2=Feng|first2=Fan|last3=Hao|first3=Xinyue|last4=Yang|first4=Qihan|last5=Lan|first5=Chuanlin|last6=Lomonaco|first6=Vincenzo|last7=Shi|first7=Xuesong|last8=Wang|first8=Zhengwei|last9=Guo|first9=Yao|last10=Zhang|first10=Yimin|last11=Qiao|first11=Fei|last12=Chan|first12=Rosa H.M.|title=OpenLORIS-Object: A Robotic Vision Dataset and Benchmark for Lifelong Deep Learning|eprint=1911.06487v2|class=cs.CV}}</ref>
|Q. She et al.
|-
|THz and thermal video data set
|This multispectral data set includes terahertz, thermal, visual, near infrared, and three-dimensional videos of objects hidden under people's clothes.
|3D lookup tables are provided that allow you to project images onto 3D point clouds.
|More than 20 videos. The duration of each video is about 85 seconds (about 345 frames).
|AP2J
|Experiments with hidden object detection
|2019
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fullvision.ru/monitoring/description_eng.php|last1=Morozov|first1=Alexei|last2=Sushkova|first2=Olga|title=THz and thermal video data set|publisher=IRE RAS|website=Development of the multi-agent logic programming approach to a human behaviour analysis in a multi-channel video surveillance|access-date=2019-07-19|location=Moscow}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morozov|first1=Alexei|last2=Sushkova|first2=Olga|last3=Kershner|first3=Ivan|last4=Polupanov|first4=Alexander|title=Development of a method of terahertz intelligent video surveillance based on the semantic fusion of terahertz and 3D video images|url=http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2391/paper19.pdf|journal=CEUR|volume=2391|pages=paper19|access-date=2019-07-19}}</ref>
|Alexei A. Morozov and Olga S. Sushkova
|}
===Object detection and recognition for autonomous vehicles===
{{Self-driving car}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" | Dataset Name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|Cityscapes Dataset
|Stereo video sequences recorded in street scenes, with pixel-level annotations. Metadata also included.
|Pixel-level segmentation and labeling
|25,000
|Images, text
|Classification, object detection
|2016
|<ref>M. Cordts, M. Omran, S. Ramos, T. Scharwächter, M. Enzweiler, R. Benenson, U. Franke, S. Roth, and B. Schiele, "[https://www.cityscapes-dataset.com/wordpress/wp-content/papercite-data/pdf/cordts2015cvprw.pdf The Cityscapes Dataset]." In CVPR Workshop on The Future of Datasets in Vision, 2015.</ref>
|[[Daimler AG]] et al.
|-
|German Traffic Sign Detection Benchmark Dataset
|Images from vehicles of traffic signs on German roads. These signs comply with UN standards and therefore are the same as in other countries.
|Signs manually labeled
|900
|Images
|Classification
|2013
|<ref>Houben, Sebastian, et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sebastian_Houben/publication/242346625_Detection_of_Traffic_Signs_in_Real-World_Images_The_German_Traffic_Sign_Detection_Benchmark/links/0046352a03ec384e97000000/Detection-of-Traffic-Signs-in-Real-World-Images-The-German-Traffic-Sign-Detection-Benchmark.pdf Detection of traffic signs in real-world images: The German Traffic Sign Detection Benchmark]." ''Neural Networks (IJCNN), The 2013 International Joint Conference on''. IEEE, 2013.</ref><ref>Mathias, Mayeul, et al. "[http://www.varcity.eu/paper/ijcnn2013_mathias_trafficsign.pdf Traffic sign recognition—How far are we from the solution?]." ''Neural Networks (IJCNN), The 2013 International Joint Conference on''. IEEE, 2013.</ref>
|S Houben et al.
|-
|{{anchor|KITTI}}KITTI Vision Benchmark Dataset
|Autonomous vehicles driving through a mid-size city captured images of various areas using cameras and laser scanners.
|Many benchmarks extracted from data.
|>100 GB of data
|Images, text
|Classification, object detection
|2012
|<ref>Geiger, Andreas, Philip Lenz, and Raquel Urtasun. "[https://www.cvlibs.net/publications/Geiger2012CVPR.pdf Are we ready for autonomous driving? the kitti vision benchmark suite]." ''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2012 IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2012.</ref><ref>Sturm, Jürgen, et al. "[http://jsturm.de/publications/data/sturm12iros.pdf A benchmark for the evaluation of RGB-D SLAM systems]." ''Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on''. IEEE, 2012.</ref><ref>{{YouTube|KXpZ6B1YB_k|The KITTI Vision Benchmark Suite}}</ref>
|A Geiger et al.
|-
|FieldSAFE
|Multi-modal dataset for obstacle detection in agriculture including stereo camera, thermal camera, web camera, 360-degree camera, lidar, radar, and precise localization.
|Classes labelled geographically.
|>400 GB of data
|Images and 3D point clouds
|Classification, object detection, object localization
|2017
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kragh | first1 = Mikkel F. | display-authors = et al | year = 2017 | title = FieldSAFE – Dataset for Obstacle Detection in Agriculture | url = https://vision.eng.au.dk/fieldsafe | journal = Sensors | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 2579| doi = 10.3390/s17112579 | pmid = 29120383 | pmc = 5713196 | bibcode = 2017Senso..17.2579K| arxiv = 1709.03526 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
| M. Kragh et al.
|-
|Daimler Monocular Pedestrian Detection dataset
|It is a dataset of pedestrians in urban environments.
|Pedestrians are box-wise labeled.
|Labeled part contains 15560 samples with pedestrians and 6744 samples without. Test set contains 21790 images without labels.
|Images
|Object recognition and classification
|2006
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Papers with Code - Daimler Monocular Pedestrian Detection Dataset |url=https://paperswithcode.com/dataset/daimler-monocular-pedestrian-detection |website=paperswithcode.com |access-date=5 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Enzweiler |first1=Markus |last2=Gavrila |first2=Dariu M. |title=Monocular Pedestrian Detection: Survey and Experiments |journal=IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2179–2195 |doi=10.1109/TPAMI.2008.260 |pmid=19834140 |s2cid=1192198 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4657363 |issn=1939-3539}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Yin |first1=Guojun |last2=Liu |first2=Bin |last3=Zhu |first3=Huihui |last4=Gong |first4=Tao |last5=Yu |first5=Nenghai |title=A Large Scale Urban Surveillance Video Dataset for Multiple-Object Tracking and Behavior Analysis |class=cs.CV |eprint=1904.11784 }}</ref>
|[[Daimler AG]]
|-
|CamVid
|The Cambridge-driving Labeled Video Database (CamVid) is a collection of videos.
|The dataset is labeled with semantic labels for 32 semantic classes.
|over 700 images
|Images
|Object recognition and classification
|2008
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Object Recognition in Video Dataset |url=https://mi.eng.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/VideoRec/CamVid/ |website=mi.eng.cam.ac.uk |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brostow |first1=Gabriel J. |last2=Shotton |first2=Jamie |last3=Fauqueur |first3=Julien |last4=Cipolla |first4=Roberto |title=Computer Vision – ECCV 2008 |chapter=Segmentation and Recognition Using Structure from Motion Point Clouds |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=5302 |pages=44–57 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-88682-2_5 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-88682-2_5 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-88681-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brostow |first1=Gabriel J. |last2=Fauqueur |first2=Julien |last3=Cipolla |first3=Roberto |title=Semantic object classes in video: A high-definition ground truth database |journal=Pattern Recognition Letters |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=88–97 |doi=10.1016/j.patrec.2008.04.005 |bibcode=2009PaReL..30...88B |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167865508001220 |language=en |issn=0167-8655}}</ref>
|Gabriel J. Brostow, Jamie Shotton, Julien Fauqueur, Roberto Cipolla
|-
|RailSem19
|RailSem19 is a dataset for understanding scenes for vision systems on railways.
|The dataset is labeled semanticly and box-wise.
|8500
|Images
|Object recognition and classification, scene recognition
|2019
|<ref>{{cite web |title=WildDash 2 Benchmark |url=https://wilddash.cc/railsem19 |website=wilddash.cc |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zendel |first1=Oliver |last2=Murschitz |first2=Markus |last3=Zeilinger |first3=Marcel |last4=Steininger |first4=Daniel |last5=Abbasi |first5=Sara |last6=Beleznai |first6=Csaba |title=2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) |chapter=RailSem19: A Dataset for Semantic Rail Scene Understanding |pages=1221–1229 |doi=10.1109/CVPRW.2019.00161 |isbn=978-1-7281-2506-0 |s2cid=198166233 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9025646}}</ref>
|Oliver Zendel, Markus Murschitz, Marcel Zeilinger, Daniel Steininger, Sara Abbasi, Csaba Beleznai
|-
|BOREAS
|BOREAS is a multi-season autonomous driving dataset. It includes data from includes a Velodyne Alpha-Prime (128-beam) lidar, a FLIR Blackfly S camera, a Navtech CIR304-H radar, and an Applanix POS LV GNSS-INS.
|The data is annotated by 3D bounding boxes.
|350 km of driving data
|Images, Lidar and Radar data
|Object recognition and classification, scene recognition
|2023
|<ref>{{cite web |title=The Boreas Dataset |url=https://www.boreas.utias.utoronto.ca/#/ |website=www.boreas.utias.utoronto.ca |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Burnett |first1=Keenan |last2=Yoon |first2=David J. |last3=Wu |first3=Yuchen |last4=Li |first4=Andrew Zou |last5=Zhang |first5=Haowei |last6=Lu |first6=Shichen |last7=Qian |first7=Jingxing |last8=Tseng |first8=Wei-Kang |last9=Lambert |first9=Andrew |last10=Leung |first10=Keith Y. K. |last11=Schoellig |first11=Angela P.|author11-link=Angela Schoellig |last12=Barfoot |first12=Timothy D. |title=Boreas: A Multi-Season Autonomous Driving Dataset |class=cs.RO |eprint=2203.10168 }}</ref>
|Keenan Burnett, David J. Yoon, Yuchen Wu, Andrew Zou Li, Haowei Zhang, Shichen Lu, Jingxing Qian, Wei-Kang Tseng, Andrew Lambert, Keith Y.K. Leung, [[Angela Schoellig|Angela P. Schoellig]], Timothy D. Barfoot
|-
|Bosch Small Traffic Lights Dataset
|It is a dataset of traffic lights.
|The labeling include bounding boxes of traffic lights together with their state (active light).
|5000 images for training and a video sequence of 8334 frames for evaluation
|Images
|Traffic light recognition
|2017
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Bosch Small Traffic Lights Dataset |url=https://hci.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de/content/bosch-small-traffic-lights-dataset |website=hci.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de |access-date=5 May 2023 |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Behrendt |first1=Karsten |last2=Novak |first2=Libor |last3=Botros |first3=Rami |title=2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) |chapter=A deep learning approach to traffic lights: Detection, tracking, and classification |pages=1370–1377 |doi=10.1109/ICRA.2017.7989163 |isbn=978-1-5090-4633-1 |s2cid=6257133 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7989163}}</ref>
|Karsten Behrendt, Libor Novak, Rami Botros
|-
|FRSign
|It is a dataset of French railway signals.
|The labeling include bounding boxes of railway signals together with their state (active light).
|more than 100000
|Images
|Railway signal recognition
|2020
|<ref>{{cite web |title=FRSign Dataset |url=https://frsign.irt-systemx.fr/ |website=frsign.irt-systemx.fr |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Harb |first1=Jeanine |last2=Rébéna |first2=Nicolas |last3=Chosidow |first3=Raphaël |last4=Roblin |first4=Grégoire |last5=Potarusov |first5=Roman |last6=Hajri |first6=Hatem |title=FRSign: A Large-Scale Traffic Light Dataset for Autonomous Trains |class=cs.CY |eprint=2002.05665 }}</ref>
|Jeanine Harb, Nicolas Rébéna, Raphaël Chosidow, Grégoire Roblin, Roman Potarusov, Hatem Hajri
|-
|{{anchor|GERALD}}GERALD
|It is a dataset of German railway signals.
|The labeling include bounding boxes of railway signals together with their state (active light).
|5000
|Images
|Railway signal recognition
|2023
|<ref>{{cite web |title=ifs-rwth-aachen/GERALD |url=https://github.com/ifs-rwth-aachen/GERALD |publisher=Chair and Institute for Rail Vehicles and Transport Systems |access-date=5 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leibner |first1=Philipp |last2=Hampel |first2=Fabian |last3=Schindler |first3=Christian |title=GERALD: A novel dataset for the detection of German mainline railway signals |journal=Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit |pages=095440972311664 |doi=10.1177/09544097231166472 |s2cid=257939937 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/09544097231166472 |language=en |issn=0954-4097}}</ref>
|Philipp Leibner, Fabian Hampel, Christian Schindler
|-
|Multi-cue pedestrian
|Multi-cue onboard pedestrian detection dataset is a dataset for detection of pedestrians.
|The databaset is labeled box-wise.
|1092 image pairs with 1776 boxes for pedestrians
|Images
|Object recognition and classification
|2009
|<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wojek |first1=Christian |last2=Walk |first2=Stefan |last3=Schiele |first3=Bernt |title=2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition |chapter=Multi-cue onboard pedestrian detection |pages=794–801 |doi=10.1109/CVPR.2009.5206638 |isbn=978-1-4244-3992-8 |s2cid=18000078 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5206638}}</ref>
|Christian Wojek, Stefan Walk, Bernt Schiele
|-
|RAWPED
|RAWPED is a dataset for detection of pedestrians in the context of railways.
|The dataset is labeled box-wise.
|26000
|Images
|Object recognition and classification
|2020
|<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toprak |first1=Tuğçe |last2=Aydın |first2=Burak |last3=Belenlioğlu |first3=Burak |last4=Güzeliş |first4=Cüneyt |last5=Selver |first5=M. Alper |title=Railway Pedestrian Dataset (RAWPED) |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3741742 |access-date=5 May 2023 |doi=10.1109/TVT.2020.2983825 |s2cid=216510283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Toprak |first1=Tugce |last2=Belenlioglu |first2=Burak |last3=Aydın |first3=Burak |last4=Guzelis |first4=Cuneyt |last5=Selver |first5=M. Alper |title=Conditional Weighted Ensemble of Transferred Models for Camera Based Onboard Pedestrian Detection in Railway Driver Support Systems |journal=IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=5041–5054 |doi=10.1109/TVT.2020.2983825 |s2cid=216510283 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9050835 |issn=1939-9359}}</ref>
|Tugce Toprak, Burak Belenlioglu, Burak Aydın, Cuneyt Guzelis, M. Alper Selver
|-
|OSDaR23
|OSDaR23 is a multi-sensory dataset for detection of objects in the context of railways.
|The databaset is labeled box-wise.
|16874 frames
|Images, Lidar, Radar and Infrared
|Object recognition and classification
|2023
|<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tilly |first1=Roman |last2=Neumaier |first2=Philipp |last3=Schwalbe |first3=Karsten |last4=Klasek |first4=Pavel |last5=Tagiew |first5=Rustam |last6=Denzler |first6=Patrick |last7=Klockau |first7=Tobias |last8=Boekhoff |first8=Martin |last9=Köppel |first9=Martin |title=Open Sensor Data for Rail 2023 |doi=10.57806/9mv146r0 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Tagiew |first1=Rustam |last2=Köppel |first2=Martin |last3=Schwalbe |first3=Karsten |last4=Denzler |first4=Patrick |last5=Neumaier |first5=Philipp |last6=Klockau |first6=Tobias |last7=Boekhoff |first7=Martin |last8=Klasek |first8=Pavel |last9=Tilly |first9=Roman |title=OSDaR23: Open Sensor Data for Rail 2023 |class=cs.CV |eprint=2305.03001 }}</ref>
|[[DZSF]], Digitale Schiene Deutschland and FusionSystems
|-
|Agroverse
|Argoverse is a multi-sensory dataset for detection of objects in the context of roads.
|The dataset is annotated box-wise.
|320 hours of recording
|Data from 7 cameras and LiDAR
|Object recognition and classification, object tracking
|2022
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.argoverse.org/ |website=Argoverse |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Chang |first1=Ming-Fang |last2=Lambert |first2=John |last3=Sangkloy |first3=Patsorn |last4=Singh |first4=Jagjeet |last5=Bak |first5=Slawomir |last6=Hartnett |first6=Andrew |last7=Wang |first7=De |last8=Carr |first8=Peter |last9=Lucey |first9=Simon |last10=Ramanan |first10=Deva |last11=Hays |first11=James |title=Argoverse: 3D Tracking and Forecasting with Rich Maps |class=cs.CV |eprint=1911.02620 }}</ref>
|Argo AI, [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [[Georgia Institute of Technology]]
|}

==Facial recognition==
In [[computer vision]], face images have been used extensively to develop [[facial recognition system]]s, [[face detection]], and many other projects that use images of faces.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Dataset name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|Aff-Wild
|298 videos of 200 individuals, ~1,250,000 manually annotated images: annotated in terms of dimensional affect (valence-arousal); in-the-wild setting; color database; various resolutions (average = 640x360)
|the detected faces, facial landmarks and valence-arousal annotations
|~1,250,000 manually annotated images
|video (visual + audio [[modality (human-computer interaction)|modalities]])
|affect recognition (valence-arousal estimation)
|2017
|CVPR<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Zafeiriou|first1=S.|last2=Kollias|first2=D.|last3=Nicolaou|first3=M.A.|last4=Papaioannou|first4=A.|last5=Zhao|first5=G.|last6=Kotsia|first6=I.|title=2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) |chapter=Aff-Wild: Valence and Arousal 'In-the-Wild' Challenge |chapter-url=https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/22045/1/aff_wild_kotsia.pdf|pages=1980–1987|doi=10.1109/CVPRW.2017.248|isbn=978-1-5386-0733-6|s2cid=3107614}}</ref>
IJCV<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kollias|first1=D.|last2=Tzirakis|first2=P.|last3=Nicolaou|first3=M.A.|last4=Papaioannou|first4=A.|last5=Zhao|first5=G.|last6=Schuller|first6=B.|last7=Kotsia|first7=I.|last8=Zafeiriou|first8=S.|title=Deep Affect Prediction in-the-wild: Aff-Wild Database and Challenge, Deep Architectures, and Beyond|url=https://rdcu.be/bmGm2|journal=International Journal of Computer Vision |volume=127|issue=6–7|pages=907–929|doi=10.1007/s11263-019-01158-4|s2cid=13679040}}</ref>
|D.Kollias et al.
|-
|Aff-Wild2
|558 videos of 458 individuals, ~2,800,000 manually annotated images: annotated in terms of i) categorical affect (7 basic expressions: neutral, happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger); ii) dimensional affect (valence-arousal); iii) action units (AUs 1,2,4,6,12,15,20,25); in-the-wild setting; color database; various resolutions (average = 1030x630)
|the detected faces, detected and aligned faces and annotations
|~2,800,000 manually annotated images
|video (visual + audio modalities)
|affect recognition (valence-arousal estimation, basic expression classification, action unit detection)
|2019
|BMVC<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kollias|first1=D.|last2=Zafeiriou|first2=S.|title=Expression, affect, action unit recognition: Aff-wild2, multi-task learning and arcface|url=https://bmvc2019.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/0399-paper.pdf|journal=British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC), 2019|arxiv=1910.04855}}</ref>
FG<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kollias|first1=D.|last2=Schulc|first2=A.|last3=Hajiyev|first3=E.|last4=Zafeiriou|first4=S.|title=2020 15th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (FG 2020) |chapter=Analysing Affective Behavior in the First ABAW 2020 Competition |chapter-url=https://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings-article/fg/2020/307900a794/1kecIYu9wL6|pages=637–643|doi=10.1109/FG47880.2020.00126|arxiv=2001.11409|isbn=978-1-7281-3079-8|s2cid=210966051}}</ref>
|D.Kollias et al.
|-
|[[FERET (facial recognition technology)]]
|11338 images of 1199 individuals in different positions and at different times.
|None.
|11,338
|Images
|Classification, face recognition
|2003
|<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | last1 = Phillips | first1 = P. Jonathon | display-authors = et al | year = 1998 | title = The FERET database and evaluation procedure for face-recognition algorithms | journal = Image and Vision Computing | volume = 16 | issue = 5| pages = 295–306 | doi=10.1016/s0262-8856(97)00070-x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wiskott | first1 = Laurenz | display-authors = et al | year = 1997 | title = Face recognition by elastic bunch graph matching | journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence | volume = 19 | issue = 7| pages = 775–779 | doi=10.1109/34.598235| citeseerx = 10.1.1.44.2321 | s2cid = 30523165 }}</ref>
|[[United States Department of Defense]]
|-
|Ryerson Audio-Visual Database of Emotional Speech and Song (RAVDESS)
|7,356 video and audio recordings of 24 professional actors. 8 emotions each at two intensities.
|Files labelled with expression. Perceptual validation ratings provided by 319 raters.
|7,356
|Video, sound files
|Classification, face recognition, voice recognition
|2018
|<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0196391| pmid=29768426| pmc=5955500| title=The Ryerson Audio-Visual Database of Emotional Speech and Song (RAVDESS): A dynamic, multimodal set of facial and vocal expressions in North American English| journal=PLOS ONE| volume=13| issue=5| pages=e0196391| year=2018| last1=Livingstone| first1=Steven R.| last2=Russo| first2=Frank A.| bibcode=2018PLoSO..1396391L| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.5281/zenodo.1188976| year=2018| last1=Livingstone| first1=Steven R.| title=The Ryerson Audio-Visual Database of Emotional Speech and Song (RAVDESS)| last2=Russo| first2=Frank A.| chapter=Emotion}}</ref>
|S.R. Livingstone and F.A. Russo
|-
|SCFace
|Color images of faces at various angles.
|Location of facial features extracted. Coordinates of features given.
|4,160
|Images, text
|[[Statistical classification|Classification]], face recognition
|2011
|<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last1 = Grgic | first1 = Mislav | last2 = Delac | first2 = Kresimir | last3 = Grgic | first3 = Sonja | year = 2011 | title = SCface–surveillance cameras face database | journal = Multimedia Tools and Applications | volume = 51 | issue = 3| pages = 863–879 | doi = 10.1007/s11042-009-0417-2 | s2cid = 207218990 }}</ref><ref>Wallace, Roy, et al. "[https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/94489/94489.pdf Inter-session variability modelling and joint factor analysis for face authentication]." ''Biometrics (IJCB), 2011 International Joint Conference on''. IEEE, 2011.</ref>
|M. Grgic et al.
|-
|Yale Face Database
|Faces of 15 individuals in 11 different expressions.
|Labels of expressions.
|165
|Images
|Face recognition
|1997
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Georghiades | first1 = A | title = Yale face database | journal = Center For Computational Vision And Control At Yale University| url=http://CVC.yale.edu/Projects/Yalefaces/Yalefa | volume = 2 | page = 1997 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nguyen | first1 = Duy | display-authors = et al | year = 2006 | title = Real-time face detection and lip feature extraction using field-programmable gate arrays | journal = IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part B: Cybernetics| volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 902–912 | doi=10.1109/tsmcb.2005.862728| pmid = 16903373 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.156.9848 | s2cid = 7334355 }}</ref>
|J. Yang et al.
|-
|Cohn-Kanade AU-Coded Expression Database
|Large database of images with labels for expressions.
|Tracking of certain facial features.
|500+ sequences
|Images, text
|Facial expression analysis
|2000
|<ref>Kanade, Takeo, Jeffrey F. Cohn, and Yingli Tian. "[http://www.ri.cmu.edu/pub_files/pub2/kanade_takeo_2000_1/kanade_takeo_2000_1.pdf Comprehensive database for facial expression analysis]." ''Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2000. Proceedings. Fourth IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 2000.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zeng | first1 = Zhihong | display-authors = et al | year = 2009 | title = A survey of affect recognition methods: Audio, visual, and spontaneous expressions | journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 39–58 | doi=10.1109/tpami.2008.52| pmid = 19029545 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.144.217 }}</ref>
|T. Kanade et al.
|-
|-
|JAFFE Facial Expression Database
|213 images of 7 facial expressions (6 basic facial expressions + 1 neutral) posed by 10 Japanese female models.
|Images are cropped to the facial region. Includes semantic ratings data on emotion labels.
|213
|Images, text
|Facial expression cognition
|1998
|<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.5281/zenodo.3451524| year=1998| last1=Lyons| first1=Michael| title=The Japanese Female Facial Expression (JAFFE) Database| last2=Kamachi| first2=Miyuki| last3=Gyoba| first3=Jiro| chapter=Facial expression images}}</ref><ref>Lyons, Michael; Akamatsu, Shigeru; Kamachi, Miyuki; Gyoba, Jiro "[https://zenodo.org/record/3430156 Coding facial expressions with Gabor wavelets]." ''Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 1998. Proceedings. Third IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 1998.</ref>
|Lyons, Kamachi, Gyoba
|-
|FaceScrub
|Images of public figures scrubbed from image searching.
|Name and m/f annotation.
|107,818
|Images, text
|Face recognition
|2014
|<ref>Ng, Hong-Wei, and Stefan Winkler. "[http://vintage.winklerbros.net/Publications/icip2014a.pdf A data-driven approach to cleaning large face datasets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206175300/http://vintage.winklerbros.net/Publications/icip2014a.pdf }}." ''Image Processing (ICIP), 2014 IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1506.01342|last1=RoyChowdhury|first1=Aruni|title=One-to-many face recognition with bilinear CNNs|last2=Lin|first2=Tsung-Yu|last3=Maji|first3=Subhransu|last4=Learned-Miller|first4=Erik|class=cs.CV|year=2015}}</ref>
|H. Ng et al.
|-
|BioID Face Database
|Images of faces with eye positions marked.
|Manually set eye positions.
|1521
|Images, text
|Face recognition
|2001
|<ref>Jesorsky, Oliver, Klaus J. Kirchberg, and Robert W. Frischholz. "Robust face detection using the hausdorff distance." ''Audio-and video-based biometric person authentication''. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2001.</ref><ref>Huang, Gary B., et al. ''[https://hal.inria.fr/docs/00/32/19/23/PDF/Huang_long_eccv2008-lfw.pdf Labeled faces in the wild: A database for studying face recognition in unconstrained environments]''. Vol. 1. No. 2. Technical Report 07-49, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2007.</ref>
|BioID
|-
|Skin Segmentation Dataset
|Randomly sampled color values from face images.
|B, G, R, values extracted.
|245,057
|Text
|Segmentation, classification
|2012
|<ref>Bhatt, Rajen B., et al. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.708.9158&rep=rep1&type=pdf Efficient skin region segmentation using low complexity fuzzy decision tree model]." ''India Conference (INDICON), 2009 Annual IEEE''. IEEE, 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lingala | first1 = Mounika | display-authors = et al | year = 2014 | title = Fuzzy logic color detection: Blue areas in melanoma dermoscopy images | journal = Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics | volume = 38 | issue = 5| pages = 403–410 | doi=10.1016/j.compmedimag.2014.03.007| pmid = 24786720 | pmc = 4287461 }}</ref>
|R. Bhatt.
|-
|Bosphorus
|3D Face image database.
|34 action units and 6 expressions labeled; 24 facial landmarks labeled.
|4652
|
Images, text

|Face recognition, classification
|2008
|<ref>Maes, Chris, et al. "[https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/135678 Feature detection on 3D face surfaces for pose normalisation and recognition]." ''Biometrics: Theory Applications and Systems (BTAS), 2010 Fourth IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 2010.</ref><ref>Savran, Arman, et al. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190222192331/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4254/fbba3846008f50671edc9cf70b99d7304543.pdf Bosphorus database for 3D face analysis]." ''Biometrics and Identity Management''. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008. 47–56.</ref>
|A Savran et al.
|-
|UOY 3D-Face
|neutral face, 5 expressions: anger, happiness, sadness, eyes closed, eyebrows raised.
|labeling.
|5250
|
Images, text

|Face recognition, classification
|2004
|<ref>Heseltine, Thomas, Nick Pears, and Jim Austin. "[http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/1526/01/austinj4.pdf Three-dimensional face recognition: An eigensurface approach]." ''Image Processing, 2004. ICIP'04. 2004 International Conference on''. Vol. 2. IEEE, 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ge | first1 = Yun | display-authors = et al | year = 2011 | title = 3D Novel Face Sample Modeling for Face Recognition | journal = Journal of Multimedia | volume = 6 | issue = 5| pages = 467–475 | doi=10.4304/jmm.6.5.467-475| citeseerx = 10.1.1.461.9710 }}</ref>
|[[University of York]]
|-
|CASIA 3D Face Database
|Expressions: Anger, smile, laugh, surprise, closed eyes.
|None.
|4624
|
Images, text

|Face recognition, classification
|2007
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = Yueming | last2 = Liu | first2 = Jianzhuang | last3 = Tang | first3 = Xiaoou | year = 2010 | title = Robust 3D face recognition by local shape difference boosting | journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence | volume = 32 | issue = 10| pages = 1858–1870 | doi=10.1109/tpami.2009.200| pmid = 20724762 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.471.2424 | s2cid = 15263913 }}</ref><ref>Zhong, Cheng, Zhenan Sun, and Tieniu Tan. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.580.8534&rep=rep1&type=pdf Robust 3D face recognition using learned visual codebook]." ''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2007. CVPR'07. IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2007.</ref>
|[[Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences]]
|-
|CASIA NIR
|Expressions: Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise
|None.
|480
|Annotated Visible Spectrum and Near Infrared Video captures at 25 frames per second
|Face recognition, classification
|2011
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zhao | first1 = G. | last2 = Huang | first2 = X. | last3 = Taini | first3 = M. | last4 = Li | first4 = S. Z. | last5 = Pietikäinen | first5 = M. | year = 2011 | title = Facial expression recognition from near-infrared videos | url = http://www.academia.edu/download/42229488/Image_and_Vision_Computing20160206-29020-1auzaon.pdf | journal = Image and Vision Computing | volume = 29 | issue = 9| pages = 607–619 | doi = 10.1016/j.imavis.2011.07.002 }}{{dead link|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|Zhao, G. et al.
|-
|BU-3DFE
|neutral face, and 6 expressions: anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear (4 levels). 3D images extracted.
|None.
|2500
|Images, text
|Facial expression recognition, classification
|2006
|<ref>Soyel, Hamit, and Hasan Demirel. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/cf81/4b618fcbc9a556cdce225e74a8806867ba84.pdf Facial expression recognition using 3D facial feature distances]." ''Image Analysis and Recognition''. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007. 831–838.</ref>
|[[Binghamton University]]
|-
|[[Face Recognition Grand Challenge]] Dataset
|Up to 22 samples for each subject. Expressions: anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, puffy. 3D Data.
|None.
|4007
|Images, text
|Face recognition, classification
|2004
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bowyer | first1 = Kevin W. | last2 = Chang | first2 = Kyong | last3 = Flynn | first3 = Patrick | year = 2006 | title = A survey of approaches and challenges in 3D and multi-modal 3D+ 2D face recognition | journal = Computer Vision and Image Understanding | volume = 101 | issue = 1| pages = 1–15 | doi=10.1016/j.cviu.2005.05.005| citeseerx = 10.1.1.134.8784 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tan | first1 = Xiaoyang | last2 = Triggs | first2 = Bill | year = 2010 | title = Enhanced local texture feature sets for face recognition under difficult lighting conditions | journal = IEEE Transactions on Image Processing| volume = 19 | issue = 6| pages = 1635–1650 | doi=10.1109/tip.2010.2042645| pmid = 20172829 | bibcode = 2010ITIP...19.1635T | citeseerx = 10.1.1.105.3355 | s2cid = 4943234 }}</ref>
|[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]
|-
|Gavabdb
|Up to 61 samples for each subject. Expressions neutral face, smile, frontal accentuated laugh, frontal random gesture. 3D images.
|None.
|549
|Images, text
|Face recognition, classification
|2008
|<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4529822 | doi=10.1109/ICIS.2008.77 | chapter=Three Dimensional Face Recognition Using SVM Classifier | title=Seventh IEEE/ACIS International Conference on Computer and Information Science (Icis 2008) | year=2008 | last1=Mousavi | first1=Mir Hashem | last2=Faez | first2=Karim | last3=Asghari | first3=Amin | pages=208–213 | isbn=978-0-7695-3131-1 | s2cid=2710422 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4244-2154-1 |doi=10.1109/AFGR.2008.4813376 |chapter-url=https://gravis.dmi.unibas.ch/publications/2008/FG08_Amberg.pdf |url-status=dead |chapter=Expression invariant 3D face recognition with a Morphable Model |title=2008 8th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face & Gesture Recognition |last1=Amberg |first1=Brian |last2=Knothe |first2=Reinhard |last3=Vetter |first3=Thomas |pages=1–6 |s2cid=5651453 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-date=28 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728233944/http://gravis.dmi.unibas.ch/publications/2008/FG08_Amberg.pdf }}</ref>
|[[King Juan Carlos University]]
|-
|3D-RMA
|Up to 100 subjects, expressions mostly neutral. Several poses as well.
|None.
|9971
|Images, text
|Face recognition, classification
|2004
|<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4090704 |doi= 10.1109/ICPR.2004.1333734|chapter= 3D shape-based face recognition using automatically registered facial surfaces|title= Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, 2004. ICPR 2004|year= 2004|last1= Irfanoglu|first1= M.O.|last2= Gokberk|first2= B.|last3= Akarun|first3= L.|pages= 183–186 Vol.4|isbn= 0-7695-2128-2|s2cid= 10987293}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Beumier | first1 = Charles | last2 = Acheroy | first2 = Marc | year = 2001 | title = Face verification from 3D and grey level clues | journal = Pattern Recognition Letters | volume = 22 | issue = 12| pages = 1321–1329 | doi=10.1016/s0167-8655(01)00077-0| bibcode = 2001PaReL..22.1321B }}</ref>
|[[Royal Military Academy (Belgium)]]
|-
|SoF
|112 persons (66 males and 46 females) wear glasses under different illumination conditions.
|A set of synthetic filters (blur, occlusions, noise, and posterization ) with different level of difficulty.
|42,592 (2,662 original image × 16 synthetic image)
|Images, Mat file
|Gender classification, face detection, face recognition, age estimation, and glasses detection
|2017
|<ref>{{cite arXiv|last1=Afifi|first1=Mahmoud|last2=Abdelhamed|first2=Abdelrahman|title=AFIF4: Deep Gender Classification based on AdaBoost-based Fusion of Isolated Facial Features and Foggy Faces|eprint=1706.04277|class=cs.CV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/view/sof-dataset|title=SoF dataset|website=sites.google.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref>
|Afifi, M. et al.
|-
|IMDb-WIKI
|IMDb and Wikipedia face images with gender and age labels.
| None
| 523,051
|Images
|Gender classification, face detection, face recognition, age estimation
|2015
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.vision.ee.ethz.ch/cvl/rrothe/imdb-wiki/|title=IMDb-WIKI|website=data.vision.ee.ethz.ch|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref>
|R. Rothe, R. Timofte, L. V. Gool
|}

==Action recognition==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Dataset name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|TV Human Interaction Dataset
|Videos from 20 different TV shows for prediction social actions: handshake, high five, hug, kiss and none.
|None.
|6,766 video clips
|video clips
|Action prediction
|2013
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Patron-Perez | first1 = A. | last2 = Marszalek | first2 = M. | last3 = Reid | first3 = I. | last4 = Zisserman | first4 = A. | year = 2012 | title = Structured learning of human interactions in TV shows | journal = IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence | volume = 34 | issue = 12| pages = 2441–2453 | doi=10.1109/tpami.2012.24| pmid = 23079467 | s2cid = 6060568 }}</ref>
|Patron-Perez, A. et al.
|-
|Berkeley Multimodal Human Action Database (MHAD)
|Recordings of a single person performing 12 actions
|MoCap pre-processing
|660 action samples
|8 PhaseSpace Motion Capture, 2 Stereo Cameras, 4 Quad Cameras, 6 accelerometers, 4 microphones
|Action classification
|2013
|<ref>Ofli, F., Chaudhry, R., Kurillo, G., Vidal, R., & Bajcsy, R. (January 2013). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.432.5113&rep=rep1&type=pdf Berkeley MHAD: A comprehensive multimodal human action database]. In Applications of Computer Vision (WACV), 2013 IEEE Workshop on (pp. 53–60). IEEE.</ref>
|Ofli, F. et al.
|-
|THUMOS Dataset
|Large video dataset for action classification.
|Actions classified and labeled.
|45M frames of video
|Video, images, text
|Classification, action detection
|2013
|<ref>Jiang, Y. G., et al. "THUMOS challenge: Action recognition with a large number of classes." ''ICCV Workshop on Action Recognition with a Large Number of Classes'', http://crcv.ucf.edu/ICCV13-Action-Workshop. 2013.</ref><ref>Simonyan, Karen, and Andrew Zisserman. "[https://papers.nips.cc/paper/5353-two-stream-convolutional-networks-for-action-recognition-in-videos.pdf Two-stream convolutional networks for action recognition in videos]." ''Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems''. 2014.</ref>
|Y. Jiang et al.
|-
|MEXAction2
|Video dataset for action localization and spotting
|Actions classified and labeled.
|1000
|Video
|Action detection
|2014
|<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1109/TCSVT.2015.2475835|title=Fast Action Localization in Large-Scale Video Archives|journal=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology|volume=26|issue=10|pages=1917–1930|year=2016|last1=Stoian|first1=Andrei|last2=Ferecatu|first2=Marin|last3=Benois-Pineau|first3=Jenny|last4=Crucianu|first4=Michel|s2cid=31537462}}</ref>
|Stoian et al.
|}

==Handwriting and character recognition==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
!Dataset name
!Brief description
!Preprocessing
!Instances
!Format
!Default Task
!Created (updated)
!Reference
!Creator
|-
|Artificial Characters Dataset
|Artificially generated data describing the structure of 10 capital English letters.
|Coordinates of lines drawn given as integers. Various other features.
|6000
|Text
|[[Handwriting recognition]], classification
|1992
|<ref>Botta, M., A. Giordana, and L. Saitta. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9f0e/1349d1422f1b455b8ccc26ebf7b114b8db20.pdf Learning fuzzy concept definitions]." ''Fuzzy Systems, 1993., Second IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 1993.</ref>
|H. Guvenir et al.
|-
|Letter Dataset
|Upper-case printed letters.
|17 features are extracted from all images.
|20,000
|Text
|OCR, classification
|1991
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frey | first1 = Peter W. | last2 = Slate | first2 = David J. | year = 1991 | title = Letter recognition using Holland-style adaptive classifiers | journal = Machine Learning | volume = 6 | issue = 2| pages = 161–182 | doi=10.1007/bf00114162| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Peltonen | first1 = Jaakko | last2 = Klami | first2 = Arto | last3 = Kaski | first3 = Samuel | year = 2004 | title = Improved learning of Riemannian metrics for exploratory analysis | journal = Neural Networks | volume = 17 | issue = 8| pages = 1087–1100 | doi=10.1016/j.neunet.2004.06.008| pmid = 15555853 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.59.4865 }}</ref>
|D. Slate et al.
|-
|CASIA-HWDB
|Offline handwritten [[Chinese characters|Chinese character]] database. 3755 classes in the [[GB 2312]] character set.
|Gray-scaled images with background pixels labeled as 255.
|1,172,907
|Images, Text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2009
|<ref name="casia13">{{cite journal |title=Online and offline handwritten Chinese character recognition: Benchmarking on new databases |journal=Pattern Recognition |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=155–162 |first1=Cheng-Lin |last1=Liu |first2=Fei |last2=Yin |first3=Da-Han |last3=Wang |first4=Qiu-Feng |last4=Wang |doi=10.1016/j.patcog.2012.06.021 |bibcode=2013PatRe..46..155L }}</ref>
|[[Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences|CASIA]]
|-
|CASIA-OLHWDB
|Online handwritten Chinese character database, collected using Anoto pen on paper. 3755 classes in the [[GB 2312]] character set.
|Provides the sequences of coordinates of strokes.
|1,174,364
|Images, Text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2009
|<ref name="OLHWDB1">{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=D. |first2=C. |last2=Liu |first3=J. |last3=Yu |first4=X. |last4=Zhou |title=2009 10th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition |chapter=CASIA-OLHWDB1: A Database of Online Handwritten Chinese Characters |year=2009 |pages=1206–1210|doi=10.1109/ICDAR.2009.163 |isbn=978-1-4244-4500-4 |s2cid=5705532 }}</ref><ref name="casia13"/>
|CASIA
|-
|Character Trajectories Dataset
|Labeled samples of pen tip trajectories for people writing simple characters.
|3-dimensional pen tip velocity trajectory matrix for each sample
|2858
|Text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2008
|<ref>Williams, Ben H., Marc Toussaint, and Amos J. Storkey. ''[https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/3221/BH%20Williams%20PhD%20thesis%2009.pdf?sequence=1 Extracting motion primitives from natural handwriting data]''. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006.</ref><ref>Meier, Franziska, et al. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.395.8598&rep=rep1&type=pdf Movement segmentation using a primitive library]."''Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), 2011 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on''. IEEE, 2011.</ref>
|B. Williams
|-
|Chars74K Dataset
|Character recognition in natural images of symbols used in both English and [[Kannada alphabet|Kannada]]
|
|74,107
|
|Character recognition, handwriting recognition, OCR, classification
|2009
|<ref>T. E. de Campos, B. R. Babu and M. Varma. [http://personal.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/T.Decampos/papers/decampos_etal_visapp2009.pdf Character recognition in natural images]. In ''Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications (VISAPP), Lisbon, Portugal'', February 2009</ref>
|T. de Campos
|-
|EMNIST dataset
|Handwritten characters from 3600 contributors
|Derived from NIST Special Database 19. Converted to 28x28 pixel images, matching the MNIST dataset.<ref>{{Cite arXiv|eprint = 1702.05373v1|last1 = Cohen|first1 = Gregory|last2 = Afshar|first2 = Saeed|last3 = Tapson|first3 = Jonathan|author4 = André van Schaik|title = EMNIST: An extension of MNIST to handwritten letters|year = 2017| class=cs.CV }}</ref>
|800,000
|Images
|character recognition, classification, handwriting recognition
|2016
|EMNIST dataset<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.nist.gov/itl/products-and-services/emnist-dataset|title = The EMNIST Dataset| journal=NIST |date = 4 April 2017}}</ref>

Documentation<ref>{{cite arXiv | eprint=1702.05373 | last1=Cohen | first1=Gregory | last2=Afshar | first2=Saeed | last3=Tapson | first3=Jonathan | author4=André van Schaik | title=EMNIST: An extension of MNIST to handwritten letters | year=2017 | class=cs.CV }}</ref>
|Gregory Cohen, et al.
|-
|UJI Pen Characters Dataset
|Isolated handwritten characters
|Coordinates of pen position as characters were written given.
|11,640
|Text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2009
|<ref>Llorens, David, et al. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190806015012/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/24cf/ef15094c59322560377bbf8e4185245c654f.pdf The UJIpenchars Database: a Pen-Based Database of Isolated Handwritten Characters]." ''LREC''. 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Calderara | first1 = Simone | last2 = Prati | first2 = Andrea | last3 = Cucchiara | first3 = Rita | year = 2011 | title = Mixtures of von mises distributions for people trajectory shape analysis | journal = IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology| volume = 21 | issue = 4| pages = 457–471 | doi=10.1109/tcsvt.2011.2125550| s2cid = 1427766 }}</ref>
|F. Prat et al.
|-
|Gisette Dataset
|Handwriting samples from the often-confused 4 and 9 characters.
|Features extracted from images, split into train/test, handwriting images size-normalized.
|13,500
|Images, text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2003
|<ref>Guyon, Isabelle, et al. "[http://papers.nips.cc/paper/2728-result-analysis-of-the-nips-2003-feature-selection-challenge.pdf Result analysis of the nips 2003 feature selection challenge]." ''Advances in neural information processing systems''. 2004.</ref>
|Yann LeCun et al.
|-
|Omniglot dataset
|1623 different handwritten characters from 50 different alphabets.
|Hand-labeled.
|38,300
|Images, text, strokes
|Classification, [[One-shot learning in computer vision|one-shot learning]]
|2015
|<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lake|first1=B. M.|last2=Salakhutdinov|first2=R.|last3=Tenenbaum|first3=J. B.|title=Human-level concept learning through probabilistic program induction|journal=Science|language=en|volume=350|issue=6266|pages=1332–1338|doi=10.1126/science.aab3050|issn=0036-8075|pmid=26659050|bibcode=2015Sci...350.1332L|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Lake|first=Brenden|title=Omniglot data set for one-shot learning|url=https://github.com/brendenlake/omniglot|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref>
|[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]
|-
|[[MNIST database]]
|Database of handwritten digits.
|Hand-labeled.
|60,000
|Images, text
|Classification
|1994
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = LeCun | first1 = Yann | display-authors = et al | year = 1998 | title = Gradient-based learning applied to document recognition | journal = Proceedings of the IEEE | volume = 86 | issue = 11| pages = 2278–2324 | doi=10.1109/5.726791| citeseerx = 10.1.1.32.9552 | s2cid = 14542261 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kussul | first1 = Ernst | last2 = Baidyk | first2 = Tatiana |author2-link=Tetyana Baydyk| year = 2004 | title = Improved method of handwritten digit recognition tested on MNIST database | journal = Image and Vision Computing | volume = 22 | issue = 12| pages = 971–981 | doi = 10.1016/j.imavis.2004.03.008 }}</ref>
|[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]
|-
|Optical Recognition of Handwritten Digits Dataset
|Normalized bitmaps of handwritten data.
|Size normalized and mapped to bitmaps.
|5620
|Images, text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|1998
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Xu | first1 = Lei | last2 = Krzyżak | first2 = Adam | last3 = Suen | first3 = Ching Y. | year = 1992 | title = Methods of combining multiple classifiers and their applications to handwriting recognition | journal = IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics| volume = 22 | issue = 3| pages = 418–435 | doi=10.1109/21.155943| hdl = 10338.dmlcz/135217 }}</ref>
|E. Alpaydin et al.
|-
|Pen-Based Recognition of Handwritten Digits Dataset
|Handwritten digits on electronic pen-tablet.
|Feature vectors extracted to be uniformly spaced.
|10,992
|Images, text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|1998
|<ref>Alimoglu, Fevzi, et al. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.25.6299 Combining multiple classifiers for pen-based handwritten digit recognition]." (1996).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = E. Ke | display-authors = et al | year = 2005 | title = Linear dimensionality reduction using relevance weighted LDA | journal = Pattern Recognition | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 485–493 | doi=10.1016/j.patcog.2004.09.005| bibcode = 2005PatRe..38..485T | s2cid = 10580110 }}</ref>
|E. Alpaydin et al.
|-
|Semeion Handwritten Digit Dataset
|Handwritten digits from 80 people.
|All handwritten digits have been normalized for size and mapped to the same grid.
|1593
|Images, text
|Handwriting recognition, classification
|2008
|<ref>Hong, Yi, et al. "[https://pages.ucsd.edu/~ztu/publication/iccv11_sparsemetric.pdf Learning a mixture of sparse distance metrics for classification and dimensionality reduction]." ''Computer Vision (ICCV), 2011 IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 2011.</ref>
|T. Srl
|-
|HASYv2
|Handwritten mathematical symbols
|All symbols are centered and of size 32px x 32px.
|168233
|Images, text
|Classification
|2017
|<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=1701.08380|last1=Thoma|first1=Martin|title=The HASYv2 dataset|class=cs.CV|year=2017}}</ref>
|Martin Thoma
|-
|Noisy Handwritten Bangla Dataset
|Includes Handwritten Numeral Dataset (10 classes) and Basic Character Dataset (50 classes), each dataset has three types of noise: white gaussian, motion blur, and reduced contrast.
|All images are centered and of size 32x32.
|Numeral Dataset:

23330,

Character Dataset:

76000
|Images,
text
|Handwriting recognition,
classification
|2017
|<ref>{{cite arXiv|last1=Karki|first1=Manohar|last2=Liu|first2=Qun|last3=DiBiano|first3=Robert|last4=Basu|first4=Saikat|last5=Mukhopadhyay|first5=Supratik|title=Pixel-level Reconstruction and Classification for Noisy Handwritten Bangla Characters|eprint=1806.08037|class=cs.CV}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Liu|first1=Qun|title=PCGAN-CHAR: Progressively Trained Classifier Generative Adversarial Networks for Classification of Noisy Handwritten Bangla Characters|work=Digital Libraries at the Crossroads of Digital Information for the Future|pages=3–15|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-34057-5|last2=Collier|first2=Edward|last3=Mukhopadhyay|first3=Supratik|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |volume=11853 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-34058-2_1|arxiv=1908.08987|s2cid=201665955}}</ref>
|M. Karki et al.
|}

==Aerial images==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Dataset name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|iSAID: Instance Segmentation in Aerial Images Dataset
|
|Precise instance-level annotatio carried out by professional annotators, cross-checked and validated by expert annotators complying with well-defined guidelines.
|655,451 (15 classes)
|Images, jpg, json
|Aerial Classification, Object Detection, Instance Segmentation
|2019
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=iSAID|url=https://captain-whu.github.io/iSAID/index.html|access-date=2021-11-30|website=captain-whu.github.io}}</ref><ref>Zamir, Syed & Arora, Aditya & Gupta, Akshita & Khan, Salman & Sun, Guolei & Khan, Fahad & Zhu, Fan & Shao, Ling & Xia, Gui-Song & Bai, Xiang. (2019). iSAID: A Large-scale Dataset for Instance Segmentation in Aerial Images. [https://captain-whu.github.io/iSAID/index.html website]</ref>
|Syed Waqas Zamir,
Aditya Arora,

Akshita Gupta,

Salman Khan,

Guolei Sun,

Fahad Shahbaz Khan, Fan Zhu,

Ling Shao, Gui-Song Xia, Xiang Bai
|-
|Aerial Image Segmentation Dataset
|80 high-resolution aerial images with spatial resolution ranging from 0.3 to 1.0.
|Images manually segmented.
|80
|Images
|Aerial Classification, object detection
|2013
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yuan | first1 = Jiangye | last2 = Gleason | first2 = Shaun S. | last3 = Cheriyadat | first3 = Anil M. | year = 2013 | title = Systematic benchmarking of aerial image segmentation | journal = IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters| volume = 10 | issue = 6| pages = 1527–1531 | doi=10.1109/lgrs.2013.2261453| bibcode = 2013IGRSL..10.1527Y | s2cid = 629629 }}</ref><ref>Vatsavai, Ranga Raju. "[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2534927 Object based image classification: state of the art and computational challenges]." ''Proceedings of the 2nd ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on Analytics for Big Geospatial Data''. ACM, 2013.</ref>
|J. Yuan et al.
|-
|KIT AIS Data Set
|Multiple labeled training and evaluation datasets of aerial images of crowds.
|Images manually labeled to show paths of individuals through crowds.
|~ 150
|Images with paths
|People tracking, aerial tracking
|2012
|<ref>Butenuth, Matthias, et al. "[http://www.hartmann-alberts.de/dirk/pub/proceedings2011e.pdf Integrating pedestrian simulation, tracking and event detection for crowd analysis]." ''Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops), 2011 IEEE International Conference on''. IEEE, 2011.</ref><ref>Fradi, Hajer, and Jean-Luc Dugelay. "[http://www.eurecom.fr/fr/publication/3841/download/mm-publi-3841.pdf Low level crowd analysis using frame-wise normalized feature for people counting]." ''Information Forensics and Security (WIFS), 2012 IEEE International Workshop on''. IEEE, 2012.</ref>
|M. Butenuth et al.
|-
|Wilt Dataset
|Remote sensing data of diseased trees and other land cover.
|Various features extracted.
|4899
|Images
|Classification, aerial object detection
|2014
|<ref>Johnson, Brian Alan, Ryutaro Tateishi, and Nguyen Thanh Hoan. "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.826.9200&rep=rep1&type=pdf A hybrid pansharpening approach and multiscale object-based image analysis for mapping diseased pine and oak trees]." ''International journal of remote sensing''34.20 (2013): 6969–6982.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2150704X.2015.1062159|doi = 10.1080/2150704X.2015.1062159|title = A new classification model for a class imbalanced data set using genetic programming and support vector machines: Case study for wilt disease classification|year = 2015|last1 = Mohd Pozi|first1 = Muhammad Syafiq|last2 = Sulaiman|first2 = Md Nasir|last3 = Mustapha|first3 = Norwati|last4 = Perumal|first4 = Thinagaran|journal = Remote Sensing Letters|volume = 6|issue = 7|pages = 568–577|s2cid = 58788630}}</ref>
|B. Johnson
|-
|MASATI dataset
|Maritime scenes of optical aerial images from the visible spectrum. It contains color images in dynamic marine environments, each image may contain one or multiple targets in different weather and illumination conditions.
|Object bounding boxes and labeling.
|7389
|Images
|Classification, aerial object detection
|2018
|<ref>Gallego, A.-J.; Pertusa, A.; Gil, P. "[https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/4/511 Automatic Ship Classification from Optical Aerial Images with Convolutional Neural Networks]." ''Remote Sensing''. 2018; 10(4):511.</ref><ref>Gallego, A.-J.; Pertusa, A.; Gil, P. "MAritime SATellite Imagery dataset". Available: https://www.iuii.ua.es/datasets/masati/, 2018.</ref>
|A.-J. Gallego et al.
|-
|Forest Type Mapping Dataset
|Satellite imagery of forests in Japan.
|Image wavelength bands extracted.
|326
|Text
|Classification
|2015
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = Brian | last2 = Tateishi | first2 = Ryutaro | last3 = Xie | first3 = Zhixiao | year = 2012 | title = Using geographically weighted variables for image classification | journal = Remote Sensing Letters | volume = 3 | issue = 6| pages = 491–499 | doi=10.1080/01431161.2011.629637| s2cid = 122543681 }}</ref><ref>Chatterjee, Sankhadeep, et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sankhadeep_Chatterjee/publication/282605325_Forest_Type_Classification_A_Hybrid_NN-GA_Model_Based_Approach/links/57493cb308ae5c51e29e6f1b/Forest-Type-Classification-A-Hybrid-NN-GA-Model-Based-Approach.pdf Forest Type Classification: A Hybrid NN-GA Model Based Approach]." ''Information Systems Design and Intelligent Applications''. Springer India, 2016. 227–236.</ref>
|B. Johnson
|-
|[[Overhead Imagery Research Data Set]]
|Annotated overhead imagery. Images with multiple objects.
|Over 30 annotations and over 60 statistics that describe the target within the context of the image.
|1000
|Images, text
|Classification
|2009
|<ref>Diegert, Carl. "[https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1278837 A combinatorial method for tracing objects using semantics of their shape]." ''Applied Imagery Pattern Recognition Workshop (AIPR), 2010 IEEE 39th''. IEEE, 2010.</ref><ref>Razakarivony, Sebastien, and Frédéric Jurie. "[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00943444/file/13_mva-detection.pdf Small target detection combining foreground and background manifolds]." ''IAPR International Conference on Machine Vision Applications''. 2013.</ref>
|F. Tanner et al.
|-
|SpaceNet
|SpaceNet is a corpus of commercial satellite imagery and labeled training data.
|GeoTiff and GeoJSON files containing building footprints.
|>17533
|Images
|Classification, Object Identification
|2017
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://explore.digitalglobe.com/spacenet|title=SpaceNet|website=explore.digitalglobe.com|access-date=2018-03-13|archive-date=13 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313092809/http://explore.digitalglobe.com/spacenet|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/the-downlinq/getting-started-with-spacenet-data-827fd2ec9f53|title=Getting Started With SpaceNet Data|last=Etten|first=Adam Van|website=The DownLinQ|access-date=2018-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vakalopoulou|first1=M.|last2=Bus|first2=N.|last3=Karantzalosa|first3=K.|last4=Paragios|first4=N.|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) |chapter=Integrating edge/Boundary priors with classification scores for building detection in very high resolution data |pages=3309–3312|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8127705|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=8297433}}</ref>
|[[DigitalGlobe|DigitalGlobe, Inc.]]
|-
|UC Merced Land Use Dataset
|These images were manually extracted from large images from the USGS National Map Urban Area Imagery collection for various urban areas around the US.
|This is a 21 class land use image dataset meant for research purposes. There are 100 images for each class.
|2,100
|Image chips of 256x256, 30 cm (1 foot) GSD
|Land cover classification
|2010
|<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Yang|first1=Yi|last2=Newsam|first2=Shawn|title=Proceedings of the 18th SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems |chapter=Bag-of-visual-words and spatial extensions for land-use classification |pages=270–279 |location=New York, New York, USA|publisher=ACM Press|doi=10.1145/1869790.1869829|isbn=9781450304283|s2cid=993769}}</ref>
|Yi Yang and Shawn Newsam
|-
|SAT-4 Airborne Dataset
|Images were extracted from the National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) dataset.
|SAT-4 has four broad land cover classes, includes barren land, trees, grassland and a class that consists of all land cover classes other than the above three.

|500,000
|Images
|Classification
|2015
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Basu|first1=Saikat|last2=Ganguly|first2=Sangram|last3=Mukhopadhyay|first3=Supratik|last4=DiBiano|first4=Robert|last5=Karki|first5=Manohar|last6=Nemani|first6=Ramakrishna|title=Proceedings of the 23rd SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems |chapter=DeepSat: A learning framework for satellite imagery |publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2820783.2820816|isbn=9781450339674|s2cid=4387134}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Qun|last2=Basu|first2=Saikat|last3=Ganguly|first3=Sangram|last4=Mukhopadhyay|first4=Supratik|last5=DiBiano|first5=Robert|last6=Karki|first6=Manohar|last7=Nemani|first7=Ramakrishna|title=DeepSat V2: feature augmented convolutional neural nets for satellite image classification|journal=Remote Sensing Letters|volume=11|issue=2|pages=156–165|doi=10.1080/2150704x.2019.1693071|arxiv=1911.07747|s2cid=208138097|issn=2150-704X}}</ref>
|S. Basu et al.
|-
|SAT-6 Airborne Dataset
|Images were extracted from the National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) dataset.
|SAT-6 has six broad land cover classes, includes barren land, trees, grassland, roads, buildings and water bodies.
|405,000
|Images
|Classification
|2015
|<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":11" />
|S. Basu et al.
|}

==Underwater images==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Dataset name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|SUIM Dataset
|The images have been rigorously collected during oceanic explorations and human-robot collaborative experiments, and annotated by human participants.
|Images with pixel annotations for eight object categories: fish (vertebrates), reefs (invertebrates), aquatic plants, wrecks/ruins, human divers, robots, and sea-floor.
|1,635
|Images
|Segmentation
|2020
|<ref>Md Jahidul Islam, et al. "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9340821 Semantic Segmentation of Underwater Imagery: Dataset and Benchmark]." ''2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)''. IEEE, 2020.</ref>
|Md Jahidul Islam et al.
|-
|LIACI Dataset
|Images have been collected during underwater ship inspections and annotated by human domain experts.
|Images with pixel annotations for ten object categories: defects, corrosion, paint peel, marine growth, sea chest gratings, overboard valves, propeller, anodes, bilge keel and ship hull.
|1,893
|Images
|Segmentation
|2022
|<ref>Waszak et al. "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9998080 Semantic Segmentation in Underwater Ship Inspections: Benchmark and Data Set]." ''IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering''. IEEE, 2022.</ref>
|Waszak et al.
|}

==Other images==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%"
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Dataset name
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Brief description
! scope="col" style="width: 18%;" | Preprocessing
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Instances
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Format
! scope="col" style="width: 7%;" | Default Task
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Created (updated)
! scope="col" style="width: 6%;" | Reference
! scope="col" style="width: 11%;" | Creator
|-
|NRC-GAMMA
|A novel benchmark gas meter image dataset
|None
|28,883
|Image, Label
|Classification
|2021
|<ref>{{cite arXiv|last1=Ebadi|first1=Ashkan|last2=Paul|first2=Patrick|last3=Auer|first3=Sofia|last4=Tremblay|first4=Stéphane|title=NRC-GAMMA: Introducing a Novel Large Gas Meter Image Dataset|class=cs.CV|eprint=2111.06827}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada National Research Council|title=The gas meter image dataset (NRC-GAMMA) - NRC Digital Repository|url=https://nrc-digital-repository.canada.ca/eng/view/object/?id=ba1fc493-e65f-4c0a-ab31-ecbcdf00bfa4|access-date=2021-12-02|website=nrc-digital-repository.canada.ca|year=2021|doi=10.4224/3c8s-z290}}</ref>
|A. Ebadi, P. Paul, S. Auer, & S. Tremblay
|-
|The SUPATLANTIQUE dataset
|Images of scanned official and Wikipedia documents
|None
|4908
|TIFF/pdf
|Source device identification, forgery detection, Classification,..
|2020
|<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rabah|first1=Chaima Ben|last2=Coatrieux|first2=Gouenou|last3=Abdelfattah|first3=Riadh|title=2020 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP) |chapter=The Supatlantique Scanned Documents Database for Digital Image Forensics Purposes |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icip40778.2020.9190665|pages=2096–2100|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/icip40778.2020.9190665|isbn=978-1-7281-6395-6|s2cid=224881147}}</ref>
|C. Ben Rabah et al.
|-
|Density functional theory quantum simulations of graphene
|Labelled images of raw input to a simulation of graphene
|Raw data (in HDF5 format) and output labels from density functional theory quantum simulation
| 60744 test and 501473 training files
|Labeled images
|Regression
|2019
|<ref>{{Citation | doi=10.4224/c8sc04578j.data| title=Big graphene dataset| date=2018-05-16| last1=Mills| first1=Kyle| last2=Tamblyn| first2=Isaac| publisher=National Research Council of Canada}}</ref>
|K. Mills & I. Tamblyn

|-
|Quantum simulations of an electron in a two dimensional potential well
|Labelled images of raw input to a simulation of 2d Quantum mechanics
|Raw data (in HDF5 format) and output labels from quantum simulation
|1.3 million images
|Labeled images
|Regression
|2017
|<ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.4224/PhysRevA.96.042113.data| title=Quantum simulations of an electron in a two dimensional potential well| date=2018-05-16| last1=Mills| first1=Kyle| last2=Spanner| first2=Michael| last3=Tamblyn| first3=Isaac| chapter=Quantum simulation| publisher=National Research Council of Canada}}</ref>
|K. Mills, M.A. Spanner, & I. Tamblyn

|-
|MPII Cooking Activities Dataset
|Videos and images of various cooking activities.
|Activity paths and directions, labels, fine-grained motion labeling, activity class, still image extraction and labeling.
|881,755 frames
|Labeled video, images, text
|Classification
|2012
|<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Rohrbach | first1=M. | last2=Amin | first2=S. | last3=Andriluka | first3=M. | last4=Schiele | first4=B. | title=2012 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition | chapter=A database for fine grained activity detection of cooking activities | publisher=IEEE | year=2012 | pages=1194–1201 | isbn=978-1-4673-1228-8 | doi=10.1109/cvpr.2012.6247801 }}</ref><ref>Kuehne, Hilde, Ali Arslan, and Thomas Serre. "[https://www.cv-foundation.org/openaccess/content_cvpr_2014/papers/Kuehne_The_Language_of_2014_CVPR_paper.pdf The language of actions: Recovering the syntax and semantics of goal-directed human activities]."''Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition''. 2014.</ref>
|M. Rohrbach et al.
|-
|FAMOS Dataset
|5,000 unique microstructures, all samples have been acquired 3 times with two different cameras.
|Original PNG files, sorted per camera and then per acquisition. MATLAB datafiles with one 16384 times 5000 matrix per camera per acquisition.
|30,000
|Images and .mat files
|Authentication
|2012
|<ref>Sviatoslav, Voloshynovskiy, et al. "[http://vision.unige.ch/publications/postscript/2012/2012.WIFS.database.pdf Towards Reproducible results in authentication based on physical non-cloneable functions: The Forensic Authentication Microstructure Optical Set (FAMOS).]"''Proc. Proceedings of IEEE International Workshop on Information Forensics and Security''. 2012.</ref>
|S. Voloshynovskiy, et al.
|-
|PharmaPack Dataset
|1,000 unique classes with 54 images per class.
|Class labeling, many local descriptors, like SIFT and aKaZE, and local feature agreators, like Fisher Vector (FV).
|54,000
|Images and .mat files
|Fine-grain classification
|2017
|<ref>Olga, Taran and Shideh, Rezaeifar, et al. "[https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:97444/ATTACHMENT01 PharmaPack: mobile fine-grained recognition of pharma packages]."''Proc. European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO)''. 2017.</ref>
|O. Taran and S. Rezaeifar, et al.
|-
|Stanford Dogs Dataset
|Images of 120 breeds of dogs from around the world.
|Train/test splits and ImageNet annotations provided.
|20,580
|Images, text
|Fine-grain classification
|2011
|<ref>Khosla, Aditya, et al. "[https://people.csail.mit.edu/khosla/papers/fgvc2011.pdf Novel dataset for fine-grained image categorization: Stanford dogs]."''Proc. CVPR Workshop on Fine-Grained Visual Categorization (FGVC)''. 2011.</ref><ref name=":7">Parkhi, Omkar M., et al. "[http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk:5000/~vgg/publications/2012/parkhi12a/parkhi12a.pdf Cats and dogs]."''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2012 IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2012.</ref>
|A. Khosla et al.
|-
|StanfordExtra Dataset
|2D keypoints and segmentations for the Stanford Dogs Dataset.
|2D keypoints and segmentations provided.
|12,035
|Labelled images
|3D reconstruction/pose estimation
|2020
|<ref>{{cite book | arxiv=2007.11110 | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-58621-8 | title=Computer Vision – ECCV 2020 | series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science | year=2020 | volume=12356 | isbn=978-3-030-58620-1 | last1=Biggs | first1=Benjamin | last2=Boyne | first2=Oliver | last3=Charles | first3=James | last4=Fitzgibbon | first4=Andrew | last5=Cipolla | first5=Roberto | s2cid=227173931 }}</ref>
|B. Biggs et al.
|-
|The Oxford-IIIT Pet Dataset
|37 categories of pets with roughly 200 images of each.
|Breed labeled, tight bounding box, foreground-background segmentation.
|~ 7,400
|Images, text
|Classification, object detection
|2012
|<ref name=":7" /><ref name="Razavian, Ali 2014">Razavian, Ali, et al. "[https://www.cv-foundation.org/openaccess/content_cvpr_workshops_2014/W15/papers/Razavian_CNN_Features_Off-the-Shelf_2014_CVPR_paper.pdf CNN features off-the-shelf: an astounding baseline for recognition]." ''Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops''. 2014.</ref>
|O. Parkhi et al.
|-
|Corel Image Features Data Set
|Database of images with features extracted.
|Many features including color histogram, co-occurrence texture, and colormoments,
|68,040
|Text
|Classification, object detection
|1999
|<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ortega | first1 = Michael | display-authors = et al | year = 1998 | title = Supporting ranked boolean similarity queries in MARS | journal = IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering| volume = 10 | issue = 6| pages = 905–925 | doi=10.1109/69.738357| citeseerx = 10.1.1.36.6079 }}</ref><ref>He, Xuming, Richard S. Zemel, and Miguel Á. Carreira-Perpiñán. "[ftp://www-vhost.cs.toronto.edu/public_html/public_html/dist/zemel/Papers/cvpr04.pdf Multiscale conditional random fields for image labeling]." ''Computer vision and pattern recognition, 2004. CVPR 2004. Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE computer society conference on''. Vol. 2. IEEE, 2004.</ref>
|M. Ortega-Bindenberger et al.
|-
|Online Video Characteristics and Transcoding Time Dataset.
|Transcoding times for various different videos and video properties.
|Video features given.
|168,286
|Text
|Regression
|2015
|<ref>Deneke, Tewodros, et al. "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6890256/ Video transcoding time prediction for proactive load balancing]." Multimedia and Expo (ICME), 2014 IEEE International Conference on. IEEE, 2014.</ref>
|T. Deneke et al.
|-
|Microsoft Sequential Image Narrative Dataset (SIND)
|Dataset for sequential vision-to-language
|Descriptive caption and storytelling given for each photo, and photos are arranged in sequences
|81,743
|Images, text
|Visual storytelling
|2016
|<ref>{{cite arXiv |author=Ting-Hao (Kenneth) Huang, Francis Ferraro, Nasrin Mostafazadeh, Ishan Misra, Aishwarya Agrawal, Jacob Devlin, Ross Girshick, Xiaodong He, Pushmeet Kohli, Dhruv Batra, C. Lawrence Zitnick, Devi Parikh, Lucy Vanderwende, Michel Galley, Margaret Mitchell |eprint=1604.03968 |title=Visual Storytelling |class=cs.CL }}</ref>
|[[Microsoft Research]]
|-
|Caltech-UCSD Birds-200-2011 Dataset
|Large dataset of images of birds.
|Part locations for birds, bounding boxes, 312 binary attributes given
|11,788
|Images, text
|Classification
|2011
|<ref>Wah, Catherine, et al. "[https://authors.library.caltech.edu/27452/1/CUB_200_2011.pdf The caltech-ucsd birds-200-2011 dataset]." (2011).</ref><ref>Duan, Kun, et al. "[http://vision.soic.indiana.edu/papers/attributes2012cvpr.pdf Discovering localized attributes for fine-grained recognition]." ''Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2012 IEEE Conference on''. IEEE, 2012.</ref>
|C. Wah et al.
|-
|YouTube-8M
|Large and diverse labeled video dataset
|YouTube video IDs and associated labels from a diverse vocabulary of 4800 visual entities
|8 million
|Video, text
|Video classification
|2016
|<ref>{{cite web|title=YouTube-8M Dataset|url=https://research.google.com/youtube8m/|website=research.google.com|access-date=1 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |author1=Abu-El-Haija, Sami |author2=Kothari, Nisarg |author3=Lee, Joonseok |author4=Natsev, Paul |author5=Toderici, George |author6=Varadarajan, Balakrishnan |author7=Vijayanarasimhan, Sudheendra |eprint=1609.08675 |title=YouTube-8M: A Large-Scale Video Classification Benchmark |class=cs.CV }}</ref>
|S. Abu-El-Haija et al.

|-
|YFCC100M
|Large and diverse labeled image and video dataset
|Flickr Videos and Images and associated description, titles, tags, and other metadata (such as EXIF and geotags)
|100 million
|Video, Image, Text
|Video and Image classification
|2016
|<ref>{{cite web|title=YFCC100M Dataset|url=http://mmcommons.org|website=mmcommons.org|publisher=[[Yahoo-ICSI-LLNL]]|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bart Thomee |author2=David A Shamma |author3=Gerald Friedland |author4=Benjamin Elizalde |author5=Karl Ni |author6=Douglas Poland |author7=Damian Borth |author8=Li-Jia Li |arxiv=1503.01817 |title=Yfcc100m: The new data in multimedia research |doi=10.1145/2812802 |volume=59 |issue=2 |journal=Communications of the ACM |pages=64–73 |s2cid=207230134 }}</ref>
|B. Thomee et al.
|-

|Discrete LIRIS-ACCEDE
|Short videos annotated for valence and arousal.
|Valence and arousal labels.
|9800
|Video
|Video emotion elicitation detection
|2015
|<ref>Y. Baveye, E. Dellandrea, C. Chamaret, and L. Chen, "[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01375518/document LIRIS-ACCEDE: A Video Database for Affective Content Analysis]," in IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 2015.</ref>
|Y. Baveye et al.
|-
|Continuous LIRIS-ACCEDE
|Long videos annotated for valence and arousal while also collecting Galvanic Skin Response.
|Valence and arousal labels.
|30
|Video
|Video emotion elicitation detection
|2015
|<ref>Y. Baveye, E. Dellandrea, C. Chamaret, and L. Chen, "[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01193144/document Deep Learning vs. Kernel Methods: Performance for Emotion Prediction in Videos]," in 2015 Humaine Association Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), 2015.</ref>
|Y. Baveye et al.
|-
|MediaEval LIRIS-ACCEDE
|Extension of Discrete LIRIS-ACCEDE including annotations for violence levels of the films.
|Violence, valence and arousal labels.
|10900
|Video
|Video emotion elicitation detection
|2015
|<ref>M. Sjöberg, Y. Baveye, H. Wang, V. L. Quang, B. Ionescu, E. Dellandréa, M. Schedl, C.-H. Demarty, and L. Chen, "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanli_Wang2/publication/309704559_The_MediaEval_2015_Affective_Impact_of_Movies_Task/links/581dada308ae12715af33bc8/The-MediaEval-2015-Affective-Impact-of-Movies-Task.pdf The mediaeval 2015 affective impact of movies task]," in MediaEval 2015 Workshop, 2015.</ref>
|Y. Baveye et al.
|-
|Leeds Sports Pose
|Articulated human pose annotations in 2000 natural sports images from Flickr.
|Rough crop around single person of interest with 14 joint labels
|2000
|Images plus .mat file labels
|Human pose estimation
|2010
|<ref>S. Johnson and M. Everingham, "[http://sam.johnson.io/research/publications/johnson10bmvc.pdf Clustered Pose and Nonlinear Appearance Models for Human Pose Estimation]", in Proceedings of the 21st British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC2010)</ref>
|S. Johnson and M. Everingham
|-
|Leeds Sports Pose Extended Training
|Articulated human pose annotations in 10,000 natural sports images from Flickr.
|14 joint labels via crowdsourcing
|10000
|Images plus .mat file labels
|Human pose estimation
|2011
|<ref>S. Johnson and M. Everingham, "[http://sam.johnson.io/research/publications/johnson11cvpr.pdf Learning Effective Human Pose Estimation from Inaccurate Annotation]", In Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR2011)</ref>
|S. Johnson and M. Everingham
|-
|MCQ Dataset
|6 different real multiple choice-based exams (735 answer sheets and 33,540 answer boxes) to evaluate computer vision techniques and systems developed for multiple choice test assessment systems.
|None
|735 answer sheets and 33,540 answer boxes
|Images and .mat file labels
|Development of multiple choice test assessment systems
|2017
|<ref>{{cite arXiv|last1=Afifi|first1=Mahmoud|last2=Hussain|first2=Khaled F.|title=The Achievement of Higher Flexibility in Multiple Choice-based Tests Using Image Classification Techniques|eprint=1711.00972|class=cs.CV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/view/mcq-dataset/mcqe-dataset|title=MCQ Dataset|website=sites.google.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref>
|Afifi, M. et al.
|-
|Surveillance Videos
|Real surveillance videos cover a large surveillance time (7 days with 24 hours each).
|None
|19 surveillance videos (7 days with 24 hours each).
|Videos
|Data compression
|2016
|<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Taj-Eddin|first1=I. A. T. F.|last2=Afifi|first2=M.|last3=Korashy|first3=M.|last4=Hamdy|first4=D.|last5=Nasser|first5=M.|last6=Derbaz|first6=S.|title=2016 Sixth International Conference on Digital Information and Communication Technology and its Applications (DICTAP) |chapter=A new compression technique for surveillance videos: Evaluation using new dataset |pages=159–164|doi=10.1109/DICTAP.2016.7544020|isbn=978-1-4673-9609-7|s2cid=8698850}}</ref>
|Taj-Eddin, I. A. T. F. et al.
|-
|LILA BC
|Labeled Information Library of Alexandria: Biology and Conservation. Labeled images that support machine learning research around ecology and environmental science.
|None
|~10M images
|Images
|Classification
|2019
|<ref name="TabakNorouzzadeh2018">{{cite journal|last1=Tabak|first1=Michael A.|last2=Norouzzadeh|first2=Mohammad S.|last3=Wolfson|first3=David W.|last4=Sweeney|first4=Steven J.|last5=Vercauteren|first5=Kurt C.|last6=Snow|first6=Nathan P.|last7=Halseth|first7=Joseph M.|last8=Di Salvo|first8=Paul A.|last9=Lewis|first9=Jesse S.|last10=White|first10=Michael D.|last11=Teton|first11=Ben|last12=Beasley|first12=James C.|last13=Schlichting|first13=Peter E.|last14=Boughton|first14=Raoul K.|last15=Wight|first15=Bethany|last16=Newkirk|first16=Eric S.|last17=Ivan|first17=Jacob S.|last18=Odell|first18=Eric A.|last19=Brook|first19=Ryan K.|last20=Lukacs|first20=Paul M.|last21=Moeller|first21=Anna K.|last22=Mandeville|first22=Elizabeth G.|last23=Clune|first23=Jeff|last24=Miller|first24=Ryan S.|last25=Photopoulou|first25=Theoni|title=Machine learning to classify animal species in camera trap images: Applications in ecology|journal=Methods in Ecology and Evolution|volume=10|issue=4|pages=585–590|year=2018|issn=2041-210X|doi=10.1111/2041-210X.13120|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|LILA working group
|-
|Can We See Photosynthesis?
|32 videos for eight live and eight dead leaves recorded under both DC and AC lighting conditions.
|None
|32 videos
|Videos
|Liveness detection of plants
|2017
|<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Taj-Eddin|first1=Islam A. T. F.|last2=Afifi|first2=Mahmoud|last3=Korashy|first3=Mostafa|last4=Ahmed|first4=Ali H.|last5=Ng|first5=Yoke Cheng|last6=Hernandez|first6=Evelyng|last7=Abdel-Latif|first7=Salma M.|title=Can we see photosynthesis? Magnifying the tiny color changes of plant green leaves using [[Eulerian magnification|Eulerian video magnification]]|journal=Journal of Electronic Imaging|volume=26|issue=6|pages=060501|doi=10.1117/1.jei.26.6.060501|issn=1017-9909|arxiv=1706.03867|bibcode=2017JEI....26f0501T|s2cid=12367169}}</ref>
|Taj-Eddin, I. A. T. F. et al.
|-
|Mathematical Mathematics Memes
|Collection of 10,000 memes on mathematics.
|None
|~10,000
|Images
|Visual storytelling, object detection.
|2021
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mathematical Mathematics Memes |url=https://www.kaggle.com/abdelghanibelgaid/mathematical-mathematics-memes}}</ref>
|Mathematical Mathematics Memes
|-
|Flickr-Faces-HQ Dataset
|Collection of images containing a face each, crawled from Flickr
|Pruned with "various automatic filters", cropped and aligned to faces, and had images of statues, paintings, or photos of photos removed via crowdsourcing
|70,000
|Images
|Face Generation
|2019
|<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karras |first1=Tero |last2=Laine |first2=Samuli |last3=Aila |first3=Timo |title=2019 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) |chapter=A Style-Based Generator Architecture for Generative Adversarial Networks |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2019.00453 |pages=4396–4405 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/cvpr.2019.00453|arxiv=1812.04948 |isbn=978-1-7281-3293-8 |s2cid=54482423 }}</ref>
|Karras et al.
|}
==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Datasets in computer vision| ]]

Crusades of the 15th century

2023-09-15T16:44:17Z

Wikibio: Page initiated.

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Crusades of the Fifteenth Century
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| image = Battle of Varna 1444.PNG
| image_size = 300px
| caption = [[Władysław III of Poland]] in the [[Battle of Varna]], by [[Jan Matejko]]
| date = 1400–1499
| place = Levant, Baltic, Iberia, Italy, Northern Africa
| territory = Hospitallers successful, Ottomans take Constantinople, Eastern Europe
| result = Ottomans dominant, decline of Mamluks, Mongols
| combatant1 = {{Collapsible list|title='''France'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]] [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]] [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]}}{{Collapsible list|title='''England'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Richard II of England|Richard II]] [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] [[Edward V of England|Edward V]] [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]}}{{Collapsible list|title='''Cyprus'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[James I of Cyprus|James I]] [[Janus, King of Cyprus|Janus]] [[John II of Cyprus|John II]] [[Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus|Charlotte]] [[Louis of Cyprus|Louis of Savoy]] [[James II of Cyprus|James II]] [[James III of Cyprus|James III]] [[Catherine Cornaro]]}}{{Collapsible list|title='''Sicily/Naples'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Martin I of Sicily|Martin the Younger]] [[Martin of Aragon]] [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] [[Alfonso II of Naples]]}}{{Collapsible list|title='''Papacy'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Boniface IX]] [[Pope Innocent VII|Innocent VII]] [[Pope Gregory XII|Gregory XII]] [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]] [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]] [[Pope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]] [[Callixtus III]] [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] [[Pope Paul II|Paul II]] [[Pope Sixtus IV|Sixtus IV]] [[Pope Innocent VIII|Innocent VIII]] [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] '''Antipopes''' [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]] [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]] [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]] [[Antipope Alexander V|Alexander V]]}}'''Byzantine Empire''' [[John V Palaiologos]] [[John VII Palaiologos]] [[Manuel II Palaeologus]] [[John VIII Palaiologos]] [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]] '''Latin East''' [[Theodore I Palaiologos]] [[Theodore II Palaiologos]] [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]] [[Thomas Palaiologos]] [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] [[Graitzas Palaiologos]] [[James of Baux]] [[Centurione II Zaccaria]] [[John Asen Zaccaria]] [[Antonio I Acciaioli]] [[Angelo II Acciaioli]] '''Castile''' [[Henry III of Castile|Henry the Suffering]] [[John II of Castile|John II]] [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry the Impotent]] [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella I]] [[Ferdinand V of Castile|Ferdinand V]] '''Aragon''' [[Martin of Aragon|Martin the Humane]] [[Ferdinand I of Aragon|Ferdinand of Antequera]] [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso the Magnanimous]] [[John II of Aragon|John the Great]] [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] '''Portugal''' [[John I of Portugal|John of Aviz]] [[Edward, King of Portugal|Edward the Eloquent]] [[Alfonso V of Portugal|Alfonso the African]] [[John II of Portugal|John the Perfect Prince]] [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel the Fortunate]] '''Hungary''' [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] [[Albert II of Germany]] [[Władysław III of Poland]] [[John Hunyadi]] [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]] [[Matthias Corvinus]] [[Vladislaus II of Hungary]] '''Wallachia''' [[Mircea I of Wallachia]] [[Michael I of Wallachia]] [[Dan II of Wallachia]] [[Vlad the Impaler|Vlad Dracula III]] [[Radu cel Frumos]] [[Vladislav II of Wallachia]] '''Trebizond''' [[John IV of Trebizond]] [[David of Trebizond]] '''Moldavia''' [[Bogdan II of Moldavia]] [[Peter III Aaron]] [[Stephen III of Moldavia|Stephen the Great]]

| combatant2 = '''Mamluk Sultanate''' [[Barquq]] [[An-Nasir Faraj]] [[Barsbay]] [[Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq]] [[Sayf ad-Din Inal]] [[Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam|Khushqadam]] [[Qaitbay]] '''Ottoman Empire''' [[Murad I]] [[Bayezid I]] [[Ottoman Interregnum|Interregnum]] [[Mehmed I]] [[Murad II]] [[Mehmed II]] [[Bayezid II]] [[Cem Sultan]] '''Timurids''' [[Timur]] [[Shah Rukh]] [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] '''Emirate of Granada''' [[Muhammad VII of Granada|Muhammad VII]] [[Muhammad VIII of Granada|Muhammad VIII]] [[Muhammad IX of Granada|Muhammad IX]] [[Yusuf IV of Granada|Yusuf IV]] '''Marinid Sultanate''' [[Abu Said Uthman III|Abu Sa'id Uthman III]] [[Abd al-Haqq II]] '''Aq Qoyunlu''' [[Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg|Uthman Beg]] [[Uzun Hasan]] [[Ya'qub Beg]] [[Sultan Murad (Aq Qoyunlu)|Sultan Murad]] '''Qara Qoyunlu''' [[Jahan Shah]] [[Mirza Yusuf]] [[Hasan Ali (Qara Qoyunlu)|Hasan Ali]] '''Poland''' [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] [[Władysław III]] [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] [[John I Albert]] [[Alexander I Jagiellon]] '''Lithuania''' [[Vytautas]] [[Švitrigaila]] [[Sigismund Kęstutaitis]] [[Michael Žygimantaitis]] '''Hussites''' [[Jan Hus]] [[John Wycliffe]] [[Jan Želivský]] [[Jan Žižka]] [[Mikuláš of Hus]] [[Sigismund Korybut]] [[Prokop the Great]] [[Jan Čapek of Sány|Jan Čapek]] [[Feodor Ostrogski]] '''Crimean Khanate''' [[Hacı I Giray]] [[Meñli I Giray]]

| commander1 = '''Hospitallers''' [[Philibert de Naillac]] [[Anton Flavian de Ripa]] [[Jean de Lastic]] [[Jacques de Milly]] [[Piero Raimondo Zacosta]] [[Giovanni Battista Orsini]] [[Pierre d'Aubusson]] '''Teutonic Knights''' [[Konrad von Jungingen|Conrad of Jungingen]] [[Ulrich von Jungingen|Ulrich of Jungingen]] [[Heinrich von Plauen|Henry of Plauen]] [[Michael Küchmeister von Sternberg|Michael Küchmeister]] [[Paul von Rusdorf|Paul of Rusdorf]] [[Konrad von Erlichshausen|Conrad of Erlichshausen]] [[Ludwig von Erlichshausen|Ludwig of Erlichshausen]] [[Heinrich Reuß von Plauen|Henry Reuss of Plauen]] [[Frederick of Saxony (Teutonic Knight)|Frederick of Saxony]] '''Order of the Dragon''' [[Vuk Lazarević]] [[Fruzhin]] [[Pippo Spano]] [[Vlad II Dracul]] [[Vlad the Impaler]] [[Gjergj Arianiti]] '''Iberian Orders''' [[Álvaro de Luna]] [[Henry, Duke of Villena|Henry of Aragon]] [[Prince Henry the Navigator|Henry the Navigator]] [[Philip of Aragon|Philip of Viana]] '''Serbia''' [[Stefan Lazarević]] [[Đurađ Branković ]] [[Grgur Branković]] [[Thomas Kantakouzenos]]{{Collapsible list|title='''Other Nobility'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Ladislaus of Naples]] [[Louis II of Anjou]] [[Jadwiga of Poland]] [[Vytautas the Great]] [[Albert of Sweden]] [[Barbara von Cilli]] [[Margaret I of Denmark]] [[Theodore Kantakouzenos]] [[Jean II Le Maingre]] [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] [[Eleanor of Arborea]] [[Pedro de Meneses, 1st Count of Vila Real|Pedro de Meneses]] [[Ferdinand the Holy Prince|Ferdinand the Saint]] [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Peter of Coimbra]] [[John, Constable of Portugal|John of Portugal]] [[Oldřich II of Rosenberg]] [[Eric of Pomerania|Eric VII of Denmark]] [[Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick of Brandenburg]] [[Bogislav IX]] [[Stephen II of Moldavia]] [[Gennadius Scholarius]] [[Philip the Good]] [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III of Germany]] [[Charles I, Duke of Savoy|Charles I of Savoy]]}}{{Collapsible list|title='''Other Participants'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|[[Victual Brothers]] [[Pietro Loredan]] [[Alvise Loredan]] [[Jan Bażyński]] [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail]] [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia|Wenceslaus IV]] [[Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi|Abu Zakariya]] [[Lipolt Krajíř of Krajek|Lipolt Krajíř]] [[Henry Beaufort]] [[Joan of Arc]] [[Julian Cesarini]] [[Symeon of Thessalonica]] [[Julian Cesarini|Giuliano Cesarini]] [[Kasım of Karaman|Kasım Bey]] [[Isidore of Kiev]] [[Giovanni Giustiniani]] [[Piotr Dunin]] [[Bernard Szumborski|Bernhard von Zinnenberg]] [[Paolo Fregoso]]}}
| commander2 ='''Bosnia''' [[Vlatko Vuković]] [[Tvrtko I of Bosnia|Tvrtko I]] [[Stjepan Vukčić Kosača]] [[Ishak-Beg]] [[Isa-Beg Isaković]] [[Stephen Thomas of Bosnia|Thomas of Bosnia]] [[Stephen Tomašević]] [[Radivoj of Bosnia]] '''Albania''' [[Gjergj Arianiti]] [[Depë Zenebishi]] [[Gjon Kastrioti]] [[Skanderbeg]] [[Nicholas Dukagjini]] '''Ottoman Commanders''' [[Ibrahim II of Karaman]] [[Hamza Bey]] [[Süleyman Çelebi]] [[Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey]] [[İsa Çelebi]] [[Musa Çelebi]] [[Süleyman Çelebi]] [[Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey|Mihaloğlu]] [[Mustafa Çelebi]] [[Küçük Mustafa]] [[Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu]] [[Turahan Bey]] [[Ishak Bey]] [[Hadım Şehabeddin]] [[Kasim Pasha]] [[Mahmud Bey]] [[Mesih Pasha]] [[Karaca Pasha]] [[Zagan Pasha]] [[Ishak Pasha]] [[Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger|Çandarlı Halil Pasha]] [[Suleiman Baltoghlu]] [[Hamza Bey|Hamza Pasha]] [[Ballaban Pasha]] [[Gedik Ahmed Pasha]] 
| state = collapsed
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Crusade}}
}}
{{Campaignbox
| name = Campaignbox List of Crusades in the 15th century
| title = Crusades in the 15th century
| listclass = hlist
| battles =
* [[Muhammad VII of Granada#Crusade of 1394|Crusade of 1394]]
* [[Pope Martin V#Crusades|Crusades of Martin V]]
* [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War]]
* [[Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts]]
* [[Hussite Wars|Hussite Crusades]]
* [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus|Mamluk Conquest of Cyprus]]
* [[Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)|Polish–Teutonic War]]
* [[Crusade of Varna]]
* [[Thirteen Years' War (1454-1466)|Thirteen Years' War]]
* [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Crusade of 1456]]
* [[Portuguese expedition to Otranto|Otranto Crusade]]
* [[Granada War]]
* [[Waldensians#Catholic response|Waldensian Crusade]]

| state = collapsed
}}
{{Campaignbox
| name = Campaignbox Crusades battles in the 15th century
| title = Battles of the 15th century Crusades
| listclass = hlist
| battles =
* [[Battle of Kosovo|Battle of Kosovo (1389)]]
* [[Battle of Kırkdilim]]
* [[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|Siege of Constantinople (1402)]]
* [[Battle of Rovine]]
* [[Battle of Nicopolis]]
* [[Siege of Damascus (1400)|Siege of Damascus]]
* [[Sack of Aleppo (1400)|Sack of Aleppo]]
* [[Battle of Ankara]]
* [[Siege of Smyrna]]
* [[Battle of Collejares]]
* [[Battle of Sanluri]]
* [[Battle of Grunwald]]
* [[Siege of Marienburg (1410)|Siege of Marienburg]]
* [[Antequera#Middle ages|Battle of Antequera]]
* [[Sixth siege of Gibraltar|Sixth Gibraltar]]
* [[Roccasecca|Battle of Roccasecca]]
* [[Battle of Çamurlu]]
* [[Hunger War]]
* [[Portuguese conquest of Ceuta|Conquest of Ceuta]]
* [[Battle of Gallipoli (1416)|Battle of Gallipoli]]
* [[Siege of Ceuta (1419)|Siege of Ceuta]]
* [[Battle of Vítkov Hill]]
* [[Battle of Tábor]]
* [[Battle of Vyšehrad]]
* [[Battle of Kutná Hora]]
* [[Battle of Deutschbrod]]
* [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)]]
* [[Gollub War]]
* [[Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)|Siege of Thessalonica]]
* [[Battle of Hořice]]
* [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus#Third campaign|Battle of Khirokitia]]
* [[Battle of Aussig]]
* [[Battle of Tachov]]
* [[Battle of Domažlice]]
* [[Battle of La Higueruela]]
* [[Battle of Lipany]]
* [[Battle of Ponza (1435)|Battle of Ponza]]
* [[Battle of Wiłkomierz]]
* [[Seventh siege of Gibraltar|Seventh Gibraltar]]
* [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|Battle of Tangier]]
* [[Battle of Grotniki]]
* [[Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–1441)|Siege of Novo Brdo]]
* [[Siege of Belgrade (1440)]]
* [[Battle of Niš (1443)|Battle of Niš]]
* [[Battle of Zlatitsa]]
* [[Battle of Kunovica]]
* [[Battle of Torvioll]]
* [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)]]
* [[Battle of Varna]]
* [[First Battle of Olmedo]]
* [[Siege of Svetigrad (1448)|Siege of Svetigrad]]
* [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)]]
* [[Siege of Krujë (1450)|First Krujë]]
* [[Battle of Los Alporchones]]
* [[Fall of Constantinople]]
* [[Battle of Chojnice (1454)|Battle of Chojnice]]
* [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)]]
* [[Portuguese conquest of Ksar es-Seghir|Ksar es-Seghir]]
* [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|Siege of Trebizond]]
* [[Night Attack at Târgoviște|Târgoviște]]
*[[Ottoman conquest of Lesbos#Siege of Mytilene|Siege of Mytilene]]
* [[Battle of Świecino]]
* [[Eighth siege of Gibraltar|Eighth Gibraltar]]
* [[Battle of Zatoka Świeża]]
* [[Second Siege of Krujë|Second Krujë]]
* [[Ninth siege of Gibraltar|Ninth Gibraltar]]
* [[Third Siege of Krujë|Third Krujë]]
* [[Battle of Chapakchur]]
* [[Anfa expedition (1468)|Anfa Expedition]]
* [[Battle of Qarabagh]]
* [[Siege of Negroponte (1470)|Siege of Negroponte]]
* [[Conquest of Asilah]]
* [[Battle of Otlukbeli]]
* [[Battle of Vaslui]]
* [[Battle of Valea Albă]]
* [[Siege of Shkodra]]
* [[Battle of Breadfield]]
* [[Siege of Rhodes (1480)]]
* [[Ottoman conquest of Otranto|Siege of Otranto]]
* [[Battle of Lucena]]
* [[Chaouia Expedition]]
* [[Siege of Málaga (1487)|Siege of Málaga]]
* [[Battle of Aga-Cayiri]]
* [[Targa expedition (1490)|Targa Expedition]]
* [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|Fall of Granada]]
* [[Battle of Zasław (1491)|Battle of Zasław]]
* [[Moldavian Campaign (1497–1499)|Moldavian Campaign]]
* [[Battle of the Cosmin Forest]]

| state = collapsed
}}<noinclude>

'''Crusades of the 15th century''' are those [[Crusades]] that follow the [[Crusades after Acre, 1291–1399]], throughout the next hundred years. In this period, the threat from the [[Ottoman Empire]] dominates the Christian world, but also includes the threats from the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]], the [[Moors]], and heretics. The Ottomans gain significant territory in all theaters, but do not defeat [[Hospitaller Rhodes]] nor advance past the Balkans. In addition, the ''[[Reconquista]]'' is completed and heretics continue to be suppressed.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=1–6|loc=The Later Crusades}}

The [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]] are spent as a fighting force. The crusades will continue for almost another 100 years, with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire to a level that will last into the 20th century.{{sfn|Housley|2016|loc=The Crusade in the Fifteenth Century}}

==The Christian West==
===France and England===
At the beginning of the 15th century, [[Charles VI of France]] had been king for two decades and France and England were consumed by the continuing [[Hundred Years' War]]. [[Richard II of England]] would soon be replaced by [[Henry IV of England]]. Neither kings were in a position to support a crusade, but they would both host the Byzantine emperor [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] in his quest to gain help in his fight against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Manuel first met Charles at [[Charenton-le-Pont]] on 3 June 1400, and then Henry from December 1400 to February 1401 at [[Eltham Palace]], returning to France on his journey home. Manuel received monetary support but little else.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manuel II., Palaeologus|Manuel II., Palaeologus]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''17''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 609.</ref>

During a lull in the fighting with the English, France became embrioled in the [[Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War]] which began in 1407 and would continue for decades. Henry IV would be succeeded by his son [[Henry V of England]] who renewed the offensive against France. In 1415, Charles' army was crushed by the English at the [[Battle of Agincourt]], which led to the signing of the [[Treaty of Troyes]].<ref>Jules Viard (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hundred Years' War|Hundred Years' War]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''13''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 803–804.</ref>

Following Agincourt, [[King Sigismund of Hungary|Sigismund of Luxembourg]] made a visit to Henry in hopes of making peace between England and France. His goal was to persuade Henry to modify his demands against the French. Henry had him enrolled in the [[Order of the Garter]] and Sigismund, in turn, inducted Henry into the [[Order of the Dragon]]. Henry had intended to crusade for the order after uniting the English and French thrones, but he died before fulfilling his plans. Sigismund left England several months later, having signed the [[Treaty of Canterbury (1416)|Treaty of Canterbury]] acknowledging English claims to France.<ref name=":17">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sigismund|Sigismund]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''25''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 66–67.</ref>

Charles VI also received the archbishop [[Jean, Archbishop of Sultānīya|Jean of Sultānīya]] as an ambassador from the emperor [[Timur]], who arrived in Paris on 15 June 1403. Timur offered an offensive and defensive alliance with Charles, as well as the development of commercial relations. Charles was only able to send an answer and an envoy shortly before Timur's death in 1405.{{sfn|Gifford|1792|pp=354–355, Volume 2|loc=Charles VI and Timur}}

===Western Schism===

The [[Western Schism]] had begun in 1378 and was still plaguing the papacy when [[Pope Boniface IX|Boniface IX]] was elected pope on 2 November 1389. During his tenure, the Avignon claimants, [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]] and [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]], maintained the Roman Curia in Avignon, under the protection of the French monarchy.<ref>Nicholas Aloysius Weber (1912). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Robert of Geneva|Robert of Geneva]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''13.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref><ref>Johann Peter Kirsch (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pedro de Luna|Pedro de Luna]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''9.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> In 1398 and 1399, Boniface had appealed to Christian Europe in favor of Manuel II Palaeologus, threatened at Constantinople by the Ottoman sultan [[Bayezid I]], but there was little enthusiasm for a new crusade at such a time. Manuel's subsequent visit to France and England achieved little.<ref>Thomas Oestreich (1907). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Boniface IX|Pope Boniface IX]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''2.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

Boniface IX died on 1 October 1404 and was succeeded by [[Pope Innocent VII|Innocent VII]] whose uneventful papacy ended on 6 November 1406.<ref>Michael Ott (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Innocent VII|Pope Innocent VII]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''8.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> After the [[1406 papal conclave|Papal Conclave of 1406]], the new pope took the name [[Pope Gregory XII|Gregory XII]].<ref>Michael Ott (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Gregory XII|Pope Gregory XII]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''7.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> Gregory started negotiations with Benedict XXIII, suggesting that they both resign so a new pope could be elected to reunite the Catholic Church. When these talks ended in stalemate in 1408, Charles VI of France declared that his kingdom was neutral to both papal contenders.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Charles VI. (King of France)|Charles VI. (King of France)]] ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''5''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 919–920.</ref>

Charles helped to organise the [[Council of Pisa]] in 1409. This council was supposed to arrange for both Gregory and Benedict to resign, so that a new universally recognised pope could be elected. To oppose this, Benedict convoked the [[Council of Perpignan]] in November 1408, with little success. Since both Benedict and Gregory refused to abdicate, the only achievement in Pisa was that a third candidate to the Holy See was put forward on 26 June 1409 and became known as [[Antipope Alexander V|Alexander V]].<ref>John Bertram Peterson (1907). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Alexander V|Pope Alexander V]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''1.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

In 1411, the antipope [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]] proclaimed his own crusade against [[Ladislaus of Naples]], the protector of rival Gregory XII. In 1409, [[Louis II of Anjou]] had liberated Rome from Ladislaus' occupation and he joined John XXIII's crusade where they he attacked Ladislaus and defeated him at the [[Roccasecca|Battle of Roccasecca]] on 19 May 1411.<ref>Johann Peter Kirsch (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/John XXIII|John XXIII]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''8.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

===Council of Constance===

The [[Council of Constance]] was held from 1414 to 1418 in the [[Bishopric of Constance]]. The council ended the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants and by electing a new pope. The council also condemned [[Jan Hus]] as a heretic and facilitated his execution by the civil authority.<ref name=":9">Joseph Wilhelm (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Hus and Hussites|Jan Hus]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''13.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> It also ruled on issues of national sovereignty, the rights of pagans and just war.<ref>Thomas Joseph Shahan (1908). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Council of Constance|Council of Constance]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''4.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

After deposing John XXIII in 1415, the council was divided by the conflicting claims of Gregory XII and Benedict XIII. A compromise candidate [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]] was elected pope, at the age of 48, at the council on [[St. Martin's Day]], 11 November 1417.<ref>Michael Ott (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Martin V|Pope Martin V]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''9.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

===Crusades of Martin V===
After a long stay in Florence, Martin was able to enter Rome in September 1420. He at once set to work establishing order and restoring dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction, he engaged some famous masters of the Tuscan school and helped instigate the [[Roman Renaissance]].<ref>L. Duchesne, C. Hayes and J. Valois (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Martin (popes)|Martin V]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''17''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 793.</ref>

On 1 March 1420, Martin V issued a papal bull inviting all Christians to unite in a crusade against the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] led by [[John Wycliffe]], the[[Hussites]], and other heretics. The crusades were, however, ultimately unsuccessful.<ref>František Lützow (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hussites|Hussites]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''14''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 7–9.</ref>

In addition, Martin declared a crusade against the Ottoman Empire in 1420 in response to the rising pressure from the Ottoman Turks. In 1419–1420, Martin had diplomatic contacts with the Byzantine emperor Manuel II, who was invoking his own council in Constantinople. On 12 July 1420, the pope conceded to attach an indulgence to anyone who would contribute to a crusade against the Turks, which would be led by Sigismund. Martin also authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418 in relation to the [[Pope Martin V#Position on slavery|slave trade]].{{sfn|Setton|1976|pp=39–46|loc=Martin V}}

===Waldensian Crusade===

The [[Waldensians]] (or Valdois) were a Christian sect that began as an ascetic movement. They were declared heretics in 1215 and, in 1487, [[Innocent VIII]] issued a bull [[Id Nostri Cordis]] for their extermination. A crusade to fulfill the bull order was organized and a military offensive was launched in the territories of [[Charles I, Duke of Savoy|Charles I of Savoy]]. Charles eventually intervened to save his territories from further turmoil and promised the Vaudois peace, but not before the offensive had devastated the area and many of the Vaudois had fled. The crusade prompted [[John Milton]] to write his sonnet ''[[On the Late Massacre in Piedmont]]''.<ref>Nicholas Aloysius Weber (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Innocent VIII|Pope Innocent VIII]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''8.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company</ref>

==Military Orders==
The military orders were dominant in the 15th century, providing forces to deal with both Muslim and heretical threats. These included the [[Knights Hospitaller]], headquartered at [[Rhodes#Crusader and Ottoman rule|Rhodes]]; the [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]], operating from the ''[[State of the Teutonic Order|Ordensstaat]]'' in Central Europe and the Baltic; the [[Order of the Dragon]] formed to fight the Ottomans; and the remnants of the [[History of the Knights Templar#Dismantling|Knights Templar in Iberia]].{{sfn|Luttrell|2001|pp=184–215|loc=The Military Orders, 1312–1789}}

===Knights Hospitaller===
[[Hospitaller Rhodes]] was the strongest Christian presence in the Mediterranean and would remain so for decades. Their stronghold of [[Smyrna]] in Anatolia had been under their control since the [[Smyrniote Crusade]] in 1344. It was lost with the [[Siege of Smyrna]] in 1402, conquered by the [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]] who had replaced the Ottomans' dominance during the [[Ottoman Interregnum]].<ref name=":10">Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/St John of Jerusalem, Knights of the Order of the Hospital of|St John of Jerusalem, Knights of the Order of the Hospital of]]". In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''24.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 12–19.</ref>

[[Philibert de Naillac]] was Grand Master from 1396 until his death in 1421, and the Order's military strength provided stability in the region, despite the presence of [[Barbary pirates]], also known as the Ottoman corsairs.<ref>David McDowall Hannay (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barbary Pirates|Barbary Pirates]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''3''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 383–384.</ref> The position of the Order as a Mediterranean seapower was strengthened by commercial treaties with Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and Egypt.{{sfn|Luttrell|1975|pp=308–312|loc=Naillac}}

Confronted by the now firmly established Ottomans, the Hospitallers needed another stronghold on the mainland to support their headquarters at [[Rhodes]]. De Naillac identified a suitable site across from the island of [[Kos#Genoese Era|Kos]], then controlled by the Genoese. [[Bodrum Castle]], known as the Castle of Saint Peter, was built by the Order in the site of a fortification occupied as early as 1110 BC as well as of a Turkish castle in the 11th century. Construction began in 1404 and workers were guaranteed a reservation in heaven by a papal decree in 1409. They used material from the nearby [[Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]] to fortify the castle. The inner structures were finished in 1406 and the first walls were not completed until 1437.<ref>Artemi, Eirini (2011). [https://www.academia.edu/1130115 Diasporic Communities in Rhodes, 1350–1450]. Ecclesiastical Lighthouse, vol., 237-247.</ref>

[[Anton Flavian de Ripa]] (1421–1437) became Grand Master in 1421 and at that time, the 1403 treaty negotiated by de Naillac and Mamluk sultan [[an-Nasir Faraj]] governed relations between Rhodes and Egypt. That would change in 1426 when [[Barsbay]] invaded [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus|Cyprus]] and laid waste to the commandery at [[Kolossi Castle]].{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=316–318|loc=Anton Flavian de Ripa}}

[[Jean de Lastic]] (1437–1454) became Grand Master in 1437 and would face threats from Ottoman invaders as they increased their naval power. In 1444, an Ottoman fleet began the [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)|Siege of Rhodes]], which was successfully repelled. During this time, the Order was at the zenith of its power, and played a significant military role in the defense of the Mediterranean against Turkish encroachment. When [[Ibrahim II of Karaman]] captured the castle of [[Corycus]] from Cyprus in 1448, de Lastic appealed to Mamluk sultan [[Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq]] to have the castle returned. His rule still saw the [[Fall of Constantinople]] of 1453, initiating a century of Ottoman naval dominance over the eastern Mediterranean.{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=318–321|loc=Jean de Lastic}}

[[Jacques de Milly]] (1454–1461) succeeded Jean de Lastic as Grand Master. In 1455, [[Kos]] and [[Nisyros#History|Nisyros]] faced its first serious Ottoman attack in 1455. Its navy under the command of [[Hamza Bey]] attacked the island, besieged and destroyed the [[Antimachia|Andimacheia Castle]]. The Hospitallers were frequently at odds with the Venetians during this period.{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=321–323|loc=Jean de Lastic}}
[[File:Knights hospitaller.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Grand Master [[Pierre d'Aubusson]] with senior knights, wearing the [[Maltese cross|Rhodian cross]] on their habits]]
[[Piero Raimondo Zacosta]] (1461–1467) succeeded Jacques de Milly and refused to pay tribute demanded by [[Mehmed II]]. In 1464, Venetian captain [[Alvise Loredan]] led an expedition to Rhodes to free a group of Muslim travellers to Egypt captured en route. [[Giovanni Battista Orsini]] (1467–1476) took the responsibility for the repair and modernization of the [[Fortifications of Rhodes|fortifications of the city of Rhodes]], the other castles of the Order on the islands of the [[Dodecanese]], and the [[Bodrum Castle|Château Saint Pierre]] (Bodrum Castle).{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=322–323|loc=Piero Raimondo Zacosta and Giovanni Battista Orsini}}

[[Pierre d'Aubusson]] was Grand Master from 1476 to 1503. In 1480, he led the small Hospitaller garrison of Rhodes that withstood the latest [[Siege of Rhodes (1480)|Siege of Rhodes]].<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aubusson, Pierre d'|Aubusson, Pierre d']]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''2''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 892.</ref> After his death in 1491, Mehmed's son [[Cem Sultan]] sought refuge from his brother [[Bayezid II]]. Cem was guarded by d'Aubusson and the Hospitallers first in Rhodes and later in France and Rome.<ref name="referenceworks.brillonline.com">Vatin, Nicolas, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/cem-COM_24384?s.num=50&s.start=40 Cem]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three'', Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Devin J. Stewart.</ref>

===Teutonic Knights===

The [[State of the Teutonic Order]] maintained the greatest fighting force in Northern Europe, reaching the peak of its international prestige and hosted numerous European crusaders and nobility at the beginning of the 15th century. [[Konrad von Jungingen|Conrad of Jungingen]] (1393–1407) was Grand Master at that time, and under his administration, the Teutonic Order would reach its greatest extent.''<ref name=":11">Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teutonic Order, The|Teutonic Order]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''26''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 676–679.</ref>''

In 1386, [[List of Lithuanian monarchs|Grand Duke of Lithuania]] was baptised into Christianity and married [[Jadwiga of Poland]], taking the name [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] and becoming King of Poland. This created a [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Polish-Lithuanian Union]], a formidable opponent for the Teutonic Knights. The Order initially managed to play Władysław II and his cousin [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] off against each other, but this strategy failed when Vytautas began to suspect that the Order was planning to annex parts of his territory.<ref name=":3">Robert Nisbet Bain (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wladislaus|Wladislaus]] II". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''28''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 765–766.</ref>

The baptism of Władysław began the official conversion of Lithuania to Christianity. Although the crusader mission for the Order ended when Prussia and Lithuania had become officially Christian, the feuds and wars with Lithuania and Poland continued. The [[Lizard Union (medieval)|Lizard League]] was created in 1397 by Prussian nobles in [[Chełmno Land]] to oppose the Order's policy. Prussian knight [[Jan Bażyński]] left service of the Order to join the Lizard League.{{sfn|Woodhouse|1879|pp=285–286|loc=The Teutonic Knights}}

[[Albert of Sweden]] ceded [[Gotland#Middle Ages|Gotland]] to the Order with the understanding that they would eliminate the pirating [[Victual Brothers]]. An invasion force under Conrad of Jungingen conquered the island in 1398. Upon the death of Conrad in 1407, [[Ulrich von Jungingen|Ulrich of Jungingen]] (1407–1410) became Grand Master, and in 1409 guaranteed peace with the [[Kalmar Union]] by selling Gotland to [[Margaret I of Denmark]].<ref name=":6">Deutsche Biographie (2005). "[https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11928264X.html#ndbcontent Konrad von Jungingen]". In [[Neue Deutsche Biographie|''Neue Deutsche Biographie'' (NDB)]]. '''22'''. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.</ref>
[[File:Teutonic Order 1410.png|thumb|250px|Teutonic state in 1410]]
By 1407, the Teutonic Order reached its greatest territorial extent and included the lands of [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]], [[Pomerelia#Teutonic Order|Pomerelia]], [[Samogitia#History|Samogitia]], [[Courland]], [[Livonia#Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights 1237–1561|Livonia]], [[Estonia#Crusades and the Catholic Era|Estonia]], [[Hiiumaa|Dagö]], and [[Saaremaa|Ösel]] with its fortress [[Kuressaare Castle]]. The [[Neumark#Teutonic Knights|Neumark]] was pawned by [[Brandenburg#Late Middle Ages|Brandenburg]] in 1402 and it passed completely under the Order's control in 1429, although the region was neglected. Ulrich's policy of confrontation with Lithuania and the Poland would spark the [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War]] and lead to disaster for the Order, and his own death, at the [[Battle of Grunwald]].{{sfn|Sterns|1985|pp=316–317|loc=Teutonic Knights}}

Grand Master [[Heinrich von Plauen|Henry of Plauen]] (1410–1413) fought to restore the Order's status, but was removed from office. He did oversee the [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|First Peace of Thorn]]. He was succeeded by [[Michael Küchmeister von Sternberg|Michael Küchmeister of Sternberg]] (1413–1422), who was captured at the [[Battle of Koronowo]]. During the tenure of his successor [[Paul von Rusdorf|Paul of Rusdorf]] (1422–1441), the [[Prussian Confederation|Prussian League]] was established to counter the Order. Paul also signed the [[Treaty of Melno]]. [[Konrad von Erlichshausen|Conrad of Erlichshausen]] (1441–1449) and his cousin [[Ludwig von Erlichshausen|Ludwig of Erlichshausen]] (1450–1467) served next, engaging in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466)|Thirteen Years' War]], resulting the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)|Second Peace of Thorn]] which made the Grand Masters vassals to Poland in some territories.''<ref name=":11" />''

[[Heinrich Reuß von Plauen|Henry Ruess of Plauen]] took control of the army after the Thirteen Years' War, having led the victory at the [[Battle of Chojnice (1454)|Battle of Chojnice]]. He then served as Grand Master from 1467 to 1470. He was succeeded by [[Heinrich Reffle von Richtenberg|Henry Reffle of Richtenberg]] (1470–1477), [[Martin Truchseß von Wetzhausen|Martin Truchsess of Wetzhausen]] (1477–1489), and [[Johann von Tiefen|John of Tiefen]] (1489–1497). [[Frederick of Saxony (Teutonic Knight)|Frederick of Saxony]] was the last Grand Master of the 15th century, serving from 1498 to 1510. The Order had been in a long power struggle with Poland over Prussia, complicated by the fact that Frederick was related by marriage to [[John I Albert of Poland]]. When John attempted to interfer in the business of the Order, Frederick referred the matter to the [[Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Reichstag]], which informed John that he could not interfere in the Grand Master's free exercise of power in Prussia.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=351–375|loc=The End of the Baltic Crusade, 1382–1562}}

===Order of the Dragon===

The [[Order of the Dragon]] was a chivalric order for the higher aristocracy and monarchs, fashioned after the military orders of the Crusades, and requiring its initiates to defend the cross and fight the enemies of Christianity, particularly the Ottoman Empire. The Order flourished during the first half of the 15th century, primarily in Germany and Italy. After Sigismund's death in 1437, its importance declined in Western Europe. However, after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, it continued to play a role in Hungary, Serbia and Romania, the countries which bore the brunt of the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]].{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=465–483|loc=The Balkans in the Early Fifteenth Century}}

The history of the Order dates to 1396, when [[Pope Boniface IX|Boniface IX]] proclaimed a crusade against the Ottomans. A campaign was organized to liberate [[Ottoman Bulgaria#First revolts and the Great Powers|Bulgaria]] from the Turks, save Constantinople, and put a halt to the Ottoman expansion. Sigismund was nominally in charge. But, at the [[Battle of Nicopolis]], the French commander [[John the Fearless]] ignored Sigismund's entreaties by charging the Turks. About 12,000 crusaders died with only a few leaders, including Sigismund, escaping. Sigismund returned to Hungary in 1401 and, facing a number of revolts, gradually resumed control and re-asserted himself as the King of Hungary.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=465–483|loc=The Balkans in the Early Fifteenth Century}}
[[File:Prince fruzhin of bulgaria.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Fruzhin]], Prince of Bulgaria]]
On 12 December 1408, Sigismund and his wife [[Barbara von Cilli]] founded the Order of the Dragon. The Order adopted [[Saint George]] as its patron saint, whose legendary defeat of a dragon was used as a symbol for the military and religious ethos of the order. Among the members of the Order were [[Henry V of England]] (honorary member), Serbian despot [[Stefan Lazarević|Stefan the Tall]] (Lazarević) and his brother [[Vuk Lazarević]], Bulgarian prince [[Fruzhin]], and Albanian military leader [[Gjergj Arianiti]]. [[Wallachia]]n rulers [[Vlad II Dracul]] and his son [[Vlad the Impaler]] took their names from the Order of the Dragon, as ''Dracul'' in [[Old Romanian]] and related languages, means ''the dragon'' or ''the devil''.<ref name=":13">Rezachevici, Constantin (1999) "[https://research.library.kutztown.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=dracula-studies From the Order of the Dragon to Dracula]". Journal of Dracula Studies: Vol. 1 , Article 1.</ref>

===Military Orders in Iberia===

The [[Order of Santiago]] was a religious and military order founded in the 12th century in [[León, León|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]. Its initial objective was to protect the pilgrims on the Way of St. James, to defend Christendom, and to remove the Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula. [[Álvaro de Luna]] was a confidant of [[John II of Castile]] and [[Constable of Castile]] who served as the Grand Master of the Order from 1445 to 1453. He succeeded [[Infante Henry, Duke of Villena|Henry of Aragon]], from the Aragonese royal family of [[House of Trastámara|Trastámara]], between 1409 and 1445.<ref name=":1">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Luna, Álvaro de|Luna, Álvaro de]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''17''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 123.</ref>

In the early 14th century, the Knights Templar were disbanded over much of Europe and the Levant. Nevertheless, in Portugal, the Templars survived in two guises: [[Military Order of Christ]] and the [[Order of Montesa]].<ref name=":15">Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Templars|Templars]]". In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''26.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 595.</ref>

The Military Order of Christ grew out of the former order of the Knights Templar as it was reconstituted in Portugal. In 1319, [[Denis of Portugal]] revived the [[Tomar#History|Templars of Tomar]] as the Order of Christ, largely for their aid during the ''Reconquista'' and in the reconstruction of Portugal after the wars. They were based at the [[Convent of Christ (Tomar)|Convent of Christ]], a 12th-century Templar stronghold. Denis negotiated with the pope for recognition of the new order and its right to inherit the Templar assets and property. This was granted by the papal bull ''Ad ea ex quibus'' on 14 March 1319.<ref name=":4">Charles Moeller (1908). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Order of the Knights of Christ|Order of the Knights of Christ]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''3.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

After 1417, [[John I of Portugal|John of Aviz]] appoined [[Henry the Navigator]] as the Order's Grand Master. Funded by the Order, Henry organized the Navigator's School in [[Sagres (Vila do Bispo)#History|Sagres]], preparing the way for Portuguese supremacy. From this village, the first great wave of expeditions of the [[Portugal in the period of discoveries|Period of Discoveries]] were launched. The [[History of the Order of Christ#After Henry the Navigator|Order after Henry]] continued into the 16th century with papal support.<ref>Charles Raymond Beazley (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Henry of Portugal|Henry of Portugal]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''13''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 296–297.</ref>

The Templars had been received with enthusiasm within [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]] from their foundation in 1128. After 1312, [[James II of Aragon]] was allowed to recoup the Templar properties in [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], and to create a new military order charged with the defense of the frontier against the Moors and the pirates. This new [[Order of Montesa]] was approved on 10 June 1317. There were fourteen Grand Masters of the Order. In 1485, [[Philip of Viana]] renounced the [[Archbishopric of Palermo]] to become grand master. He died fighting in the [[War of Granada|Granada War]] in 1488. The office of grand master was united with the Crown by [[Philip II of Spain]] in 1587.<ref name=":5">Charles Moeller (1911). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Military Order of Montesa|Military Order of Montesa]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''10.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

==Byzantium and the Balkans==
The [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars]] were a series of decisive conflicts that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Nicol|1993|pp=251–412|loc=The Byzantine as a Vassal of the Turks: the Last Hundred Years}} The Byzantines, already having been in a weak state even before the partitioning of their Empire following the Fourth Crusade, never recovered fully. They faced increasingly disastrous defeats against the Ottomans, ultimately losing Constantinople in 1453, formally ending the conflicts. Many of the states founded as part of the resultant [[Latin Empire]] were still active at the beginning of the 15th century but would eventually fall to the Ottomans.{{sfn|Housley|1992|loc=Latin Rule in Greece and the Aegean, 1274–1580}}

===Byzantine Empire===
[[Manuel II Palaeologus]] was the second son of [[John V Palaiologos]], and in 1373 was proclaimed heir and co-emperor of his father and was crowned on 25 September 1373. During the [[Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379|Byzantine Civil War]] of 1373–1379, Manuel and his father were displaced, and Manuel was forced to go as a hostage to the court of the [[Bayezid I]] at [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]]. During his stay, Manuel was forced to participate in the Ottoman campaign that led to the [[Fall of Philadelphia]], the last Byzantine enclave in Anatolia.{{sfn|Çelik|2021|pp=173–212|loc=Besieged}}

When his father died in February 1391, Manuel fled the Ottoman court and secured the capital against any potential rival claims. Following Manuel's coronation, Bayezid was initially content to leave Byzantium in comparative peace, until 1394 when the [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars#Resumption of hostilities: 1394–1424|Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] continued with the [[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|Siege of Constantinople]]. In the meantime, an anti-Ottoman crusade led by Sigismund failed at the [[Battle of Nicopolis]] on 25 September 1396. Manuel II had sent ten ships to help in that crusade. In October 1397, [[Theodore Kantakouzenos]] requested help from France and England, but they were beset with domestic troubles and unable to provide any support.{{sfn|Çelik|2021|pp=173–212|loc=Besieged}}

French marshall [[Jean II Le Maingre]] accompanied six ships carrying 1,200 men to assist Manuel II. Le Maingre encouraged the emperor to go personally to seek assistance against the Ottoman Empire from the courts of Western Europe. After some five years of siege, Manuel II entrusted the city to his nephew [[John VII Palaiologos]] while he went abroad to France and England to beseech the kings for support.{{sfn|Hinterberger|Schabel|2011|pp=397–402|loc=Manuel II Palaiologos in Paris}}
[[File:Map of the southern Balkans, 1410.svg|thumb|right|Map of the southern Balkans and western Anatolia in 1410]]
The Ottomans were defeated by [[Timur]] at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402. As the sons of Bayezid I struggled with each other over the succession in the [[Ottoman Interregnum]], John VII was able to secure the return of the European coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]] and [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]] through the [[Treaty of Gallipoli]] negotiated with one of Bayezid's sons, [[Süleyman Çelebi]]. When Manuel II returned home in 1403, his nephew duly surrendered control of Constantinople and received as a reward the governorship of newly recovered Thessalonica. The treaty also regained [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]] and the Marmara coast from [[Üsküdar|Scutari]] to [[İzmit|Nicomedia]]. Nevertheless, Manuel II kept in contact with Venice, Genoa, Paris and Aragon by sending envoy [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] in 1407 to form a coalition against the Ottomans.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chrysoloras, Manuel|Chrysoloras, Manuel]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''6''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 320.</ref>

Manuel II was on friendly terms with [[Mehmed I]], the victor in the Interregnum, but his attempts to meddle in the next contested succession led to the [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)|Siege of Constantinople]] by [[Murad II]] in 1422.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murad#Murad II|Murad II]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''19''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 14.</ref> During the last years of his life, Manuel II relinquished most official duties to his son and heir [[John VIII Palaiologos]], and went back to the West searching for assistance against the Ottomans. Under the domination of the Ottomans for a century, Byzantine would eventually fall in 1453 with the [[Fall of Constantinople|Conquest of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Creasy|1878|pp=75–92|loc=Reign and Character of Mahomet II}}

===The Morea, Achaea and Athens===
The [[Despotate of the Morea]] was established as a Byzantine territory in 1349 under [[Manuel Kantakouzenos]].{{sfn|Runciman|2009|loc=Mistra}} In 1380, the rival [[Palaiologos]] dynasty seized the Morea, with [[Theodore I Palaiologos]] becoming despot in 1383. Theodore ruled until 1407, consolidating Byzantine rule and coming to terms with his more powerful neighbours—particularly the expansionist Ottoman Empire, whose suzerainty he recognized. Subsequent despots were the sons of the emperor Manuel II Palaiologos: [[Theodore II Palaiologos]], [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]], [[Demetrios Palaiologos]], and [[Thomas Palaiologos]]. As Latin power in the [[Peloponnese]] waned during the 15th century, the Morea expanded to incorporate the entire peninsula in 1430. Territory was acquired by dowry settlements and the conquest of [[Patras]] by Constantine. However, in 1446 the Ottomans destroyed the Byzantine defenses at the [[Hexamilion wall]], opening the peninsula to invasion. When the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, Demetrios and Thomas were allowed to continue as vassals. By 1460, they were exiled and the despotate annexed into the empire.{{sfn|Topping|1975|pp=163–166|loc=Despotate of the Morea}}

In [[Principality of Achaea|Achaea]], the principality was seized by [[James of Baux]], who in 1374 had become titular Emperor of Constantinople. In 1383, Achaea was annexed by [[Charles III of Naples]], successor and murderer of [[Joan I of Naples]], who was the grandson of [[John, Duke of Durazzo|John of Durazzo]], driving out James of Baux. In 1404, [[Ladislaus of Naples]] installed [[Centurione II Zaccaria]] as prince. Centurione continued to hold the post until 1430, when invasions by the Morea conquered the heartland of the principality. Centurione married off his daughter and heiress, [[Catherine Zaccaria]], to the despot and retreated to his ancestral Messenian castle. On his death in 1432, this too was seized by the Byzantines. In about 1450, his illegitimate son [[John Asen Zaccaria]] was the focus of rebellions against Constantine XI. The Byzantine reconquest proved short-lived as the Ottomans conquered the despotate in 1460.{{sfn|Topping|1975|pp=160–162|loc=Principality of Achaea}}

The [[Duchy of Athens]] was controlled by the Venetians from 1395 to 1402. [[Antonio I Acciaioli]] captured Athens in 1402 and the Acropolis in 1403. After the Ottoman loss at the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, Antonio and the Venetians separately approached [[Süleyman Çelebi]]. with the former trying to gain recognizion of his position, the latter seeking to usurp that position. The Ottoman Interreggum precluded any such support. Cardinal [[Angelo II Acciaioli]] began negotiations and reached a compromise on 31 March 1405. In 1410, he joined the Ottomans to devastate Venetian [[Nafplio#Venetian and Ottoman rule|Nauplia]]. In 1419, a peace was reached and Antonio was asked to cease harassing the Venetians. In 1423, he was at war with Morea and occupied [[Ancient Corinth#Principality of Achaea|Corinth]]. In 1444, Athens became a tributary of Morea. In 1456, [[Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey]] conquered the remnants of the duchy.{{sfn|Setton|1975|pp=260–277|loc=Greece in the 15th century}}

===Serbia, Albania and Bosnia===
Numerous Ottoman attempts to conquer the Balkans in the 14th century were turned back. Sultan [[Murad I]] then led his forces to defeat a Balkan coalition army led by Serbs, supported by Albanians and Bosnians, in the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. This led to the [[Fall of the Serbian Empire|Fall of Serbian Empire]] shortly thereafter. The [[Serbian Despotate]], a successor of the empires of [[Serbian Empire|Serbia]] and [[Moravian Serbia|Moravia]], lasted for another 60 years, experiencing a cultural, economic and political renaissance, especially during the reign of despot [[Stefan Lazarević]]. After the death of [[Đurađ Branković]] in 1456, the despotate continued to exist for another three years before it finally fell under Ottoman rule.<ref name=":25">Chedomille Mijatovich (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Servia|Servia]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''24''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 686–698.</ref>

The Ottomans first came into Albania by invitation, jointly winning the [[Battle of Savra]] on 18 September 1385. Subsequently, they had some influence in Albania but not direct control, establishing the [[Sanjak of Albania]] in 1415.<ref name=":30">James David Bourchier (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albania (Balkans)|Albania (Balkans)]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''1''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 481–487.</ref>

The [[Albanian revolt of 1432–1436]], the first of the series of [[Albanian–Turkish Wars (1432–1479)|Albanian-Turkish wars]], was led by [[Gjergj Arianiti]]. Sultan [[Murad II|Murat II]] gathered a large force under [[Ali Bey Evrenosoglu|Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu]] that was ambushed and defeated by Arianiti. This victory prompted the Albanians to call upon [[Depë Zenebishi]] to lead the rebels in the south. His forces besieged the southern city of [[Gjirokastër#Medieval period|Gjirokastër]] where Ottoman commander [[Turahan Bey]] defeated the troops that surrounded the city in early 1433.<ref name=":31">[https://countrystudies.us/albania/17.htm The Ottoman Conquest of Albania] (1994). U. S. Library of Congress.</ref>

In the summer of 1433, the Ottoman army subdued the rebels in the domains of [[Gjon Kastrioti]], while his son [[Skanderbeg]], who was also called to join the revolt, remained in Ottoman service in Anatolia. In northern Albania, [[Nicholas Dukagjini]] recaptured lost territories and captured [[Dagnum]]. Dukagjini then tried to ally himself with Venice by offering to accept Venetian suzerainty and granting them control of Dagnum. However, Venice refused any kind of involvement in his plan and the revolt in general.<ref name=":32">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scanderbeg|Scanderbeg]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''24''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 287.</ref>
[[File:Ritratto di Giorgio Scanderbeg.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Portrait of Skanderbeg by [[Cristofano dell'Altissimo]]]]
In December 1434, [[Ishak Bey|Ishak Bey of Üsküb]] marched into Albania but was again defeated. In April 1435, Arianiti defeated another Ottoman campaign and hostilities ceased. By mid-1436, Turahan Bey assembled a large force that subdued the revolt and marched through Albania, committing widespread massacres of civilians.{{sfn|Moore|1850|loc=Scanderbeg, King of Albania}}

In August 1443, Arianiti again rebelled against Ottomans, urged by the news of defeat of [[Hadım Şehabeddin]]. Throughout the winter of 1444, he led an army deep into Macedonia. During the same time, the Ottomans were routed at the [[Battle of Niš (1443)|Battle of Niš]], after which Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army and began another rebellion. Skanderbeg eventually allied with Gjergj Arianit in the [[League of Lezhë]].{{sfn|Moore|1850|loc=Scanderbeg, King of Albania}}

[[Skanderbeg's rebellion]] began soon thereafter, and he was victorious in the [[Battle of Torvioll]] on 29 June 1444. Skanderbeg's forces lost the fortress [[Baleč]] to Venetian forces in 1448 during [[Albanian–Venetian War (1447–1448)|Skanderbeg's war against Venice]]. The Ottoman victory at the [[Siege of Svetigrad (1448)|Siege of Svetigrad]] on 31 July 1448 was a setback, but the Albanians were successful in the sixth-month [[Siege of Krujë (1450)|Siege of Krujë]] on 23 November 1450. The Ottoman army acknowledged that the castle of Krujë would not fall by strength of arms and lifted the siege.{{sfn|Moore|1850|loc=Scanderbeg, King of Albania}}

The [[Treaty of Gaeta]] between [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] (representing the Kingdom of Naples) and the ambassadors of Skanderbeg was signed on 26 March 1451. In the treaty, Skanderbeg recognized himself a vassal of Naples, and in return he would have the kingdom's protection from the Ottomans. Alfonso V believed that he would be able to use Albania as a foothold to further expand his realm into the Balkans and conduct an anti-Turkish crusade. With political and material support from Naples and the Vatican, resistance to the Ottoman Empire continued for 36 years.<ref name=":0">Mark Aloisio. [https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315615158-9/alfonso-anti-turkish-crusade-mark-aloisio?context=ubx Alfonso V and the anti-Turkish crusade].</ref>

The [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] lasted from 1377 to 1463. Although Hungarian kings viewed Bosnia as under their sovereignty during this time, Bosnian independence continued. [[Tvrtko I of Bosnia]] acquired portions of western Serbia and much of the Adriatic coast, becoming one of the strongest states in the Balkan Peninsula. The [[Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman conquest of Bosnia]] led to the annexation of much of eastern Bosnia between 1440 and 1451, with the last fortress falling in 1481. The first Ottoman governor of Bosnia was [[Ishak-Beg]], who in 1443 was replaced by [[Isa-Beg Isaković]]. The last king of Bosnia was [[Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia|Stephen Tomašević]], who was captured by the Ottomans and killed in 1463.<ref name=":26">Kingsley Garland Jayne (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''4''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 279–286.</ref>

==Spain and Portugal==
By the 15th century, the [[Moors|Moors']] position in Iberia had been significantly reduced due to the successes of the ''[[Reconquista]]''.{{sfn|Lardner|1833|loc=History of Spain and Portugal}} The only holdout was the [[Emirate of Granada]] which whould fall by the end of the century. The continued efforts by Castile and Aragon, to be united by the end of the century, and Portugal brought to fruition the centuries-old endeavor.{{sfn|Bishko|1975|pp=396–456|loc=The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest}}

===Castile===
The [[Crown of Castile]] formed in 1230 as a result of the merging of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]. [[Henry III of Castile|Henry the Suffering]] became king in 1390. He supported antipope [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]] and restarted the conflict against the Emirate of Granada, winning a victory at the [[Battle of Collejares]], which freed the town in 1406. In 1402, he sent [[Hernán Sánchez de Palazuelos]] and [[Ruy González de Clavijo]] as [[Timurid relations with Europe#Embassy of Ruy González de Clavijo|ambassadors to Timur]] to discuss the possibility of an alliance between the [[Timurid Empire]] and Castile against the Ottoman Empire. Unable to procure a letter from Timur for Henry, the Castilians were forced to depart Samarkand on 21 November 1404 due to Timur's impending death.{{sfn|Atiya|1938|p=256|loc=Timur and Spain}}

Henry died on 25 December 1406, while preparing a campaign against Granada. He was succeeded by his son [[John II of Castile]]. In 1431, John placed [[Yusuf IV, Sultan of Granada|Yusuf IV of Granada]] on the throne as the sultan of Granada in exchange for tribute and vassal status to Castile. That year, there were several claimants to the throne of Granada. [[Muhammad IX of Granada]] had entered Iberia from Tunisia in 1429, with the promise of Castilian support in overthrowing [[Muhammad VIII of Granada]]. John II did not decisively support either, instead playing them against each other to obtain greater tribute and the concession of Granada as a vassal of Castile. Muhammad VIII surrendered in 1429 and was killed in March 1431, leaving Muhammad IX on the throne, but without having reached an agreement with Castile. [[Álvaro de Luna]] led the Castillian forces against Granada in the [[Battle of La Higueruela]] in July 1431, which was a modest success but failed to take Granada. John II continued to demand greater concessions, and would not offer a permanent peace. Instead, he supported Yusuf IV who agreed to tribute and to be John's vassal.{{sfn|Harvey|1992|p=251|loc=Yusuf IV of Granada}}

In 1427, Álvaro was expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the following year. In 1431, he endeavoured to employ the restless nobles in a campaign for the reconquest of Granada, the remaining territory of Muslim Spain and then ruled by the sultan Muhammed IX. Some successes were gained at the [[Battle of La Higueruela]], but in the end Álvaro failed. A consistent policy was impossible with a rebellious aristocracy and a king of indolent character.

In 1445, the faction of nobles allied with Álvaro's main enemies, the [[Infantes of Aragon]], were defeated at the [[First Battle of Olmedo]]. One of them, Infante [[Henry, Duke of Villena]], brother of the queen, died of his wounds. Álvaro, who had been Constable of Castile and Count of San Esteban de Gormaz since 1423, became [[List of grand masters of the Order of Santiago|Grand Master of the Order of Santiago]] by election of the knights.

In 1454, John II died and was succeeded by [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry the Impotent,]] the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Castile and León. During Henry's reign, the nobles became more powerful and the nation became less centralised. Henry convened the Cuéllar Courts to launch an offensive against the Emirate of Granada. The campaigns of 1455 and 1458 developed into a war of attrition based on punitive raids and avoiding pitched battles.{{sfn|Lardner|1833|pp=176–258, Volume 2|loc=United Crowns of Castile and Leon, 1230-1516}}
[[File:Losreyescatolicos.jpg|thumb|right|Ferdinand and Isabella with their subjects]]
[[Isabella I of Castile]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] then reigned jointly with over a dynastically unified [[Spanish Empire|Spanish Empire]].<ref name=":8">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Isabella of Castile|Isabella of Castile]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''14''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 859.</ref> Together they are known as the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Catholic Monarchs]]. At the end of the ''Reconquista'', only Granada was left for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer. Granada had been held by the [[Nasrid dynasty]] since the mid-13th century. Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, it had withstood the long process of the ''Reconquista''. On 1 February 1482, the king and queen reached [[Medina del Campo]] and this is generally considered the beginning of the [[Granada War|War of Granada]]. While Isabella's and Ferdinand's involvement in the war was apparent from the start, Granada's leadership was divided and never able to present a united front. It still took ten years to conquer Granada, culminating in a Spanish victory in 1492.{{sfn|Prescott|1856|pp=316–339, Volume 1|loc=War of Granada}}

===Aragon===
The [[Crown of Aragon]] originated with the dynastic union of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] and [[County of Barcelona|Barcelona]].{{sfn|Lardner|1833|pp=76–150, Volume 3|loc=Aragon, 1035-1516}} [[Martin of Aragon|Martin the Humane]] became king in 1396 and launched crusades against the Moors in North Africa in 1398 and 1399. In addition, Aragon had conquered most of [[Sardinia]], but the independent principality of [[Arborea]] became a fortress of rebellion. The Aragonese were driven back by [[Eleanor of Arborea]] and Sardinia was nearly lost. Martin sent his son [[Martin I of Sicily|Martin the Younger]], then king of Sicily, to reconquer Sardinia. He won the [[Battle of Sanluri]] in 1409, drove away the Genoese allies of the Sardinians, and subjugated a vast number of Sardinian nobles. This soon resulted in Arborea's total loss of independence.<ref>Ester Marti (2015). [https://www.academia.edu/12628187/The_Battle_of_Sanluri_in_the_process_of_recreating_Sardinian_identity The Battle of Sanluri in the process of recreating Sardinian identity]. In Identities in Conflict. Flocel Sabaté, editor.</ref>

[[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] was the nephew of Martin the Humane and defeated the Emirate of Granada in the [[Antequera#Middle ages|Battle of Antequera]] on 16 September 1410. After a four-month siege, the city capitulated to a Castilian army led by the ''infante'' Ferdinand.<ref>García Fernández, Manuel (2011). "[https://idus.us.es/bitstream/handle/11441/70485/AH33-1.pdf?sequence=1 La toma de Antequera y el infante don Fernando]". ''Andalucía en la Historia''. '''33''': 40–41</ref> The Muslim population was forced to leave the town. They surrendered the castle and their Christian slaves in exchange for being allowed to carry their goods out of the city. For two days, they were able to sell their properties and the town was resettled with a Christian population. Up until 1487, Antequera was attached to [[Seville]].<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[Antequera]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''2''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 93.</ref>

After Ferdinand's uncle Martin died without surviving legitimate issue, Ferdinand was chosen king in 1412 to succeed him in the [[Compromise of Caspe]]. The success at Antequera was the last important event in the ''Reconquista'' in the 15th century prior to the War of Granada.{{sfn|Bishko|1975|pp=445–446|loc=The Antequera Campaign}}

When Ferdinand died in 1416, he was succeeded by his son [[Alfonso V of Aragon]]. After being taken captive at the [[Battle of Ponza (1435)|Battle of Ponza]] in 1435, the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Naples#Angevin dynasty|Naples]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily#The insular Kingdom of Sicily under the Crown of Aragon and Spain|Sicily]], divided since the [[Sicilian Vespers]], were reuinited under Alfonso's dominion.<ref>[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-0228 Alfonso V of Aragon]. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages'' (2010). R. Bjork, ed.</ref> The [[First Battle of Olmedo]] between Aragon and Castile took place on 19 May 1445, prompted by the decrees of John II of Castile and his aide Álvaro de Luna. [[John II of Aragon]], then [[List of Navarrese monarchs#House of Trastámara, 1425–1479|king of Navarre]], invaded Castile aided by his brother Alfonso V. John II of Castile met the invasion at [[Olmedo, Valladolid|Olmedo]], where he was successful. [[Henry of Aragon]], the younger brother of Alfonso and John, died of his wounds a few days later in [[Calatayud]].<ref name=":1" />

John II of Aragon succeeded his brother as king of Aragon in 1458 and was embroiled in local intrigue.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/John II of Aragon|John II of Aragon]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''15''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 440.</ref> In 1479, the new dynastic union of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] with the [[Isabella I of Castile]] was formed.<ref>Ramón Ruiz Amado (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Isabella I|Isabella I]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''8.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

===Portugal===
{{main|History of Portugal (1415–1578)}}

In 1383, a faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by [[John I of Portugal|John of Aviz]] and commanded by General [[Nuno Álvares Pereira]] defeated the Castilians in the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]]. He became king of Portugal in 1385 and ruled in peace, pursuing the economic development of his realm. The only significant military action was the [[Conquest of Ceuta]] in 1415. With this, he aimed to control navigation of the African coast. But in the broader perspective, this was the first step opening the Arab world to medieval Europe, which in fact led to the [[Age of Discovery]] with Portuguese explorers sailing across the world.<ref>Kingsley Garland Jayne and Edgar Prestage (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Portugal|Portugal]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''22''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 134–164.</ref>
[[File:Henry the Navigator1.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Henry the Navigator]]
By the time John was succeeded by his son [[Edward, King of Portugal|Edward the Elegant]] in 1433, the colony at Ceuta had become a burden, and it was realised that without the city of [[Tangier#Early modern|Tangier]], possession of Ceuta was worthless. In 1437, the resulting [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|Battle of Tangier]] was a debacle for Portugal. Edward's son and successor [[Alfonso V of Portugal|Alfonso the African]] served from 1438 to 1477 and established Portugal as the lead in European exploration of the world and the [[Age of Discovery]]. Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], son of John I of Portugal, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavour.<ref>David McDowall Hannay (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alphonso|Alphonso]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''1''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 734.</ref>

==Islamic Dynasties==
Since the [[Eighth Crusade]] in the later 13th century, the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] were the principal Muslim threat to the Western powers. They would soon be supplanted by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] and, for a brief time, the [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]]. The [[Aq Qoyunlu]] would also dominate in Anatolia and Persia. In Iberia, [[al-Andalus]] was ruled by the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]], while across the Mediterranean, the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinids]] ruled Morocco.

===Mamluks===
{{main|Mamluk Sultanate}}
The [[Burji dynasty]] ruled the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1382 until 1517.{{sfn|Muir|1896|pp=105–186|loc=Circassian Dynasty}} [[Barquq]] was the founder of the dynasty and was the first sultan of [[Circassians|Circassian]] origins. In 1393, Barquq joined an alliance with the Ottomans to jointly oppose [[Timur]] with his intention to invade Syria. Barquq was succeeded by his son [[an-Nasir Faraj]] in 1399 and soon had to deal with the [[Siege of Damascus (1400)|Siege of Damascus]] in 1400, in which the city was lost to the Timurids. Faraj's death in 1412 led to a series of ineffectual sultans, with nine serving over the next decade.{{sfn|Ziyādaẗ|1975|pp=490–491|loc=Beginning of the Burji Dynasty}}

In 1422, the former slave [[Barsbay]] became sultan. During his tenure, the [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus]] of 1424–1426 occurred.<ref>Fernandes, Leonor (2013). “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/barsbay-al-malik-al-ashraf-COM_23996?s.num=188&s.start=180 Barsbāy, al-Malik al-Ashraf]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three.'' Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Devin J. Stewart.</ref> After Barsbay's death in 1438, his son [[Al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Yusuf|al-Aziz Jamal]] was briefly sultan, but was soon replaced by [[Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq]], a former atabeg to Faraj, who overthrew the 15-year old Jamal. Jaqmaq had to deal with piracy from Cyprus and Rhodes. In 1439, he launched an unsuccessful campaign against the two islands. A second failure in 1442 encouraged him to build a fleet capable of leading an assault against Rhodes. In July 1444, his fleet began the [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)|Siege of Rhodes]] which was unable to take the fortress. After that failure, Jaqmaq remained in peace with his neighbors.{{sfn|Rossi|1975|p=320|loc=Siege of Rhodes, 1444}}

Jamaq stepped down as sultan just weeks before his death, elevating his son [[al-Mansur Fakhr-ad-Din Uthman]] for a short reign. He was usurped by his atabeg [[Sayf ad-Din Inal]] in 1453. Friendly relations with the expanding Ottoman Empire were fostered and the [[Fall of Constantinople]] was celebrated in Cairo. The two sultanates exchanged ambbassadors and Inal sent his personal congratulations to [[Mehmed II]]. In June 1457, Inal sent an expeditionary force to attack the [[Karamanids]], leading to a Mamluk victory over [[Ibrahim II of Karaman]] in April 1458. In 1458, Inal received [[James II of Cyprus]] who hoped to wrest the Cypriot throne from his half-sister [[Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus|Charlotte of Cyprus.]] Toward that end a naval fleet was launched on 5 August 1460, but failed to install James as king. One day before his death, Inal installed his son [[al-Mu'ayyad Shihab al-Din Ahmad]] as sultan, who served but four months.{{sfn|Ziyādaẗ|1975|pp=499–501|loc=Sultan Inal}}

Al-Mu'ayyad was replaced as sultan by his atabeg and captor [[Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam]]. The new sultan was a Greek, and so was met with resistance among the entrenched Egyptians. Quelling the internal strife, he continued Inal's policies towards Cyprus. The Karamanid succession led to a parting of ways with Mehmed II. When Ibrahim II died in 1464, [[Pir Ahmad of Karaman|Pir Ahmet of Karaman]] tried to ascend to throne. But his half brother [[Ishak of Karaman]] who was the legal heir, struggled for the throne and became bey with the support of Khushqadam and [[Uzun Hasan]], sultan of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]]. Pir Ahmet asked Mehmet II for support in exchange for part of his beylik. With Ottoman support, he defeated his brother in battle at [[Dağpazarı, Mut|Dağpazarı]].{{sfn|Muir|1896|pp=163–171|loc=Ahmed and Khushqadam}}

[[Sayf ad-Din Bilbay]] served as sultan for a few months after the death of Khushqadam in 1467, but was soon transplanted by [[Timurbugha]], who again served only a short time. He was succeeded by [[Qaitbay]] who was a former slave of Barsbay. Qaitbay was proclaimed sultan in January 1468 and lasted nearly 29 years, the longest and most consequental of the Circassian sultans.{{sfn|Ziyādaẗ|1975|pp=502–507|loc=Sultan Qaitbay}}

Qaitbay's first major challenge was the [[Qaitbay#Early reign|insurrection of Shah Suwar]], leader of the Dhu'l-Qadrids, a Turkmen dynasty in eastern Anatolia. The first expedition against them was soundly defeated, and Suwar threatened to invade Syria. A second Mamluk army was sent in 1469, but was likewise defeated. In 1471 a third expedition succeeded in routing Suwar's army. Suwar and his brothers were captured and were drawn and quartered and their remains were hung from [[Bab Zuweila|Bab Zuwayla]]. At the same time, Qaitbay had to deal with the Aq Qoyunlu leader [[Uzun Hasan]] who had been masquerading as his loyal vassal during the dealings with Shah Suwar. The 1473 [[Battle of Otlukbeli]] with the Aq Qoyunlu was a foreshaddowing to the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491)|Ottoman–Mamluk War]] begun in 1485, leading to a truce of ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'' in 1491 which would last for two decades.{{sfn|Bosworth|2004|p=238|loc=The Dhu'l-Qadrids}}

===Ottomans===
{{main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire}}
In the century after its formation, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. The [[timeline of the Ottoman Empire]] shows the earliest conflicts beginning during the [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Byzantine–Ottoman Wars]], waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century. This was followed by the [[Bulgarian–Ottoman wars|Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars]] and the [[Serbian–Ottoman wars|Serbian–Ottoman Wars]] waged beginning in the mid-14th century.<ref>[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001;jsessionid=0FA32A90C9B42E60C5D2B9D774A90886 Timeline: Ottoman empire]. Oxford Reference (2012).</ref> Much of this period was characterised by [[Rumelia|Ottoman expansion into the Balkans]]. The capture of the northwestern Anatolian city of [[Bursa]] in 1326 formed the new capital of the Ottoman state and supplanted Byzantine control in the region. The important port city of [[Thessaloniki]] was captured from the Venetians in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in the [[Battle of Kosovo]] on 15 June 1389 effectively marked [[Fall of the Serbian Empire]] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989a|loc=The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1329–1451|pp=222–275}} [[File:Battle_of_Kosovo,_Adam_Stefanović,_1870.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|''Battle of Kosovo'', by [[Adam Stefanović]] (1870)]]

====Bayezid I====
In 1389, [[Bayezid I]] ascended to the throne following the death of his father [[Murad I]] at Kosovo. Bayezid embarked on a campaign to unify Anatolia under the Ottomans, which was successful until the [[Battle of Kırkdilim]] in 1392. In 1394, Bayezid crossed the Danube to attack [[Wallachia]] and again was stopped at the [[Battle of Rovine]].<ref>İnalcık, Halil, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_1302 Bāyazīd]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

Bayezid began the construction of the [[Anadoluhisarı]] fortress as part of preparations for the [[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|Siege of Constantinople]], which began in 1394. On the urgings of Manuel II Palaeologus, the [[Battle of Nicopolis|Crusade of Nicopolis]] was organized to defeat him.{{sfn|Atiya|1934|loc=The Crusade of Nicopolis}} In 1396, the crusader army under the leadership of Sigismund of Luxembourg was formed. The Ottomans were led by Bayezid and the Serbian prince [[Stefan Lazarević]]. In one of the last large-scale crusades, the Christian forces were soundly defeated in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]] on 25 September 1396.<ref>Rosetti, R. (1937). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4203281?seq=1 Notes on the Battle of Nicopolis (1396)]. The Slavonic and East European Review, 15(45), 629-638. Retrieved December 14, 2020</ref>
[[File:Tamerlan_und_Bajazet_(Celesti).jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|''Humiliation of Despina and Bayezid'', by [[Andrea Celesti]]]]
[[Timur]] had defeated the Mamluks at the [[Siege of Damascus (1400)|Siege of Damascus]] in 1400, and then turned his attention to the Ottomans. In 1402, Bayezid broke off his Siege of Constantinople and marched to Ankara. The resulting [[Battle of Ankara]] on 20 July 1402 was resounding victory for the Timurids. Bayezid and his wife Olivera were captured, with the sultan dying in captivity in 1403. This was followed by [[Siege of Smyrna]] in December 1402 in which Timur defeated the Hospitallers, taking the city held by them since 1344.<ref name="cambridge.org">Knobler, Adam (1995). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/rise-of-timur-and-western-diplomatic-response-13901405/39D1E058C9D3A6E36618E059EE2D1CC9 The Rise of Tīmūr and Western Diplomatic Response, 1390–1405]. ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,'' ''5''(3), pgs. 341–349.</ref>

====Ottoman Interregnum====
The [[Ottoman Interregnum]] followed the Ottoman defeat at Ankara. Although [[Mehmed I|Mehmed Çelebi]] was confirmed as sultan by Timur, his brothers [[İsa Çelebi]], [[Musa Çelebi]], [[Süleyman Çelebi]], and later, [[Mustafa Çelebi]], refused to recognize his authority, each claiming the throne for himself. Civil war was the result. The Interregnum lasted eleven years, until the [[Battle of Çamurlu]] on 5 July 1413, when Mehmed Çelebi emerged as victor.{{sfn|Kastritsis|2007|pp=1–188|loc=The Ottoman Civil War of 1402–1413}}

====Mehmed I====
After winning the Interregnum, Mehmed crowned himself sultan in [[Edirne#Medieval and early Ottoman periods|Edirne]] that lay in the European part of the empire, becoming [[Mehmed I]]. He consolidated his power, made Edirne the most important of the dual capitals, and conquered parts of [[Principality of Valona|Albania]], the [[Isfendiyarids|Beylik of Isfendiyar]], and the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia#Dispersion of the Armenian population of Cilicia|Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] from the Mamluks. Taking his many achievements into consideration, Mehmed is widely known as the second founder of the Ottoman Sultanate.<ref name=":20">İnalcık, Halil, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/mehemmed-i-COM_0728?s.num=714&s.start=700 Meḥemmed I]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

====Murad II====
[[Murad II]] succeeded his father in 1421. He then formed a new army called [[Azeb]] and, in 1422, began the [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)|Siege of Constantinople]]. Murad was forced to lift the siege due to the rebellion of his younger brother [[Küçük Mustafa]] in Anatolia. When Murad caught Mustafa, he had him executed, and the Anatolian beyliks that had been constantly plotting against him — [[Aydinids#History|Aydinids]], [[Germiyanids]], [[Menteshe]] and [[Beylik of Teke|Teke]] — were annexed. Murad II then declared war against Venice who withdrew in 1432 following the defeat at the [[Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)|Siege of Thessalonica]] in 1430. The Ottomans under Murad II won the [[Crusade of Varna]] in 1443–1444.<ref name=":19">Kramers, J.H., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/murad-ii-SIM_5531?s.num=545&s.start=540 Murād II]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

Murad II relinquished his throne in 1444 to his son [[Mehmed II]], but a [[Janissary]] revolt in the empire forced him to return. In 1448, he defeated the Christian coalition at the [[Second Battle of Kosovo]]. When the Balkan front was secured, Murad II turned east to defeat Timur's son [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rokh]] and Karamanid emir [[İbrahim II of Karaman|İbrahim Bey]]. In 1450, Murad II invaded [[Albania]] and led the unsuccessful [[Siege of Krujë (1450)|Siege of Krujë]] in an effort to defeat the resistance led by [[Skanderbeg]]. In the winter of 1450–1451, Murad II fell ill, and died in Edirne. He was succeeded by Mehmed II.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989a|pp=254–275|loc=The Struggle for the Balkans, 1421–1451}}

====Mehmed the Conqueror====
[[File:Gentile Bellini 003.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Mehmed II by [[Gentile Bellini]] dated 1480]]
[[Mehmed II]] was known as Mehmed the Conqueror and served as Ottoman sultan from August 1444 to September 1446 and then from February 1451 to May 1481. In his first reign, he defeated the crusade led by [[John Hunyadi]] after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the truce [[Peace of Szeged]]. When he ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the Ottoman navy and brought about the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and thus an end to the Byzantine Empire. Mehmed II viewed the Ottoman state as a continuation of the Roman Empire for the remainder of his life, seeing himself as continuing the Empire rather than replacing it. The list of [[List of campaigns of Mehmed the Conqueror|Ottoman conquests under Mehmed II]] stretches from 1451 to 1478.<ref name=":23">İnalcık, Halil, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/mehemmed-ii-SIM_5111?s.num=715&s.start=700 Meḥemmed II]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

The Ottoman Empire of the Classical Age experienced dramatic territorial growth. The period opened with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Mehmed II went on to consolidate the empire's position in the Balkans and Anatolia, conquering Serbia in 1454–1455, the Peloponnese in 1458–1459, Trebizond in 1461, and Bosnia in 1463. Many Venetian territories in Greece were conquered during the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–79)|Ottoman-Venetian War]] of 1463–1479. By 1474 the Ottomans had conquered their Anatolian rival, the [[Karamanids]], and in 1475 conquered [[Kaffa (city)|Kaffa]] on the [[Crimean Peninsula]], establishing the [[Crimean Khanate]] as a vassal state. In 1480 an invasion of [[Otranto]] in Italy was launched, but the death of Mehmed II the following year led to an Ottoman withdrawal.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989b|loc=The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1451–1522||pp=311–353}}

====Bayezid II====
After the death of Mehmed II, his son [[Bayezid II]] became sultan and his reign was one of consolidation after the rapid conquests of the previous era, and the empire's territory was expanded only marginally. In 1484 Bayezid led a campaign against [[Moldavia]], subjecting it to vassal status and annexing the strategic ports of [[Kiliya|Kilia]] and [[Akkerman]]. The [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491)|Ottoman–Mamluk War]] began in 1485. By 1491, the Mamluks were weary of the war and the Ottomans grew concerned over a possible crusade directed against them. The inconclusive conflict ended with a treaty which fixed their mutual border at the [[Cilician Gate|Gülek Pass]]. Major Venetian ports were conquered in Greece and Albania during the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)|Ottoman–Venetian War]] of 1499–1503, most significantly [[Methoni, Messenia|Modon]], [[Koroni|Koron]], and [[Durrës|Durazzo]]. However, by the end of his reign, Ottoman territory in the east was coming under threat from the newly established [[Safavid Empire]].<ref>Parry, V.J., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bayazid-ii-SIM_1303?s.num=548&s.start=540 Bāyazīd II]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

===Timurids===

{{main|Timurid Empire}}

The [[Timurid Empire]] was founded by [[Timur]], a warlord of Turco-Mongol lineage, who led the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405.<ref>Frederic John Goldsmid (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timūr|Timūr"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''26''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 994–995.</ref> Timur's victory over [[Tokhtamysh]], khan of the [[Golden Horde]], in the [[Tokhtamysh–Timur war]] from 1386 to 1385 led to his envisioning himself as the great restorer of the Mongol Empire. This was in conjunction with the [[Timur's invasions of Georgia|Timurid invasions of Georgia]] from 1386 to 1403 that were only partially successful. [[Timurid relations with Europe]] were also pursued against the common Ottoman enemy.{{sfn|Bernardini|2016|pp=109–119|loc=Tīmūr and the 'Frankish' Powers}}

Timur then turned his attention to Syria, leading the successful [[Sack of Aleppo (1400)|Sack of Aleppo]] and [[Siege of Damascus (1400)|Siege of Damascus]]. He invaded [[Baghdad#Stagnation and invasions (10th–16th centuries)|Baghdad]] in June 1401. Finally, Timur invaded Anatolia and defeated Bayezid I in the [[Battle of Ankara]] on 20 July 1402. Bayezid was captured in battle and subsequently died in captivity, initiating the twelve-year Ottoman Interregnum. In December 1402, Timur launched the successful [[Siege of Smyrna]], a stronghold of the Hospitallers. A mass beheading of the defenders was carried out in Smyrna by Timur's soldiers.<ref name="cambridge.org"/>

After Timur's death in 1405, his descendants ruler the empire which gradually fragmented. By 1469, the ruling [[Timurid dynasty]] had lost most of Persia to the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] confederation, a struggle which culminated in the [[Battle of Qarabagh]]. However, members of the Timurid dynasty continued to rule smaller states, the Timurid emirates, in Central Asia and parts of India. In the early 16th century, [[Babur]], a descendant of both [[Timur]] and [[Genghis Khan]] from [[Ferghana]], invaded [[Kabulistan]] and established a small kingdom there. Twenty years later, he used this kingdom as a staging ground to invade the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in [[Medieval India|India]] and establish the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>Bertold Spuler, “[https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid Periods],” ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', Vol. V, Fasc. 2, pgs. 172–176,</ref>

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
!Timurid emirs of the 15th century
|-
!Name
!Tenure
|-
|[[Timur]]
|1370–1405
|-
|[[Khalil Sultan]]
|1405–1409
|-
|[[Shah Rukh]]
|1405–1447
|-
|[[Ulugh Beg]]
|1447–1449
|-
|[[Abdal-Latif Mirza]]
|1449–1450
|-
|[[Abdullah Mirza]]
|1450–1451
|-
|[[Abu Sa'id Mirza]]
|1451–1469
|-
|[[Umar Shaikh Mirza II]]
|1469–1494
|-
|[[Babur]]
|1494–1530
|-
|}

===Emirate of Granada===

The [[Emirate of Granada]] in the southern Iberian Peninsula was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe. In the 13th century, the [[Almohad Caliphate]] in Morocco ruled the remaining Muslim territories in southern Iberia and from 1237 to 1239, the [[Nasrid dynasty]] seized [[Province of Granada|Granada]], [[Province of Almería|Almería]], and [[Province of Málaga|Málaga]]. By 1250, Granada was the only remaining Muslim province and a vassal of the rising [[Crown of Castile]].{{sfn|Bishko|1975|pp=432–434|loc=Emirate of Granada}}

[[Muhammad VII of Granada]] was the twelfth Nasrid ruler of Granada serving 1392–1408. In 1394, he defeated an invasion by the [[Order of Alcántara]] known as the [[Muhammad VII of Granada#Crusade of 1394|Crusade of 1394]]. This nearly escalated to a wider war, but Muhammad and [[Henry III of Castile]] were able to restore peace. He was succeeded by his brother [[Yusuf III of Granada]] and then [[Muhammad VIII of Granada]]. This was followed by the intermittant rule of [[Muhammad IX of Granada]] who was defeated by Castile at the [[Battle of Los Alporchones]] on 17 March 1452.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=267–290|loc=The Iberian Peninsula, 1274–1415}}

[[Muhammad XII of Granada]] ruled Granada during the [[Granada War]], a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491 during the reign of the Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending the last remnant of Islamic rule of [[al-Andalus]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=291–321|loc=The End of the Reconquista}}

===Marinid Sultanate===

In 1244, the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinids]] overthrew the [[Almohad Caliphate]] which had controlled [[Morocco#Berber empires and dynasties|Morocco]] for over a century. At the height of their power in the mid-14th century, the Marinid dynasty briefly held sway over most of the [[Maghreb]] and provided key support to the Emirate of Granada. They attempted to gain a foothold on the European side of the Strait of Gibraltar but were defeated first at the [[Battle of Río Salado]] in 1340 and then at the [[Siege of Algeciras (1342–44)|Siege of Algeciras]] in 1344.<ref>Shatzmiller, M., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/marinids-SIM_4966 Marīnids]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

[[Abu Said Uthman III|Abu Sa'id Uthman III]] was Marinid ruler of Morocco from 1398 to 1420, the last effective ruler of that dynasty. His forces were involved in an unsuccessful attempt to acquire Gibraltar from Granada in 1410. In 1415, after the [[Portuguese conquest of Ceuta]], he failed in an attempt to recover the city in the [[Siege of Ceuta (1419)|Siege of Ceuta]], and was assassinated shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by his son [[Abd al-Haqq II]] who served as sultan beginning in 1420 under the regency of a [[Wattasid dynasty|Wattasid]] ''vizier'', and later was nominal sultan under Wattasid control until 1465.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=276–287|loc=Marinids}}

The [[Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts|Moroccan-Portuguese conflicts]] would continue, punctuated by the defeat of Henry the Navigator at the [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|Battle of Tangier]] in 1437. Al-Haqq II, the last Marinid sultan, was overthrown and killed in the [[1465 Moroccan revolt|1465 Moroccan Revolt]].<ref>García-Arenal, Mercedes. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/615622 The Revolution of Fās in 869/1465 and the Death of Sultan ’Abd al-Ḥaqq al-Marīnī].” ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London'', vol. 41, no. 1, 1978, pp. 43–66</ref> This led to the establishment of direct Wattasid rule over most of Morocco. Portugal would eventually take Tangier in 1471.{{sfn|Beazley|1923|pp=177–187|loc=Tangiers}}

===Aq Qoyunlu===

The [[Aq Qoyunlu]], or the White Sheep Turkomans, were a tribal confederation founded in [[Diyar Bakr|Diyar Bakir]] by [[Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg|Uthman Beg]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2004|p=275|loc=The Aq Qoyunlu}} They ruled parts of present-day eastern Turkey from 1378 to 1503, and in their last decades also ruled Armenia, Azerbaijan, much of Iran, Iraq, and Oman.<ref name=":29">Erdem, Ilhan (2005). [http://dspace.khazar.org/handle/20.500.12323/127 The Aq-qoyunlu State from the Death of Osman Beg to Uzun Hasan Beg (1435–1456)]. ''Khazar Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences''. Khazar University Press. '''8''' (3–4).</ref> The Aq Qoyunlu empire reached its zenith under [[Uzun Hasan]].<ref>Minorsky, V. and Bosworth, C.E., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/uzun-hasan-SIM_7788?s.num=13 Uzun Ḥasan]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

The Aq Qoyunlu first acquired land in 1402, when Timur granted them all of Diyar Bakr.<ref name=":27">R. Quiring-Zoche (2011). [https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation Aq Qoyunlū]. ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', Vol. II, Fasc. 2, pp. 163-168.</ref> They were unable to expand their territory into that of their rivals, the [[Qara Qoyunlu]], or Black Sheep Turkomans. In November 1467, Uzun Hasan defeated the Black Sheep in a sudden attack at the [[Battle of Chapakchur]]. The Black Sheep sultan [[Jahan Shah]] was killed in the battle while his son [[Mirza Yusuf]] was captured. After the death of Jahan Shah, his son [[Hasan Ali (Kara Koyunlu)|Hasan Ali]], with the help of Timurid sultan [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]], marched on [[Azerbaijan#From the Sasanid period to the Safavid period|Azerbaijan]] to meet Uzun Hasan.<ref>Minorsky, V., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ak-koyunlu-SIM_0444?s.num=199&s.start=180 Aḳ Ḳoyunlu]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref> In the ensuing disastrous [[Battle of Qarabagh]], Abu Sa'id suffered heavy losses and was taken prisoner and was executed on 8 February 1469. Uzun Hasan sent his decapitated head to Mamluk sultan [[Qaitbay]].<ref name=":2">Melvin-Koushki, Matthew. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23033324 The Delicate Art of Aggression: Uzun Hasan’s ‘Fathnama’ to Qaytbay of 1469].” ''Iranian Studies'' 44, no. 2 (2011): 193–214.</ref>

==Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War==

The [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War]] occurred between 1409 and 1411 between the Teutonic Knights and the allied [[History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty|Kingdom of Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Inspired by the local uprising, the war began with a Teutonic invasion of Poland in August 1409. As neither side was ready for a full-scale war, [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia]] brokered a nine-month truce.<ref name=":16">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wenceslaus|Wenceslaus]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''28''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 517–518.</ref> After the truce expired in June 1410, the Teutons were decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Grunwald]], one of the largest battles of medieval Europe, with most of their leadership killed or taken prisoner. The Teutons never recovered their former power, and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and economic decline in their lands. The war shifted the balance of power in Central Europe and marked the rise of the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Polish–Lithuanian Union]] as the dominant power in the region.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=355–372|loc=The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War}}

===Origins of the conflict===
The [[Christianization of Lithuania]] removed the religious rationale for the Order's activities in Central Europe. However the Teutons responded by publicly contesting the sincerity of the conversion of [[Władysław II Jagiełło]], bringing the charge to a papal court. Territorial disputes continued over the Lithuanian region of [[Samogitia]], which was placed in Teutonic hands by [[Vytautas]], cousin of Władysław. Poland also had territorial claims in [[Dobrzyń Land]] and [[Gdańsk]], but the two states were largely at peace since the [[Treaty of Kalisz (1343)|Treaty of Kalisz]] of 1343. The conflict was also motivated by trade considerations: the Teutons controlled lower reaches of the three largest rivers –– [[Neman River|Neman]], [[Vistula]] and [[Daugava River|Daugava]] –– in Poland and Lithuania.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=355–372|loc=The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War}}

There were two [[Samogitian uprisings]] against the Teutonic Knights in 1401–1404 and 1409. After Samogitia had been granted to the Teutons by Vytautas, in order to enlist their support for his other military affairs, the local population resisted Teutonic rule and asked Vytautas to protect them. Vytautas' cousin [[Švitrigaila]] joined the war in January 1402 on the side of the Teutonic Knights as he laid claims to the throne of Lithuania. The first uprising was unsuccessful and the [[Peace of Raciąż]] was concluded on 22 May 1404.{{sfn|Kiaupa|2000|pp=137–138|loc=Samogitian uprisings}}

In 1408, Vytautas and Władysław met in [[Navahrudak]] and agreed to support the Samogitians and provoke the Teutons into declaring war against Poland. Poland had its own territorial quarrels with the Knights over the Dobrzyń Land and wanted to diminish Prussian influence in Lithuania while preserving the Polish–Lithuanian Union. Samogitians, angered by a famine in 1408, rose again on 26 May 26, 1409. When the Teutons threatened to invade Lithuania, Poland declared its support to the Lithuanian cause and threatened to invade Prussia in return. In August 1409, the Teutonic Knights declared war against Poland, which began the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=355–372|loc=The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War}}

===Battle of Grunwald===
[[File:Matejko Battle of Grunwald.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[Battle of Grunwald]], 1410. Painting by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
Władysław and Vytautas agreed that their armies would unite into a single massive force and march together towards [[Malbork|Marienburg]], capital of the Teutonic Knights. Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen|Ulrich of Jungingen]] did not expect a joint attack and took a defensive position to defend against a dual invasion – by the Poles along the Vistula River towards Gdańsk and by the Lithuanians along the Neman River towards [[Neman, Russia|Ragnit]].{{sfn|Jučas|2009|loc=The Battle of Grünwald}}

Wenceslaus agreed to mediate the dispute and a truce was signed on 8 October 1409, set to expire on 24 June 1410. The [[Battle of Grunwald]] was fought on 15 July 1410 and the Polish-Lithuanian alliance decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights. Ulrich of Jungingen and most of the Teutonic Order's leadership were killed or taken prisoner. The battle was one of the largest in medieval Europe. The battle is viewed as one of the most important victories in the histories of Poland and Lithuania.{{sfn|Turnbull|2005|pp=28–33|loc=Battle of Grunwald}}

===Siege of Marienburg===

After the battle, the Polish and Lithuanian forces delayed their attack on the Teutonic capital in Marienburg, remaining on the battlefield for three days. The main forces did not reach the heavily fortified capital until 26 July 1410, beginning the [[Siege of Marienburg (1410)|Siege of Marienburg]]. This delay gave [[Heinrich von Plauen|Henry of Plauen]], recently elected Grand Master, enough time to organize a defense. The besiegers expected capitulation and were not prepared for a long-term engagement, suffering from lack of ammunition, low morale, and an epidemic of dysentery. The nobles wanted to return home for the harvest and the mercenaries wanted to get paid. Lithuanian troops, commanded by Vytautas, were the first to withdraw. The siege was eventually lifted on 19 September 1410. The Polish–Lithuanian forces returned home, leaving Polish garrisons in fortresses that surrendered or were captured.{{sfn|Turnbull|2005|pp=73–76|loc=Siege of Marienburg}}

===Aftermath===
The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War was formally ended by the [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|Peace of Thorn]]. It was signed on 1 February 1411 in [[Toruń|Thorn]], one of the southernmost cities of the State of the Teutonic Knights. The treaty is regarded as a diplomatic failure of Poland–Lithuania as they failed to capitalize on their decisive victory at Grunwald. The Knights returned Dobrzyń Land which they captured from Poland during the war. They also made only temporary territorial concessions in Samogitia, which returned to Lithuania only for the lifetimes of Władysław II Jagiełło and Grand Duke Vytautas. The Peace of Thorn was not stable. It took two other brief wars, the [[Hunger War]] in 1414 and [[Gollub War]] in 1422, to bring about the peace. The [[Treaty of Melno]], negotiated by Grand Master [[Paul von Rusdorf|Paul of Rusdorf]], was signed on 27 September 1422, resolving the territorial disputes. However, large war reparations were a significant financial burden on the Order, causing internal unrest and economic decline. The Teutonic Knights never recovered their former might.<ref>Charles Moeller (1912). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''14.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

==Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts==

The [[Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts]] were a series of battles between Morocco and Portugal throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. The first military action was a surprise assault on [[Ceuta]] in 1415, capturing the city for the Portuguese. It was later followed by a counterattack in 1419 and numerous assaults on Tangier and other cities. These events marked the beginning of the decline of the [[Marinid Sultanate]] and the start of the colonial [[Portuguese Empire]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=267–290|loc=The Iberian Peninsula: The Rewards and Problems of Conquest}}

===Conquest of Ceuta===

Ceuta was a north African coastal city strategically located on the Strait of Gibraltar that was controlled by the Marinid Sultanate. [[John I of Portugal]] began planning the gaining Ceuta as early as 1409. John's son [[Edward, King of Portugal|Edward the Eloquent]], later king of Portugal, and [[Prince Henry the Navigator|Henry the Navigator]] eagerly supported the project, as the prospect of taking Ceuta was viewed as a significant financial opportunity.<ref>[https://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/ceuta.htm The Capture of Ceuta by the Portuguese (1415)]. In ''Conquests and Discoveries of Henry the Navigator'', ed. Bernard Miall (London, 1936).</ref>
[[File:Infante D. Henrique na conquista de Ceuta, s.XV.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Henry the Navigator]] during the conquest of Ceuta, by [[Jorge Colaço]]]]
On the morning of 21 August 1415, the [[Portuguese conquest of Ceuta|Conquest of Ceuta]] began. As the king boarded a longboat to be taken ashore, he was wounded in a leg. Henry was signalled to lead the troops ashore instead. That morning, Ceuta was entirely in Portuguese hands.<ref>Livermore, H. V. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3512869 On the Conquest of Ceuta].” ''Luso-Brazilian Review'', vol. 2, no. 1, 1965, pp. 3–13.</ref>

In 1419, the Marinid sultan [[Abu Said Uthman III]] laid the [[Siege of Ceuta (1419)|Siege of Ceuta]] with the help of the Emir of Granada [[Muhammad VIII of Granada|Muhammad VIII]] in an attempt to recover it. The Portuguese successfully repulsed the attack under the command of Dom [[Pedro de Meneses, 1st Count of Vila Real|Pedro de Meneses]]. Blamed for losing Ceuta, the sultan was later assassinated when a coup took place in [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in 1420, leaving only the child [[Abd al-Haqq II]] as his heir. Morocco descended into anarchy, as rival pretenders vied for the throne and local governors carved out regional fiefs for themselves, selling their support to the highest bidder. The political crisis in Morocco released the pressure on Ceuta for the next few years.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=276–287|loc=Marinids}}

===Battle of Tangier===
The colony at Ceuta rapidly became a financial drain on Portugal, and it was realized that without the city of [[Tangier#Early modern|Tangier]], possession of Ceuta was worthless. After the capture of Ceuta, the camel caravans that were part of the overland trade routes began to use Tangier as their new destination. This deprived Ceuta of the materials and goods that made it a successful trading locale, and it became an isolated community.<ref>Pina, R. de., Coelho de Magalhães, A. (1914). ''[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/010981543/Home Chronica d'el-rei d. Duarte.]'' Porto: Edição da Renascença portuguesa.</ref>

In 1437, the brothers of Edward the Eloquent –– [[Prince Henry the Navigator|Henry the Navigator]] and [[Fernando, the Saint Prince|Ferdinand the Saint Prince]] –– persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate of Morocco. The expedition was not unanimously supported and was undertaken against the advice of pope [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]]. Nevertheless, the first [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|Battle of Tangier]] was launched. The Portuguese expeditionary force, led by Henry set out from Portugal in August 1437, intending to seize a series of Moroccan coastal citadels. The Portuguese laid siege to Tangier from 13 September – 19 October 1437. After a few failed assaults on the city, the Portuguese force defeated by a Moroccan relief army led by vizier [[Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi]] of Fez. The Moroccans encircled the Portuguese camp and starved it to submission, capturing Ferdinand. To preserve his army from destruction, Henry negotiated a treaty promising to return the citadel of Ceuta to Morocco in return for being allowed to withdraw his troops.<ref>Alvares, J., Askins, A. Lee-Francis., Mendes dos RemeÌJ. (Joaquim). (1911). ''[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006527303/Home Chronica do infante santo D. Fernando: Ed. critica da obra de D. Fr. João Álvarez segundo um codice ms. do sec. XV.]'' Coimbra: F. França Amado.</ref>

The debacle at Tangier dominated the final year of Edward's life. His younger sons [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Peter of Coimbra]] and constable [[John, Constable of Portugal|John of Portugal]] urged him to fulfill the treaty, yield Ceuta and secure Ferdinand's release, whereas Henry (who had signed the treaty) urged him to renege on it. Caught in indecision, Edward assembled the [[Portuguese Cortes]] in early 1438 for consultation. The Cortes refused to ratify the treaty, preferring to hang on to Ceuta and requesting that Edward find some other means of obtaining Ferdinand's release. Edward died late that summer of the plague, like his father and mother before him. Despite the [[Battle of Tangier (1437)#Castro Mission, 1440–1441|Castro Mission]] of 1440–1441, Ferdinand would remain in captivity in Fez until his own death in 1443.{{sfn|Beazley|1923|pp=100–101|loc=Tangiers}}

The death of Ferdinand sealed Portugal's hold on the city. A high price had been paid for it, and the question of abandoning Ceuta was shelved permanently. It gave an impetus to new Portuguese expansionism in Morocco, now tinged with an element of revenge. The memory of the Saint Prince was cited by [[Afonso V of Portugal]] in launching the 1458 expedition to seize Tangier – although it was deviated, and ended up seizing [[Ksar es-Seghir]] instead. A third attempt to take Tangier was launched in late 1463, which also failed. On the fourth attempt, Tangier fell to the Portuguese in August 1471.{{sfn|Beazley|1923|pp=100–101|loc=Tangiers}}

===Later expeditions===
In 1455, [[Pope Callixtus III|Calixtus III]] issued a call to a crusade. When it was delivered to Afonso V, he pledged to assemble an army to confront the Muslims. Upon sending envoys to Naples and other European courts, Afonso found that only he had heeded the call among all European monarchs.<ref name=":12">James MacCaffrey (1908). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Callistus III|Pope Callistus III]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''3.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> After Calixtus died on 6 August 1458, Afonso decided to attack Tangier in Morocco instead, but was persuaded to instead divert his forces to capture [[Ksar es-Seghir]]. Ksar es-Seguir at the time served as a Muslim pirate haven for the Marinid sultan, then at war with Portugal. The subsequent [[Portuguese conquest of Ksar es-Seghir]] took place from 16 to 18 October 1458. [[Abd al-Haqq II]] decided to keep his army in Tangier upon being informed of the presence of the Portuguese fleet, while he was preparing an attack on [[Tlemcen]]. He was subsequently murdered in the 1465 [[1465 Moroccan revolution|Moroccan revolution]].{{sfn|Disney|2009|pp=27–44|loc=Exploring the Coasts of Atlantic Africa}}

The [[Anfa expedition (1468)|Anfa expedition]] of 1468 took place when a Portuguese fleet commanded by [[Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu|Fernando of Viseu]] razed the town of [[Casablanca|Anfa]], then one of the most important cities in Morocco and a pirate haven. This was followed by the [[Conquest of Asilah]] on 24 August 1471. The victory at [[Asilah]] paved the way for the unopposed conquest of Tangier four days later on 28 August 1471. In August 1487, the [[Chaouia expedition|Chaouia Expedition]] was successful in taking the Moroccan city of [[Chaouia (Morocco)|Chaouia]], followed by the taking of a pirate haven in the [[Targa expedition (1490)|Targa Expedition]] of 1490.{{sfn|Disney|2009|pp=Engaging with Atlantic Africa}}

The [[Graciosa fortress|Graciosa Fortress]] was established on the coast of Morocco in 1489. Altogether, the Portuguese seized six Moroccan cities and built six stand-alone fortresses on the Moroccan Atlantic coast, between the [[Loukkos River]] in the north and the [[Sous River]] in the south. The Portuguese would abandon most of their settlements in the 16th century, but were able to keep their bases at Ceuta and Tangier.{{sfn|Disney|2009|pp=Engaging with Atlantic Africa}}

==Ottoman–Venetian wars, 1416–1430==
The [[Ottoman–Venetian wars|Ottoman-Venetian Wars]] began with Venice's participation in the [[Crusade of Nicopolis]] in 1396 and continued for many centuries After winning the Interregnum, [[Mehmed I]] conquered significant lands from the Mamluks. The Republic of Venice, as the premier maritime and commercial power in the area, endeavoured to renew the treaties it had concluded with Mehmed's predecessors during the civil war. The Venetian ''[[Bailo of Constantinople|bailo]]'' in Constantinople,was instructed in May 1414 to do just that but failed. Tensions between the two powers mounted, as the Ottomans moved to re-establish a sizeable navy and launched several raids that challenged Venetian naval hegemony in the Aegean Sea.<ref name=":20" />

===Battle of Gallipoli===
The [[Battle of Gallipoli (1416)|Battle of Gallipoli]] occurred on 29 May 1416 between the Venetian and Ottoman fleets off the Ottoman naval base of [[Gelibolu|Gallipoli]].<ref>Melville-Jones, John. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/48577797 The Battle of Gallipoli 1416: A Detail Rescued from a Chronicle].” ''The Medieval Chronicle'', vol. 11, 2018, pgs. 213–219.</ref> The battle was the main episode of a brief conflict between the two powers, resulting from Ottoman attacks against possessions and shipping of the Venetians and their allies in the Aegean Sea in 1414–1415. The Venetian fleet, under [[Pietro Loredan]], was charged with transporting Venetian envoys to the Ottoman sultan, but was authorized to attack if the Ottomans refused to negotiate.<ref>[https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pietro-loredan_(Dizionario-Biografico) Pietro Loredan]. ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani,'' Volume 65 (2005)</ref>

The Ottomans exchanged fire with the Venetian ships as soon as the Venetian fleet approached Gallipoli on 27 May, forcing the Venetians to withdraw. On the next day, the two fleets manoeuvred and fought off Gallipoli, but during the evening, Loredan managed to contact the Ottoman authorities and inform them of his diplomatic mission. Despite assurances that the Ottomans would welcome the envoys, when the Venetian fleet approached the city, the Ottoman fleet sailed to meet the Venetians and the two sides quickly became embroiled in battle. The Venetians scored a crushing victory, killing the Ottoman admiral, capturing a large part of the Ottoman fleet, and taking large numbers of Ottoman crews prisoner. Many of the prisoner—particularly the Christians serving voluntarily in the Ottoman fleet—were executed. The Venetians then retired to [[Tenedos]] to replenish their supplies and rest. Although a crushing Venetian victory, which confirmed Venetian naval superiority in the Aegean Sea for the next few decades, the battle had little impact. A peace agreement was brokered but refused by the [[Venetian Senate]], and a settlement of the conflict was delayed until the [[Ottoman–Venetian peace treaty (1419)|Ottoman–Venetian peace treaty]] was signed in 1419.<ref>İnalcık, Halil, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/gelibolu-SIM_2431 Gelibolu]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref>

=== Siege of Constantinople===
Upon the death of his father Mehmed I in 1421, [[Murad II]] was recognized as [[sultan]] of the Ottomans at sixteen years of age. Murad's reign was troubled by insurrection early on when [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] released [[Mustafa Çelebi]], son of Bayezid I, from prison and declared him as the legitimate sultan.<ref>Heywood, C.J. and Fisher, A., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-COM_0815 Muṣṭafā Čelebi]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref> Mustafa raised an army and, with the help of the Byzantines, captured [[Gelibolu]] and [[Edirne]]. Eventually, Mustafa was defeated by Murad II and put to death. The sultan then turned his arms against Manuel II and declared his resolution to punish him by the capture of [[Constantinople]] and [[Thessalonica]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=83–85|loc=Constantinople and Thessalonica}}

The first full-scale Ottoman [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)|Siege of Constantinople]] took place in 1422 as a result of the Byzantine Emperor [[Manuel II Palaiologos|Manuel II]]'s attempts to interfere in the succession of Ottoman sultans. This policy of the Byzantines was often used successfully in weakening their neighbours. When Murad II emerged as the winning successor to his father, he marched into Byzantine territory.<ref name=":19" />

On 10 June 1422, Ottoman warlord [[Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey|Mihaloğlu]] attacked Constantinople, thus beginning the siege of the city. The vanguard under Mihaloğlu ravaged the city's suburbs, before Murad himself arrived on 20 June with the main army and the siege engines, and the siege began in earnest.<ref name="Constantinople">Stephen Turnbull, ''[https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/walls-of-constantinople-ad-3241453-9781782002246/ The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]''. Osprey Publishing (2012)</ref>

Murad was forced to lift the siege in September due to the rebellion of his younger brother [[Küçük Mustafa]] in Anatolia. This was supported by the Anatolian beyliks of [[Germiyan]] and [[Karamanids|Karaman]], fearing a return of Ottoman power, and financed by the Byzantine emperor. Küçük was able to gather a large army, and in early September laid siege to the Ottoman capital [[Bursa]].{{sfn|Imber|2002|p=22|loc=Bursa}}

In spite of the Byzantine victory, the empire at this time had been reduced to a few disconnected strips of land besides the city of Constantinople itself. It was also facing grave economic problems and severely lacked soldiers. [[Pius II]] promoted the donation of cannons by European monarchs as a means of aid. Aside from these gifts, no other advances were made to the Byzantine arsenal.{{sfn|Imber|2002|p=22|loc=Siege of Constantinople}}

===Siege of Thessalonica===
[[Thessaloniki|Thessalonica]] was under Ottoman control from 1387 to 1403 before returning to Byzantine rule in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Ankara]].<ref>Faroqhi, Suraiya, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_6700 Selānīk]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref> In 1422, after the Byzantines supported Mustafa Çelebi, Murad II attacked the city, beginning the [[Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)|Siege of Thessalonica]]. Unable to provide manpower or resources for the city's defense, governor [[Andronikos Palaiologos (son of Manuel II)|Andronikos Palaiologos]] handed it over to Venice in September 1423. The Venetians attempted to persuade the sultan to recognize their possession, but failed as Murad considered the city his by right and the Venetians to be interlopers. This impasse led to an Ottoman blockade of Thessalonica, which occasionally flared up with direct attacks on the city. At the same time, the conflict was mostly fought as a series of raids by both sides against the other's territories in the Balkans and the Aegean Islands. The Venetians repeatedly tried to apply pressure by blocking the passage of the Dardanelles at Gallipoli, with little success.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989a|pp=256–264|loc=Siege of Thessalonica}}

Venetian nobleman [[Alvise Loredan]] led naval operations in defense of Thessalonica and in July 1425, raided the fortress at [[Ierissos]] and other forts in its vicinity, and then onto [[Kavala|Christopolis]]. The Venetians found the castle held by a force of Ottoman ''[[sipahi]]s''. Their first attack was repulsed but Ottoman resistance was eventually overcome. The Venetians occupied the fortress, but their success was temporary, as the Turks soon returned with a larger force and stormed the castle, killing or taking prisoner its garrison.<ref>[https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/alvise-loredan_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ Alvise Loredan]. ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani,'' Volume 65 (2005)</ref>

The city's metropolitan bishop [[Symeon of Thessalonica]] encouraged the citizens to resist. By 1426, with Venice unable to secure peace, the local population preferred a surrender to avoid the pillage that would accompany a forcible conquest. Venice's efforts to find allies against the Ottomans also failed. The other regional potentates either pursued their own course, were themselves antagonistic to the Venetians, or were defeated by the Ottomans.<ref>Russell, Eugenia (2009). [https://research.stmarys.ac.uk/id/eprint/696/ Symeon of Thessalonica and his message of personal redemption]. In Spirituality in late Byzantium. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pgs. 33-44</ref>

After years of inconclusive exchanges, the two sides prepared for a final confrontation in 1429. In March, Venice formally declared war on the Ottomans, but even then the conservative mercantile aristocracy running the republic were uninterested in raising an army sufficient to protect Thessalonica, let alone to force the sultan to seek terms. In early 1430, Murad was able to concentrate his forces against Thessalonica, taking it by storm on 29 March 1430. The privations of the siege and the subsequent sack decimated the city, from as many as 40,000 inhabitants to as few as 2,000, requiring large-scale resettlement in the following years. Venice concluded a peace treaty with the sultan in July, recognising the new status quo. Over the next few decades, the antagonism between Venice and the Ottomans grew into a rivalry over control of Albania.<ref>Vryonis, Speros (1986). "[https://www.plurabellebooks.com/ottoman-conquest-thessaloniki-1430-p-200951.html?cPath=111_58 The Ottoman conquest of Thessaloniki in 1430]". In ''Continuity and Change in Late Byzantine and Early Ottoman Society.''</ref>

==Hussite Crusades==

The [[Hussite Wars|Hussite Crusades]] were a series of civil wars fought between the [[Hussites]] and the combined Catholic forces of [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], now Holy Roman Empire, the papacy and European monarchs. These wars lasted from 1419 to approximately 1434.{{sfn|Heymann|1975|pp=586–647|loc=The Hussite Crusades}}

By 1415, [[Bohemia#Hussite Bohemia|Bohemia]] was in turmoil and the subject of much discussion at the [[Council of Constance]]. Adherents of [[Jan Hus]], who had been burned at the stake, were declared heretics by the Council who insisted the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in Bohemia deal with the heresy.<ref name=":9" /> In 1419, [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia|Wenceslaus IV]], who had resisted what he considered interference in his kingdom, commanded that all ejected Catholic beneficiaries should be reinstated in their offices and revenues.<ref name=":16" /> Prague prepared for armed resistance. [[Jan Želivský]], an anti-Catholic preacher of Prague, led a procession to the town hall/ Under the leadership of [[Jan Žižka]], a veteran of the Battle of Grunwald, the building was stormed and people found inside were thrown out of the windows on to the spears and swords of the processionists, and hacked to pieces.<ref>František Lützow (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Žižka, John|Žižka, John]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''28''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 992.</ref> In [[Kutná Hora#Middle Ages|Kutná Hora]], hundreds of captured Hussites were thrown into the shafts of silver mines. Wenceslaus swore death to all the rebels, but died of a stroke on 16 August 1419. The next months were marked by deeds of violence. Many citizens, especially Germans, had to flee. Significantly outnumbered Hussite militia led by Žižka repulsed surprise assaults by heavy cavalry during [[Battle of Nekmíř]] in December 1419 and [[Battle of Sudoměř]] in March 1420.{{sfn|Lützow|1914|pp=1–34|loc=Origins of the Hussite Wars}}

===First Hussite Crusade===
After the death of Wenceslaus, his brother Sigismund inherited a claim on the [[List of Bohemian monarchs#The Late Kingdom of Bohemia: from the House of Luxembourg to Austria-Hungary (1310–1918)|Bohemian crown]].<ref name=":17" /> Sigismund was aided by Martin V, who issued a bull on 17 March 1420 proclaiming a crusade against the Wycliffites, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia. Sigismund and many German princes arrived at [[Prague#Late Middle Ages|Prague]] on 30 June 1420 at the head of am army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the hope of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city, which soon to be abandoned. Negotiations took place for a settlement of the religious differences.<ref>Joseph Wilhelm (1910). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Hus and Hussites|Hussites]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''13.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

The Hussites formulated their demands in a statement known as the [[Hussite#The Four Articles of Prague|Four Articles of Prague]]. These articles, which contain the essence of the Hussite doctrine, were rejected by Sigismund, reflecting the influence of the papal legates who considered them prejudicial to the authority of the pope. Hostilities continued and Sigismund was defeated at the [[Battle of Vítkov Hill]] on 14 July 1420.<ref name=":18">[https://bellum.cz/en/battles-of-vitkov-hill-and-vysehrad.html Battles of Vítkov Hill and Vyšehrad] (2023). Bellum: Famous Battles in Czech History.</ref>
[[File:Josef Mathauser - Jan Žižka s knězem Václavem Korandou roku 1420 hledí s Vítkova na Prahu.jpg|thumb|300px|Jan Žižka with a Hussite priest looking over Prague after the [[Battle of Vítkov Hill]]]]
Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, his troops held the castles of [[Vyšehrad]] and [[Hradčany]]. Beginning on 16 August 1420, the citizens of Prague laid siege at the [[Battle of Vyšehrad]], and by October, the defending garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund tried to relieve the fortress but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on 1 November 1420 near the village of [[Pankrác]]. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.<ref name=":18" />

===Second Hussite Crusade===
Internal troubles prevented the Hussites from fully capitalizing on their victory. In Prague, Jan Želivský obtained almost unlimited authority over the lower classes of the townsmen. At [[Tábor#History|Tábor]], a religious communistic movement of [[Adamites]] was suppressed by Žižka. The [[Battle of Tábor]] took place on 30 June 1420. Taking advantage of their weakened state, [[Oldřich II of Rosenberg]] laid siege to the village. He commanded a force that included Austrian mercenaries lead by [[Lipolt Krajíř of Krajek|Lipolt Krajíř]]. Learning of the siege, [[Mikuláš of Hus]] attacked Tábor on 30 June 1420. Oldřich II was caught off-guard by the attack and his forces scattered, suffering heavy losses in their retreat. The Hussite victory lifted a week-long siege, while Oldřich II missed the opportunity to eliminate the base of radical Hussites near his estates.{{sfn|Heymann|1975|pp=586–647|loc=The Hussite Crusades}}

Shortly afterwards a new crusade against the Hussites was undertaken. A large German army entered Bohemia and in August 1421 laid siege to the town of [[Žatec#History|Žatec]]. After an unsuccessful attempt of storming the city, the crusaders retreated somewhat ingloriously on hearing that the Hussite troops were approaching. Sigismund arrived in Bohemia at the end of 1421. The [[Battle of Kutná Hora]] on 21 December 1421 left him in possession of the city, but was decisively defeated by Jan Žižka at the [[Battle of Deutschbrod]] on 6 January 1422.{{sfn|Heymann|1975|pp=586–647|loc=The Hussite Crusades}}

===Third Hussite Crusade===
On 9 March 1422, Jan Želivský was arrested by the town council of Prague and beheaded. There were also troubles at Tábor where a more radical party opposed Žižka's authority. Civil war broke out between the extremist [[Taborites]] and the more moderate [[Utraquism|Utraquists]]. Papal influence had succeeded in calling forth a new crusade against Bohemia, but it was a complete failure. In spite of their rulers, Poles and Lithuanians did not wish to attack the kindred Czechs. The Germans were prevented by internal discord from taking joint action against the Hussites. [[Eric of Pomerania|Eric VII of Denmark]], who had landed in Germany with a large force intending to take part in the crusade, soon returned to his own country. Free for a time from foreign threat, the Hussites invaded [[Moravia#Union with Bohemia|Moravia]], where a large part of the population favored their creed. Paralysed again by dissensions, they soon returned to Bohemia.{{sfn|Heymann|1975|pp=586–647|loc=The Hussite Crusades}}

In 1422, Žižka accepted [[Sigismund Korybut]] of Lithuania as regent of Bohemia. The city of [[Hradec Králové]], which had been under Utraquist rule, espoused the doctrine of Tábor, and called Žižka to its aid. The [[Battle of Hořice]] was among several military successes gained by Žižka in 1423 and the following year, a peace treaty between the Hussite factions was concluded on 13 September 1424 at [[Libeň]], a village near Prague. After Žižka's death in October 1424, [[Prokop the Great]] took command of the Taborites.{{sfn|Heymann|1975|pp=586–647|loc=The Hussite Crusades}}

===Fourth Hussite Crusade===
In June 1426, Hussite forces led by Prokop and Sigismund Korybut defeated the invaders in the [[Battle of Aussig]]. Despite this result, the death of Jan Žižka caused Martin V to believe that the Hussites were much weakened. Martin proclaimed yet another crusade in 1427. He appointed Cardinal [[Henry Beaufort]] of England, papal legate of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, to lead the crusader forces. The crusaders were defeated at the [[Battle of Tachov]].<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beaufort, Henry|Beaufort, Henry]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''3''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 586–587.</ref>

The Hussites invaded parts of Germany several times, but they made no attempt to occupy any part of the country. Korybut was imprisoned in 1427 for allegedly conspiring to surrender the Hussite forces to Hungary. He was released in 1428, and participated in the Hussite invasion of [[Silesia]].<ref>Holmes, G. A. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/562932 Cardinal Beaufort and the Crusade against the Hussites].” ''The English Historical Review'', vol. 88, no. 349, 1973, pgs. 721–750.</ref> In 1430, [[Joan of Arc]] dictated a letter threatening to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic Faith.<ref>[http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html Joan of Arc's Letter to the Hussites, 23 March 1430]. Archive (2010).</ref>

===Fifth Hussite Crusade===
On 1 August 1431, a large army of crusaders under [[Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick I of Brandenburg]], accompanied by Cardinal [[Julian Cesarini]] as papal legate, crossed the Bohemian border. On 8 August, the crusaders reached the town of [[Domažlice]] and began besieging it. A Hussite relief army arrived shortly thereafter, reinforced with some 6,000 Polish Hussites and under the command of Prokop the Great, and it completely routed the crusaders at the resulting [[Battle of Domažlice]] on 14 August 1431.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albert II. (German king)|Albert II. (German king)]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''1''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 496.</ref>

The Utraquists changed sides in 1432 to fight alongside the Catholics and opposed the Taborites and other Hussite spinoffs and in 1434, war again broke out between the Hussite factions. On 30 May 1434, the Taborite army, led by Prokop the Great, who fell in the battle, was defeated and almost annihilated at the [[Battle of Lipany]]. The Polish Hussite movement also came to an end. Polish royal troops under [[Władysław III of Varna|Władysław III of Poland]] defeated the Hussites at the [[Battle of Grotniki]] on 4 May 1439, bringing the Hussite Wars to an end.

== Mamluk conquest of Cyprus ==

[[Janus, King of Cyprus|Janus of Cyprus]] became king of Cyprus on 9 September 1398 following the death of his father [[James I of Cyprus]]. By tradition, he was also titular king of [[King of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] and [[King of Armenian Cilicia|Armenian Cilicia]]. Both mainland kingdoms were under Mamluk control and the sultan [[Barsbay]] soon would set his sights on Cyprus. Cyprus had become a base for Frankish pirates and raiders and in 1365, the [[Alexandrian Crusade]] was launched. The city was sacked, its inhabitants killed and treasures looted. In August 1422, the Cypriots captured a ship in the port of Alexandria and in May 1424, they seized two ships from [[Damietta]]. These raids prompted the Mamluk sultan [[Barsbay]] to send naval expeditions to Cyprus, beginning the [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus]].{{sfn|Luke|1975|pp=371–376|loc=Mamluk conquest of Cyprus}}

In late September 1424, a Mamluk armada landed near [[Limassol]], and the city was evacuated. The Mamluks attacked attacked the city, sacking and burning it. In July 1425, the next raid arrived south of [[Famagusta]] where the governor pledged allegiance to the sultan and showed hospitality. The Mamluks aimed to subjugate the entire island, and again attacked Limassol on 1 July 1426, destroying the castle. The Mamluks met Janus' army at the [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus#Third campaign|Battle of Khirokitia]] on 7 July 1426 where the Cypriot army was routed and Janus was captured in battle. They marched to capture [[Nicosia]], sacking a side of the city, on 18 July 1426, embarked for home. Humiliated, Janus was brought to the sultan and was forced to pay a large ransom and agree to an annual tribute. Cyprus thus became a Mamluk tributary state.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=195–196|loc=Janus and the loss of Cyprus}}

==Polish–Teutonic War==

The [[Polish–Teutonic War (1431–1435)|Polish–Teutonic War]] was an armed conflict between the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] and the Teutonic Knights from 1431 to 1435. The war broke out after Teutonic Grand Master [[Paul von Rusdorf|Paul of Rusdorf]] signed the [[Treaty of Christmemel]] on 19 June 1431, creating an alliance with Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Švitrigaila]], who was engaged in the [[Lithuanian Civil War (1431–1435)|Lithuanian Civil War]] with his brother [[Władysław II Jagiełło]].{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|pp=248–258|loc=Livonian and the Russians}}

In 1431, while the main Polish forces were involved in [[Lutsk]] in [[Volhynia]], the Teutonic Knights invaded Poland. Finding little opposition, the Knights ravaged [[Dobrzyń Land]] and tried to move on to the [[Kuyavia]] and [[Krajna]] regions. However, their army was defeated by the Poles on 13 September 1431 near [[Nakło nad Notecią|Nakel]]. In September, a two-year truce was signed among Poland, Lithuania and the Teutons.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=363–368|loc=Polish-Teutonic War}}

In June 1433, Poland allied itself with Czech Hussites in order to stop the Teutonic Knights from sending secret support to Švitrigaila via its autonomous branch, the [[Livonian Order]]. Czech forces under [[Jan Čapek of Sány|Jan Čapek]] were granted safe passage through Poland. The Polish forces were also supported by [[Bogusław IX|Bogusław IX of Pomerania]]. In addition, [[Stephen II of Moldavia]] joined the Polish alliance. For four months, the Hussite army, including forces led by [[Feodor Ostrogski]], ravaged Teutonic territories in [[Neumark]], [[Pomerania]], and western [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]]. They unsuccessfully besieged [[Chojnice]], then moved north to [[Świecie]] and [[Gdańsk]]. They captured several towns and castles, including [[Tczew]] by August 1433.{{sfn|Christiansen|1997|pp=248–258|loc=Livonian and the Russians}}

When Władysław II died in May 1434, the Order resumed its backing for Švitrigaila, who rallied his supporters, including his nephew [[Sigismund Korybut]], a distinguished military commander of the Hussites. The decisive [[Battle of Wiłkomierz]] was fought in September 1435 near [[Ukmergė]]. It is estimated to have involved 30,000 men on both sides. Švitrigaila's army, led by Sigismund Korybut, was split by the attacking Lithuanian–Polish army, led by [[Michael Žygimantaitis]], and soundly defeated. The Livonian Order suffered a great defeat, sometimes compared to that which had been inflicted on the Teutons at Grunwald in 1410. The war ended with the signing of the [[Peace of Brześć Kujawski]] on 31 December 1435.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=363–368|loc=Polish-Teutonic War}}

==Crusade of Varna==

The [[Crusade of Varna]], part of the long-running [[Ottoman-Hungarian wars]], was an unsuccessful military campaign mounted by several European leaders to check the expansion of the Ottomans the Balkans between 1443 and 1444. The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448, deterred the European states from sending substantial military assistance to the Byzantines during the Ottoman [[Fall of Constantinople|Conquest of Constantinople]] in 1453. Although [[Pius II]] officially declared a three-year crusade at the [[Council of Mantua (1459)|Council of Mantua]] to recapture Constantinople from the Ottomans, the leaders who promised 80,000 soldiers to it reneged on their commitment. The Ottoman Empire was free, for several decades, from any further serious attempts to push it out of Europe.{{sfn|Chasin|1989|pp=276–310|loc=Crusade of Varna}}

===Background===
In 1439, the Ottoman army headed by [[Murad II]] again attacked and sacked Serbia. [[Đurađ Branković]] fled to Hungary in May 1439, leaving his son [[Grgur Branković]] and [[Thomas Kantakouzenos]] to defend [[Smederevo#Middle Ages|Smederevo]]. After three months of siege, Smederevo fell on 18 August 1439, while the [[Siege of Novo Brdo (1440–41)|Siege of Novo Brdo]] continued for two years, with the city falling on 27 June 1441. In 1440, Murad began the [[Siege of Belgrade (1440)|Siege of Belgrade]], lasting from April–October 1440. After failing to take the fortress, he was forced to return to Anatolia to stop attacks by the Karamanids. At that point the only free part of Serbia that remained was [[Zeta (crown land)|Zeta]] which was soon attacked by the Venetians and by [[Stjepan Vukčić Kosača]]. The last of Đurađ's cities in the region were conquered in March 1442.{{sfn|Chasin|1989|pp=276–310|loc=Crusade of Varna}}

===Early engagements===
[[File:Tucrcoczy Janos Iancu de Hunedoara Brunnner Ausgabe.jpg|alt=Sigismund of Luxemburg|thumb|180px|John Hunyadi]]
On 1 January 1443, [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]] published a bull calling for a new crusade.<ref name=":7">Horace K. Mann and James F. Loughlin (1909). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Popes Eugene I-IV|Popes Eugene I-IV]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''5.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> War was proclaimed against Murad II at the diet of [[Buda]] on Palm Sunday 1443. For the first time since the disastrous [[Battle of Nicopolis|Crusade of Nikopolis]] of 1396, Hungary had initiated an ambitious offensive campaign against the Ottoman Empire, encouraged by Eugene IV and his legate Cardinal [[Julian Cesarini|Giuliano Cesarini]]. A Hungarian army of some 35,000 troops was led by [[John Hunyadi]]. This army was accompanied by Cesarini, Grgur Branković, and [[Władysław III of Poland]], who had been elected as king of Hungary in expectation of significant Polish support against the Turks.<ref name=":22">Robert Nisbet Bain (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wladislaus|Wladislaus III]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''28''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 766.</ref> The army left Buda on 22 July 1443, crossed the Serbian border by mid-October, and occupied [[Sofia#Early modern history|Sofia]] shortly thereafter.<ref name=":21">Robert Nisbet Bain (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunyadi, János|Hunyadi, János]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''13''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 955–956.</ref>

The first encounter at the [[Battle of Nish (1443)|Battle of Niš]] in November 1443 was a victory for the crusaders. This was followed by their defeat by the Ottomans led by [[Kasim Pasha]] at the [[Battle of Zlatitsa]] on 12 December 1443. As they marched home, they ambushed and defeated a pursuing force in the [[Battle of Kunovica]] on 5 January 1444, where [[Mahmud Bey]] was taken prisoner. Ottoman commander [[Turahan Bey]] defeated the troops that surrounded the city in early 1433.<ref>Babinger, F., “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/turakhan-beg-SIM_7634?s.num=99&s.start=80 Turak̲h̲ān Beg]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition'', Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref> Having gained some other minor victories, the crusader army returned home in January after learning that Murad II had crossed the Bosporus, and celebrated a spectacular triumphal march in Buda.{{sfn|Imber|2013|loc=Crusade of Varna}}

===Battle of Varna===
[[File:Battle of Varna 1444.PNG|thumb|right|[[Władysław III of Poland]] in the [[Battle of Varna]], by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
Despite the signing of the [[Peace of Szeged|Treaty of Szeged]] on 14 August 1444, the conflict did not end. Shortly after all the short-term requirements of the treaty were fulfilled, the Hungarians and their allies resumed the crusade. Władysław gathered an army composed mostly of Hungarian regular troops, and forces from Poland, Transylvania, Croatia, Bosnia, heavy cavalry units from Western Europe, and mercenaries from Eastern Europe. The combined armies numbered 16,000, and were joined by 4,000 [[Wallachia]]ns in the area of Nicopolis. Murad, who had retired shortly after the treaty was completed, was called back to lead the Ottoman army. On 10 November 1444, the two armies clashed at the [[Battle of Varna]]. The Ottomans won a decisive victory despite heavy losses, while the crusaders lost Władysław III and over 15,000 men.{{sfn|Chasin|1989|pp=1–3|loc=Crusade of Varna}}

===Aftermath===
The death of Władysław left Hungary in the hands of the four-year-old [[Ladislas the Posthumous|Ladislaus the Posthumous]]. He was succeeded in Poland by [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] after a three-year interregnum. Murad's casualties at Varna were so heavy, it was not until three days later that he realized he was victorious. Nevertheless, the Ottoman triumph at Varna, followed by their victory in the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448, deterred the European states from sending any substantial military assistance to the Byzantines during the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453.

==Sieges of Rhodes==

After moving from Cyprus in 1310, [[Hospitaller Rhodes]] served as the headquarters of the Knights Hospitaller. They then moved their convent and hospital, and resettled the island. Their hold on the island was solidified through the enforcement of a papal ban on trade between Christian states and Mamluk Egypt. The Hospitallers scored victories against their Muslim rivals at [[Battle of Amorgos (1312)|Amorgos]] and [[Battle of Chios (1319)|Chios]] in 1312 and 1319, respectively. In 1320, the Order's navy thwarted a Turkish invasion of the island by halting the advance of a large Turkish fleet.<ref name=":10" />
[[File:Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg|200px|thumb|A 1450 map of the eastern Mediterranean]]

===First Siege of Rhodes===
Mamluk sultan [[Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq]], in power since 1438, had to deal with piracy from both Cyprus and Rhodes. In 1439, he launched a campaign against the two islands but without much success. A second failure in 1442 led him to build a fleet capable of leading a real assault against Rhodes.{{sfn|Ziyādaẗ|1975|pp=496–499|loc=Sultan Jakmak}}

In the winter of 1443, Grand Master [[Jean de Lastic]] sent a letter to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] lamenting the hardships faced by the Order and requesting that its members residing on his possessions return to Rhodes to protect it. Alfonso acted as a patron of the Order, closely collaborating with the two previous masters who were both of Catalan origin. [[Philip the Good]] and [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]] were among those who provided the Hospitallers with auxiliary ships and supplies. In the interim, a Mamluk fleet had already set sail towards the same destination.{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=320–322|loc=Siege of Rhodes}}

The first [[Siege of Rhodes (1444)|Siege of Rhodes]] was about to begin. In August 1444, a Mamluk force landed on the Hospitaller island of [[Kastellorizo#Knights Hospitaller period|Kastellorizo]], razing its castle before departing for Rhodes. On 10 August, the Mamluk fleet consisting of 85 ships appeared in the channel east of Rhodes. Their objective was the castle near [[Trianta]] and, facing no resistance after landing, they captured positions adjacent to the associated citadel. The following day, they the western side of the castle, near the poorly defended gate of [[Agios Antonios (Limassol)|Agios Antonios]], bombarding it with artillery. A second column raided the port to the east of the castle, destroying numerous ships. On 10 September, the Hospitallers attacked am outpost southwest of the Agios Antonios gate. Heavy fighting ensued and the Mamluks eventually withdrew. On 13 September, the Mamluks lifted the siege against the orders of Jaqmaq. Jean de Lastic proposed conducting an assault on the invaders to disrupt their withdrawal, but his plan was rejected by his military council. On 18 September 1444, the Mamluks departed Rhodes.{{sfn|Rossi|1975|pp=320–322|loc=Siege of Rhodes}}

===Second Siege of Rhodes===
The second [[Siege of Rhodes (1480)|Siege of Rhodes]] was conducted in 1480. [[Pierre d'Aubusson]] was Grand Master at that time and a zealous enemy of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aubusson, Pierre d'|Aubusson, Pierre d']]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''2''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</ref> In May 1480, [[Mehmed II]] dispatched a large fleet to Rhodes, carrying an invading army of some 100,000 men under the command of [[Mesih Pasha]]. By August, after three unsuccessful attempts against the city, the Turkish force withdrew, leaving behind 9000 dead. The siege, in which d'Aubusson was wounded three times, enhanced his reputation throughout Europe.{{sfn|Taaffe|1852|pp=53–67|loc=Siege of Rhodes, 1480}}

[[Gulielmus Caoursin]], vice-chancellor of the Knights Hospitaller, was an eyewitness of the siege and wrote its description in his ''Obsidionis Rhodiae Urbis Descriptio'' (with an English translation published [[Edward Gibbon|Edward Gibbon's]] ''Crusades'').{{sfn|Gibbon|1870|pp=133–160|loc=The Siege of Rhodes}} An earlier English translation was the work of [[John Caius the Elder]].<ref>Lee, Sidney (1886). "[[wikisource:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Caius, John (fl.1480)|Caius, John (fl. 1480)]]". In ''Dictionary of National Biography''. '''8'''. London. p. 221.</ref> D'Aubusson's own report on the siege can be found in John Taaffe's ''History of the Holy, Military, Sovereign Order of St. John of Jerusalem''.{{sfn|Taaffe|1852|pp=53–67|loc=Siege of Rhodes, 1480}}

===Cem Sultan===
[[File:Cem-in-italy.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cem Sultan by [[Pinturicchio]]]]
Mehmed was furious at the retreat from Rhodes and died before he could attach the island again. After his death in 1481, his succession was disputed between his sons [[Bayezid II]] and [[Cem Sultan]]. A battle between the two contenders to the Ottoman throne took place on 19 June 1481, near the town of [[Yenişehir, Bursa|Yenişehir]]. Cem lost and fled with his family to Cairo.<ref>Günay Kut (2016). "[https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/cem-sultan Cem Sultan (ö. 900/1495) Osmanlı şehzadesi]". ''TDV Encyclopedia of Islam'' (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies.</ref>

Cem was received with honors by sultan [[Qāʾit Bāy|Quitbay]] in Cairo, and he took the opportunity to go on [[Hajj|pilgrimage to Mecca]], making him the only Ottoman prince to have made such a journey. In Cairo, Cem received a letter from his brother, offering one million [[Akçe|''akçes'']] for him to stop competing for the throne. Cem rejected the offer and in the following year he launched a campaign in Anatolia with the support of [[Kasım of Karaman|Kasım Bey]], ruler of the [[Karamanids]], and the ''[[Sanjak-bey|sanjek bey]]'' of Ankara. On 27 May 1482, Cem besieged Konya but was soon defeated and forced to withdraw to Ankara. He intended to give it all up and return to Cairo but the roads to Egypt were under Bayezid's control. Cem then tried to renegotiate with his brother. Bayezid offered him a stipend to live quietly in Jerusalem but refused to divide the empire, prompting Cem to flee to Rhodes on 29 July 1482.<ref name=":24">Osman G. Özgüdenli, “[https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jem-soltan- Jem Soltān],” ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', Vol. XIV, Fasc. 6, pp. 623-624.</ref>

Upon arriving at Rhodes, Cem received the protection of Pierre d'Aubusson. In return for the overthrow of Bayezid, Cem offered peace with the Ottoman Empire if he regained the throne. D'Aubusson realized that conflict with Bayezid would be imprudent, so he secretly approached Bayezid, concluded a peace treaty, and then reached a separate agreement on Cem's captivity in March 1483. D'Aubusson promised Bayezid to detain Cem in return for an annual payment of 40,000 [[ducat]]s for his maintenance.<ref name="referenceworks.brillonline.com"/>

Cem was then sent to France, arriving in Nice on 17 October 1482. After the agreement about his confinement was finalised, he became a hostage, as well as a potential pawn. Those who hoped to use his name and person to foment turmoil in the Ottoman realm included Quitbay, [[Matthias Corvinus]], and [[Pope Innocent VIII|Innocent VIII]], viewing his presence in Europe as a deterrent to Ottoman aggression and an opportunity for profit. For his part, Bayezid dispatched ambassadors and spies to the West to assure that his rival was detained indefinitely, and even attempted to assassinate him.<ref name=":24" />

In 1483, the Hospitallers transferred him to [[Limousin]], d'Aubusson's birthplace, where he was held as a captive in a fortified tower constructed to house him. Innocent VIII then sought custody of the prince, and Cem arrived in Rome on 13 March 1489. The pope rebuffed overtures from the Mamluks and prepared to launch a crusade against the Ottomans. These developments worried Bayezid, who contacted d'Aubusson and also sent an embassy to Rome to negotiate an agreement in December 1490. The sultan promised not to attack Rhodes, Rome, or Venice, as well as to pay Cem's allowance. Cem died in [[Capua]] while on a military expedition to conquer Naples.<ref name=":24" />

==Ottoman conquests of Mehmed II==

When Ottoman sultan [[Mehmed II]] ascended the throne again in 1451, he earned the nickname Mehmed the Conqueror.<ref name=":23" /> He viewed the Ottoman state as a continuation of the Roman Empire for the remainder of his life, seeing himself as continuing the empire rather than replacing it. Under his leadership, the Ottoman Empire experienced dramatic territorial growth, beginning with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453.{{sfn|Freely|2009|loc=Sultan Mehmet II}} Mehmed II went on to consolidate the empire's position in the Balkans and Anatolia, conquering Serbia in 1454–1455, the Peloponnese in 1458–1459, Trebizond in 1461, and Bosnia in 1463. Many Venetian territories in Greece were conquered during the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–79)|Ottoman-Venetian War]] of 1463–1479. By 1474 the Ottomans had conquered their Anatolian rival, the [[Karamanids]], and in 1475 conquered [[Feodosia#Kefe (Ottoman)|Kefe]] on the Crimean Peninsula, establishing the [[Crimean Khanate]] as a vassal state. In 1480 an invasion of [[Ottoman invasion of Otranto|Otranto]] in Italy was launched, but the death of Mehmed II the following year led to an Ottoman withdrawal.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989b|loc=The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades, 1451–1522||pp=311–353}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border="1" style="width:100%; text-align:center; float:left"
!Campaigns of Mehmed II
|-
! width="10%" | Campaign
! width="10%" | Campaign dates
! class="unsortable" width="65%" | Notes
|-
|Karaman
|1451
|The [[Karamanids]] attacked Ottoman territory after Mehmed became sultan. In response sultan Mehmed made his first campaign against Karaman. The Karamanids were defeated and [[İbrahim II of Karaman]] promised not to attack the Ottomans again and so peace was restored.
|-
|Constantinople
|1453
| While sultan Mehmed was on his campaign against Karaman, the Byzantine emperor [[Constantine XI]] demanded an increase of the annual allowance to an Ottoman pretender in Constantinople. Mehmed refused and prepared to besiege Constantinople. He ordered the construction of the [[Rumeli Hisar]] after which the siege of the city began. The [[Fall of Constantinople]] followed a siege lasting 53 days. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist and the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
|-
|Kingdom of Hungary, Kingdom of Serbia
|1454-55
|Mehmed led a campaign against [[Serbia]] because the Serbian ruler [[Đurađ Branković]] refused to send tribute and made an alliance with the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]. The Ottoman army conquered the important mining city of [[Novo Brdo]].
|-
|Kingdom of Hungary
|1456
|Mehmed continued his campaign against Hungary, numerous castles were captured but the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)]] was unsuccessful and the Ottoman army retreated.
|-
|Serbia
|1458-59
|After the death of the Serbian ruler [[Đurađ Branković]] a succession war broke out and the sultan who was related to the Serbian kings invaded the area, [[Smederevo]] was captured and the [[Serbian Despotate]] ended and was annexed to the Ottoman Empire. (See [[History of the Serbian–Turkish wars]])
|-
|Morea
|1458-59
|The [[Despotate of Morea]] refused to pay its annual tribute and revolted. In response Mehmed led a campaign into [[Morea]]. The inhabitants were defeated and their territories were annexed into the Ottoman Empire.
|-
|Amasra
|1460
|[[Amasra]], the most important fortress of the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] on the Black Sea coast, was besieged and captured.
|-
|Sinop
|1461
|Mehmed led a campaign against Trebizond and on the way annexed the entire Black Sea coast to the Ottoman Empire ending the reign of the [[Jandarids]] peacefully.
|-
|Trebizond
|1461
|After the emperor of the [[Empire of Trebizond]] refused to pay tribute and made an alliance with the [[Aq Qoyunlu|Akkoyunlu]] Mehmed led a campaign against Trebizond by land and sea. After a siege of more than 32 days, [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] and the emperor surrendered and the Empire came to an end.
|-
|Wallachia
|1462
|[[Vlad the Impaler]] who with Ottoman help had become the Ottoman vassal ruler of Wallachia, refused to pay tribute after some years and invaded Ottoman territory in northern [[Bulgaria]]. At that point Mehmed, with the main Ottoman army, was on the Trebizond campaign in Asia. When Mehmed returned from his Trebizond campaign he led a campaign against Wallachia. Vlad fled after some resistance to Hungary. Mehmed first made Wallachia an Ottoman [[eyalet]] but then appointed Vlad's brother [[Radu cel Frumos|Radu]] as a vassal ruler.
|-
|Lesbos
|1462
|The island of [[Lesbos]] was [[Ottoman conquest of Lesbos|captured]] following a siege of its capital, [[Mytilene]], and annexed.
|-
|Bosnia
|1463-64
|Mehmed led a campaign against the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] and annexed it to the [[Ottoman Empire]]
|-
|Morea
|1463
|Mehmed led a campaign in the Morea, which ended with the annexation of the [[Despotate of Morea]].
|-
|Albania
|1466-1467
|Mehmed led a campaign against [[Albania]] and conducted the unsuccessful [[Siege of Krujë (1466–1467)|Siege of Krujë]] against the Albanians under [[Skanderbeg]].
|-
|Karaman
|1468
|After the death of the ruler of [[Karamanids]] a civil war began among his sons in which [[Uzun Hasan]], ruler of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]], also became involved. After some time Mehmed marched into the area and annexed the Karamanids to the Ottoman Empire.
|-
|Negroponte
|1470
|During the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman–Venetian War]]. Mehmed led a campaign against the Venetian colony of [[Chalcis|Negroponte]] and after the [[Siege of Negroponte (1470)|Siege of Negroponte]] annexed the region to the Ottoman Empire
|-
|Eastern Anatolia
|1473
|After many years of hostility Mehmed invaded the lands of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] and defeated their ruler, [[Uzun Hasan]], in the [[Battle of Otlukbeli]], after which they did not pose a threat against the Ottomans anymore.
|-
|Moldavia
|1476
|[[Stephen III of Moldavia]] attacked [[Wallachia]], an Ottoman vassal, and refused to pay the annual tribute. An Ottoman army was defeated and Mehmed led a personal campaign against [[Moldavia]]. He defeated the Moldavians in the [[Battle of Valea Alba]], after that they accepted to pay the tribute and the peace was restored.
|-
|Albania
|1478
|During the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman–Venetian War]] Mehmed invaded Albania and launched the [[Siege of Shkodra (1478)|Siege of Shkodra]] against the Venetian fortress. The war ended in Venetian defeat and Shkodra was surrendered to the Ottomans in accordance with the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1479)]].
|-
|}

===Fall of Constantinople===

The [[Fall of Constantinople]] occurred when the city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day siege. The attacking Ottoman army, which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Mehmed II, while the Byzantine army was led by [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]]. After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing [[Edirne|Adrianople]]. The capture of Constantinople marked the final fall of the Byzantine Empire,{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|loc=The End of Byzantium}}
[[File:Conquest_of_Constantinople,_Zonaro.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Mehmed II and the Ottoman Army approaching Constantinople, by [[Fausto Zonaro]]]]
Between 1346 and 1349, the [[Black Death]] killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople.The city was further depopulated by the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by 1453, it consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth-century [[Theodosian Walls]].{{sfn|Nicol|1993|pp=369–393|loc=Constantine XI and Mehmed II: the Fall of Constantinople}}

Preparations for the siege began the construction from March to August 1453 of the massive [[Rumelihisarı|Boğazkesen Castle]] on the western shores of the narrowest part of the Bosporus, facing the [[Anadoluhisarı|Güzelce Hisar]] built by [[Bayezid I]]. Mehmet proceeded to isolate the city from possible help by sending [[Turahan Bey]] to invade the Morea and dismantling Byzantine fortifications in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and on the Black Sea coastline. A Western force of Venetians and Genoese, who had the support of [[Pope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]], arrived in Constantinople in early 1453, just before the huge Ottoman forces assembled before its western walls. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. [[Isidore of Kiev|Cardinal Isidore]], funded by the pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers. An accomplished Genoan soldier [[Giovanni Giustiniani]] arrived in January 1453 with 700 men.{{sfn|Runciman|1965|loc=The Fall of Constantinople}}

The siege began on 6 April 1453 with the Ottomans builting a floating bridge to the city. The defense of the city made Mehmet oscillate between the advice of his generals, including [[Karaca Pasha]], [[Zagan Pasha]] and [[Ishak Pasha]], to proceed tenaciously and the counsel of his grand vizier [[Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger|Çandarlı Halil Pasha]] to lift the siege. The latter was suspected of consulting with the Byzantines (and was later executed), and so Mehmet carried on with the operations. The [[Princes' Islands]] in the Sea of Marmara were taken by [[Suleiman Baltoghlu]]'s fleet. The end was precipitated following the breaching of a large section of the ramparts and the controversial opening of a small secret underground gate on the northern section of the walls called [[Walls of Constantinople#Kerkoporta|Kerkoporta]] through which the Ottomans, who also breached the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of Charisius|Charisian Gate]] further to the north, entered the city. Constantine XI (who had refused to capitulate on Mehmet's terms) was killed along with a handful of defenders near the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of St. Romanus|Gate of St. Romanos]] on 29 May 1453, ending the siege. Some of the defenders succeeded in fleeing in Venetian and Genoese ships.{{sfn|Nicolle|2005|loc=The End of Byzantium}}

Following a period of looting lasting three days, during which Mehmet gave strict orders against the destruction of monuments, he began to colonize his new capital with Muslim populations from his eastern provinces as well as Christians from the recently conquered Greek and Balkan territories. In 1454, Mehmed granted privileges to the Greek Orthodox patriarch [[Gennadius Scholarius]],<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gennadius II.|Gennadius II]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''11''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 596–597.</ref> He was recognized as the [[Ethnarch]] of the Orthodox people within the empire.<ref>Turner, C. J. G. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/44169958 The Career of George-Gennadius Scholarius].” ''Byzantion'', vol. 39, 1969, pgs. 420–455.</ref>

===Serbia===
Mehmed II's first campaigns after Constantinople were in the direction of Serbia, an Ottoman vassal state since the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]] had recently made an alliance with the Hungarians, and had paid the tribute to the Ottomans irregularly, and so was no in good stead with Mehmed. The Ottoman army set out from [[Edirne]] towards Serbia in 1454. [[Smederevo]] was besieged, as was [[Novo Brdo]], the most important Serbian metal mining and smelting center. The Ottoman army advanced as far as [[Belgrade]], where it attempted but failed to conquer the city from [[John Hunyadi]] at the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]] on 14 July 1456.<ref name=":25" />

The sultan withdrew and Branković regained possession of some parts of Serbia. Later that year Branković died and his succession was in turmoil until the Serbian throne was offered to [[Stephen Tomašević]], the future king of Bosnia, infuriating Mehmed. He sent his army, capturing [[Smederevo]] in June 1459, and ending the existence of the [[Serbian Despotate]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=103–105|loc=The Ottoman Threat, 1396–1502}}

===The Morea===

When the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, the [[Despotate of the Morea]] failed to send aid, as it was recovering from a recent Ottoman attacks. The unpopular rule by the brothers [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] and [[Thomas Palaiologos]] resulted in the [[Morea revolt of 1453–1454]], and Ottoman troops under [[Turahan Bey]] were invited in to help put down the revolt. By the end of the summer, the Ottomans had achieved the submission of virtually all cities possessed by the Greeks. The last holdout was [[Salmeniko Castle]], under military commander [[Graitzas Palaiologos]]. Graitzas and his garrison held out in the castle until July 1461, when they escaped and reached Venetian territory.{{sfn|Topping|1975|pp=163–166|loc=Despotate of the Morea}}

Both Demetrios and Thomas Palaiologos went into exile.<ref>Harris, Jonathan. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/24244808 Despots, Emperors, and Balkan Identity in Exile].” ''The Sixteenth Century Journal'', vol. 44, no. 3, 2013, pgs. 643–661.</ref> In March 1461, Thomas arrived in Rome, where he hoped to convince [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] to call for a crusade. As the brother of the final Byzantine emperor, Thomas was the highest profile ruler in exile. In early 1462, Thomas left to Rome to tour Italy and drum up support for a crusade, carrying with him papal letters of indulgence. Despite Thomas' hopes, no expedition set out for Greece. When the army was ready to set sail, Pius II travelled to [[Ancona]] to join the crusade, but died there on 15 August 1464. Without the support of the pope, the crusade disbanded.{{sfn|Setton|1975|pp=274–276|loc=Thomas Palaiologos}}

The Morea was also the site of the initial phases of the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman-Venetian War]], beginning in 1462. The [[Ottoman conquest of Lesbos]] began in 1462, culminating in the [[Ottoman conquest of Lesbos#Siege of Mytilene|Siege of Mytilene]] on 1 September 1462. Most of the campaigns in the Morea were indecisive, with the exception of the [[Siege of Negroponte (1470)|Siege of Negroponte]] beginning on 10 July 1470, resulting in the island of [[Euboea]] coming under Ottoman control.{{sfn|Setton|1989|p=327|loc=Siege of Negroponte}}

===Wallachia===

At the beginning of the 15th century, [[Wallachia]] was ruled by a dynasty of [[voivode]]<nowiki/>s from the [[House of Basarab]]. [[Mircea I of Wallachia]] began his rule in 1386 and concluded a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after [[Mehmed I]] took control of the ports of [[Turnu Măgurele]] and [[Giurgiu]]. From 1418 to 1420, [[Michael I of Wallachia]] defeated the Ottomans in [[Banate of Severin|Severin]], only to be killed in battle by their counter-offensive. In 1422, the Ottoman threat was averted when [[Dan II of Wallachia]] inflicted a defeat on [[Murad II]], with the help of [[Pippo Spano]].<ref name=":33">A. J. Evans, H. Trotter and M. Gaster (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rumania|Rumania]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''23''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 825–849.</ref>[[File:Vlad Tepes 002.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Vlad Țepeș (Dracula) by[[Ambras Castle]]]]
The Ottomans tried without success to bring Wallachia under their control by putting their own candidate on the throne. They regarded the region as a buffer zone with the Kingdom of Hungary and, for a yearly tribute, did not meddle in their internal affairs. To prevent Wallachia from falling under Hungarian suzerainty, the Ottomans freed young [[Vlad the Impaler|Vlad Dracula III]] and his brother [[Radu cel Frumos]], so that Vlad could claim the throne of Wallachia. His rule was short-lived, as [[John Hunyadi]] invaded Wallachia and restored his ally [[Vladislav II of Wallachia]] of the [[House of Dănești]] to the throne.<ref name=":13" />

Vlad III Dracula fled to Moldavia, where he lived under the protection of his uncle, [[Bogdan II of Moldavia]]. In October 1451, Bogdan was assassinated and Vlad fled to Hungary. Impressed by Vlad's vast knowledge of the mindset and inner workings of the Ottoman Empire, as well as his hatred towards the Turks and Mehmed II, Hunyadi reconciled with his former enemy and tried to make Vlad III his own adviser, but Vlad refused. In 1456, while the Ottomans threatened Hungary at the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], Vlad III led a contingent into Wallachia, reconquered his native land, and killed Vladislav II.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989b|loc=Campaign in Wallachia||pp=323–326}}

In 1459, Mehmed II sent envoys to Vlad III to urge him to pay a delayed tribute of 10,000 ducats and 500 recruits into the Ottoman forces. Vlad III refused and had the Ottoman envoys killed by nailing their turbans to their heads, on the pretext that they had refused to raise their hats to him, as they only removed their headgear before God. Meanwhile, the sultan sent [[Hamza Bey|Hamza Pasha]] to make peace and, if necessary, eliminate Vlad III. The Ottomans were ambushed and impaled, with Hamza Pasha impaled on the highest stake.{{sfn|İnalcık|1989b|loc=Campaign in Wallachia||pp=323–326}}

In the winter of 1462, Vlad III crossed the Danube and scorched the entire Bulgarian land in the area between Serbia and the Black Sea. Mehmed II launched an attack against Vlad III in Wallachia but suffered many casualties in the surprise [[Night Attack at Târgoviște]]. Vlad's policy of staunch resistance against the Ottomans was not popular, and he was betrayed by [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] among others. Vlad III had to retreat to the mountains.
[[File:Kenyérmezői csata.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Battle of Breadfield]] by [[Eduard Gurk]]]] After this, the Ottomans captured the Wallachian capital [[Târgoviște]] and withdrew, having left Radu as ruler of Wallachia. [[Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey]] fought with distinction and wiped out a force of 6,000 Wallachians and deposited 2,000 of their heads at the feet of the sultan. He was later reinstated in Thessaly. Vlad eventually escaped to Hungary, where he was imprisoned on a false accusation of treason against his overlord, [[Matthias Corvinus]]. The situation in Wallachia remained stable until the end of the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman-Venetian War]] when the Ottomans were defeated in the [[Battle of Breadfield]] on 13 October 1479.<ref name=":13" />

===Trebizond===

The [[Empire of Trebizond]] was formed after the fall of Constantinople in 1204 and remained indepenent after the restoral of the Byzantine Empire in 1261. Emperor since 1429, [[John IV of Trebizond]] forged an alliance by marrying his daughter to the son of his brother-in-law [[Uzun Hasan]], ruler of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]], in return for his promise to defend Trebizond. He also secured promises of support from [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], [[Karamanid|Karamania]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. The Ottomans attempted to capture Trebizond or to get an annual tribute since the time of Murad II. During the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]] in 1456, the Ottoman governor of [[Amasya]] attacked Trebizond, and although he was defeated, he took many prisoners and extracted a heavy tribute.<ref>[[William Miller (historian)|Miller, William]]. (1926). ''[https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000653659/Home Trebizond, the last Greek empire].'' London: Society for promoting Christian knowledge.</ref>

After John's death in 1459, his brother [[David of Trebizond]] came to power and intrigued with various European powers for help against the Ottomans, speaking of wild schemes that included the conquest of Jerusalem. Mehmed II eventually heard of these intrigues and was further provoked to action by David's demand that Mehmed remit the tribute imposed on his brother.<ref>Miller, William. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/552176 The Chronology of Trebizond].” ''The English Historical Review'', vol. 38, no. 151, 1923, pgs. 408–410.</ref>

Mehmed's response came in the summer of 1461. He led a sizable army from [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] by land and the Ottoman navy by sea, first to Sinope. Having isolated Trebizond, Mehmed quickly swept down upon it before the inhabitants knew he was coming, and began the [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|Siege of Trebizond]]. The city held out for a month before surrendering on 15 August 1461.<ref>Inalcik, Halil. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2849734 Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481) and His Time].” ''Speculum'', vol. 35, no. 3, 1960, pgs. 408–427.</ref>

===Bosnia===

On 10 July 1461, [[Stephen Thomas of Bosnia|Thomas of Bosnia]] died, and [[Stephen Tomašević of Bosnia|Stephen Tomašević]] succeeded him on the throne of the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]]. Tomašević made an alliance with the Hungarians and asked [[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] for help in the face of an impending Ottoman invasion. In 1463, after a dispute over the tribute paid annually by Bosnia to the Ottomans, he then sent for help from the Venetians which was not forthcoming. In 1463, Mehmed II led an army into the country, beginning the [[Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman conquest of Bosnia]]. The royal city of [[Bobovac]] soon fell, leaving Tomašević to retreat to [[Jajce]] and later to [[Ključ, Una-Sana Canton|Ključ]]. Mehmed conquered Bosnia very quickly, executing Tomašević and his uncle [[Radivoj of Bosnia]]. Bosnia officially fell in 1463 and became the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name=":26" />

=== Aq Qoyunlu ===

[[File:Map Aq Qoyunlu 1478-en.png|thumb|right|The Aq Qoyunlu confederation at its greatest extent under [[Uzun Hasan]]]]

At the end of the 14th century, the [[Karamanids]] the most important of the [[Anatolian beyliks]]. At that time, the Ottomans began to dominate most of the region, reducing the Karaman influence and prestige. [[İbrahim II of Karaman]] was the ruler of Karaman, and during his last years, his sons began struggling for the throne. His heir apparent was [[İshak of Karaman]], but [[Pir Ahmet of Karaman|Pir Ahmet]], a younger son, declared himself as the bey of [[Konya]]. İbrahim escaped to the western territories where he died in 1464. The competing claims to the throne resulted in an interregnum.{{sfn|Bosworth|2004|pp=232-233|loc=The Qaramadids}}

With the help of [[Uzun Hasan]], the sultan of the [[Aq Qoyunlu]], İshak was able to ascend to the throne. His reign was short, however, as Pir Ahmet appealed to Mehmed II for help, offering Mehmed some territory that İshak refused to cede. After defeating İshak, Pir Ahmet kept his promise and ceded a part of the ''beylik'' to the Ottomans, but he was uneasy about the loss. So, during the Ottoman campaign in the West, he recaptured his former territory. Mehmed returned and captured much of the region in 1466 and, few years later, [[Gedik Ahmet Pasha]] captured the coastal region of the ''beylik''.<ref name=":29" />

Pir Ahmet as well as his brother [[Kasım of Karaman|Kasım]] escaped to Uzun Hasan's territory. This gave Uzun a chance to interfere. In 1472, the Aq Qoyunlu army invaded and was decisively defeated by the Ottomans at the [[Battle of Otlukbeli]] on 11 August 1473.<ref name=":27" /> When Uzun Hasan died in 1478, he was succeeded by his son [[Yaqub bin Uzun Hasan|Ya'qub Beg]], serving as sultan until 1490. The last Aq Qoyunlu leader, [[Sultan Murad (Aq Qoyunlu)|Sultan Murad]], brother of Alwand, was also defeated by [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail]], founder of the [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Safavid Iran|Iran]]. Though Murad briefly established himself in Baghdad in 1501, he soon withdrew back to Diyar Bakr, signaling the end of the Aq Qoyunlu rule.<ref name=":28">Rezazadeh Langaroodi, Reza and Translated by Farzin Negahban, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/aq-quyunlu-COM_0288 Āq-qūyūnlū]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia Islamica'', Editors-in-Chief: Farhad Daftary.</ref>

===Albania===

The [[Albanian principalities|Albanian Principalities]] were united by [[Skanderbeg]], a nobleman and former member of the Ottoman ruling elite, under the [[League of Lezhë]] in 1444.<ref name=":30" /> In the spring of 1466, Mehmed II marched with a large army against Skanderbeg and the Albanians. Skanderbeg had repeatedly sought assistance from Italy, and believed that the ongoing [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|Ottoman–Venetian War]] offered a golden opportunity to reassert Albanian independence. For the Venetians, the Albanians provided a useful cover to the Venetian coastal holdings of [[Durrës]] and [[Shkodër]]. The major result of this campaign was Mehmet's construction of the fortress at [[Elbasan]]. The fortress cut Albania effectively in half, isolating Skanderbeg's base in the northern highlands from the Venetian holdings in the south. In early 1467, Skanderbeg defeated [[Ballaban Badera|Ballaban Pasha]] and lifted the [[Second Siege of Krujë]]. Mehmed responded by marching again against Albania and pursued the attacks against the Albanian strongholds, while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions to keep them isolated. The Ottomans failed again at the [[Third Siege of Krujë]] in 1467. However, the winter brought an outbreak of plague which sapped the strength of the local resistance. Skanderbeg himself died of malaria in the Venetian stronghold of [[Lezhë]], ending the ability of Venice to use the Albanian lords for its own advantage.<ref name=":32" />

After Skanderbeg died, Mehmed II personally led the [[Siege of Shkodra (1478)|Siege of Shkodra]], begun in 1478. The Venetians and Shkodrans resisted the assaults and continued to hold the fortress until Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottoman Empire in the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1479)|Treaty of Constantinople]] in 1479 as a condition of ending the war.<ref name=":31" />

===Moldavia===

The Ottomans had been threatening [[Moldavia]] since 1420, and in 1456, [[Peter III Aaron]] agreed to pay an annual tribute to ensure his southern borders, the first Moldavian ruler to accept the Turkish demands. His successor [[Stephen the Great]] rejected Ottoman suzerainty and a series of fierce wars ensued. Stephen tried to bring Wallachia under his sphere of influence and so supported his own choice for the Wallachian throne. This resulted in an enduring struggle between different Wallachian rulers backed by Hungarians, Ottomans, and Stephen. An Ottoman army was sent in 1475 to punish Stephen for his meddling in Wallachia, suffering defeat at the [[Battle of Vaslui]] on 10 January 1475. In response, Mehmed II assembled a large army and entered Moldavia, meeting Stephen at the [[Battle of Valea Albă]] on 26 July 1476 where the Ottomans were victorious.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=111–113|loc=Stephen the Great}}

Stephen retreated into northern Moldavia and formed another army. The Ottomans were unable to conquer any of the Moldavian strongholds of [[Suceava]], [[Neamț Citadel|Neamț]] and [[Hotin]], and were constantly harassed by small scale Moldavian attacks. Soon they were also confronted with starvation, a situation made worse by an outbreak of the plague, and the Ottoman army left. Not until 1538 did the principality became a tributary to the Ottoman Empire, but still retaining internal and partial external autonomy.<ref>Joseph Lins (1912). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Rumania|Rumania]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''13.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

===Death of Mehmed II===

An Ottoman army led [[Gedik Ahmed Pasha]] began the [[Ottoman invasion of Otranto]]. Because of lack of food, Gedik returned to Albania, leaving a small garrison behind. Since it was only 28 years after the fall of Constantinople, there was some fear that Rome would suffer the same fate and plans were made to evacuate the Rome. [[Pope Sixtus IV|Sixtus IV]] repeated his 1481 call for a crusade. In 1481, [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] raised an army and besieged Otranto starting 1 May 1481. Mehmed marched with out the Ottoman army but died on 3 May 1481, causing great rejoicing in Europe. He was succeeded by his eldest son [[Bayezid II]].<ref name=":23" />

==Anti-Turkish Crusades==
By the late 1430s, the papacy was increasingly alarmed at the Muslim threat to both Byzantium and eastern Europe lands, and began calling for anti-Turkish crusades.<ref>Mark Aloisio (2017). [https://www.academia.edu/19453414/Alfonso_V_and_the_Anti_Turkish_Crusade Alfonso V and the anti-Turkish crusade]. In Housley, ''The Crusade in the Fifteenth Century''.</ref> A number of rulers, in particular [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso the Magnanimous]], [[Philip the Good]] and [[Afonso V of Portugal|Alfonso V of Portugal]], supported a series of popes in launching or planning military campaigns against the Ottoman Turks, who were expanding their empire in the eastern Mediterranean and threatening the Christian states of Europe.<ref name=":12" />

===Eugene IV===
[[Pope Martin V|Martin V]], pope since 1417, died in 1431 and was succeeded by [[Pope Eugene IV|Eugene IV]]. Eugene supported efforts to stem the Turkish advance, pledging one-fifth of the papal income to the Crusade of Varna which set out in 1443, but which met with overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Varna.<ref>Carlton Joseph Huntley Hayes (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eugenius/Eugenius IV|Eugenius IV]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''9''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 886</ref>

Following the arrival of the first African captives in Lisbon in 1441, [[Henry the Navigator]] asked the pope to designate Portugal's raids along the West African coast as a crusade, a consequence of which would be the legitimization of enslavement for captives taken during the crusade. On 19 December 1442, Eugene issued the bull ''[[Illius qui se pro divini]]'', in which he granted full remission of sins to those who took part in any expeditions against the Muslims.{{sfn|Russell|2000|pp=197–198|loc=The Portuguese Sahara}}

===Nicholas V===

[[Pope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]] succeeded Eugene IV on 6 March 1447.<ref>Thomas Bartholomew Scannell (1911). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Nicholas V|Pope Nicholas V]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''11.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> In late spring of 1452, Byzantine emperor [[Constantine XI]] wrote to Nicholas for help against the impending siege by [[Mehmed II]]. On 18 June 1452, Nicholas issued the bull ''[[Dum Diversas]]'' authorizing [[Afonso V of Portugal]] to attack Muslims, pagans and other enemies of Christ wherever they may be found. After the fall of Constantinople, he responded by calling for an anti-Turkish crusade which never materialized.<ref>Carlton Joseph Huntley Hayes (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicholas (popes)|Nicholas (popes)]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''19''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 649–651.</ref>

===Philip the Good ===

[[Philip the Good]] was the [[Duke of Burgundy]], but had no fixed seat of government, moving between various palaces in [[Brussels]], [[Bruges]], and [[Lille]].<ref>René Poupardin (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip the Good|Philip the Good]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''21''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 387–388.</ref>

====Feast of the Pheasant====
Philip founded the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]] in 1430 as one of the great Catholic orders of chivalry in Europe.<ref>Cecil Weatherly (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Knighthood and Chivalry|Knighthood and Chivalry]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''15''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 851–867</ref> The knights of his Order frequently travelled throughout his territory to participate in [[Tournament (medieval)|tournaments]]. Philip planned a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, launching it at the [[Feast of the Pheasant]] on 17 February 1454 in Lille, but his plan never materialized.<ref>Rolf Strøm-Olsen (2021). [https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.108337?mobileUi=0 Political Narrative and Symbolism in the Feast of the Pheasant (1454).] Viator, Volume 52, Issue 2, pgs. 317–342</ref>

====Louis XI of France====
When [[Louis XI|Louis XI of France]] came to the throne in 1461, Philip remained keen on initiating a crusade.<ref>James Thomson Shotwell (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louis XI. of France|Louis XI. of France]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''17''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 38–40.</ref> However, he needed funds to organize such an enterprise. Louis gave him 400,000 gold crowns for the crusade in exchange for a number of territories, including [[Picardy]] and [[Amiens]]. However, Philip's son [[Charles I, Duke of Burgundy|Charles I of Burgundy]] was angry about this transaction, feeling that he was being deprived of his inheritance. He joined a rebellion called the [[League of the Public Weal]], led by Louis's brother [[Charles, Duke of Berry (1446-1472)|Charles, the Duke of Berry]]. Although the rebels were largely unsuccessful in battle, the king had no better luck. Louis XI fought an indecisive battle against the rebels at [[Battle of Montlhéry|Montlhéry]] and was forced to grant an unfavourable peace as a matter of political expediency.{{sfn|Kendall|1971|p=121}}

===Crusade of Pius II===

[[Pope Pius II|Pius II]] was elected pope in August 1458 and, like his predecessor Callixtus II, was keenly interest in a new crusade.<ref>Preserved Smith (1911). "[[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pius|Pius II]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''21''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pgs. 683–684.</ref>

====Council of Mantua====
Pius convened the [[Council of Mantua (1459)|Council of Mantua]] in May 1458 to promote such an expedition. By the time the council was disbanded in January 1460, an ineffectual call for a new crusade against the Turks had been decided upon, and proclaimed by on 14 January 1460. One of the only European rulers to fully endorse the crusade was [[Vlad III|Vlad III Dracul]], though he was too preoccupied defending his native Wallachia to contribute troops.<ref name=":82">Nicholas Aloysius Weber (1911). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Pius II|Pope Pius II]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''12.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company</ref>

====The last Crusade====
By 1463, Pius' crusade project seemed near to fruition. [[Cristoforo Moro]], the new Doge of Venice, seemed to favor the expedition. [[Matthias Corvinus]], at peace at last with emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], was eager for a Christian alliance. [[Philip, Duke of Burgundy|Philip of Burgundy]], showed a welcome interest. So did [[Skanderbeg]], the leader of Albanian resistance, who on 27 November 1463 declared war on the Ottomans and attacked their forces near [[Ohrid]]. The pope tried diplomacy, addressing a letter to [[Mehmet II]], urging him to become a Christian. The bull ''[[Ezechielis prophetae]]'' was issued on 22 October 1463 and mirrored Pius' optimism. But as the months passed, the enthusiasm faded. Only the Hungarians, who already faced a Turkish war, offered him material support. The Venetians hesitated, and none of the Italian cities were willing to risk the loss of trade with the Ottomans. Philip of Burgundy wrote that the plots of the king made it impossible for him to leave his lands. The pope decided that he would finance and lead the crusade himself. On his orders his agents assembled a fleet of galleys at [[Ancona]]. On 18 July 1464, he took the Cross at a ceremony at Saint Peter's.{{sfn|Setton|1976|p=261|loc=Ezechielis prophetae}}

A few days later he set out for the port of embarkation. His attendants saw that he was a dying man. They hid the truth from him that not one of the princes of Europe had followed his example and that no armies were marching behind him to embark in his galleys for the East. Instead, as he came near to Ancona, they drew the curtains of his litter across so that he should not see out. For the roads were covered with the crews from his fleet, who had deserted their ships and were hurrying homeward. He reached Ancona only to die there, on 14 August 1464. He was mercifully spared the knowledge of the utter collapse of his Crusade.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=466–468|loc=Pius II, the Last Crusader, 1464}}

===Polish–Ottoman War===
The [[Polish–Ottoman War (1485–1503)|Polish-Ottoman War]] of 1485–1503 was a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Poland and the Ottoman Empire. In the war, Poland was supported by its fiefs, the [[Duchy of Mazovia]], the Teutonic Order and Lithuania. The Ottomans were allied with the [[Crimean Khanate]] and Moldavia. An initial Polish victory at the [[Battle of Zasław (1491)|Battle of Zasław]] in 1491 led to the [[Moldavian Campaign (1497–1499)|Moldavian Campaign]] of 1497–1499. The Poles met with defeat at the [[Battle of the Cosmin Forest]] in 1497. On 13 July 1498, [[John I Albert]] signed a treaty with Hungary agreeing to cooperate against the Ottomans. On 15 August 1499, Moldavia accepted the truce, and on 9 October 1503, [[Alexander I Jagiellon]] signed a five-year peace treaty with [[Bayezid II]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|p=115|loc=The Ottoman Threat, 1396–1502}}

==Thirteen Years' War==

After the defeat of the Teutonic Knights at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, internal conflicts led to an uprising by the [[Prussian Confederation]], representing the local Prussian nobility and cities, who sought the protection of [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]]. This resulted in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466)|Thirteen Years' War]], a conflict fought in 1454–1466 between the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]] and the Teutons.{{sfn|Frost|2015|pp=222–230|loc=Thirteen Years' War}}

On 18 September 1454, the Teutons defeated the Polish army at the [[Battle of Chojnice (1454)|Battle of Chojnice]]. The defeat was a near disaster and many Polish cities were recovered by the Order. Impressed by the crusaders' victory, some Prussian lands also capitulated. This was a great victory for the Teutonic Knights, although they lacked enough money to pay the large mercenary force the they employed. As the Order was short on cash since the expensive [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|First Peace of Thorn]] of 1411, Grand Master [[Ludwig von Erlichshausen|Ludwig of Erlichshausen]] handed over the Order's headquarters at [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg Castle]] to his mercenaries in lieu of pay during the war. They then sold it to the Polish king who entered the castle in June 1457. The Order had to move its capital to [[Königsberg]]. In 1455, the [[Neumark]] was sold to the [[Electorate of Brandenburg]] under the terms of the [[Treaties of Cölln and Mewe]].<ref>Frank Westenfelder (2001). [http://www.kriegsreisende.de/renaissance/marienburg.htm Der Verkauf der Marienburg]. Kriegsreisende</ref>

The Polish victory at the [[Battle of Świecino]] on 17 September 1462 changed the course of the war. After that battle, the Poles were able to take the offensive. On 27 July 1463, Polish commander [[Piotr Dunin]] began the [[Gniew#History|Siege of Mewe]]. Because of the great strategic importance of the city and castle, the Teutons sent reinforcements under commander [[Heinrich Reuß von Plauen|Henry Reuss of Plauen]], later Grand Master, and the mercenary [[Bernard Szumborski|Bernhard von Zinnenberg]]. On 15 September 1463, the Teutonic navy was destroyed by 30 ships from Danzig and Elbing in the [[Battle of Zatoka Świeża]]. Soon after the battle, von Zinnenberg, with approval of the Teutonic Order, made a treaty with Poland, withdrawing from the war but retaining in his possession a few castles in Culmerland. [[Gniew|Mewe]] capitulated on 1 January 1464.{{sfn|Stone|2001|pp=29–30|loc=Thirteen Years' War}}

The Thirteen Years' War was a victory for Poland, ending with the [[Second Peace of Thorn (1466)|Second Peace of Thorn]]. The Teutonic Order became a Polish fief and its Grand Masters had to commit to homage to the Polish king within six months of acquiring power. This was honored for the next two centuries. The Teutonic Order also returned [[Eastern Pomerania]] to Poland after nearly 150 years and ceded the bishopric of [[Prince-Bishopric of Warmia|Warmia]], which together formed the so-called [[Royal Prussia]], as both lands fell under direct rule of the Polish king. Tension quickly flared up afterward, and this was soon followed by the [[War of the Priests (Poland)|War of the Priests]] from 1467 to 1479, a drawn-out dispute over the independence of Warmia, in which the Knights sought revision of the peace. They yet again lost to Poland, which held onto its gains.{{sfn|Stone|2001|pp=29–30|loc=Thirteen Years' War}}

==Crusade of 1456==
[[Pope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]] died on 24 March 1455 and Alfosnso de Borgia was elected pope at the advanced age of 67 as a compromise candidate in the [[Papal conclave, 1455|conclave of 8 April 1455]], taking the name [[Pope Callixtus III|Calixtus III]].<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Calixtus|Calixtus]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''5''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pg. 54.</ref>

===Calixtus III===
While Nicholas V had made every effort to stop the Ottomans, Constantinople fell to the invaders in 1453. Even as cardinal, Calixtus III was concerned with organizing Western Europe against the Turkish invasion and, upon his election, he set to carry out his campaign. Papal ambassadors were dispatched to all the countries of Europe to join in a final effort to check the dangers presented by the Turks. Missionaries were sent to England, France, Germany, Hungary, Portugal and Aragon to preach the crusade, to secure volunteers for military service, to collect the necessary taxes, and to engage the prayers of the faithful for the success of the enterprise.<ref name=":12" />

But Western Europe was slow in responding to the pope's call. [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], through his hatred of [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]], was unwilling to join a movement where Hungary could an immediate advantage. The bishops and electors were opposed to the collection of the papal tax for the crusaders. England and France were at war and refused to allow their forces to be weakened by participation in these plans. Genoa did organize a fleet and dispatch it against the Turks, but only to lay herself open to attack by Aragon, while Portugal withdrew the fleet that it had dispatched.<ref name=":12" />

===Siege of Belgrade===
After the fall of Constantinople, Mehmed II rallied his resources to subjugate the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1538)|Kingdom of Hungary]]. His immediate objective was the [[Belgrade Fortress]]. [[John Hunyadi]], the Count of Temes and captain-general of Hungary, who had fought many battles against the Turks in the previous two decades, prepared the defenses of the fortress.{{sfn|Dyer|1861|pp=85|loc=Siege of Belgrade}}

The [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]] began as a military blockade of [[Belgrade]] on 4 July 1456. The siege escalated into a major battle, during which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran the Ottoman camp, ultimately compelling the wounded Mehmed II to lift the siege and retreat on 22 July 1456. The battle had significant consequences, as it stabilized the southern frontiers of the Kingdom of Hungary for more than half a century and thus considerably delayed the [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman advance in Europe]]. On 29 June 1456, Callixtus III ordered the church bells to be rung at noon as a call to prayer for the welfare of those defending Belgrade. To commemorate this victory, Callixtus III ordered the [[Feast of the Transfiguration]] to be held annually on 6 August.<ref>Tom R. Kovach (August 1996). "[https://www.historynet.com/ottoman-hungarian-wars-siege-of-belgrade-in-1456/?f The 1456 Siege of Belgrade]". ''Military History''. '''13''' (3): 34. Retrieved March 6, 2015.</ref>

==Liberation of Cyprus==
The Mamluk invasion of Cyprus began in 1424, and on 7 July 1426, the Cypriot army was routed at the [[Mamluk campaigns against Cyprus#Third campaign|Battle of Khirokitia]] and their king [[Janus, King of Cyprus|Janus]] was captured in battle. On 18 July 1426, the Mamluks embarked for home and Janus was brought to the sultan and was forced to pay a large ransom and agree to an annual tribute. From that point on, Cyprus was a tributary state to the Mamluks until annexed by Venice in 1488.{{sfn|Luke|1975|pp=375–395|loc=Cyprus under the Mamluks and Venetians}}

While Janus was captive in Cyprus, the nobles and the royal family members were trying to deal with an on-going rebellion and concurrently trying to achieve the release of Janus. With help from Europe, the rebellion was repressed after ten months. The rebels' leader was arrested and was tortured and executed in Nicosia on 12 May 1427, the same day that Janus arrived in [[Paphos]] from Cairo. Janus died in 1432 and was succeeded by his son [[John II of Cyprus]]. John also served as the titular king of Jerusalem until his death in 1458.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=196–197|loc=John II of Cyprus}}

At the age of fourteen, John's daughter [[Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus|Charlotte of Cyprus]] became queen and was crowned at St. Sophia Cathedral on 7 October 1458. Charlotte's reign was not successful. She had a tenuous hold on the kingdom as her right to the throne was constantly being challenged by her illegitimate half-brother [[James II of Cyprus]]. On 7 October 1459, she married [[Louis of Savoy, Count of Geneva|Louis of Savoy]] in a marriage arranged by the Genoese who promised their assistance in retaining her crown against the claims by James. In 1460, James captured Famagusta and Nicosia with aid from the Egyptian sultanate of [[Sayf ad-Din Inal]]. After being blockaded in the castle of [[Kyrenia]] for three years, Charlotte and Louis fled to Rome in 1463.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=197–198|loc=Charlotte and James II}}

James II died in 1474 and his wife [[Catherine Cornaro]] became monarch when their son [[James III of Cyprus]] died in August 1474 before his first birthday. He died of natural causes even though it was rumored that he had been poisoned by Venice or Charlotte's partisans. The kingdom had long since declined, and had been a tributary state of the Mamluks since 1426. But under Catherine, the island was essentially controlled by Venetian merchants with vested economic interests in Cyprus.{{sfn|Housley|1992|p=198|loc=Catherine Cornaro}}

In 1488, there were fears that Ottoman sultan [[Bayezid II]] intended to attack Cyprus. The Venetians also discovered a plot to marry Catherine to [[Alfonso II of Naples]], and they decided to recall the queen to Venice and formally annex the island. In February 1489, the Venetian government persuaded Catherine to cede her rights as ruler of Cyprus to the doge of Venice [[Agostino Barbarigo]]—and therefor to the Venetian government as a whole—as she had no heir.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=198–199|loc=Venice annexes Cyprus}}

==Otranto Crusade==

In 1479, the Ottomans proposed an alliance with Venice which was declined. However, the [[Signoria of Venice|''Signoria'']] gave indications to Mehmed II that it would be his right to seizing [[Brindisi]], [[Taranto]], and [[Otranto]]. Early in the summer of 1480, admiral [[Gedik Ahmed Pasha]] received orders from Mehmed to cross the [[Strait of Otranto]].{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=111–112|loc=Crusade to recover Otranto}}

On 28 July 1480, an Ottoman fleet arrived at the city and began the [[Ottoman conquest of Otranto|Siege of Otranto]]. The garrison and the citizens of Otranto retreated to the city's castle. On 11 August 1480, after a 15-day siege, Gedik Ahmed ordered the final assault. When the walls were breached the Ottomans methodically passed to house to house and sacked, looted and set the city on fire. A total of 12,000 were killed and 5,000 were enslaved, including victims from the territories of [[Salento]], and the cathedral was turned into a mosque.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pp=314–345|loc=Sixtus IV and the Turkish occupation of Otranto}}

Since only 27 years had passed since the fall of Constantinople, there was some fear that Rome would suffer the same fate. Plans were made for the pope and the citizens to evacuate the city. [[Sixtus IV]] repeated his 1471 call for a crusade. Several Italian city-states, Hungary and France responded positively. The Republic of Venice did not do so, as it had signed an expensive peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1479.<ref>Richard Urban Butler (1912). "[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Sixtus IV|Pope Sixtus IV]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''14.''' New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

In April 1481, Sixtus IV called for an Italian crusade to liberate the city, and Christian forces besieged Otranto in May. An army was raised by [[Ferdinand I of Naples]], to be led by his son [[Alfonso II of Naples]]. A contingent of troops was provided by [[Matthias Corvinus]]. A year later, the Ottoman garrison surrendered the city after a siege by Christian forces which began on 1 May 1481, uncertainty upon the death of sultan Mehmed II and the intervention of papal forces that were led by [[Paolo Fregoso]] of Genoa. The [[Portuguese expedition to Otranto]] arrived too late.{{sfn|Setton|1976|pp=364–380|loc=Sixtus IV and the recovery of Otranto}}

==Granada War==

The [[Granada War]] was the culmination of the ''[[Reconquista]],'' ending Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula''.'' During the reign of [[Isabella I of Castile]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], the Catholic Monarchs were pitted against the [[Nasrid dynasty]]'s [[Emirate of Granada]].<ref name=":8" />
[[File:Battle of Higueruela.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Battle of Higueruela]]]]
The fifteenth century began with a Castillian victory at the [[Battle of Collejares]] in 1406. This was accompanied by four [[List of sieges of Gibraltar|sieges of Gibralter]] between 1411 and 1467 (known as the sixth through ninth sieges).{{sfn|Bishko|1975|pp=443–456|loc=The Fifteenth Century}} The [[Battle of La Higueruela]] was fought near Granada on 1 July 1431 between the forces of [[John II of Castile]], led by [[Álvaro de Luna, 1st Duke of Trujillo|Álvaro de Luna]], and troops loyal to [[Muhammed IX, Sultan of Granada|Muhammed IX]], Nasrid sultan of Granada. The battle was a modest victory for the forces of Castile, with no territorial gain and failing to take Granada. Following this battle, John II of Castile installed [[Yusuf IV]], grandson of [[Muhammed VI, Sultan of Granada|Muhammed VI]], as sultan. This was followed with a Castilian victory at the [[Battle of Los Alporchones]] on 17 March 1452.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=291–321|loc=The End of the Reconquista: Granada and Beyond}}

In April 1483, the Castillian victory at the [[Battle of Lucena]] resulted in the capture of [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]], the last Nasrid ruler of Granada. Muhammad's father [[Abu'l-Hasan Ali of Granada|Abu'l-Hasan Ali]] was then restored as ruler of Granada, to be replaced in 1485 by his uncle [[Muhammad XIII of Granada|Muhammad XIII]]. In 1487, Muhammad XII obtained his freedom and Christian support to recover his throne by consenting to hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under the Catholic monarchs and not interfere in future military actions. [[Málaga]] was the main objective of the 1487 campaign by the [[Catholic Monarchs]] against the Emirate of Granada, which had been steadily losing territory to the [[Crown of Castile]] forces. The [[Siege of Málaga (1487)|Siege of Málaga]] began on 7 May 1487 and was finally successful on 18 August. The loss of the emirate's second largest city and its most important port was a major loss for Granada. Most of the surviving population of the city were enslaved or put to death by the conquerors.{{sfn|Bishko|1975|pp=443–456|loc=The Fifteenth Century}}
[[File:La Rendición de Granada - Pradilla.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''[[The Surrender of Granada]] by [[Francisco Pradilla Ortiz]].'' [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] surrenders to [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella]]]]
The [[Nasrid–Ottoman relations]] were not consequential in this conflict and the eight-month [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|Siege of Granada]] began in April 1491. The situation for the defenders grew progressively dire, as their forces for interfering with the siege dwindled and advisers schemed against each other. Bribery of important officials was rampant, and at least one of the chief advisers to Muhammad XII seems to have been working for Castile the entire time. The [[Treaty of Granada (1491)|Treaty of Granada]], was signed on 25 November 1491, which granted two months for the city to surrender. After the terms, which proved rather generous to the local Muslim population, were negotiated, the city capitulated on 2 January 1492. The besieging Christians sneaked troops into the [[Alhambra]] that day in case resistance materialized, which it did not. Granada's resistance had come to its end. The ''[[Reconquista]]'' was over.{{sfn|Housley|1992|pp=291–321|loc=The End of the Reconquista: Granada and Beyond}}

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
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* {{cite book|last=Luttrell|first=Anthony T.|title=The Hospitallers at Rhodes, 1306–1421|year=1975|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0020.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Luttrell|first=Anthony I.|title=The Military Orders|publisher=The Oxford Illustrated History of The Crusades|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CuepyJIHXuEC}}
* {{cite book|last=Michaud|first=Joseph–François|author-link=Joseph Michaud (historian)|title=The History of the Crusades|year=1881|publisher=Translated by William Robson. Published by George Routledge and Sons|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006664455}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=William|title=Essays on the Latin Orient|year=1983|publisher=AMS Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lO8cAAAAYAAJ|isbn=9780404170240}}
* {{cite book|last=Mixson|first=James|title=The Crusade of 1456|year=2022|publisher=University of Toronto Press|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Crusade_of_1456/Tqe0zgEACAAJ?hl=en|isbn=9781487505769}}
* {{cite book|last=Moore|first=Clement Clarke|author-link=Clement Clarke Moore|title=George Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg, king of Albania|publisher=New York, D. Appleton & company|year=1850|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000168185?type%5B%5D=title&lookfor%5B%5D=Scanderbeg&ft=ft}}
* {{cite book|last=Muir|first=William|author-link=William Muir|title=The Mameluke or Slave dynasty of Egypt|publisher=London, Smith, Elder|year=1896|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001607852?type%5B%5D=title&lookfor%5B%5D=mameluk&ft=ft}}
* {{cite book|last=Murray|first=Alan V.|title=Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier 1150–1500|year=2001|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusade_and_Conversion_on_the_Baltic_Fro/vXVoAAAAMAAJ?hl=en|isbn=9780754603252}}
* {{cite book|last=Murray|first=Alan V.|title=The Crusades—An Encyclopedia|year=2006|url=https://www.pdfdrive.com/the-crusades-an-encyclopedia-e38126580.html|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078624}}
* {{cite book|last=Murray|first=Alan V.|title=The Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier|year=2009|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kv599Lb04UC|isbn=9780754664833}}
* {{cite book|first1=Claude|last1=Mutafian|first2=Catherine|last2=Otten-Froux|title=Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie|year=1993|publisher=University of Michigan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZbpAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Nicol|first=Donald M.|title=The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC|isbn=9780521439916}}
* {{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|author-link=David Nicolle|title=Constantinople 1453|year=2005|publisher=Praeger|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Constantinople_1453/Q2RoAAAAMAAJ?hl=en|isbn=9780275988562}}
* {{cite book|last=Plum|first=Harry Grant|title=The Teutonic order and its secularization|year=1906|publisher=Iowa City, the University|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008430665}}
* {{cite book|last=Prescott|first=William H.|author-link=William H. Prescott|title=History of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic|year=1856|publisher=Boston: Phillips, Sampson|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100789800}}
* {{cite book|last=Riley-Smith|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Riley-Smith|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of The Crusades|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780192854285|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CuepyJIHXuEC}}
* {{cite book|last=Rossi|first=Ettore|title=The Hospitallers at Rhodes, 1421–1523|year=1975|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0021.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Roux|first=Jean-Paul|author-link=Jean-Paul Roux|title=Histoire de l'Empire mongol|year=1993|publisher=Fayard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqjDPAAACAAJ|isbn=9782213031644}}
* {{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|year=1954|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ|isbn=9780521347723}}
* {{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Fall of Constantinople 1453|year=1965|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAzntP0lg58C&newbks=0&hl=en&source=newbks_fb|isbn=9780521398329}}
* {{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=Lost Capital of Byzantium The History of Mistra and the Peloponnese|year=2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBsBAwAAQBAJ|isbn=9780857718105}}
* {{cite book|last=Russell|first=Peter E.|title=Prince Henry the Navigator A Life|year=2000|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator/H2pvzkZ2h00C?hl=en|isbn=9780300082333}}
* {{cite book|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M.|author-link=Kenneth Setton|title=A History of the Crusades|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1969|url=https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/ACIIU62AEG4C5T8F}}
* {{cite book|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M.|title=The Catalans and Florentines in Greece, 1380–1462|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III|year=1975|url=http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0019.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M.|title=The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, Volume II, The Fifteenth Century|year=1976|publisher=American Philosophical Society|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Papacy_and_the_Levant_1204_1571_The/0Sz2VYI0l1IC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover|isbn=9780871691149}}
* {{cite book|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M.|title=The Ottoman Turks and the Crusades 1451-1522|year=1989|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0006/reference/history.crussix.i0023.pdf|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume VI}}
* {{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|author-link=Denis Sinor|title=The Mongols and Western Europe|year=1975|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0027.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Sterns|first=Indrikis|title=The Teutonic Knights in the Crusader States|year=1985|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume V|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0005/reference/history.crusfive.i0021.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=Angus Donal|title=The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks|publisher=Brill|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NhtAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9789004122925}}
* {{cite book|last=Stone|first=Daniel|title=The Polish-Lithuanian State 1386-1795|year=2001|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=9780295980935|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Polish_Lithuanian_State_1386_1795/LFgB_l4SdHAC?hl=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Taaffe|first=John|title=The history of the Holy, military, sovereign order of St. John of Jerusalem|year=1852|publisher=Oxford University|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_history_of_the_Holy_military_soverei/T84NAAAAQAAJ?hl=en|isbn=9780353547513}}
* {{cite book|last=Topping|first=Peter|title=The Morea, 1364–1460|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III|year=1975
|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0017.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Turnbull|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian)|title=Tannenberg 1410 Disaster for the Teutonic Knights|year=2005|publisher=Praeger|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Tannenberg_1410/wPbkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en|isbn=9780275988609}}
*{{cite journal |last=Tyerman |first=Christopher J. |author-link=Christopher Tyerman |title=Philip VI and the Recovery of the Holy Land |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=100 |issue=394 |year=1985 |pages=25–52 |jstor=569926}}
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Tyerman|title=England and the Crusades, 1095–1588|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1996|isbn=0226820122|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=215JWFCeSOsC}}
* {{cite book|last=Urban|first= William L.|title=The Teutonic Knights|year=2003|publisher=Greenhill|isbn=9781853675355|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Teutonic_Knights/10xmAAAAMAAJ?hl=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Villari|first=Pasquale|author-link=Pasquale Villari|title=Mediaeval Italy from Charlemagne to Henry VII|year=1910|publisher=London: T. Fisher Unwin|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000351967?type%5B%5D=title&lookfor%5B%5D=henry%20vii&ft=ft}}
* {{cite book|last=Waterson|first=James|year=2007|title=The Knights of Islam: The Wars of the Mamluks|publisher=London: Greenhill Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_CZCvgAACAAJ|isbn=9781853677342}}
* {{cite book|last=Wolff|first=Robert Lee|author-link=Robert Lee Wolff|title=The Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1204–1312|year=1969|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume II|url=http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0020.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Woodhouse|first=F. C.|title=The Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages|publisher=Pott, Young & Co., New York|year=1879|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004246602&view=1up&seq=291}}
* {{cite book|last=Ziyādaẗ|first=Muḥammad Muṣṭafā|title=The Mamluk Sultans, 1291–1517|year=1975|url=https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0003/reference/history.crusthree.i0026.pdf|publisher=A History of the Crusades (Setton), Volume III}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Crusades| ]]
[[Category:Medieval history of the Middle East]]
[[Category:15th-century crusades]]
[[Category:15th century in Europe]]

New Pamban Bridge

2023-07-14T09:45:33Z

Wikibio: Shared an engaging publication.

{{short description|Railway bridge under construction connecting Pamban Island to mainland India}}
{{for|the old Pamban bridge|Pamban Bridge}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox bridge
| native_name =
| image =
| image_size = 2
| caption =
| carries = Rail
| crosses =
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| length = {{convert|2.07|km}}
| number_spans = 100
| piers_in_water =
| num_track = 1
| track_gauge =
| begin = February 2020
| complete = 2023 (expected)
| cost =
| open =
|rebuilt=
|closed=
|replaced_by=
|traffic=
| locale = [[Rameswaram]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| coordinates = {{Coord|9|16|57.25|N|79|12|5.91|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
}}

The '''New Pamban Bridge''' (pronounced: [[Help:IPA/Tamil|/pɑːmbən/]] romanised: ''pāmban'') is a railway bridge under construction that will connect the town of [[Mandapam]] in mainland India with [[Rameswaram]] on [[Pamban Island]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Pamban bridge, India's first vertical lift sea bridge, is 84% complete. See pics |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/new-pamban-bridge-india-s-first-vertical-lift-sea-bridge-is-84-complete-see-pics-101669909623773.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The new bridge is constructed parallel to the iconic [[Pamban Bridge|Pamban bridge]] opened in 1914 and will replace it. The new Pamban bridge with a length of 2.07 km is India's first ever [[Vertical-lift bridge|vertical lift sea bridge]]. It is expected to be opened in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Heritage Meets Technology: Take A Look At India's First Vertical Lift Rail Sea Bridge |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/trending/social-relevance/new-pamban-bridge-indias-first-vertical-lift-rail-sea-bridge-588873.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==Overview==
The [[Indian Railways]] decided to construct a new bridge parallel to the old [[Pamban Bridge|Pamban bridge]] with a length of 2.065 km when after considering its age and difficulty in maintenance. [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]] laid the foundation stone for the new bridge in November 2019. The construction is being executed by Rail Vikas Nigam Limited at an estimated cost of ₹540 crore.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Pamban Bridge: What you need to know about India's first vertical lift sea bridge |url=https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/india-first-vertical-lift-sea-bridge-new-pamban-bridge-railways-ministry-11739641.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref> In February 2020, the bridge construction got under way. It will have 100 spans across the sea and is 12.5 metres above sea level. The new bridge will be 3 metres higher than the old one. The vertical lift span of the bridge is around 72 metres. The span can be lifted because of this lift span. Automatic lifting technology is used to raise the center of the bridge to allow ships to easily pass through. The new technology will allow the bridge to have a navigational air clearance of 22 meters above sea level.<ref>{{Cite news |title=New Pamban bridge work picks up momentum, expected to be over by March 2023 |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/new-pamban-bridge-work-picks-up-momentum-expected-to-be-over-by-march-2023/article66222775.ece |access-date=2023-07-14 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Palk Strait]]
[[Category:Railway bridges in India]]
[[Category:Bridges in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Transport in Rameswaram]]

K. P. Kunhammadkutty

2023-07-07T12:05:26Z

Wikibio:

{{Short description|Keralite politician in the Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}{{Infobox officeholder
| image = K P Kunjahammed Kutty.jpg
| occupation = [[Politician]]
| party = [[CPI(M)]]
| birth_date = 1952
}}

'''K P Kunhammadkutty''' (born 1952) is an indian politician belonging to the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], and a [[15th Kerala Assembly|member of legislative assembly]] representing [[Kuttiady Assembly constituency|Kuttiady]], Kerala, India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2021/05/02/kerala-assembly-election-2021-results-winners-statistics-in-graphics.html|title=സെഞ്ചുറിക്കരികിൽ എൽഡിഎഫ്; ഇതാണ് നമ്മുടെ 140 എംഎൽഎമാർ {{!}} ഗ്രാഫിക്സ്|access-date=2021-05-03|language=ml}}</ref><ref name="niyamasabha">{{cite web|url=https://niyamasabha.nic.in/index.php/content/member_homepage/2383|website=niyamasabha.nic.in|title=Members Profile|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref><ref name="news18">{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/kerala/k-p-kunhammed-kutti-master-kuttiadi-candidate-s11a021c001/|website=news18.com|title=K P Kunhammed Kutti Master : Kerala Assembly Election Results Live, Candidates News, Videos, Photos|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
He was born to Moidu and Maryiam in 1952. He studied in Kuttiyadi MI UP School, Vattoli National High School and SSMOTS [[Tirurangadi]].<ref name="deshabhimani">{{cite web|url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/news/kerala/news-kozhikodekerala-16-03-2021/930760|title=വിജയക്കൊടി നാട്ടാൻ {{pipe}} Kozhikode {{pipe}} Kerala {{pipe}} Deshabhimani {{pipe}} Tuesday Mar 16, 2021|website=deshabhimani.com|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref> He is a TTC degree holder (1969–71)<ref name="myneta">{{cite web|url=https://myneta.info/Kerala2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=388|title=K P Kunhammed Kutti Master (Communist Party of India (Marxist)(CPI(M))): Constituency – Kuttiadi (Kozhikode) – affidavit Information of Candidate|website=myneta.info|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref> and a former teacher at Kuttiyadi AIUP School.

== Positions Held ==
*Kozhikkode District Panchayat president. (2005–-2010)<ref name="mathrubhumi">{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/cpim-to-decide-action-against-kp-kunhammed-kutty-on-election-protest-1.5797639|website=mathrubhumi.com|title=കുറ്റ്യാടിയിലെ തര്ക്കം; കെപി കുഞ്ഞമ്മദ് കുട്ടിക്കെതിരെ സിപിഎം നടപടി, തീരുമാനം ഇന്നുണ്ടായേക്കും, CPIM to decide action against KP Kunhammed kutty on Election protest|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref>
* Member, CPI(M) District Committee, Kozhikkode.<ref name="doolnews">{{cite web|url=https://www.doolnews.com/cpi-m-action-against-kuttyadi-mla-kp-kunhammad-kutty-appeal444.html|website=doolnews.com|title=cpi-m-action-against-kuttyadi-mla-kp-kunhammad-kutty-appeal444|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref>
* Member, CPI(M) District Secretariat, Kozhikkode.<ref name="asianetnews">{{cite web|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/kerala-news/k-p-kunhammad-kutty-to-contest-as-cpim-candidate-in-kuttiyadi-qq0lpw|title=കുറ്റ്യാടിയിൽ കെ.പി.കുഞ്ഞമ്മദ് കുട്ടിയെ സ്ഥാനാർത്ഥിയായി പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ച് സിപിഎം {{pipe}} K P Kunhammad Kutty to contest as cpim candidate in kuttiyadi|website=asianetnews.com|access-date=2023-07-05}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Politicians from Kozhikode]]

National Voice

2023-01-31T08:14:42Z

Wikibio: Article crafted.

{{Infobox television channel
| name = National Voice
| logo = NationalVoiceLogo.jpg
| logo_alt =
| launch_date = May 2016
| picture_format = [[576i]], [[SDTV]] [[16:9]]
| network =
| owner = Deepak Sharma
| country = India
| area = India
| headquarters =
| replaced =
| website = http://nationalvoice.co.in
}}

'''National Voice''' is [[Hindi-language]] television [[news channel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bestmediainfo.com/2016/05/prabhu-chawlas-national-voice-news-channel-to-go-live-by-may-end/ |title=Prabhu Chawla's National Voice News channel to go live by May-end |publisher=Bestmediainfo.com |accessdate=2017-08-17}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Television news in India}}

[[Category:Hindi-language television channels in India]]
[[Category:24-hour television news channels in India]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2016]]

Kher Jagatsingh

2022-12-27T04:49:24Z

Wikibio: Created Bharatpedia page

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = Sir
| name = Keharsingh Jagatsingh
| honorific_suffix = [[Knights Bachelor]], [[Member of Parliament|MP]]
| image =
| order = Minister of Education
| president =
| primeminister =
| term_start = 1977
| term_end = 1982
| predecessor =
| successor =
| order1 = Minister of Planning & Economic Development
| president1 =
| primeminister1 =
| term_start1 = 1967
| term_end1 = 1976
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| order2 = Member of Parliament
| president2 =
| primeminister2 =
| term_start2 = 1959
| term_end2 = 1963
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| birth_date = {{birth date |1931|7|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], British India
| death_date = {{death date and age|1985|7|19|1931|7|23|df=y}}
| death_place = England
| spouse =
| children =
| party = [[Mauritian Labour Party]]
|
| occupation = Journalist
|
}}

{{short description|Mauritian politician}}
Keharsingh Jagatsingh, more commonly known as '''Sir Kher Jagatsingh''' (23 July 1931 – 19 July 1985) was a Mauritian politician and [[Labour Party (Mauritius)]] minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=Il y a 41 ans, le 15 janvier 1977: Kher Jagatsingh remplace Heeralall Bhugaloo comme ministre de l'Education |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/324639/il-y-41-ans-15-janvier-1977-kher-jagatsingh-remplace-heeralall-bhugaloo-comme |website=www.lexpress.mu |publisher=L'Express |accessdate=15 January 2018}}</ref>

==Early life==
Keharsingh was born in India, the 14th child of a family of 16 children.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gordon-Gentil |first1=Alain |title=Le mauricianisme selon Kher Jagatsingh (2006) |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/le-mauricianisme-selon-kher-jagatsingh |publisher=L'Express |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> The family migrated to Mauritius and his father was a prison warden at Beau Bassin who retired in 1940. Although he did not attend secondary school Keharsingh joined the Teachers Training College in 1950, but left for the Civil Service where he worked as clerk in the Ministry of Health before starting a newspaper.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kalla |first1=Abdool Cader |title=Mauritius:Curriculum Reform in the Process of Decolonisation |url=https://www.academia.edu/37296864 |website=www.academia.edu |accessdate=1 December 2017}}</ref>

==Political career==
As a young journalist of Mauritius Times Jagatsingh was mentored by social worker [[Bikramsingh Ramlallah]] who was also later elected to parliament in 1959. At the [[1959 Mauritian general election|1959 elections]] Jagatsingh was elected in Constituency No.40 Petite Rivière.<ref>{{cite web |title=Results of 1959 elections |url=http://electoral.govmu.org/English/electionresult/nasselec/Pages/Results-1959.aspx |website=Office of Electoral Commissioner |publisher=Government of Mauritius |accessdate=2020-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Results of 1959 elections |url=http://electoral.govmu.org/English/electionresult/nasselec/Pages/Results-1959.aspx |website=Office of Electoral Commissioner |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> [[Labour Party (Mauritius)|Labourite]] [[Guy Forget (Mauritius)]] encouraged Jagatsingh to join politics.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gordon-Gentil |first1=Alain |title=Le mauricianisme selon Kher Jagatsingh (2006) |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/le-mauricianisme-selon-kher-jagatsingh |publisher=L'Express |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref> However at the [[1963 Mauritian general election|October 1963 general elections]] Jagatsingh was not elected to Legislative Council as he was defeated by his rival Noutun Parsad Puduruth at Constituency No.40 Petite Rivière.<ref>{{cite web |title=Results of 1963 General Elections |url=http://electoral.govmu.org/English/electionresult/nasselec/Pages/Results-1963.aspx |website=Office of the Electoral Commissioner |publisher=Government of Mauritius |accessdate=2020-07-18}}</ref> At the [[1967 Mauritian general election|General Elections]] held on 7 August 1967 Kher Jagatsingh was elected to Parliament in Constituency No.10 Montagne Blanche-Grand Rivière Sud Est (GRSE). In 1967 he campaigned under the banner of the [[Independence Party (Mauritius)|Independence Party]](coalition of IFB-Labour-CAM) with his running mates [[Satcam Boolell]] and Abdool Wahab Foondun within Constituency No.10.<ref>{{cite web |title=Results of 1967 elections |url=http://electoral.govmu.org/English/electionresult/nasselec/Pages/1967/Elected-Members-67.aspx |website=Office of Electoral Commissioner |accessdate=10 July 2020}}</ref> He became Minister of Planning & Economic Development until 1976. He was not elected at the 1976 General Elections although his running mate [[Satcam Boolell]] and rivals Ramduth Jadoo and Jagdish Goburdhun were elected in Constituency No.10.<ref>{{cite web |title=Results of 1976 elections at Constituency No.10 |url=http://electoral.govmu.org/English/electionresult/nasselec/Pages/1976/cons/10.aspx |website=Office of Electoral Commissioner |accessdate=10 July 2020}}</ref> But in 1977 he became Member of Parliament without any elections following the resignation of [[Heeralall Bhugaloo]], the Minister of Education under the Labour government.

From 1977 to 1982 Jagatsingh was Minister of Education and during his term in office major reforms to the educational sector occurred. Such reforms followed Sir [[Seewoosagur Ramgoolam]]'s electoral promises in response to the major disturbance caused by the [[1975 Mauritian student protests]]. As a result, school fees were abolished for all secondary schools and the quality of education was improved. However following the electoral defeat at the 1982 General Elections Sir Kher Jagatsingh retired from politics. He died on 19 July 1985 in England.<ref>{{cite web |title=Il y a 33 ans: un dernier hommage à Sir Kher Jagatsingh |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/335928/il-y-33-ans-un-dernier-hommage-sir-kher-jagatsingh |website=lexpress.mu |publisher=L'Express |accessdate=24 July 2018}}</ref>

==Publications==
In 1954 Kher Jagatsingh was a co-founder of the weekly newspaper [[Mauritius Times]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=KALLA |first1=Abdool Cader |title=Mauritius:Curriculum Reform in the Process of Decolonisation |url=https://www.academia.edu/37296864 |publisher=www.academia.edu |accessdate=12 March 2018}}</ref> Jagatsingh wrote a book titled "Petals of dust" which was published in Mauritius in 1981.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jagatsingh |first1=Kher |title=Petals of dust |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=klIwAAAAYAAJ&q=kher+jagatsingh&dq=kher+jagatsingh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Le mauricianisme selon Kher Jagatsingh (2006) |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/le-mauricianisme-selon-kher-jagatsingh |website=lexpress.mu |publisher=L'Express |accessdate=12 July 2020}}</ref>

==Recognition==
Kher Jagatsingh was knighted in December 1980. Other Mauritians who received the same title in 1980 were [[Gaetan Duval]] and [[Rabindranath Ghurburrun]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The London Gazette 30 December 1980 |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/48470/supplement/45/data.pdf |website=www.thegazette.co.uk}}</ref> In 1967 the Sir Kher Jagatsing Training Centre (SKJTC) was established in the town of Beau Bassin. The technical institution offers training programmes to develop skilled tradesmen for the construction sector such as electricians, plumbers, welders, masons, scaffolders and wood workers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sir Kher Jagatsingh Air Training Centre |url=http://www.mitd.mu/centres.php?tc=skjtc |website=www.mitd.mu |accessdate=10 July 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.facebook.com/Sir-Kher-Jagatsingh-110898549187/ Remembrance page]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jagatsingh, Kher}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:1985 deaths]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly (Mauritius)]]
[[Category:Mauritian Hindus]]
[[Category:People from Plaines Wilhems District]]
[[Category:Labour Party (Mauritius) politicians]]
[[Category:Mauritian politicians of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Mauritian Knights Bachelor]]

HarperCollins

2022-10-04T23:55:07Z

Wikibio: Published an influential piece.

{{short description|American publishing house}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox publisher
| name = HarperCollins Publishers LLC
| image = Harpercollins-logo.svg
| image_size = 300px
| parent = [[News Corp]]
| status = Active
| founded = {{start date and age|1989}}
| founder =
| country = {{ubl|United States|United Kingdom}}
| headquarters = [[195 Broadway]] [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| distribution = Worldwide
| imprints = [[#Imprints|Numerous]]
| revenue = {{Increase}} [[United States dollar|US$]]1.985 billion (2021)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/financial-reporting/article/87081-with-another-big-year-harpercollins-sales-near-2-billion.html|title=With Another Big Year, HarperCollins Sales Near $2 Billion|publisher=Publishers Weekly|access-date=2 August 2022|archive-date=22 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722094049/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/financial-reporting/article/87081-with-another-big-year-harpercollins-sales-near-2-billion.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| url = {{URL|https://harpercollins.com/}}
}}

'''HarperCollins Publishers LLC''' is one of the [[Publishing#Book publishing|Big Five]] English-language book publishing companies; the other four include [[Penguin Random House]], [[Simon & Schuster]], [[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]], and [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]. HarperCollins is headquartered in [[New York City]] and is a subsidiary of [[NewsCorp]].

The company's name is derived from a combination of the firm's predecessors. [[Harper & Brothers]], founded in 1817, merged with Row, Peterson & Company in 1962 to form [[Harper & Row]], which was acquired by NewsCorp in 1987. The [[Scotland|Scottish]] publishing company [[William Collins, Sons]], founded in 1819, was acquired by NewsCorp in 1989 and merged with Harper & Row to form HarperCollins. The logo for the firm combines the fire from Harper's torch and the water from Collins' fountain.

HarperCollins has publishing groups in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, India, and China. The company publishes different [[imprint (trade name)|imprint]]s, including former independent publishing houses and new imprints. The company's worldwide CEO is Brian Murray.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://observer.com/2008/06/its-official-jane-friedman-out-at-harpercollins-her-deputy-up-effective-immediately/ |title=It's Official: Jane Friedman Out at HarperCollins, Her Deputy Up 'Effective Immediately' |last=Neyfakh |first=Leon |work=[[The New York Observer]] |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-date=2 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502191421/http://www.observer.com/2008/06/its-official-jane-friedman-out-at-harpercollins-her-deputy-up-effective-immediately/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==
[[File:The news building SE1.jpg|thumb|[[The News Building (London)|The News Building]], HarperCollins' headquarters in London]]
{{Main|Harper (publisher)|William Collins, Sons}}
The earliest of the publishing firms that comprise HarperCollins was founded in 1817 by [[James Harper (publisher)|James Harper]] and his brother John, initially operating under the name J & J Harper. They were later joined by two other brothers, Joseph Wesley and [[Fletcher Harper]], with the firm becoming Harper & Brothers in 1833.

Harper & Brothers originated several notable magazine publications in the nineteenth century that would later be sold or discontinued, including [[Harper's Magazine]], [[Harper's Weekly]], [[Harper's Bazaar]], and [[Harper's Young People]].

In 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company to become [[Harper & Row]]. The firm acquired [[Thomas Y. Crowell Co.]] and [[J. B. Lippincott & Co.]] in the 1970s, with Crowell and the trade operations of Lippincott merged into Harper & Row in 1980. In 1988, Harper & Row purchased the religious publisher [[Zondervan]], including subsidiary [[Marshall Pickering]].

William Collins, Sons was established in [[Glasgow]] in 1819 by [[Presbyterian]] schoolmaster [[William Collins (publisher)|William Collins]]. The firm's early emphasis was on religion and education, but diversified over time, making a significant move into fiction in 1917 under the leadership of [[Godfrey Collins]].

The [[Collins Crime Club]] imprint published many works in the [[Golden Age of Detective Fiction]], including novels by [[Agatha Christie]] and [[Rex Stout]]. The religious imprint Fount would be home to [[C. S. Lewis]]. Collins would become the [[British Commonwealth]] publisher for a number of popular American juvenile series and authors, including the [[Hardy Boys]], [[Nancy Drew]], and [[Dr. Seuss]].

===Mergers and acquisitions===
[[Rupert Murdoch]]'s [[NewsCorp]] acquired Harper & Row in 1987. NewsCorp had owned a 40% stake in Collins since 1981 and became the sole owner in 1989. NewsCorp merged the two publishers in 1990, combining the name as HarperCollins and creating a logo with a stylized depiction of flames atop waves derived from the torch logo for Harper & Row and the fountain logo for Collins.

In 1990, HarperCollins sold [[J. B. Lippincott & Co.]], its medical publishing division, to the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] publisher [[Wolters Kluwer]].<ref>{{cite news |issn=0362-4331 |last=Cohen |first=Roger |title=J.B. Lippincott Is Sold For Over $250 Million |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=10 November 2019 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/22/business/j-b-lippincott-is-sold-for-over-250-million.html |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116163818/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/22/business/j-b-lippincott-is-sold-for-over-250-million.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1996, HarperCollins sold [[Scott Foresman]] and HarperCollins College to [[Pearson plc|Pearson]], which merged them with [[Addison-Wesley|Addison-Wesley Longman]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gilpin |first=Kenneth N. |title=Pearson to Buy a Publisher From News Corp. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/10/business/pearson-to-buy-a-publisher-from-news-corp.html |work=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=10 November 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116163820/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/10/business/pearson-to-buy-a-publisher-from-news-corp.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

News Corporation purchased the Hearst Book Group, consisting of [[William Morrow & Company]] and [[Avon Books]], in 1999. These imprints are now published under the rubric of HarperCollins.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.newscorp.com/news/news_077.html |title=News Corporation Announces Plans To Acquire William Morrow & Company And Avon Books From The Hearst Corporation |publisher=News Corporation |location=New York |access-date=6 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209220010/http://www.newscorp.com/news/news_077.html |archive-date=9 December 2006}}</ref> HarperCollins bought educational publisher [[Letts and Lonsdale]] in March 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Philip|title=Letts sold to HarperCollins {{!}} The Bookseller|url=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/letts-sold-harpercollins|date=4 March 2010|access-date=30 January 2022|website=www.thebookseller.com|archive-date=30 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130191746/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/letts-sold-harpercollins|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2011, HarperCollins announced they had agreed to acquire the publisher [[Thomas Nelson (publisher)|Thomas Nelson]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=HarperCollins to Acquire Thomas Nelson |magazine=[[Publishers Weekly]] |url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/industry-deals/article/49334-harpercollins-to-acquire-thomas-nelson.html |access-date=7 November 2011 |archive-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717234635/http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/industry-deals/article/49334-harpercollins-to-acquire-thomas-nelson.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The purchase was completed on 11 July 2012, with an announcement that Thomas Nelson would operate independently given the position it has in Christian book publishing.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.thomasnelsoncorporate.com/2012/07/harpercollins-finalizes-acquisition-of-thomas-nelson/ |title=HarperCollins Finalizes Acquisition of Thomas Nelson |first=Casey |last=Francis |publisher=Thomas Nelson, Inc. |access-date=6 August 2012 |archive-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914034518/http://www.thomasnelsoncorporate.com/2012/07/harpercollins-finalizes-acquisition-of-thomas-nelson/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Both Thomas Nelson and [[Zondervan]] were then organized as imprints, or "keystone publishing programs," under a new division, HarperCollins Christian Publishing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harpercollinschristian.com/info/|title=Company Information {{!}} HarperCollins Christian Publishing|website=HarperCollins Company Information|publisher=HarperCollins|access-date=24 September 2015|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116163901/https://www.harpercollinschristian.com/about/company-profile/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://corporate.harpercollins.com/us/harpercollins-imprints/christian-publishing|title=Christian Publishing|website=HarperCollins Corporate|publisher=HarperCollins|access-date=24 September 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915055604/http://corporate.harpercollins.com/us/harpercollins-imprints/christian-publishing|url-status=live}}</ref> Key roles in the reorganization were awarded to former Thomas Nelson executives.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Greenfield|first1=Jeremy|title=Reorganization at HarperCollins Christian Publishing Leaves Mix of Zondervan and Thomas Nelson Execs in Charge|url=http://www.digitalbookworld.com/2012/reorganization-at-harpercollins-christian-publishing-leaves-mix-of-zondervan-and-thomas-nelson-execs-in-charge/|access-date=24 September 2015|work=Digital Book World|publisher=F+W Media|quote=While the senior executive appointments announced today by HarperCollins in a statement come from both houses, the most important roles seem to have been reserved for former Thomas Nelson executives: the new chief financial officer, head of e-media, head of sales and head of communications, for instance, are all former Thomas Nelson executives.|archive-date=25 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925135052/http://www.digitalbookworld.com/2012/reorganization-at-harpercollins-christian-publishing-leaves-mix-of-zondervan-and-thomas-nelson-execs-in-charge/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2012, HarperCollins acquired part of the trade operations of [[John Wiley & Son]] in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Wiley stops publishing Canadian business books: Roseman {{!}} The Star| work = thestar.com| access-date = 1 January 2019| url = https://www.thestar.com/business/personal_finance/2013/05/22/wiley_stops_publishing_canadian_business_books_roseman.html| first = Ellen| last = Roseman| date = 22 May 2013| archive-date = 16 January 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210116163818/https://www.thestar.com/business/personal_finance/2013/05/22/wiley_stops_publishing_canadian_business_books_roseman.html| url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2014, HarperCollins acquired Canadian romance publisher [[Harlequin Enterprises]] for C$455 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeremygreenfield/2014/05/02/news-corp-buys-harlequin-worlds-biggest-romance-book-publisher-three-reasons|title=Three Reasons News Corp Bought Harlequin, World's Biggest Romance Book Publisher|first=Jeremy|last=Greenfield|website=Forbes|access-date=20 September 2018|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116163856/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeremygreenfield/2014/05/02/news-corp-buys-harlequin-worlds-biggest-romance-book-publisher-three-reasons/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Anchor|Amacom}}

In 2018, HarperCollins acquired the business publisher [[Amacom]] from the [[American Management Association]].<ref>{{Cite web| last = Milliot| first = Jim| title = HC Buys AMACOM Books| work = PublishersWeekly.com| date = 2 March 2018| access-date = 14 April 2019| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/industry-deals/article/76194-hc-buys-amacom-books.html| archive-date = 14 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190414225538/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/industry-deals/article/76194-hc-buys-amacom-books.html| url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2020, HarperCollins acquired the children's publishers Egmont Books UK, Egmont Poland and Schneiderbuch Germany from the [[Egmont Group]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/harpercollins-completes-egmont-acquisition-1201871|title=HarperCollins completes Egmont acquisition|magazine=[[The Bookseller]]|first=Mark|last=Chandler|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808010028/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/harpercollins-completes-egmont-acquisition-1201871|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 29 March 2021, HarperCollins announced that it would acquire HMH Books & Media, the trade publishing division of [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]], for $349 million. The deal would allow HMH to pay down its debt and focus on digital education.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cimilluca |first1=Jeffrey A. Trachtenberg and Dana |title=News Corp to Buy Houghton Mifflin Harcourt's Consumer-Publishing Arm for $349 Million |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/news-corp-nears-deal-to-buy-houghton-mifflin-harcourt-s-consumer-publishing-arm-11616970992 |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=The Wall Street Journal |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418034239/https://www.wsj.com/articles/news-corp-nears-deal-to-buy-houghton-mifflin-harcourt-s-consumer-publishing-arm-11616970992 |url-status=live }}</ref> The deal was completed on 10 May.<ref>{{cite press release|title=News Corp Completes Acquisition of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Books & Media Segment|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210510005535/en/News-Corp-Completes-Acquisition-of-Houghton-Mifflin-Harcourt-Books-Media-Segment|publisher=[[News Corp]]|via=[[Business Wire]]|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512135716/https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210510005535/en/News-Corp-Completes-Acquisition-of-Houghton-Mifflin-Harcourt-Books-Media-Segment|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 7 July 2021, HMH's adult books will be published as Mariner Books, while HMH's children's books will be published as Clarion Books.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HC Adopts Interim Branding for HMH Titles|url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/newsbrief/index.html?record=3293|access-date=29 January 2022|website=PublishersWeekly.com|language=en|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116181427/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/newsbrief/index.html?record=3293|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2021, HarperCollins acquired the British publishers Pavilion Books.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thebookseller.com/news/harpercollins-completes-its-acquisition-pavilion-books-1292278|title=HarperCollins completes acquisition of Pavilion Books|website=thebookseller.com|accessdate=24 December 2022|archive-date=24 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224140849/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/harpercollins-completes-its-acquisition-pavilion-books-1292278|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2022 HarperCollins acquired Cider Mill Press.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/harpercollins-focus-acquires-cider-mill-press-book-publishers-301638985.html|title=HarperCollins Focus acquires Cider Mill Press Book Publishers|work=[[PR Newswire]]|access-date=24 October 2022|archive-date=24 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024033618/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/harpercollins-focus-acquires-cider-mill-press-book-publishers-301638985.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Management history===
Brian Murray,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://corporate.harpercollins.com/about-us/leadership-team |title=HarperCollins Publishers: Leadership Team |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-date=22 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222215847/http://corporate.harpercollins.com/about-us/leadership-team |url-status=live }}</ref> the current CEO of HarperCollins, succeeded [[Jane Friedman]] who was CEO from 1997 to 2008. Notable management figures include Lisa Sharkey, current senior vice president and director of creative development and Barry Winkleman from 1989 to 1994.

=== ''United States v. Apple Inc.'' ===
In April 2012, the United States Department of Justice filed ''[[United States v. Apple Inc.]]'', naming [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], HarperCollins, and four other major publishers as defendants. The suit alleged that they conspired to fix prices for [[e-books]], and weaken [[Amazon (company)|Amazon.com]]'s position in the market, in violation of [[United States antitrust law|antitrust law]].<ref name="washington post DOJ sues">{{cite news |author=Mui, Ylan Q. and Hayley Tsukayama |title=Justice Department sues Apple, publishers over e-book prices |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/justice-department-files-suit-against-apple-publishers-report-says/2012/04/11/gIQAzyXSAT_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006074356/http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/justice-department-files-suit-against-apple-publishers-report-says/2012/04/11/gIQAzyXSAT_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2013, a federal judge approved a settlement of the antitrust claims, in which HarperCollins and the other publishers paid into a fund that provided credits to customers who had overpaid for books due to the [[Price fixing|price-fixing]].<ref name="usatoday settlements rolling out">{{cite news |author=Molina, Brett |title=E-book price fixing settlements rolling out |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2014/03/25/amazon-settlements-ebooks/6869033/ |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224210523/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2014/03/25/amazon-settlements-ebooks/6869033/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===US warehouse closings===
On 5 November 2012, HarperCollins announced to employees privately and then later in the day publicly that it was closing its remaining two US warehouses, to merge shipping and warehousing operations with [[RR Donnelley|R. R. Donnelley]] in Indiana. The Scranton, Pennsylvania, warehouse closed in September 2013 and a Nashville, Tennessee, warehouse, under the name Thomas Nelson (which distributes the religious arm of HarperCollins/Zondervan Books), in the winter of 2013. Several office positions and departments continued to work for HarperCollins in Scranton, but in a new location.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murray |first=Brian |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/chicago/news/2012/11/06/harpercollins-to-close-warehouses-in.html |title=HarperCollins to close warehouses in deal with R.R. Donnelley |website=Chicago Business Journal |access-date=7 November 2012 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204014715/https://www.bizjournals.com/chicago/news/2012/11/06/harpercollins-to-close-warehouses-in.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Scranton warehouse closing eliminated about 200 jobs, and the Nashville warehouse closing eliminated up to 500 jobs; the exact number of distribution employees is unknown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tennessean.com/article/20130814/BUSINESS02/308140115/2095/BUSINESS02 |title= HarperCollins Publishers to sell Nashville distribution center |work=The Tennessean |first=Getahn|last=Ward }}</ref>

HarperCollins previously closed two US warehouses, one in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, in 2011 and another in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 2012.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/manufacturing/article/47183-harper-donnelley-in-wide-ranging-supply-chain-deal.html |title=Harper, Donnelley in Wide Ranging Supply Chain Deal |magazine=Publishers Weekly |first=Jim |last=Milliot |access-date=7 November 2012 |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007042942/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/manufacturing/article/47183-harper-donnelley-in-wide-ranging-supply-chain-deal.html |url-status=live }}</ref> "We have taken a long-term, global view of our print distribution and are committed to offering the broadest possible reach for our authors," said HarperCollins Chief Executive Brian Murray, according to'' Publishers Weekly''. "We are retooling the traditional distribution model to ensure we can competitively offer the entire HarperCollins catalog to customers regardless of location." Company officials attribute the closings and mergers to the rapidly growing demand for e-book formats and the decline in print purchasing.{{citation needed}}

===Internet Archive lawsuit===
In June 2020, HarperCollins was one of a group of publishers who sued the [[Internet Archive]], arguing that its collection of e-books was denying authors and publishers revenue and accusing the library of "willful mass copyright infringement".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/01/books/internet-archive-emergency-library-coronavirus.html|title=Publishers Sue Internet Archive Over Free E-Books|access-date=12 June 2020|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Elizabeth A.|last=Harris|archive-date=12 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612122012/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/01/books/internet-archive-emergency-library-coronavirus.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Lindsay Lohan lawsuit ===
In September 2020, HarperCollins sued [[Lindsay Lohan]] for entering into a book deal and collecting a $350,000 advance for a tell-all memoir that never materialized.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Trepany|first=Charles|title=Lindsay Lohan sued by HarperCollins for collecting $365K advance but never writing book|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/books/2020/09/10/lindsay-lohan-sued-book-advance-harpercollins/3462822001/|access-date=11 September 2020|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|archive-date=11 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911123311/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/books/2020/09/10/lindsay-lohan-sued-book-advance-harpercollins/3462822001/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Anne Frank's betrayal===
A 2022 book written by [[Rosemary Sullivan]], with HarperCollins as main publisher, designated [[Arnold van den Bergh|a Jewish notary]] as the most likely suspect in [[Anne Frank]]'s betrayal. The conclusion was challenged by experts. The notary's family members threatened a lawsuit and started a foundation. The Dutch publisher withdrew the book, but HarperCollins has not taken any definitive decision.<ref>{{Cite news|work=de Volkskrant|title=Hoe 'Het verraad van Anne Frank' tot stand kwam, een explosieve conclusie trok en uit de handel werd gehaald|language=nl|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925113359/https://www.volkskrant.nl/kijkverder/v/2022/reconstructie-het-verraad-van-anne-frank~v568314/|archive-date=25 September 2022|url=https://www.volkskrant.nl/kijkverder/v/2022/reconstructie-het-verraad-van-anne-frank~v568314/|last=Beukers|first=Gijs|url-access=subscription|access-date=25 September 2022|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>

===UAW strike===
{{Main|2022–2023 HarperCollins strike}}
On 10 November 2022, approximately 250 unionized workers at HarperCollins began an indefinite strike.<ref name="Limbong">{{Cite web |last=Limbong |first=Andrew |title=Workers at HarperCollins Publishers begin strike |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1135741557/workers-at-harpercollins-publishers-begin-strike |access-date=14 November 2022 |website=NPR.org |language=en-US |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114060427/https://www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1135741557/workers-at-harpercollins-publishers-begin-strike |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Alter |first1=Alexandra |last2=Harris |first2=Elizabeth A. |title=HarperCollins Workers Strike for Better Pay and Benefits |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/10/books/harpercollins-strike.html |access-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110144613/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/10/books/harpercollins-strike.html |archive-date=10 November 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Local 2110 of the [[United Auto Workers]] (UAW) union includes people in design, marketing, publicity, and sales for the company. The UAW union made the decision to strike after drawn-out negotiations between it and HarperCollins, which resulted in members "working without a contract since April."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trachtenberg |first=Jeffry A. |title=HarperCollins Union Goes on Indefinite Strike Over Pay and Benefits |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/harpercollins-union-goes-on-indefinite-strike-over-pay-and-benefits-11668096539 |access-date=14 November 2022 |website=WSJ |language=en-US |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114074501/https://www.wsj.com/articles/harpercollins-union-goes-on-indefinite-strike-over-pay-and-benefits-11668096539 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to a spokesperson, HarperCollins "has agreed to a number of proposals that the UAW is seeking to include in a new contract" and "is disappointed an agreement has not been reached" but "will continue to negotiate in good faith."<ref name="Limbong" />

On 21 December 2022 the local put their in-person picketing on "pause" to give strikers an opportunity to spend time with their loved ones.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=hcpunion |number=1605658133921091584 |title=In-Person Strike Paused}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=social media}} The picketing resumed as scheduled on 3 January 2023.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=hcpunion |number=1610278638636916737 |title=HCP New Year's resolution}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=social media}}

After three months of collective action, the union agreed to a new contract with HarperCollins on February 16th 2023.
<ref name="Italie">{{Cite web |last=Italie |first=Hillel |title=HarperCollins union approves contract, ends 3-month strike |url=https://apnews.com/article/harpercollins-union-strike-ends-0a94238718879066d9b21af6266be526 |access-date=23 February 2023 |website=APNews.com |language=en-US |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223165837/https://apnews.com/article/harpercollins-union-strike-ends-0a94238718879066d9b21af6266be526 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Under the new terms, the annual starting pay of HarperCollins employees has increased from $45,000 to $47,500 upon ratification, and is set to rise to $50,000 by 2025. Additionally, full-time employees in the union will receive a lump sum payment of $1,500.<ref name="Italie" /> The contract also allows workers making less than $60,000 to file for two hours of overtime pay per week without approval from a manager, and puts measures in place to compensate junior-level staff for diversity and inclusion work which is typically unpaid in the industry.<ref name="Dwyer Harris">{{cite web |last1=Dwyer |first1=Kate |last2=Harris |first2=Elizabeth A. |title=Unionized HarperCollins Employees Are Back To Work After A 3-Month Strike |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/21/books/harpercollins-strike-ends.html |website=nytimes.com |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223023141/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/21/books/harpercollins-strike-ends.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The workers returned to their desks on February 21st.<ref name="Dwyer Harris" />

==Noted books==
HarperCollins maintains the backlist of many of the books originally published by its many merged imprints, in addition to having picked up new authors since the merger. Authors published originally by Harper include [[Mark Twain]], the [[Brontë sisters]], and [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]. Authors published originally by Collins include [[H. G. Wells]] and [[Agatha Christie]]. HarperCollins also acquired the publishing rights to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s work in 1990 when [[George Allen & Unwin|Unwin Hyman]] was bought. This is a list of some of the more noted books and series published by HarperCollins and their various imprints and merged publishing houses.
{{dynamic list}}

* ''[[The Hobbit]]'', [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] (1937) (originally published by [[George Allen & Unwin]])
* ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', J. R. R. Tolkien (1954–1955) (originally published by George Allen & Unwin)
* ''[[The Art of Loving]]'', [[Erich Fromm]] (1956)
* ''[[Master and Commander]]'', [[Patrick O'Brian]] (1970) (adapted into the 2003 film ''[[Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World]]'')
* the ''[[The Blessing Way|Leaphorn and Chee books]]'', [[Tony Hillerman]] (1970–2006)
* ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. [[Christopher Tolkien]] with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]]) (1977) (originally published by George Allen & Unwin)
* ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'' (1979), a major dictionary<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/mumpreneur-leads-collins-english-dictionary-entries-2365895.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220509/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/mumpreneur-leads-collins-english-dictionary-entries-2365895.html |archive-date=9 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | location=London | work=The Independent | first=Lucinda | last=Cameron | date=5 October 2011 | title=Mumpreneur leads Collins English Dictionary entries}}</ref>
* [[Sharpe (novel series)|''Sharpe'' series]], [[Bernard Cornwell]] (1981–2006)
* ''[[Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo]]'', Hayden Herrera (1983), adapted into the 2002 film ''[[Frida (film)|Frida]]''
* ''[[The History of Middle-earth]]'' series, J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. Christopher Tolkien) (1983–1996)
* ''[[Weaveworld]]'', [[Clive Barker]] (1987)
* the [[Paladin Poetry Series]] (1987–1993)
* ''[[The Alchemist (novel)|The Alchemist]]'', [[Paulo Coelho]], (1988) (first published in Portuguese as ''O Alquimista'', 1988)
* subsequent novels in the ''[[Take Back Plenty]]'' series, [[Colin Greenland]] (1990+)
* ''Where There's a Will: Who Inherited What and Why'', [[Stephen M. Silverman]] (1991)
*''[[Dorothy Wordsworth]]'s Illustrated Lakeland Journals'' (1991, Diamond Books)
* ''[[The Language of the Genes]]'', [[Steve Jones (biologist)|Steve Jones]] (1993)
* ''[[The Gifts of the Body]]'', [[Rebecca Brown (author)|Rebecca Brown]] (1994)
* ''[[Microserfs]]'', [[Douglas Coupland]] (1995)
* ''[[Thoughts]]'', [[Tionne Watkins]] (1999)
* ''[[Śukasaptati#History|Shuka Saptati: Seventy tales of the Parrot]]'' a new translation from the Sanskrit by [[A. N. D. Haksar]] (2000)
* ''[[First They Killed My Father|First They Killed My Father: A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers]]'', [[Loung Ung]] (2000)
* ''[[Bel Canto (novel)|Bel Canto]]'', [[Ann Patchett]] (2001)
* ''[[A Theory of Relativity]]'', [[Jacquelyn Mitchard]] (2001)
* recent volumes in the ''[[Discworld]]'' series by [[Terry Pratchett]] (books from 2001 to present)
* ''[[American Gods]]'', [[Neil Gaiman]] (2001)
* ''[[Boonville (novel)|Boonville]]'', [[Robert Mailer Anderson]] (2003 reprint)
* ''[[Quicksilver (novel)|Quicksilver]]'', [[Neal Stephenson]] (2003)
* ''[[Don Quixote]]'', a new translation by [[Edith Grossman]] (2003, [[Ecco Press|Ecco]])
* ''[[Acquainted with the Night (book)|Acquainted with the Night]]'', [[Christopher Dewdney]] (2004)
* ''[[State of fear]]'', by [[Michael Crichton]] (2004)
* ''[[Darkhouse]]'', [[Alex Barclay]] (2005)
* ''[[Anansi Boys]]'', Neil Gaiman (2005)
* ''[[The Hot Kid]]'', [[Elmore Leonard]] (2005)
* ''[[Freaky Green Eyes]]'', by [[Joyce Carol Oates]] (2006)
* ''[[Next (Crichton novel)|Next]]'', [[Michael Crichton]] (2006)
* ''[[Domicilium Decoratus]]'', [[Kelly Wearstler]] (2006) {{ISBN|0-06-089798-8}}
* ''[[Pretty Little Liars (book series)|Pretty Little Liars]]'', [[Sara Shepard]] (2006)
* ''[[Mister B. Gone]]'', [[Clive Barker]] (Harper) (2007)
* ''[[Loving Natalee: A Mother's Testament of Hope and Faith]]'', [[Beth Holloway]] (2007) (about [[Natalee Holloway]])
* ''[[The Raw Shark Texts]]'', [[Steven Hall (author)|Steven Hall]] (2007)
* ''[[The Children of Húrin]]'', J. R. R. Tolkien (ed. Christopher Tolkien) (2007)
* ''[[The Family: The Secret Fundamentalism at the Heart of American Power]]'', [[Jeff Sharlet (writer)|Jeff Sharlet]] (2008)
* ''[[Going Rogue: An American Life]]'', [[Sarah Palin]] (2009)
* ''[[Pirate Latitudes]]'', Michael Crichton (2009) (posthumous publication)
* ''[[Wolf Hall]]'', [[Hilary Mantel]] (2009)
* ''[[Shattered (Casey book)|Shattered: The True Story of a Mother's Love, a Husband's Betrayal, and a Cold-Blooded Texas Murder]]'', [[Kathryn Casey]] (2010)
* ''[[Micro (novel)|Micro]]'', Michael Crichton (2011) (posthumous publication)
* ''[[The Dressmaker of Khair Khana]]'', [[Gayle Tzemach Lemmon]] (2011)
* ''[[A Shot at History: My Obsessive Journey to Olympic Gold]]'' by [[Abhinav Bindra]] (2011)
* ''[[Go Set a Watchman]]'', [[Harper Lee]] (2015)
* ''[[The Poppy War]]'', [[R.F. Kuang]] (2018)
* ''Liquids till Lunch'', [[MaryRuth Ghiyam]] (2021)

===Harper children's books===
Children's book editor [[Ursula Nordstrom]] was the director of Harper's Department of Books for Boys and Girls from 1940 to 1973, overseeing the publication of classics such as ''[[Goodnight Moon]]'', ''[[Where the Wild Things Are]]'', ''[[The Giving Tree]]'', ''[[Charlotte's Web]]'', [[Beverly Cleary]]'s series starring [[Ramona (novel series)|Ramona Quimby]], and ''[[Harold and the Purple Crayon]]''. They were the publishing home of [[Maurice Sendak]], [[Shel Silverstein]], and [[Margaret Wise Brown]].<ref>Marcus, Leonard S (editor) (1998). ''Dear Genius: The Letters of Ursula Nordstrom'' HarperTrophy: New York. {{ISBN|0-06-446235-8}}</ref> In 1998, Nordstrom's personal correspondence was published as ''Dear Genius: The Letters of Ursula Nordstrom'' (illustrated by [[Maurice Sendak]]), edited by [[Charlotte Zolotow]]. Zolotow began her career as a [[stenographer]] to Nordstrom, became her ''protégé'', and went on to write more than 80 books and edit hundreds of others, including Nordstrom's ''The Secret Language'' and the works of [[Paul Fleischman]]. Zolotow later became head of the children's books department, and went on to become the company's first female vice president.

''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' series by [[C. S. Lewis]], while not originally published by a merged imprint of HarperCollins, was acquired by the publisher.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HarperCollins Signs Deal With The C.S. Lewis Company|url=https://www.writerswrite.com/harpercollins-signs-deal-with-the-3212001288|access-date=30 January 2022|website=Writers Write|language=en|archive-date=30 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130192234/https://www.writerswrite.com/harpercollins-signs-deal-with-the-3212001288|url-status=live}}</ref>

HarperCollins has published these notable children's books:
{{dynamic list}}
* the [[I Can Read!]] series for beginning readers, including the ''[[Amelia Bedelia]]'' ([[Peggy Parish]]), ''[[Frog and Toad]]'' ([[Arnold Lobel]]) and ''[[Little Bear (book)|Little Bear]]'' ([[Else Holmelund Minarik]] and [[Maurice Sendak]]) books
* the [[Warriors (novel series)|''Warriors'' series]] (2003–present)
* the ''[[Pretty Little Liars (book series)|Pretty Little Liars]]'' series, by [[Sara Shepard]] (2007–present)
* ''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'', [[Lemony Snicket]]
* ''[[A Taste of Blackberries]]'', [[Doris Buchanan Smith]] (1973)
* [[Skulduggery Pleasant|''Skulduggery Pleasant'' series]], [[Derek Landy]]
* ''[[Bart Simpson's Guide to Life]]'' (1993)
* international rights to [[Dr. Seuss]] (inherited from Collins; 1950s–present)
* ''[[Love That Dog]]'', [[Sharon Creech]] (2001)
* ''[[The Giving Tree]]'', [[Shel Silverstein]] (1964)
* ''[[Where the Sidewalk Ends (book)]]'', Shel Silverstein (1974)
* ''[[The Saga of Darren Shan]]'', [[Darren Shan]] (2000–2004)
** ''[[Cirque du Freak (manga)|Cirque du Freak]]'' [[manga]] series, Darren Shan and [[Takahiro Arai]] (2006–2009)
* ''[[The Dangerous Book for Boys]]'', [[Conn Iggulden|Conn]] and Hal Iggulden (2006)
* ''[[Sabriel]]'', [[Garth Nix]] (1995)
* ''[[A Barrel of Laughs, a Vale of Tears]]'', [[Jules Feiffer]] (1995)
* ''[[Mister God, This Is Anna]]'', Fynn (pseudonym of [[Sydney Hopkins]]) (1974)
* the ''[[Little House on the Prairie]]'' series, [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]] (1932–2006)
* ''[[The Wolves in the Walls]]'', [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Dave McKean]] (2003)
* ''[[Monster (Walter Dean Myers novel)|Monster]]'', [[Walter Dean Myers]] (1999)
* ''[[Coraline]]'', [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Dave McKean]] (2002)
* ''[[Surviving the Applewhites]]'', [[Stephanie S. Tolan]] (2002)
* ''[[The Gollywhopper Games]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Ruby Redfort]]'' (series), [[Lauren Child]] (2011)
* ''[[Divergent (book)|Divergent]]'', [[Veronica Roth]] (2011)
* ''[[Survivors (novel series)|Survivors]]'' series (2012-2019)
* ''[[The School for Good and Evil]]'', [[Soman Chainani]] (2013–present)
* ''[[Splat the Cat]]'', Rob Scotton (2007–present)
* ''[[The Secret Zoo]]'', Bryan Chick (2010–2023)
* ''[[Charlotte's Web]]'', [[E. B. White]] (2015)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bill|first=Neto|title=Fiction Genres|url=https://ebooksdiscounts.com/literary-genres/fiction-genres/|url-status=dead|access-date=19 April 2021|website=eBooks Discounts|archive-date=28 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328052246/https://ebooksdiscounts.com/literary-genres/fiction-genres/}}</ref>
* ''Little Penguin'', Tadgh Bentley (2015–present)
* ''[[Elinor Wonders Why]]'' adapted books (2021–present)

==Imprints==
HarperCollins has more than 120 book [[imprint (trade name)|imprint]]s, most of which are based in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HarperCollins Publishers: World-Leading Book Publisher|url=https://harpercollinscom.kinsta.cloud/|access-date=29 January 2022|website=HarperCollins Publishers: World-Leading Book Publisher|language=en-US|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129003501/https://harpercollinscom.kinsta.cloud/|url-status=live}}</ref> Collins still exists as an imprint, chiefly for wildlife and natural history books, field guides, as well as for English and bilingual dictionaries based on the [[Bank of English]], a large [[text corpus|corpus]] of contemporary English texts.

HarperCollins' imprints, including current and defunct imprints prior to various mergers, include:

===Current===
====Adult====
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[List of Amistad Press books|Amistad Press]], primarily books of African-American interest, named for the storied ship ''[[La Amistad]]''; launched as an independent imprint in 1986 by [[Charles F. Harris]] (1934–2015), it merged with HarperCollins in 1999.<ref>[http://www.thehistorymakers.com/biography/charles-f-harris-40 "Media Makers: Charles F. Harris" (interview date: 6/8/2005, 7/28/2005 and 8/2/2005)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820193912/http://www.thehistorymakers.com/biography/charles-f-harris-40 |date=20 August 2016 }}, The History Makers.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Weber|first=Bruce|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/23/books/charles-f-harris-81-dies-led-effort-to-publish-work-by-black-writers.html|title=Charles F. Harris, 81, Dies; Led Effort to Publish Work by Black Writers|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=5 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105031905/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/23/books/charles-f-harris-81-dies-led-effort-to-publish-work-by-black-writers.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Harris|first=Hamil R.|url=http://www.blackenterprise.com/mag/black-publishing-giant-sold/|title=Black publishing giant sold|website=[[Black Enterprise]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413080901/http://www.blackenterprise.com/mag/black-publishing-giant-sold/|archive-date=13 April 2013}}</ref>
* [[Harlequin Enterprises]]
** Carina Press
** Graydon House Books
** Hanover Square Press
** Harlequin Teen
** Harlequin Kimani Arabesque
** Harlequin Kimani TRU
** Harlequin Kimani Press
** Harlequin Luna
** HQN
** Mira
** Park Row Books
** Rogue Angel
** Silhouette Special Releases
** Spice
** Worldwide Mystery
* [[Harper (publisher)|Harper]]
**Broadside Books (American conservative imprint)<ref>{{Cite web| last = Bosman| first = Julie| title = HarperCollins to Start Conservative Imprint, Broadside Books| work = Media Decoder Blog| access-date = 3 April 2019| date = 27 September 2010| url = https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/harpercollins-to-start-conservative-imprint-broadside-books/| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403174859/https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/27/harpercollins-to-start-conservative-imprint-broadside-books/| url-status = live}}</ref>
**[[Ecco Press|Ecco]]
** Harper Business<ref>{{Cite web| last = Lewis| first = Mark| title = HarperBusiness Takes Its Own Advice| work = Forbes| access-date = 3 April 2019| url = https://www.forbes.com/2002/10/03/1003harper/| date = 3 October 2002| archive-date = 25 June 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210625122244/https://www.forbes.com/2002/10/03/1003harper/| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Deahl| first = Rachel| title = Ross Promises to Revive Collins Business| work = PublishersWeekly.com| date = 30 July 2007| access-date = 3 April 2019| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/8239-ross-promises-to-revive-collins-business.html| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403160951/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/8239-ross-promises-to-revive-collins-business.html| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Rich| first = Motoko| title = HarperCollins Restructures and Dismisses 2 Top Executives| work = The New York Times| access-date = 3 April 2019| date = 10 February 2009| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/11/books/11harp.html| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403160944/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/11/books/11harp.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
** Fontana Books
** Harper Design
** Harper Hardcover
** Harper Paperbacks
*** Bourbon Street Books
** [[Harper Perennial]], originally Perennial Library
*** Harper Perennial Modern Classics
** HarperLuxe (Large print)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.largeprintreviews.com/harperluxe.html|title=HarperLuxe: A New Take on Large Print|last=Caviness|first=Rochelle|work=largeprintreviews.com|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=30 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030053611/http://www.largeprintreviews.com/harperluxe.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
** HarperImpulse (Digital first imprint)
** HarperTrue (Non Fiction digital first)
** [[HarperOne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harperone.com/|title=HarperOne: Imprint of HarperCollins Publishers|author=World Archipelago|work=harperone.com|access-date=24 May 2010|archive-date=14 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314213657/http://www.harperone.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
** HarperVoyager, formerly Voyager, HarperCollins's worldwide science-fiction and fantasy imprint, combining the UK imprint HarperCollins Science Fiction & Fantasy (which had inherited the sci-fi and fantasy list of Collins's Grafton Books and its predecessors (Granada, [[Panther Books|Panther]]), as well as [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s books from the acquisition of [[Allen & Unwin#George Allen & Unwin in the UK|George Allen & Unwin]]) and the US imprint Eos (from the acquisition of [[Avon Books]], which incorporated the former [[Harper Prism]])
**[[Mariner Books]]
** Killer Reads (digital first Crime & Thriller imprint)
** One More Chapter Books (Digital first Crime & Thriller imprint)
** HarperWave
** Harper Muse<ref>{{Cite web| last = Reid| first = Calvin| title = HarperCollins Focus Debuts New Fiction Imprint| work = PublishersWeekly.com| date = 24 February 2021| access-date = 12 March 2021| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/85663-harpercollins-focus-debuts-new-fiction-imprint.html| archive-date = 3 March 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210303113130/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/85663-harpercollins-focus-debuts-new-fiction-imprint.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
* HarperCollins Focus<ref>{{Cite web| title = Imprints| url = https://www.harpercollinsfocus.com/imprints/| access-date = 14 February 2022| archive-date = 14 February 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214192145/https://www.harpercollinsfocus.com/imprints/| url-status = live}}</ref>
**Blink
**Harper Celebrate
**Harper Horizon
** HarperCollins Leadership<ref>{{Cite web| last1 = Wenner| first1 = Emma| last2 = Milliot| first2 = Jim| title = HarperCollins Launching a New Business Imprint| work = PublishersWeekly.com| date = 5 October 2017| access-date = 3 April 2019| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/74973-harpercollins-launching-a-new-business-imprint.html| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403154859/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/74973-harpercollins-launching-a-new-business-imprint.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
***Amacom
**Harper Muse
* HarperCollins UK
** 4th Estate/Fourth Estate<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harpercollins.co.uk/about-harpercollins/imprints/4th-estate|title=4th Estate|publisher=HarperCollins|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208063551/http://www.harpercollins.co.uk/about-harpercollins/imprints/4th-estate|archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref>
** [[Collins Bartholomew]]
** HarperFiction
***The Borough Press<ref name="borough">{{cite web |title=About us |url=http://www.boroughpress.co.uk/about-us/ |website=The Borough Press |publisher=Harper Collins |access-date=1 September 2018 |quote=... HarperFiction’s literary fiction imprint, The Borough Press |archive-date=1 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901113435/http://www.boroughpress.co.uk/about-us/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
** HarperNonFiction
***Thorsons
** Pavilion Books<ref>[https://www.pavilionbooks.com/about/ About Pavilion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410032118/https://www.pavilionbooks.com/about/ }}, pavilionbooks.com. Retrieved 10 April 2023.</ref>
** [[William Collins, Sons|William Collins]]
* [[William Morrow and Company|William Morrow]]
** [[Avon (publisher)|Avon]]
***Avon Red
***Avon Romance
***Mischief (digital imprint)
** Custom House (since 2015, led by Geoff Shandler)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/68330-harpercollins-unveils-custom-house-geoff-shandler-s-new-imprint.html | title=HarperCollins Unveils Custom House, Geoff Shandler's New Imprint | work=[[Publishers Weekly]] | date=9 October 2015 | access-date=5 October 2019 | author=Deahl, Rachel | archive-date=21 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221075736/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/68330-harpercollins-unveils-custom-house-geoff-shandler-s-new-imprint.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
** Dey Street (formerly It Books)<ref>{{Cite web| last = Deahl| first = Rachel| title = HC Rebrands It Books, Renames Dey Street| date = 13 March 2014| access-date = 3 April 2019| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/61391-hc-rebrands-it-books-renames-dey-street.html| work = Publishers Weekly| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403175035/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/61391-hc-rebrands-it-books-renames-dey-street.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
** Witness
** William Morrow Paperbacks
** Morrow Cookbooks, a highly respected series of cookbooks
}}

====Children====
{{div col}}
* HarperCollins Children's Books
** Harper Festival, a publisher of novelty books founded in 1992<ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 0000-0019| volume = 239| issue = 23| pages = 34–35| last = Maughan| first = Shannon| title = New Harper Festival program celebrates books| journal = Publishers Weekly| access-date = 15 November 2020| date = 18 May 1992| url = http://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00000019&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA12280933&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs}}</ref>
** HarperTeen<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harperteen.com/|title=Search Results: HarperCollins Publishers|author=World Archipelago|work=harperteen.com|access-date=31 May 2009|archive-date=12 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512101525/http://www.harperteen.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
** HarperTeen Impulse (digital imprint)
** HarperTrophy
** Amistad
** Balzer + Bray
** Collins
** Clarion Books
** [[Greenwillow Books]]
** [[Heartdrum]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/unreserved/unreserved-reads-author-richard-van-camp-s-best-book-picks-of-2019-1.5392871/heartdrum-harpercollins-launches-new-imprint-dedicated-to-indigenous-stories-1.5392872 |title=Heartdrum: HarperCollins launches new imprint dedicated to Indigenous stories |access-date=13 December 2022 |website=cbc.ca |last=Muzyka |first=Kyle |archive-date=13 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213140455/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/unreserved/unreserved-reads-author-richard-van-camp-s-best-book-picks-of-2019-1.5392871/heartdrum-harpercollins-launches-new-imprint-dedicated-to-indigenous-stories-1.5392872 |url-status=live }}</ref>
** HMH Books for Young Readers
** Katherine Tegen Books
** [[Walden Pond Press]]
** Blink Young Adult
*Farshore (formerly [[Egmont Books]] UK)
**Electric Monkey
{{div col end}}

====Christian====
{{div col}}
* [[Thomas Nelson (publisher)|Thomas Nelson]]
** Grupo Nelson
** Nelson Books
** Tommy Nelson
** W Publishing Group
** WestBow Press
* [[Zondervan]]
** Editorial Vida
** Zonderkidz
**Zondervan Academic
**Zondervan Reflective
{{div col end}}

====Audio====
* HarperAudio
* [[Caedmon Audio|Caedmon]], audiobooks
* HarperCollins Children's Audio

====Bureau====
* [[HarperCollins Speakers Bureau]]

====Digital====
* HarperCollins e-Books
* HarperCollins Productions

====Film and television====
* 3000 Pictures (joint venture with [[Sony Pictures]])

===Defunct===
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* Unwin Hyman (formerly [[Allen & Unwin]], which is now an independent Australian publisher)
* [[Angus & Robertson]]
* The [[Julie Andrews]] Collection
* Avon A
* Cliff Street Books
* Collins Press
* [[List of Collins GEM books|Collins GEM]]
* Diamond Books
* Eos Books, science fiction/fantasy, formerly an [[Avon Books]] imprint
* Flamingo
* Fontana Books / Fontana Press (see [[Fontana Modern Masters]])
* Harper & Brothers
* Harper & Row
* Harper Perennial Modern Thought
* [[Harper Prism]], science fiction imprint (merged with Eos)
* Harper San Francisco, with a focus on religious and spiritual books (now [[HarperOne]])
* Harper Torch
* Harper Trophy, children's book imprint
* Harper True
* HarperCollins West
* [[Daniel Lothrop|Lothrop]], [[Lee & Shepard]]
* [[Marshall Pickering]]
* Moonstone
* [[New Naturalist]]
* Rayo (a Latino-focused imprint)<ref>{{Cite web| title = HarperCollins Launches Rayo, Hispanic-focused Imprint| work = The Write News| date = 23 August 2000| access-date = 3 April 2019| url = https://www.writenews.com/harpercollins-launches-rayo-hispanic-focused-82320003| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403161427/https://www.writenews.com/harpercollins-launches-rayo-hispanic-focused-82320003| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Williams| first = Emily| title = Whatever Happened to US Spanish-language Publishing?| work = Publishing Perspectives| access-date = 3 April 2019| date = 29 June 2010| url = https://publishingperspectives.com/2010/06/whatever-happened-to-us-spanish-language-publishing-2/| archive-date = 3 April 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403161434/https://publishingperspectives.com/2010/06/whatever-happened-to-us-spanish-language-publishing-2/| url-status = live}}</ref>
* [[ReganBooks]]
* Salamander
* Thorsons
}}

==Business strategy==
[[File:ASA conference 2008 - 31.JPG|thumb|2008 conference booth]]

===Web approach===
In 2008, HarperCollins launched a browsing feature on its website where customers can read selected excerpts from books before purchasing, on both desktop and mobile browsers.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Nicole |first=Kristen |title=HarperCollins (Finally) Offers Free Books Online |url=https://mashable.com/archive/harpercollins-free-previews |website=Mashable |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403001854/https://mashable.com/archive/harpercollins-free-previews |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Pace, Andrew K. “Technically Speaking.” American Libraries 2006 April: 80.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Nicole |first=Kristen |title=HarperCollins Offers Books on the iPhone |url=https://mashable.com/archive/harpercollins-iphone |website=Mashable |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403001855/https://mashable.com/archive/harpercollins-iphone |url-status=live }}</ref> This functionality gave the publisher's website the ability to compete with physical bookstores, in which customers can typically look at the book itself, and [[Amazon (company)|Amazon's]] use of excerpts ("teasers") for online book purchasers.<ref name=":1"/>

At the beginning of October 2013, the company announced a partnership with online digital library [[Scribd]]. The official statement revealed that the "majority" of the HarperCollins US and HarperCollins Christian catalogs will be available in Scribd's subscription service. Chantal Restivo-Alessi, chief digital officer at HarperCollins, explained to the media that the deal represents the first time that the publisher has released such a large portion of its catalog.<ref>{{cite web|title=With HarperCollins Deal, Scribd Unveils Its Bid To Become The Netflix For Books|url=https://techcrunch.com/2013/10/01/scribd-harpercollins-book-subscriptions/?ncid=tcdaily|work=TechCrunch|publisher=AOL Inc|access-date=1 October 2013|first=Anthony|last=Ha|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801115419/https://techcrunch.com/2013/10/01/scribd-harpercollins-book-subscriptions/?ncid=tcdaily|url-status=live}}</ref>

HarperCollins formerly operated ''authonomy'', an online community of authors, from 2008 to 2015. The website offered an alternative to the traditional "[[slushpile|slush pile]]" approach for handling unsolicited manuscripts sent to a publisher with little chance of being reviewed. Using authonomy, authors could submit their work for [[peer review]] and ranking by other members; the five highest-ranked manuscripts each month would be read by HarperCollins editors for potential publication. The site was closed after authors "learned to game the system" to earn top-five rankings, and fewer authonomy titles were selected to be published.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/aug/20/authonomy-writing-community-closed-by-harpercollins|title=Authonomy writing community closed by HarperCollins|last=Flood|first=Alison|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 January 2020|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=15 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515071306/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/aug/20/authonomy-writing-community-closed-by-harpercollins|url-status=live}}</ref>

From 2009 to 2010, HarperCollins operated [[BookArmy]], a social networking site.

===Speakers Bureau===
The '''HarperCollins Speakers Bureau''' (also known as HCSB) is the first lecture agency to be created by a major publishing house.<ref name="mcgee"/> It was launched in May 2005<ref name="mcgee">McGee, Celia. [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/04/business/media/04speakers.html?ref=business "A Way to Give Authors a Lucrative Second Platform."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427223842/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/04/business/media/04speakers.html?ref=business }} ''The New York Times'', 4 June 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2009.</ref> as a division of HarperCollins to book paid speaking engagements for the authors HarperCollins, and its sister companies, publish. Andrea Rosen is the director.<ref>Donadio, Rachel. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/27/books/review/Donadio-t.html "More Bang for the Book."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427223841/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/27/books/review/Donadio-t.html }} ''The New York Times'', 27 July 2008. Retrieved 23 February 2009.</ref>

Some of the notable authors the HCSB represents include [[Carol Alt]], [[Dennis Lehane]], [[Gregory Maguire]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Nawotka |first=Edward |title=As Speakers' Bureaus Grow, Booksellers Cast Wary Eye |url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20071112/7349-as-speakers-bureaus-grow-booksellers-cast-wary-eye.html |website=Publishers Weekly |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403002359/https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20071112/7349-as-speakers-bureaus-grow-booksellers-cast-wary-eye.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Danny Meyer]], [[Mehmet Oz]], [[Sidney Poitier]], [[Ted Sorensen]], and [[Kate White]].

===HarperAcademic===
[https://www.harperacademic.com/ HarperAcademic] is the academic marketing department of HarperCollins. HarperAcademic provides instructors with the latest in adult titles for course adoption at the high school and college level, as well as titles for first-year and other common read programs at academic institutions. They also attend several major academic conferences to showcase new titles for academic professionals.

[https://soundcloud.com/user-639387857 HarperAcademic Calling], a podcast produced by the department, provides interviews with authors of noteworthy titles.

===HarperStudio===
HarperCollins announced HarperStudio in 2008 as a "new, experimental unit... that will eliminate the traditional profit distributions to authors. The long-established author advances and bookseller returns has not proved to be very profitable to either the author or the publisher. The approach HarperStudio is now taking is to offer little or no advance, but instead to split the profit 50% (rather than the industry standard 15%), with the author." The division was headed by Bob Miller, previously the founding publisher of [[Disney Hyperion|Hyperion]], the adult books division of the [[Walt Disney Company]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/business/04harper.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=New HarperCollins Unit to Try to Cut Writer Advances|author=Rich, Motoko|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=4 April 2008|archive-date=27 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427223845/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/business/04harper.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080403/ap_en_bu/books_publisher_switch|title=Hyperion publisher goes to HarperCollins|author=Italie, Hillel|publisher=Associated Press|access-date=4 April 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080408064317/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080403/ap_en_bu/books_publisher_switch  |archive-date =8 April 2008}}</ref> HarperStudio folded in March 2010 after Miller left for [[Workman Publishing]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2010/04/that-was-fast-say-goodbye-to-harper-studio.html|title=That was fast: say goodbye to Harper Studio|author=Kellogg, Carolyn|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=18 November 2010|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407151146/https://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2010/04/that-was-fast-say-goodbye-to-harper-studio.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===HarperCollins India===

HarperCollins Publishers India Pvt Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of HarperCollins Worldwide. It came into being in 1992.

==Controversies==

===''If I Did It''===
{{main|If I Did It}}
''If I Did It'' was a book written by [[O. J. Simpson]] about his alleged murder of [[Nicole Simpson]], which was planned as a HarperCollins title, and which attracted considerable controversy and a legal battle over publication.

===Ben Collins===
In August 2010, the company became embroiled in a legal battle with the [[BBC]] after a book it was due to publish, later identified as the forthcoming autobiography of racing driver [[Ben Collins (racing driver)|Ben Collins]], revealed the identity of [[The Stig]] from ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11108795|title=Top Gear boss lambasts Stig book plans|work=[[BBC Online]]|access-date=26 November 2010|archive-date=13 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113014947/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11108795|url-status=live}}</ref> In his blog, ''Top Gear'' executive producer [[Andy Wilman]] accused HarperCollins of "hoping to cash in" on the BBC's [[intellectual property]], describing the publishers as "a bunch of chancers".<ref>{{cite web|last=Wilman|first=Andy|url=http://transmission.blogs.topgear.com/2010/08/27/the-stig-he-is-ours/|title=The Stig. He's ours|work=Transmission|access-date=26 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827184835/http://transmission.blogs.topgear.com/2010/08/27/the-stig-he-is-ours/|archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> On 1 September, the BBC's request for an injunction preventing the book from being published was turned down, effectively confirming the book's revelation that "The Stig" was indeed Collins.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11151777|title=Stig court case: BBC loses battle over Ben Collins book|work=[[BBC Online]]|access-date=26 November 2010|archive-date=1 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901191445/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11151777|url-status=live}}</ref>

===''East and West''===
The company became embroiled in controversy in 1998 after it was revealed it blocked [[Chris Patten]]'s (the last British governor of Hong Kong) book ''[[East and West (book)|East and West]]'' after a direct intervention by the then-CEO of [[News International]], [[Rupert Murdoch]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/61122.stm|title=Rupert Murdoch Faces Authors' Revolt.|work=Transmission|access-date=16 January 2015|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011234759/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/61122.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> It was later revealed by Stuart Proffitt, the editor who had worked on the book for HarperCollins, that this intervention was designed to appease the Chinese authorities—of whom the book was critical—as Murdoch intended to extend his business empire into China and did not wish to cause problems there by allowing the book to be published.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/bookworm-who-turned-1147399.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220509/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/bookworm-who-turned-1147399.html |archive-date=9 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live| date=28 February 1998|work=[[The Independent]]|access-date=23 January 2012|location=London|first=David|last=Lister|title=Bookworm who turned}}</ref>

Murdoch's intervention caused both Proffitt's resignation from the company and outrage from the international media apart from affiliated companies. Chris Patten later published with [[Macmillan Publishing]], initially in America, where it carried the logo "The book that Rupert Murdoch refused to publish".<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/leveson-inquiry/9033316/Leveson-inquiry-Rupert-Murdoch-dropped-Lord-Pattens-book-to-curry-favour-with-Chinese.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/leveson-inquiry/9033316/Leveson-inquiry-Rupert-Murdoch-dropped-Lord-Pattens-book-to-curry-favour-with-Chinese.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live| date=23 January 2012|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=23 January 2012|location=London|title=Leveson inquiry: Rupert Murdoch 'dropped Lord Patten's book to curry favour with Chinese'}}{{cbignore}}</ref> After a successful legal campaign against HarperCollins, Patten went on to publish the book in the UK in September 1998 after accepting a sum of £500,000 and receiving an apology from Rupert Murdoch.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16682122|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 January 2012|title=Rupert Murdoch blocked my book, says Lord Patten|archive-date=23 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123175801/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16682122|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ebooks===
In March 2011, HarperCollins announced it would distribute [[ebooks]] to libraries with [[Digital rights management|DRM]] enabled to delete the item after being lent 26 times.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/a-limit-on-lending-e-books/?scp=1&sq=HarperCollins&st=cse | work=The New York Times | first=Julie | last=Bosman | title=A Limit on Lending E-Books | date=27 February 2011 | access-date=8 March 2011 | archive-date=3 July 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703133906/https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/a-limit-on-lending-e-books/?scp=1&sq=HarperCollins&st=cse | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/mar/06/ebooks-on-borrowed-time | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Patrick | last=Kingsley | title=Ebooks On Borrowed Time | date=6 March 2011 | access-date=11 December 2016 | archive-date=27 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927213519/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/mar/06/ebooks-on-borrowed-time | url-status=live }}</ref> HarperCollins has drawn criticism of this plan, in particular its likening of ebooks, which are purely digital, to traditional paperback trade books, which wear over time.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/mar/08/ebooks-harpercollins-26-times | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Cory | last=Doctorow | title=Ebooks: durability is a feature, not a bug | date=8 March 2011 | access-date=11 December 2016 | archive-date=26 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126095008/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/mar/08/ebooks-harpercollins-26-times | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/mar/01/restrictions-library-ebook-loans | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Benedicte | last=Page | title=Fury over 'stupid' restrictions to library ebook loans | date=1 March 2011 | access-date=11 December 2016 | archive-date=27 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927201314/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/mar/01/restrictions-library-ebook-loans | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Omission of Israel from an atlas===
In December 2014, ''[[The Tablet]]'' reported that an atlas published for Middle East schools did not label Israel on a map of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Israel-wiped-off-the-map-in-Middle-East-atlases-386265 |title=Israel wiped off the map in Middle East atlases |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |archive-date=3 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703130859/https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Israel-wiped-off-the-map-in-Middle-East-atlases-386265 |url-status=live }}</ref> A representative for [[Collins Bartholomew]], a subsidiary of HarperCollins that specializes in maps, explained that including Israel would have been "unacceptable" to their customers in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]] and the omission was in line with "local preferences".<ref>Terrence McCoy, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/01/02/harpercollins-omits-israel-from-maps-for-mideast-schools-citing-local-preferences/?tid=hp_mm&hpid=z3 "HarperCollins omits Israel from maps for Mideast schools, citing 'local preferences{{'"}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116181433/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/01/02/harpercollins-omits-israel-from-maps-for-mideast-schools-citing-local-preferences/?tid=hp_mm&hpid=z3 }}, ''The Washington Post'', 2 January 2015.</ref> The company later apologized and destroyed all the books.<ref>{{cite web |last=Flood |first=Alison |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jan/05/middle-east-atlas-israel-anger |title=Middle East atlas omitting Israel to be pulped following widespread anger |website=[[theguardian.com]] |access-date=5 January 2015 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427224420/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jan/05/middle-east-atlas-israel-anger |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== ''What the (Bleep) Just Happened?'' ===
HarperCollins announced in January 2017 that they would discontinue selling copies of [[Monica Crowley]]'s book ''[[What the (Bleep) Just Happened?]]'', due to allegations of plagiarism.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Kaczynski |first=Andrew |title=HarperCollins pulls Trump pick Monica Crowley's book amid plagiarism revelations |url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/01/10/media/kfile-harper-collins-monica-crowley/index.html |website=CNNMoney |access-date=12 January 2017 |archive-date=12 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112010539/http://money.cnn.com/2017/01/10/media/kfile-harper-collins-monica-crowley/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2012 book had lifted passages from a number of sources including columns, news articles and think tank reports.<ref name=":0" /> HarperCollins said in a statement to [[CNN]]'s ''[[Andrew Kaczynski|KFile]]'', "The book which has reached the end of its natural sales cycle, will no longer be offered for purchase until such time as the author has the opportunity to source and revise the material."<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
{{portal|Companies|Books}}
* [[Books in the United States]]
* [[COBUILD]] – a research facility set up by Collins in conjunction with the [[University of Birmingham]]
* ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' – a separately owned magazine, although begun by the original Harper & Brothers
* [[List of largest UK book publishers]]
* ''[[The Hobbit]]''; ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''; ''[[The Silmarillion]]'' etc.: HarperCollins is the current non-US publisher of the Tolkien series<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tolkien.co.uk/index.html |title= Tolkien: the official online book shop |access-date=19 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226162357/http://www.tolkien.co.uk/index.html |archive-date=26 December 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|https://www.harpercollins.com/}}
* [http://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:/80444/xv72943 Greenwillow Books records, 1974–2014]

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