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Toofan (2010 film)

2023-07-11T00:33:35Z

WikiJoy:

{{Infobox film
| name = Toofan
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = [[Major Ravi]]
| writer = [[Sajid-Farhad]] (dialogues)
| screenplay = Major Ravi
| story = Major Ravi
| based_on = 
| producer = [[Santhosh Damodharan|Santhosh Damomdar]]
| starring = [[Rajpal Yadav]] [[Dileep]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = [[Shaji Kumar]]
| editing = V. Jaisankar
| music = Sajid-Farhad (songs) Rajamani (score)
| studio = Damor Cinema
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes/|2010}}
| runtime = 85 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Toofan''''' is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language children's comedy film directed by [[Major Ravi]] and starring [[Rajpal Yadav]] and [[Dileep]]. The film was made in 1999 and had a delayed release in 2010. This film marks the Hindi debut of most of the crew and Dileep.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://janamtv.com/80502177/|title=ഇന്ത്യ-ചൈന ഗൽവാൻ സംഘർഷം സിനിമയാകുന്നു: മേജർ രവിയുടെ ചിത്രത്തിൽ സൈനികനായി ഉണ്ണി മുകുന്ദൻ, റിപ്പോർട്ട്|work=[[Janam TV]]|language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://onlookersmedia.com/latest-news/major-ravi-to-do-his-next-with-dileep-in-the-lead/|title=ദിലീപിനെ നായകനാക്കി മേജർ രവി ഒരുക്കുന്ന പുതിയ പട്ടാള ചിത്രം ഒരുങ്ങുന്നു..!!|language=ml|work=Onlookersmedia}}</ref> The film was also released in YouTube as ''Mohili Gaav'',<ref name="s">{{cite web|title=Man gets stuck in fiance's house due to national lockdown, was there anyone else with them?: 'Wolf' with engaging theme, Fahadh releases poster|url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=496465&u=man-gets-stuck-in-fiances-house-due-to-national-lockdown-was-there-anyone-else-with-them-wolf-with-engaging-theme-fahadh-releases-poster-496465|work=[[Kerala Kaumudi]]}}</ref> and it was dubbed in Malayalam as ''Oru Avadhikaalam''.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Rajpal Yadav]] as Raju
*[[Dileep]] as Charan Laathi
*[[Shakti Kapoor]] as Pandit
*[[Gufi Paintal]] as Pooru Chacha
*Amey Anil Pandya as Jayanthilal
*Chinmay Anand Kambili as Chottu
*Shreyas Sri Krishna Paranjpe as Pallu
*Shalee Deepak Vaishav as Munni
*[[Baby Farida|Farida]] as Savithri
*Shervy as Jayanthi's father
*Saba Khan as Charan's wife
*Harry Paintal as Sevanand
}}
The director [[Major Ravi]] makes a cameo appearance as a lorry driver at the end of the film.

== Production ==
The film was made in 1999 and remained unreleased. In 2007, the media reported that [[Dileep]] was making his Hindi debut in a Hindi-Malayalam bilingual directed by [[Major Ravi]].<ref name="I">{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/dileep-goes-to-hindi-telugu-news-29552|title=Dileep goes to Hindi - Telugu News|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/major-ravi-on-full-alert-tamil-news-29856|title=Major Ravi on full alert - Tamil News|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> At the time the film was made, it was the first time that Dileep had done a film in a language other than Malayalam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/dileep-testing-new-waters-malayalam-news-29397|title=Dileep testing new waters - Malayalam News|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> The film also stars [[Rajpal Yadav]] and takes its name from an [[Amitabh Bachchan]] film of [[Toofan (1989 film)|the same name]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/thoofan-starring-dileep-malayalam-news-29943|title=Thoofan starring Dileep - Malayalam News|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> [[Om Puri]] and [[Niranjana Anoop|Baby Niranjana]] were reported to star in the film.<ref name="I"/> The film was produced by [[Santhosh Damodharan]] and was shot in [[Mumbai]] and [[Pune]].<ref name="s"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.puzha.com/blog/magazine-cini_vision-cinema2_mar26_07/|title=ദിലീപിന്റെ പുതിയ ചിത്രം ‘തൂഫാൻ’|work=Puzha|author=സിനിവിഷൻ|language=ml}}</ref><ref name="I"/> The film was initially scheduled to released on 4 July 2007 due to the success of Dileep's films released on the same date.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/dileep-on-a-signing-spree--news-30399|title=Dileep - On a signing spree - News|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> Dr. Jayan Titty George, the producer of ''[[Vachanam]]'', also plays a small role in the film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/global-malayali/columns/sapna-anu-b-george/2020/05/22/article-about-dr-jtg.html|title=ഹമാരാ കേരൾ കാ ഭായ്-ഡോ.ജെടിജി|language=ml|author=Sapna Anu B. George|website=[[Malayala Manorama|ManoramaOnline]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|10940482}}

Bengal Subah

2023-04-11T04:29:07Z

WikiJoy: Wrote an enlightening manuscript.

{{Short description|Subdivision of the Mughal Empire}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = ‍{{lang|fa|{{Nq|صوبه بنگاله}}}} {{lang|bn|সুবাহ বাংলা}}
| conventional_long_name = Bengal Subah {{small|Viceroyalty of Bengal}}
| common_name = Bengal
| era = [[Early modern period]]
| status_text = {{ubl|''[[Subah]]'' of [[Mughal Empire]] {{small|(1576–1717)}}|Independent kingdom {{small|(1717–1757)}}|[[Vassal state]] of [[British East India Company]] {{small|(1757–1765)}}}}
| year_start = 1576
| year_end = 1765
| life_span = 1576–1765
| event_start = [[Battle of Raj Mahal]]
| date_start =
| event_end = Dissolved
| date_end =
| event1 = [[Baro-Bhuyan|Baro Bhuiyan revolt]]
| date_event1 = 1571–1611
| event2 = Establishment of Jahangirnagar
| date_event2 = 1608
| event3 = Independence from Mughal Empire
| date_event3 = 1717
| event4 = [[Maratha invasions of Bengal|Maratha invasions]]
| date_event4 = 1741–1751
| event5 = [[Battle of Plassey]]
| date_event5 = 1757
| event6 = [[Battle of Buxar]]
| date_event6 = 1764
| p1 = Bengal Sultanate
| flag_p1 = Sultanate of Bengal.png
| border_p1 =
| p2 = Baro-Bhuyan
| flag_p2 =
| p3 = Portuguese Chittagong
| flag_p3 = Brasão de armas do reino de Portugal (1481).svg
| p4 = Kingdom of Mrauk U
| flag_p4 =
| s1 = Bengal Presidency
| flag_s1 = Flag of British Bengal.svg
| s2 = French India
| flag_s2 = Royal Standard of the King of France.svg
| s3 = Dutch Bengal
| flag_s3 = Flag of the Dutch East India Company.svg
| s4 = Danish India
| flag_s4 = Flag of Denmark.svg
| s5 = Bankipur (Bengal)
| flag_s5 =
| image_flag = Alam of the Mughal Empire.svg
| flag_border = no
| image_flag2 = Flag of the Principality of Bengal (15th-18th century).svg
| flag_type = Flags {{ubl|Left: During viceroyalty|{{nowrap|Right: During Nawab}}}}
| image_coat =
| coa_size =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = 1776 Rennell - Dury Wall Map of Bihar and Bengal, India - Geographicus - BaharBengal-dury-1776.jpg
| image_map_caption = Map of the Bengal Subah
| image_crest =
| image_crest_caption =
| capital = {{plainlist|
* [[Tanda, Bengal|Tanda]] {{small|(1576–1590)}}<ref name=bpedia>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Tandah|author=Akhtaruzzaman, Muhammad}}</ref>
* [[Rajmahal]] {{small|(1595–96; 1639–1660)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rajmahal|title=Rajmahal - India |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>
* [[Dhaka|Jahangirnagar]] {{small|(1608–39; 1660–1711)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dhaka|title=Dhaka - national capital, Bangladesh |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>
* [[Murshidabad]] {{small|(1711–1763)}}
* [[Munger]] {{small|(1763–1765)}}}}
| common_languages = {{ubl|[[Persian language|Persian]] {{small|(official)}} |[[Bengali language|Bengali]] {{small|(official)}}|[[Arabic]] {{small|(religious)}}}}
| religion = {{ubl|[[Shia Islam]] {{small|(dynastic)}}<ref name="Rizvi1986">{{cite book|last=Rizvi|first=Saiyid Athar Abbas|author-link=Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi|title=A Socio-intellectual History of the Isnā ʼAsharī Shīʼīs in India: 16th to 19th century A.D|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Z0OAAAAIAAJ|volume=2|year=1986|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|pages=45–47}}</ref><ref name="Rieck2016">{{cite book|last=Rieck|first=Andreas|title=The Shias of Pakistan: An Assertive and Beleaguered Minority|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6aKCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-061320-4|page=3}}</ref>|[[Sunni Islam]] {{small|(majority)}} |[[Hinduism]] and other [[Indian religions]] }}
| national_motto =
| national_anthem =
| government_type = {{ubl|[[Viceroyalty]] {{small|(1576–1757)}} | [[Absolute monarchy]] {{small|(1717–1757)}} | [[Oligarchy]] with restricted monarchial [[figurehead]] {{small|(1757–1765)}}}}
| leader1 = [[Munim Khan]] {{small|(first)}}{{efn|appointed by the [[Mughal emperor]]}}
| leader2 = [[Murshid Quli Khan]]{{efn|First independent ruler}}
| leader3 = [[Siraj ud-Daulah]]{{efn|Last independent ruler}}
| leader4 = [[Mir Jafar]] {{small|(last)}}
| year_leader1 = 1574–1575
| year_leader2 = 1717–1727
| year_leader3 = 1756–1757
| year_leader4 = 1763–1765
| title_leader = ''[[Subahdar]]''{{efn|Used from 1574 to 1717}}/''[[Nawab of Bengal|Nawab Nazims]]''{{efn|Used from 1717 to 1765}}
| deputy1 =
| deputy2 =
| year_deputy1 =
| year_deputy2 =
| title_deputy =
| legislature =
| house1 =
| type_house1 =
| house2 =
| type_house2 =
| stat_year1 =
| stat_area1 =
| stat_pop1 =
| stat_year2 =
| stat_area2 =
| stat_pop2 =
| currency = [[History of the taka|Taka]]
| today = [[Bangladesh]] [[India]] [[Myanmar]]
| footnotes = {{notelist}}
| demonym =
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| status = [[Subah]] of the Mughal Empire
}}
{{History of Bangladesh}}
{{History of India}}

The '''Bengal Subah''' ({{lang-bn|সুবাহ বাংলা}}; {{lang-fa|{{Nq|صوبه بنگاله}}}}), also referred to as '''Mughal Bengal''' ({{lang-bn|মোগল বাংলা}}), was the largest [[subah|subdivision]] of [[Mughal India]] (and later an independent state under the [[Nawabs of Bengal]]) encompassing much of the [[Bengal region]], which includes modern-day [[Bangladesh]] and the Indian state of [[West Bengal]], and some regions from the Indian states of [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]] between the 16th and 18th centuries. The state was established following the dissolution of the [[Bengal Sultanate]], a major trading nation in the world, when the region was absorbed into the Mughal Empire. Bengal was the wealthiest region in the Indian subcontinent.

Bengal Subah has been variously described the "Paradise of Nations"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/uncategorized/2014/12/19/the-paradise-of-nations |title=The paradise of nations |last=Steel |first=Tim |work=Dhaka Tribune |department=Op-ed |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517063054/https://www.dhakatribune.com/uncategorized/2014/12/19/the-paradise-of-nations |archive-date=2019-05-17|access-date=2019-05-17}}</ref> and the "Golden Age of Bengal".<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTlDAQAAIAAJ&q=golden+age+of+bengal+shaista+khan|title=Pakistan Quarterly|magazine=Pakistan Quarterly|volume=|issue=|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Islam|first=Sirajul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuJtAAAAMAAJ&q=golden+age+of+bengal+shaista+khan|title=History of Bangladesh, 1704-1971: Economic history|publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh|isbn=978-984-512-337-2|language=en}}</ref> It alone accounted for 40% of [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch imports]] from Asia.<ref name="Prakash"/> The eastern part of Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as [[textile manufacturing]] and [[shipbuilding]],<ref name="ray">{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |publisher=Routledge |pages=57, 90, 174 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}</ref> and it was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, [[saltpeter]], and agricultural and industrial produce in the world.<ref name="star"/> The region was also the basis of the Anglo-Bengal War.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1}}
</ref>

[[File:De handelsloge van de VOC in Hougly in Bengalen Rijksmuseum SK-A-4282.jpeg|thumb|260px|[[Dutch East India Company]] factory in [[Hugli-Chuchura]], Bengal by [[:nl:Hendrik van Schuylenburgh|Hendrik van Schuylenburgh]] ({{Circa|1665}})]]

By the 18th century, Bengal emerged as an independent state, under the rule of the Nawabs of Bengal. It started to undergo proto-industrialization, making significant contributions to the first [[Industrial Revolution]],<ref name="tong">{{cite book |author=Junie T. Tong |year=2016 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |publisher=CRC Press |page=151 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7}}</ref><ref name="esposito">{{cite book |editor1=John L. Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=174 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3}}</ref><ref name="rayB">{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |publisher=Routledge |pages=7–10 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}</ref><ref name="sengupta"/> especially [[textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution|industrial textile manufacturing]]. It was deindustrialized<ref name="tong"/><ref name="esposito"/><ref name="rayB"/><ref name="star"/> after being conquered by the British [[East India Company]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. The Subah was later established as the [[Bengal Presidency]].

== History ==
===Mughal Empire===
{{See|Mughal Empire}}
[[File:Babur and Humayun.jpg|thumb|The Mughal absorption of Bengal initially progressed during the reigns of the first two emperors [[Babur]] and [[Humayun]]]]
[[File:Emperor Akbar, Los Angeles County Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Akbar]] developed the modern [[Bengali calendar]]]]
[[File:Jahangir of India.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dhaka]], the capital of Bengal, was named [[Jahangir Nagar]] in honor of the fourth Mughal monarch [[Jahangir]]]]

Bengal's physical features gave it such a fertile soil, and a favourable climate that it became a terminus of a continent-wide process of Turko-Mongol conquest and migration, informs Prof. Richard Eaton.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Richard M. Eaton |year=1996 |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier:1204-1760 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=xxiii |isbn=0-520-20507-3}}</ref>

The Mughal absorption of Bengal began during the reign of the first Mughal emperor [[Babur]]. In 1529, Babur defeated Sultan [[Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah]] of the [[Bengal Sultanate]] during the [[Battle of Ghaghra]]. Babur later annexed parts of Bengal. His son and successor [[Humayun]] occupied the Bengali capital [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]], where he stayed for six months.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Humayun |title=Humayun |website=Banglapedia |access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> Humayun was later forced to seek in refuge in Persia because of [[Sher Shah Suri]]'s conquests. Sher Shah Suri briefly interrupted the reigns of both the Mughals and the Bengal Sultans.

The Mughal conquest of Bengal began with the victory of Akbar's army over Sultan of Bengal [[Daud Khan Karrani]], the independent ruler of the province, at the [[Battle of Tukaroi]] on 3 March 1575. After the final defeat of Daud Karrani at the [[Battle of Rajmahal]] the following year,<ref>{{Cite book |author=Tapan Raychaudhuri |author-link=Tapan Raychaudhuri |year=1953 |title=Bengal under Akbar and Jahangir: An Introductory Study in Social History |location=Calcutta |publisher=A. Mukherjee |page=1 |oclc=5585437}}</ref> Mughal Emperor Akbar announced the creation of Bengal as one of the original twelve [[Subah]]s (top-level provinces), bordering Bihar and Orissa subahs, as well as [[Burma]].{{citation needed}} It took many years to overcome the resistance of ambitious and local chiefs. By a royal decree in November 1586, Akbar introduced uniform ''subah'' administration throughout the empire. However, in historian [[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]'s view, "the consolidation of Mughal power in Bengal and the pacification of the province really began in 1594".<ref>{{Cite book |author=Tapan Raychaudhuri |author-link=Tapan Raychaudhuri |year=1953 |title=Bengal under Akbar and Jahangir: An Introductory Study in Social History |location=Calcutta |publisher=A. Mukherjee |page=2 |oclc=5585437}}</ref>

Many of the chiefs subjugated by the Mughals, some of the ''[[Baro-Bhuyan]]s'' in particular, were upstarts who grabbed territories during the transition from Afghan to Mughal rule, but others, such as the Rajas of Chandradwip, Malla, and Shushang, were older families who had ruled independently from time immemorial.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Tapan Raychaudhuri |author-link=Tapan Raychaudhuri |year=1953 |title=Bengal under Akbar and Jahangir: An Introductory Study in Social History |location=Calcutta |publisher=A. Mukherjee |pages=17–18 |oclc=5585437}}</ref> By the 17th century, the Mughals subdued opposition from the Baro-Bhuyans landlords, notably [[Isa Khan]]. Bengal was integrated into a powerful and prosperous empire; and shaped by imperial policies of [[Legal pluralism|pluralistic]] government. The Mughals built a new imperial metropolis in [[Dhaka]] from 1610, with well-developed fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. It served as the Mughal capital of Bengal for 75 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dhaka |title=Dhaka |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> The city was renamed in honour of [[Emperor Jahangir]].

The Mughal conquest of [[Chittagong]] in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) [[Kingdom of Arakan]] and reestablished Bengali control of the port city, which was renamed as Islamabad.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler |title=The Cambridge History of India: The Indus civilization |volume=Supplementary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoI8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237 |publisher=Cambridge University Publishers |pages=237–}}</ref> The [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] frontier region was made a [[tributary state]] of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the [[Chakma people|Chakma Circle]] in 1713.<ref>Saradindu Shekhar Chakma. Ethnic Cleansing in Chittagong Hill Tracts. p. 23.</ref>

Between 1576 and 1717, Bengal was ruled by a Mughal [[Subahdar]] (imperial governor). Members of the [[imperial family]] were often appointed to the position. Viceroy Prince [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]] was the son of Emperor [[Shah Jahan]]. During the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince [[Aurangazeb]], Prince [[Dara Shikoh]] and Prince [[Murad Baksh]], Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the armies of Aurangazeb. Shuja fled to the Kingdom of Arakan, where he and his family were killed on the orders of the King at [[Mrauk U]]. [[Shaista Khan]] was an influential viceroy during the reign of Aurangazeb. He consolidated Mughal control of eastern Bengal. Prince [[Muhammad Azam Shah]], who served as one of Bengal's viceroys, was installed on the Mughal throne for four months in 1707. Viceroy [[Ibrahim Khan II]] gave permits to English and French traders for commercial activities in Bengal. The last viceroy Prince [[Azim-us-Shan]] gave permits for the establishment of the [[British East India Company]]'s [[Fort William, India|Fort William]] in Calcutta, the [[French East India Company]]'s Fort Orleans in [[Chandernagore]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]]'s fort in [[Chinsura]]. During Azim-us-Shan's tenure, his prime minister [[Murshid Quli Khan]] emerged as a powerful figure in Bengal. Khan gained control of imperial finances. Azim-us-Shan was transferred to Bihar. In 1717, the Mughal Court upgraded the prime minister's position to the hereditary [[Nawab of Bengal]]. Khan founded a new capital in [[Murshidabad]]. His descendants formed the Nasiri dynasty. [[Alivardi Khan]] founded a new dynasty in 1740. The Nawabs ruled over a territory which included Bengal proper, [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa, India|Orissa]].

===Independent Nawabs of Bengal===
{{See|Nawabs of Bengal}}
The Nawab of Bengal<ref name="Ahmed2011">{{cite book |author=Farooqui Salma Ahmed |title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA366 |year=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-3202-1 |pages=366–}}</ref><ref name="ChakrabartiChakrabarti2013">{{cite book |author1=Kunal Chakrabarti |author2=Shubhra Chakrabarti |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5 |pages=237–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite ODNB |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-63552 |title=Bengal, nawabs of (act. 1756–1793), rulers in India |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/63552}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Vardi-Khan |title=ʿAlī Vardī Khān | nawab of Bengal |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> was the hereditary ruler of Bengal Subah in [[Mughal Empire|Mughal India]]. The ''[[Nawab]]'' of a princely state or autonomous province is comparable to the European title of [[Grand Duke]]. In the early 18th-century, the Nawab of Bengal was the ''de facto'' independent ruler of some part of [[Bengal]] and other parts were ruled by Bengal Rajas such as [[Bardhaman Raj]], [[Cooch Behar State]] which constitute the modern-day sovereign country of [[Bangladesh]] and the [[Indian state]]s of [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bengal-region-Asia |title=Bengal | region, Asia |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Odisha |title=Odisha - History |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/862281/murshidabad-can-teach-the-rest-of-india-a-lot-on-how-to-restore-heritage-and-market-the-past |title=Murshidabad can teach the rest of India how to restore heritage and market the past |first=Jael |last=Silliman |website=Scroll.in}}</ref> They are often referred to as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Comprehensive History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAON5AW4yUEC&pg=PA27 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-2506-5 |page=27}}</ref> The Nawabs were based in Murshidabad which was centrally located within Bengal. Their chief, a former prime minister, became the first Nawab. The Nawabs continued to issue coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor. But for all practical purposes, the Nawabs governed as independent monarchs. Bengal continued to contribute the largest share of funds to the imperial treasury in Delhi. The Nawabs, backed by bankers such as the [[Jagat Seth]], became the financial backbone of the Mughal court. During the 18th-century, the Nawabs of Bengal were among the wealthiest rulers in the world.<ref>{{cite book |author=William Dalrymple |year=2019 |title=The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=308 |isbn=978-1-4088-6440-1}}</ref>

The [[Rajas]] of Bengal, Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of [[proto-industrialization]]. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre, and metalworks. Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Patna, Sonargaon, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar, Balasore, Pipeli, and Hugli among other cities, towns, and ports. The region became a base for the [[British East India Company]], the [[French East India Company]], the [[Danish East India Company]], the [[Austrian East India Company]], the [[Ostend Company]], and the [[Dutch East India Company]].
[[File:Clive.jpg|thumb|[[Robert Clive]] meets [[Mir Jafar]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757]]

The British company eventually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. In the aftermath of the [[siege of Calcutta]] in 1756, in which the Nawab's forces overran the main British base, the East India Company dispatched a fleet led by [[Robert Clive]] who defeated the last independent Nawab [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. [[Mir Jafar]] was installed as the puppet Nawab. His successor [[Mir Qasim]] attempted in vain to dislodge the British. The defeat of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab [[Shuja-ud-Daula]] of [[Oudh]], and Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]] at the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1764 paved the way for British expansion across India. The South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]] led by [[Tipu Sultan]] overtook the Nawab of Bengal as the subcontinent's wealthiest monarchy; but this was short-lived and ended with the [[Anglo-Mysore War]]. The British then turned their sights on defeating the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] and [[Sikh Empire|Sikhs]].

The Nawabs of Bengal entered into treaties with numerous European colonial powers, including joint-stock companies representing [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], [[Denmark-Norway|Denmark]], [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]].

===Maratha rule===
The resurgent Maratha Empire launched raids against Bengal in the 18th century, which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. A decade of Maratha conquest of Bengal from the 1740s to early 1750s forced the Nawab of Bengal to pay Rs. 1.2 million of tribute annually as the ''[[chauth]]'' of Bengal and Bihar to the Marathas, and the Marathas agreed not to invade Bengal again

The expeditions, led by [[Raghuji Bhonsle]] of [[Nagpur]], also established de facto Maratha control over [[Odisha|Orissa]], which was formally incorporated in the Maratha Empire in 1752.<ref name="scroll.in">{{cite news |url=http://scroll.in/article/776978/forgotten-indian-history-the-brutal-maratha-invasions-of-bengal |title=Forgotten Indian history: The brutal Maratha invasions of Bengal |work=Scroll.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Nitish K. Sengupta |author-link=Nitish Sengupta |year=2011 |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&q=marathas%20in%20bengal%20chauth%20mir%20habib&pg=PA162 |publisher=Penguin Books India |page= |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4}}</ref> The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of chauth for the preceding years.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Jaswant Lal Mehta |year=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707-1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&q=marathas%20in%20bengal%20chauth%20mir%20habib&pg=PA201 |publisher=New Dawn Press |page=201 |isbn=978-1-932705-54-6}}</ref> The chauth was paid annually by the Nawab of Bengal to the Marathas up to 1758, until the [[British occupation of India|British occupation of Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Jadunath Sarkar |author1-link=Jadunath Sarkar |year=1991 |orig-year=First published 1932 |title=Fall Of The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKOqA9lgtbwC&q=1758%20bengal%20chauth&pg=PA85 |edition=4th |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-1149-1}}</ref>

===British colonization===
{{See|Bengal Presidency}}

[[File:Shah 'Alam conveying the grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive.jpg|thumb|right|Shah Alam II granting [[Robert Clive]] the "[[Diwani]] rights of [[Bengal]], [[Behar]] and [[Odisha]]" in return for the annexed territories of the [[Nawab of Awadh]] after the [[Battle of Buxar]], on 12 August 1765 at the [[Benares]].]]

By the late-18th century, the British East India Company emerged as the foremost military power in the region, defeating the French-allied [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757, that was largely brought about by the betrayal of the Nawab's once trusted general [[Mir Jafar]]. The company gained administrative control over the Nawab's dominions, including Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It gained the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Mughal Court after the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1765. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were made part of the [[Bengal Presidency]] and annexed into the [[British colonial empire]] in 1793. The [[Indian mutiny of 1857]] formally ended the authority of the British East India Company, when the [[British Raj]] replaced [[Company rule in India]].

Other European powers also carved out small colonies on the territory of Bengal, including the Dutch East India Company's [[Dutch Bengal]] settlements, the [[French colonial empire|French colonial settlement]] in [[Chandernagore]], the [[Danish colonial empire|Danish colonial settlement]] in [[Serampore]] and the [[Habsburg monarchy]] [[Ostend Company]] settlement in [[Bankipur (Bengal)|Bankipur]].

==Military campaigns==
{{See also|Gunpowder empires}}

[[File:The Nawab's artillery at Plassey.jpg|thumb|300px|Mobile artillery battries, loyal to the [[Nawab of Bengal]].]]

According to [[João de Barros]], Bengal enjoyed military supremacy over [[Arakan]] and [[Kingdom of Tripura|Tripura]] due to good [[artillery]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar |author-link=Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar |year=1965 |title=Husain Shahi Bengal, 1494–1538 A.D.: A Socio-Political Study |url=https://archive.org/details/husainshahibenga0000tara/page/105/mode/1up |url-access=registration |publisher=Asiatic Society of Pakistan |page=105 |oclc=43324741}}</ref> Its forces possessed notable large [[cannons]]. It was also a major exporter of [[gunpowder]] and [[saltpeter]] to Europe.<ref>{{cite news |author=Tim Steel |title=Gunpowder plots |url=http://archive.dhakatribune.com/heritage/2014/nov/01/gunpowder-plots |work=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=25 December 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135203/http://archive.dhakatribune.com/heritage/2014/nov/01/gunpowder-plots |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="en.banglapedia.org">{{cite web|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Saltpetre|title=Saltpetre |website=Banglapedia|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> The [[Mughal Army]] built [[fortifications]] across the region, including [[Idrakpur Fort]], [[Sonakanda Fort]], [[Hajiganj Fort]], [[Lalbagh Fort]] and [[Jangalbari Fort]]. The Mughals expelled Arakanese and Portuguese [[pirate]]s from the northeastern coastline of the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Throughout the late medieval and early modern periods, Bengal was notable for its navy and [[Shipbuilding in Bangladesh|shipbuilding]]. The following table covers a list of notable military engagements by Mughal Bengal:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Conflict !! Year(s) !! Leader(s) !! Enemy !! Rival leader(s) !! Result
|-
| [[Battle of Tukaroi]] || 1575 || [[Akbar]] || [[Bengal Sultanate]] || [[Daud Khan Karrani]] || Mughal victory
|-
| [[Battle of Raj Mahal]] || 1576 || [[Khan Jahan I]] || [[Bengal Sultanate]] || [[Daud Khan Karrani]] || Mughal victory
|-
| Conquest of [[Bhati (region)|Bhati]] || 1576–1611 || {{unbulleted list|[[Khan Jahan I]]|[[Shahbaz Khan Kamboh]]|[[Man Singh]]}} || [[Baro-Bhuyan]] || {{unbulleted list|[[Isa Khan]]|[[Musa Khan (Bengal Ruler)|Musa Khan]]}} || Mughal victory
|-
| [[Ahom-Mughal conflicts]] || 1615–1682 || {{unbulleted list|[[Qasim Khan Chishti]]|[[Mir Jumla II|Mir Jumla]]|[[Ram Singh I]]}} || [[Ahom kingdom]] || [[Ahom dynasty#Swargadeo dynastic lineage|Ahom kings]] || Assamese victory<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=247}}</ref>
|-
| [[Mughal-Arakan War]] || 1665–66 || [[Shaista Khan]] || [[Kingdom of Mrauk U]] || [[Thiri Thudhamma]] || Mughal victory
|-
| [[Battle of Plassey]] || 1757 || [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]] || [[British Empire]] || [[Robert Clive]] || British victory
|}
<gallery>
Attributed to Hiranand - Illustration from a Dictionary (unidentified)- Da'ud Receives a Robe of Honor from Mun'im Khan - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Daud Khan Karrani|Daud Khan]] receives a robe from [[Munim Khan]]
Bibi Mariam.jpg|[[Bibi Mariam Cannon]]
The Jahan Kosa Gun at Murshidabad.jpg|[[Jahan Kosha Cannon]]
Mughal-Arakanese battle on the Karnaphuli river in 1666.jpg|Battle of Chittagong in 1666 between the Mughals and Arakanese
</gallery>

==Architecture==
{{See also|Mughal architecture|Bengali architecture}}
[[File:July 9 2005 - The Lahore Fort-Frontview of Naulakha pavallion.jpg|thumb|Bengali [[Do-chala|curved roofs]] were copied by Mughal architects in other parts of the empire, such as in the Naulakha Pavilion in Lahore]]
[[File:Asiatic Society Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|[[Nimtoli Deuri]], named after the [[neem tree]], is now a property of the [[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]], situated in Dhaka, Bangladesh is now a Heritage Museum.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nimtoli Deuri becomes heritage museum|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/star-live/nimtoli-deuri-becomes-heritage-museum-in-dhaka-bangladesh-1688995|access-date=2020-10-31|website=The Daily Star|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|script-title=bn:ঢাকার নিমতলি দেউড়ি এখন ঐতিহ্য জাদুঘর |publisher=Nimtoli Deuri Becomes Heritage Museum |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ps02h7-j9w&t=174s&app=desktop|access-date=2020-10-31|via=YouTube|title=- YouTube }}</ref>]]
[[Mughal architecture]] proliferated Bengal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, with the earliest example being the Kherua Mosque in Bogra (1582).<ref name="cdlib1">{{cite web|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99v9&chunk.id=s1.7.2&toc.id=ch07&brand=ucpress |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |publisher=University of California Press |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> They replaced the earlier sultanate-style of architecture. It was in Dhaka that the imperial style was most lavishly indulged in.{{citation needed}} Its [[Lalbagh Fort]] was an elaborately designed complex of gardens, [[fountain]]s, a mosque, a tomb, an audience hall (Diwan-i-Khas) and a walled enclosure with gates. The [[Bara Katra|Great Caravanserai]] and [[Choto Katra|Shaista Khan Caravanserai]] in Dhaka were centres of commercial activities. Other monuments in the city include the [[Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah]] (1640), the [[Sat Gambuj Mosque]] ({{circa|1664}}–76), the [[Shahbaz Khan Mosque]] (1679) and the [[Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque]] (1704).<ref name="cdlib1"/> The city of [[Murshidabad]] also became a haven of Mughal architecture under the [[Nawabs of Bengal]], with the [[Katra Mosque|Caravanserai Mosque]] (1723) being its most prominent monument.

In rural hinterlands, the indigenous Bengali Islamic style continued to flourish, blended with Mughal elements. One of the finest examples of this style is the Atiya Mosque in Tangail (1609).<ref name="cdlib1"/> Several masterpieces of terracotta Hindu temple architecture were also created during this period. Notable examples include the [[Kantajew Temple]] (1704) and the [[List of temples in Bishnupur|temples of Bishnupur]] (1600–1729).

==Art==
{{See also|Islamic art|Muslin|kalighat painting}}
An authentic Bengali art was reflected in the [[muslin]] fabric of [[Jamdani]] (meaning "flower" in [[Farsi|Persian]]). The making of Jamdani was pioneered by Persian weavers. The art passed to the hands of Bengali Muslim weavers known as ''juhulas''. The artisan industry was historically based around the city of Dhaka. The city had over 80,000 weavers. Jamdanis traditionally employ geometric designs in floral shapes. Its motifs are often similar to those in Iranian textile art (buta motif) and Western textile art ([[Paisley (design)|paisley]]). Dhaka's jamdanis enjoyed a loyal following and received imperial patronage from the Mughal court in Delhi and the Nawabs of Bengal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/ruminations/2015/bangladeshi-islamic-art|title=In Search of Bangladeshi Islamic Art|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="star">{{cite news |last=Khandker |first=Hissam |title=Which India is claiming to have been colonised? |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/op-ed/politics/which-india-claiming-have-been-colonised-119284 |newspaper=The Daily Star |type=Op-ed}}</ref>

A provincial Bengali style of [[Mughal painting]] flourished in Murshidabad during the 18th century. Scroll painting and ivory sculptures were also prevalent.
<gallery>
Jamdani DSC 0500.JPG|[[Jamdani]] [[muslin]] is a legacy of Mughal Bengal
Gujjari Ragini.jpg|Murshidabad-style painting of a woman playing the sitar
Pir Gazi and his tiger in Sundarbans.jpg|Scroll painting of a [[Pir Gazi|Ghazi]] riding a Bengal tiger
</gallery>

==Demographics==
[[File:Charles D'Oyly06.jpg|thumb|A riverside mosque in Mughal Dhaka]]
[[File:Armenian Church of the Holy Resurrection in Dhaka (24310668205).jpg|thumb|The Armenian church and cemetery in Dhaka]]

===Population===
Bengal's population is estimated to have been 30 million prior to the [[Great Bengal famine of 1770]], which reduced it by as much as a third.<ref>{{cite book |author=Janam Mukherjee |year=2015 |title=Hungry Bengal: War, Famine and the End of Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGuMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=27|isbn=978-0-19-020988-9 }}</ref>

===Religion===
Bengal was an affluent province with a [[Bengali Muslim]] majority, along with a large [[Bengali Hindu]] minority.<ref name="tong"/>

===Immigration===
There was a significant influx of migrants from the [[Safavid Empire]] into Bengal during the Mughal period. [[Persian people|Persian]] administrators and military commanders were enlisted by the Mughal government in Bengal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Karim |first=Abdul |year=2012 |chapter=Iranians, The |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Iranians,_The |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition= Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> An [[Armenian community of Dhaka|Armenian community]] settled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Ansar |last2=Chaudhury |first2=Sushil |last3=Islam |first3=Sirajul |year=2012 |chapter=Armenians, The |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Armenians,_The |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition= Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

==Economy and trade==
[[File:Share of Global GDP.gif|thumb|[[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|Maddison's estimates of global GDP]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |author-link=Angus Maddison |title=Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-JGGp2suQUC&pg=PA329 |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |at=Table A.7 |isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8}}</ref> China and India being the most powerful until the 18th century. ]]

The Bengal Subah had the largest regional economy in that period. It was described as the ''paradise of nations''. The region exported grains, fine cotton [[muslin]] and silk, liquors and wines, salt, ornaments, fruits, and metals. European companies set up numerous trading posts in Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. Dhaka was the largest city in Bengal and the commercial capital of the empire.{{citation needed}} Chittagong was the largest seaport, with maritime [[trade route]]s connecting it to [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], [[Ayuthya]], [[Aceh]], [[Melaka]], [[Johore]], [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]], [[Makassar]], [[Ceylon]], [[Bandar Abbas]], [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] and the [[Maldives]].<ref name="google">{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Michael |title=The Indian Ocean |publisher=Routledge |pages=136, 164 |isbn=978-0-415-21489-6 |quote=[page 136: From 1500-1850,] in Bengal the main market was Chittagong ... [page 164:] Mir Jumla, who in the 1640s had his own ships ... travelling all over the ocean: to Bengal, Surat, Arakan, Ayuthya, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mocha and the Maldives.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nanda |first=J. N. |title=Bengal: The Unique State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsV3cYAvGEEC |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |access-date=6 May 2016|isbn=9788180691492 }}</ref>{{page needed}}

Parthasarathi estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in Bengal and Britain were comparable in the mid 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Prasannan Parthasarathi |year=2011 |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600-1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=39 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0}}</ref> However, due to the scarcity of data, more research is needed before drawing any conclusions.<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{cite book |author=Prasannan Parthasarathi |year=2011 |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=45 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0}}</ref>

Bengal had many traders and bankers. Among them was the [[Jagat Seth Family]], who were the wealthiest bankers in the region.

===Agrarian reform===
{{See|History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent}}

The Mughals launched a vast economic development project in the [[Bengal delta]] which transformed its demographic makeup.<ref name="google1">{{cite book |author=Richard Maxwell Eaton |pages=312–313 |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&q=rise%20of%20islam%20and%20the%20bengal%20frontier |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20507-9 |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> The government cleared vast swathes of forest in the fertile [[Bhati (region)|Bhati]] region to expand farmland. It encouraged settlers, including farmers and [[jagirdar]]s, to populate the delta. It assigned [[Sufi]]s as the chieftains of villages. [[Emperor Akbar]] re-adapted the modern [[Bengali calendar]] to improve harvests and tax collection. The region became the largest grain producer in the subcontinent.

[[File:Model of Bara Katra.png|thumb|upright=1.36|A 3D reconstruction of the [[Bara Katra]] in modern-day Dhaka]]
There are sparse accounts of the Bengal revenue administration in Abul Fazl's ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' and some in Mirza Nathan's ''[[Baharistan-i-Ghaibi]]''.<ref name="Raychaudhuri1953">{{Cite book |author=Tapan Raychaudhuri |author-link=Tapan Raychaudhuri |year=1953 |title=Bengal under Akbar and Jahangir: An Introductory Study in Social History |location=Calcutta |publisher=A. Mukherjee |page=24 |oclc=5585437}}</ref> According to the former,

{{blockquote|The demands of each year are paid by instalments in eight months, they (the ryots) themselves bringing ''mohurs'' and rupees to the appointed place for the receipt of revenue, as the division of grain between the government and the husbandman is not here customary. The harvests are always abundant, measurement is not insisted upon, and the revenue demands are determined by estimate of the crop.<ref name="Raychaudhuri1953" />
}}

In contrast, the ''Baharistan'' says there were two collections per year, following the spring and autumn harvests. It also says that, at least in some areas, revenue demands were based on survey and land measurement.<ref name="Raychaudhuri1953" />

Bengali peasants were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650. [[Bengali people|Bengali]] peasants rapidly learned techniques of [[mulberry]] cultivation and [[sericulture]], establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.<ref name="richards">{{cite book |first=John F. |last=Richards |author-link=John F. Richards |year=1993 |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA190 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=I.5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=190 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref>

The increased agricultural productivity led to lower [[food prices]]. In turn, this benefited the Indian [[textile industry]]. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.<ref>{{cite book |author=Prasannan Parthasarathi |year=2011 |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=42 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0}}</ref>

===Industrial economy===
In the 17th century, Bengal was an affluent province that was, according to economic historian Indrajit Ray, globally prominent in industries such as [[textile manufacturing]] and [[shipbuilding]].<ref name="ray" /> Bengal's capital city of Dhaka was the empire's financial capital, with a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, [[saltpeter]], and agricultural and industrial produce.<ref name="star"/> Bengal's industrial economy in this era has been described as a form of [[proto-industrialization]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Abhay Kumar Singh |year=2006 |title=Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwNUblS-jpwC |volume=1 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |page= |isbn=9788172112011}}</ref>{{page needed}}

Many historians have built on the perspective of [[Romesh Chunder Dutt|R. C. Dutt]] who wrote, "The plunder of Bengal directly contributed to the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain."<ref name="tong"/><ref name="esposito"/><ref name="rayB"/><ref name="sengupta">Shombit Sengupta, [http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/bengals-plunder-gifted-the-british-industrial-revolution/576476/ "Bengal's plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution"], ''[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]'', 8 February 2010</ref> This analysis states that the capital amassed from Bengal was used to invest in British industries such as [[textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution]] and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialization in Bengal.<ref name="tong"/><ref name="esposito"/><ref name="rayB"/><ref name="star"/> According to Indrajit Ray, domestic industries expanded for decades even after Plassey. Although colonial-based price manipulation and state discrimination initiated from the 1790s, Bengal's industries retained some comparative advantages. Ray states that "Bengali entrepreneurs continued in industries such as cotton and silk textiles where there were domestic market supports", and major deindustrialisation occurred as late as the 1830s to 1850s.<ref name="raysummary">{{cite book|author=Indrajit Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857)|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-1-136-82552-1|pages=245–254}}</ref>

====Textile industry====
{{See|Muslin trade in Bengal}}
[[File:Renaldis muslin woman.jpg|thumb|A woman in [[Dhaka]] clad in fine [[Muslin trade in Bengal|Bengali muslin]], 18th century]]

Bengal was a centre of the worldwide [[muslin]], [[jute]] and silk trades. During this era, the most important center of jute and cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.<ref>Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 ''The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760''], page 202, [[University of California Press]]</ref> Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.<ref name="Prakash">[[Om Prakash (historian)|Om Prakash]], [http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 "Empire, Mughal"], in [[John J. McCusker]] (ed.), ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref> From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in [[Indonesia]], raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.<ref name="richards95">[[John F. Richards]] (1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA202 ''The Mughal Empire'', page 202], [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> The [[jute trade]] was also a significant factor.

====Shipbuilding industry====

Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.<ref name="ray174">{{cite book |author=Indrajit Ray |year=2011 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |publisher=Routledge |pages=174 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1}}</ref> He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.<ref name="ray174"/>

An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a [[Flush deck|flushed deck]] design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]] that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped [[Deck (ship)|deck]] design. The British [[East India Company]] later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in [[seaworthiness]] and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/WP17_11.pdf|title=Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution}}</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
In the revenue settlement by [[Todar Mal]] in 1582, Bengal Subah was divided into 24 ''[[Sarkar (country subdivision)|sarkars]]'' (districts), which included 19 ''sarkar''s of Bengal proper and 5 ''sarkar''s of [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]. In 1607, during the reign of [[Jahangir]] Orissa became a separate ''Subah''. These 19 ''sarkar''s were further divided into 682 ''[[pargana]]s''.<ref name="ain">Jarrett, H. S. (1949) [1891] ''The Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl-i-Allami'', Vol.II, (ed.) J. N. Sarkar, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, pp.142–55</ref> In 1658, subsequent to the revenue settlement by [[Shah Shuja (Mughal)|Shah Shuja]], 15 new ''sarkar''s and 361 new ''pargana''s were added. In 1722, [[Murshid Quli Khan]] divided the whole Subah into 13 ''[[Chakla (administrative division)|chakalah]]''s, which were further divided into 1660 ''pargana''s.{{citation needed}}

Initially the capital of the ''Subah'' was [[Tanda, Bengal|Tanda]].{{citation needed}} On 9 November 1595, the foundations of a new capital were laid at [[Rajmahal]] by [[Man Singh I]] who renamed it Akbarnagar.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |editor-last=Sinh |editor-first=Raghubir |title=A History of Jaipur, c. 1503–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA81 |publisher=Orient Longman |pages=81, 94 |isbn=81-250-0333-9}}</ref> In 1610 the capital was shifted from Rajmahal to Dhaka<ref>{{cite book |last=Gommans |first=Jos |title=Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EKhgsGLJ29gC&pg=PA27 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxon |page=27 |isbn=0-415-23988-5}}</ref> and it was renamed Jahangirnagar. In 1639, Shah Shuja again shifted the capital to Rajmahal. In 1660, [[Mir Jumla II|Muazzam Khan (Mir Jumla)]] again shifted the capital to Dhaka. In 1703, Murshid Quli Khan, then ''diwan'' (prime minister in charge of finance) of Bengal shifted his office from Dhaka to Maqsudabad and later renamed it [[Murshidabad]].{{citation needed}}

In 1656, Shah Shuja reorganised the sarkars and added Orissa to the Bengal Subah.{{citation needed}}

The ''sarkars'' (districts) and the ''parganas/mahallahs'' ([[tehsil]]s) of Bengal Subah were:<ref name="ain"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:auto;"
|-
! Sarkar!! Pargana
|-
| Udamabar/[[Tanda, Bengal|Tanda]] (modern-day areas include [[Birbhum district|North Birbhum]], [[Rajmahal subdivision|Rajmahal]] and [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]]) || 52 parganas
|-
| [[Gaur, West Bengal|Jannatabad (Lakhnauti)]] (Modern day [[Malda division]]) || 66 parganas
|-
| [[Faridpur Division|Fatehabad]] || 31 parganas
|-
| Mahmudabad (modern-day areas include [[Nadia district|North Nadia]] and [[Jessore district|Jessore]]) || 88 parganas
|-
| [[Bagerhat District|Khalifatabad]] || 35 parganas
|-
| [[Barisal Division|Bakla]] || 4 parganas
|-
| [[Purnia district|Purniyah]] || 9 parganas
|-
| Tajpur (East [[Dinajpur District, Bangladesh|Dinajpur]]) || 29 parganas
|-
| Ghoraghat (South [[Rangpur Division]], [[Bogra District|Bogura]]) || 84 parganas
|-
| [[Santhal Pargana Division|Pinjarah]] || 21 parganas
|-
| Barbakabad (West [[Uttar Dinajpur|Dinajpur]]) || 38 parganas
|-
| [[Mymensingh Division|Bazuha]] || 32 parganas
|-
| [[Sonargaon]] modern day [[Dhaka Division]] || 52 parganas
|-
| [[Sylhet region|Srihatta]] || 8 mahals
|-
| [[Chittagong Division|Chittagong]] || 7 parganas
|-
| [[Birbhum District|Sharifatabad]] || 26 parganas
|-
| [[Bardhaman District|Sulaimanabad]] || 31 parganas
|-
| [[Satgaon]] (Modern day [[Hooghly District]] and [[Howrah District]]) || 53 parganas
|-
| Mandaran || 16 parganas
|}
Sarkars of Orissa:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:auto;"
|-
! Sarkar !! Mahal
|-
| [[Baleswar District|Jaleswar]] ||28
|-
| [[Bhadrak District|Bhadrak]] || 7
|-
| Kotok ([[Cuttack District|Cuttack]]) || 21
|-
| Kaling Dandpat || 27
|-
| Raj Mahendrih || 16
|}

==Government==
The state government was headed by a [[Viceroy]] ([[Subedar]] [[Nizam]]) appointed by the [[Mughal Emperor]] between 1576 and 1717. The Viceroy exercised tremendous authority, with his own cabinet and four prime ministers ([[Diwan (title)|Diwan]]). The three deputy viceroys for Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa were known as the ''Naib Nazims''. An extensive landed [[aristocracy]] was established by the Mughals in Bengal. The aristocracy was responsible for taxation and [[revenue]] collection. Land holders were bestowed with the title of [[Jagirdar]]. The [[Qadi]] title was reserved for the chief judge. [[Mansabdar]]s were leaders of the Mughal Army, while [[faujdar]]s were generals. The Mughals were credited for secular pluralism during the reign of [[Akbar]], who promoted the religious doctrine of [[Din-i Ilahi]]. Later rulers promoted more conservative Islam.

In 1717, the Mughal government replaced Viceroy [[Azim-us-Shan]] due to conflicts with his influential deputy viceroy and prime minister [[Murshid Quli Khan]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Anjali |year=2012 |chapter=Azim-us-Shan |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Azim-us-Shan |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition= Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> Growing regional autonomy caused the Mughal Court to establish a hereditary principality in Bengal, with Khan being recognised in the official title of Nazim. He founded the Nasiri dynasty. In 1740, following the [[Battle of Giria]], [[Alivardi Khan]] staged a coup and founded the short-lived Afsar dynasty. For all practical purposes, the Nazims acted as independent princes. European colonial powers referred to them as [[Nawab]]s or Nababs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Islam |first=Sirajul |year=2012 |chapter=Nawab |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Nawab |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition= Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>

==List of Viceroys (Governor or Subahdar)==
[[File:Da'ud Receives a Robe of Honor from Mun'im Khan - Google Art Project (cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|[[Munim Khan]] (seated, right), the first Viceroy of Mughal Bengal (1574–1575)]]
[[File:Raja Man Singh the Great , Of Amer.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Man Singh I]], the [[Rajput]] Viceroy of Bengal (1594–1606)]]
[[File:Nawab Sháyista Khán.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Shaista Khan]], Viceroy (1664–1688)]]
[[File:Azam shah.jpg|thumb|upright|Viceroy [[Muhammad Azam Shah]] (1678–1679), later [[Mughal Emperor]]]]
[[File:Azim us-Shan Bahadur.jpg|upright|thumb|Viceroy [[Azim-us-Shan]] (1697–1712), later [[Mughal Emperor]]]]
{|class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f0dc82;"| Personal name<ref name=eaton2>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0-520-20507-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/riseofislambenga00eato/page/325 325–6]}}</ref>
! style="background:#f0dc82;"| Reign
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Munim Khan]] ''Khan-i-Khanan'' {{Nastaliq| منعم خان، خان خاناں }} 
| style="text-align:center;"|25 September 1574 – 23 October 1575
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Hussain Quli Beg]] ''Khan Jahan I'' {{Nastaliq| حسین قلی بیگ، خان جہاں اول}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|15 November 1575 – 19 December 1578
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Muzaffar Khan Turbati]] {{Nastaliq| مظفر خان تربتی}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1579–1580
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Mirza Aziz Koka]] ''Khan-e-Azam'' {{Nastaliq| میرزا عزیز کوکہ،خان اعظم}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1582–1583
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Shahbaz Khan Kamboh|Shahbaz Khan Kamboh Lahori]] {{Nastaliq| شھباز خان کمبوہ }}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1583–1585
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Sadiq Khan]] {{Nastaliq| صادق خان}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1585–1586
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Wazir Khan Tajik]] {{Nastaliq| وزیر خان }}
| style="text-align:center;"|1586–1587
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Sa'id Khan]] {{Nastaliq| سعید خان}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1587–1594
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Raja'' [[Man Singh I]] {{Nastaliq| راجہ مان سنگھ}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 4 June 1594 – 1606
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Qutubuddin Koka|Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka]] {{Nastaliq| قطب الدین خان کوکہ}}
| style="text-align:center;"|2 September 1606 – May 1607
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Jahangir Quli Beg]] {{Nastaliq| جہانگیر قلی بیگ}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1607–1608
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Islam Khan I|Sheikh Ala-ud-din Chisti]] ''Islam Khan Chisti'' {{Nastaliq| اسلام خان چشتی}}
| style="text-align:center;"| June 1608 – 1613
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Qasim Khan Chishti]] {{Nastaliq| قاسم خان چشتی}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1613–1617
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang|Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jang]] {{Nastaliq| ابراہیم خان فتح جنگ}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1617–1622
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Mahabat Khan]] {{Nastaliq| محابت خان}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1622–1625
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Khan Zaman II|Mirza Amanullah]] ''Khan Zaman II'' {{Nastaliq| میرزا أمان اللہ ، خان زماں ثانی }}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1625
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Muqarram Khan|Mukarram Khan Chishti]] {{Nastaliq| مکرم خان }}
| style="text-align:center;"| 1625–1627
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Fidai Khan]] {{Nastaliq| فدای خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1627–1628
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Qasim Khan Juvayni]] ''Qasim Manija'' {{Nastaliq| قاسم خان جوینی، قاسم مانیجہ }} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1628–1632
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Azam Khan (Subahdar)|Mir Muhammad Baqir]] ''Azam Khan'' {{Nastaliq| میر محمد باقر، اعظم خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1632–1635
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Islam Khan II|Mir Abdus Salam]] ''Islam Khan Mashhadi'' {{Nastaliq| اسلام خان مشھدی}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1635–1639
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Sultan'' [[Shah Shuja (Mughal)|Shah Shuja]] {{Nastaliq| شاہ شجاع}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1639–1660
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Mir Jumla II]] {{Nastaliq| میر جملہ}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|May 1660 – 30 March 1663
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Shaista Khan|Mirza Abu Talib]] ''Shaista Khan I'' {{Nastaliq| میرزا ابو طالب، شایستہ خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|March 1664 – 1676
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Azam Khan Koka]], ''Fidai Khan II'' {{Nastaliq| اعظم خان کوکہ، فدای خان ثانی}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1676–1677
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Sultan'' [[Muhammad Azam Shah]] ''Alijah'' {{Nastaliq| محمد اعظم شاہ عالی جاہ}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1678–1679
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Shaista Khan|Mirza Abu Talib]] ''Shaista Khan I'' {{Nastaliq| میرزا ابو طالب، شایستہ خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1680–1688
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Ibrahim Khan II|Ibrahim Khan ibn Ali Mardan Khan]] {{Nastaliq| ابراہیم خان ابن علی مردان خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1688–1697
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Sultan'' [[Azim-us-Shan]] {{Nastaliq| عظیم الشان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1697–1712
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | Others were appointed but did not show up from 1712 to 1717 and managed by Deputy Subahdar [[Murshid Quli Khan]].
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Murshid Quli Khan]] {{Nastaliq| مرشد قلی خان}} 
| style="text-align:center;"|1717–1727
|}

==List of independent Nawab Nazims==

{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background:#b0dc58; width:10%;"| Portrait
! style="background:#b0dc58; width:10%;"| Regnal name
! style="background:#f0dc88; width:20%;"| Personal name
! style="background:#b0dc88; width:8%;"| Birth
! style="background:#b0dc88; width:8%;"| Reign
! style="background:#b0dc28; width:8%;"| Death
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" |'''Nasiri dynasty'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Murshid Quli Jafar Khan.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Jaafar Khan Bahadur Nasiri''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Murshid Quli Khan]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1665
| style="text-align:center;"|1717– 1727
| style="text-align:center;"|30 June 1727
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Sarfaraz Khan.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Sarfaraz Khan|Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur Dakhni]]
| style="text-align:center;"|?
| style="text-align:center;"|1727–1727
| style="text-align:center;"|29 April 1740
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Shuja ud-Daula''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan|Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan or Mirza Deccani]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Around 1670 (date not available)
| style="text-align:center;"|July 1727 – 26 August 1739
| style="text-align:center;"|26 August 1739
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Sarfaraz Khan.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Sarfaraz Khan|Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur Dakhni]]
| style="text-align:center;"|?
| style="text-align:center;"|13 March 1739 – April 1740
| style="text-align:center;"|29 April 1740
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center;" |'''Afsar dynasty'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Alivardi Khan.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Hashim ud-Daula ''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Alivardi Khan|Muhammad Alivardi Khan Bahadur]]
| style="text-align:center;"|Before 10 May 1671
| style="text-align:center;"|29 April 1740 – 9 April 1756
| style="text-align:center;"|9 April 1756
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[File:Siraj ud-Daulah.jpg|90px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|''Siraj ud-Daulah ''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Siraj ud-Daulah|Muhammad Siraj-ud-Daulah]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1733
| style="text-align:center;"|April 1756 – 2 June 1757
| style="text-align:center;"|2 July 1757
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |author=Irfan Habib |author-link=Irfan Habib |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1963 |title=The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-807742-8}}
{{Mughal Empire}}

[[Category:Bengal Subah| ]]
[[Category:Mughal subahs]]
[[Category:Nawabs of Bengal]]

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ASEAN

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{{short description|International organization of Southeast Asian countries}}
{{distinguish|South East Asia Cultural Organisation|Southeast Asia Treaty Organization}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox geopolitical organisation
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| {{Infobox |subbox=yes |bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal;
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| rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: | data4 = {{lang|id|Perhimpunan Bangsa-bangsa Asia Tenggara}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Piagam Perhimpunan Bangsa-Bangsa Asia Tenggara|trans-title=The ASEAN Charter|url=http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Indonesia.pdf|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|access-date=10 January 2018|language=id|archive-date=15 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215070010/http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Indonesia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Khmer language|Khmer]]: | data5 = {{lang|km|សមាគមប្រជាជាតិអាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍}}
| rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Lao language|Lao]]: | data6 = {{lang|lo|ສະມາຄົມປະຊາຊາດແຫ່ງອາຊີຕະເວັນອອກສຽງໃຕ້}}
| rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Malaysian Malay|Malay]]: | data7 = {{lang|ms|Persatuan Negara-negara Asia Tenggara}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Piagam Persatuan Negara Asia Tenggara|trans-title=The ASEAN Charter|url=http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Malaysia.pdf|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|access-date=10 January 2018|language=ms|archive-date=10 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110174728/http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Malaysia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[Singaporean Mandarin|Mandarin]]: | data8 = {{lang|zh-sg|亚细安组织 东南亚国家联盟 東南亞國家協會}}
| rowclass9 = mergedrow | label9 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: | data9 = {{lang|ta|தென்கிழக்காசிய நாடுகளின் கூட்டமைப்பு}}
| rowclass10 = mergedrow | label10 = [[Thai language|Thai]]: | data10 = {{lang|th|สมาคมประชาชาติแห่งเอเชียตะวันออกเฉียงใต้}}
| rowclass11 = mergedrow | label11 = [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: | data11= {{lang|vi|Hiệp hội các quốc gia Đông Nam Á}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Hiến chương của Hiệp hội các Quốc gia Đông Nam Á|trans-title=The ASEAN Charter|url=http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Vietnam.pdf|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|access-date=10 January 2018|language=vi|archive-date=10 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110174732/http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/AC-Vietnam.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> }}
}}
| linking_name = the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
| image_flag = Flag of ASEAN.svg
| image_symbol = Seal of ASEAN.svg
| symbol_type = Emblem
| other_symbol =
| other_symbol_type =
| motto = "One Vision, One Identity, One Community"<ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN Motto|url=http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/asean-motto|website=ASEAN.org|publisher=ASEAN|access-date=9 May 2015|archive-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318053132/http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/asean-motto|url-status=live}}</ref>
| anthem = "[[The ASEAN Way]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:The ASEAN Way (Instrumental).ogg]]}}
| image_map = Association of Southeast Asian Nations (orthographic projection).svg
| map_width = 250px
| map_caption = Member states shown in dark green.
| largest_city = [[Jakarta]] {{Coord|6|11.6962|S|106|49.3837|E|type:city}}
| admin_center_type = Secretariat
| admin_center = [[Jakarta]]{{efn|name="adress"}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|6|14.3353|S|106|47.9554|E|type:city}}
| languages_type = [[Working language]]
| languages = [[English language|English]]<ref>{{cite book|title=ASEAN Charter|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|pages=29|url=http://www.asean.org/archive/publications/ASEAN-Charter.pdf|quote='''Article 34.''' The working language of ASEAN is English.|access-date=29 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109180154/http://www.asean.org/archive/publications/ASEAN-Charter.pdf|archive-date=9 November 2015}}</ref>
| languages2_type = Official languages of contracting states
| languages2 = {{hlist|[[Burmese language|Burmese]]|[[Standard Mandarin|Chinese]]|[[English language|English]]|[[Filipino language|Filipino]]|[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]|[[Khmer language|Khmer]]|[[Lao language|Lao]]|[[Malay language|Malay]]|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]|[[Thai language|Thai]]|[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]}}
| membership = {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = background: transparent; text-align: left; font-weight: normal;
| title = [[Member states of ASEAN|10 states]]
| {{flag|Brunei}}
| {{flag|Cambodia}}
| {{flag|Indonesia}}
| {{flag|Laos}}
| {{flag|Malaysia}}
| {{flag|Myanmar}}
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| {{flag|Thailand}}
| {{flag|Vietnam}}
}}
| ethnic_groups =
| ethnic_groups_year =
| leader_title1 = {{nowrap|[[Secretary-General of ASEAN|Secretary-General]]}}
| leader_name1 = [[Kao Kim Hourn]]
| leader_title2 = Chairmanship of ASEAN
| leader_name2 = [[Indonesia]]
| established_event1 = {{nowrap|[[ASEAN Declaration|Bangkok Declaration]]}}
| established_date1 = {{Start date and age|8 August 1967|df=y|p=y}}
| established_event2 = [[ASEAN Charter|Charter]]
| established_date2 = {{Start date and age|16 December 2008|df=y|p=y}}
| area_km2 = 4,522,518<ref name="ASEAN-Indicators">{{cite web|title=Selected Basic ASEAN Indicators |url=http://www.asean.org/images/2015/January/selected_key_indicators/Summary%20table_as%20of%20December%202014_R.pdf |website=ASEAN.organisation |publisher=ASEANstats |access-date=9 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/2015/January/selected_key_indicators/Summary%20table_as%20of%20December%202014_R.pdf |archive-date=4 September 2015 }}</ref>
| area_sq_mi = 1,712,602
| percent_water =
| population_estimate = 667,393,019<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN"/>
| population_estimate_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = 144
| population_density_sq_mi = 373
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $11.203 trillion<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN">{{Cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=516,522,536,544,548,518,566,576,578,582,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LP,&sy=2021&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|access-date=2023-04-13|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $16,516<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN"/>
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $3.942 trillion<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,812<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN"/>
| Gini_year =
| Gini_change = 
| Gini = 
| Gini_ref =
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI = 0.726 
| HDI_ref = {{efn|Calculated as a mean estimate from the [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]] data of member states.}}
| time_zone =
| utc_offset = [[UTC+06:30|+06:30]] to [[UTC+09:00|+09:00]]
| time_zone_DST =
| DST_note =
| utc_offset_DST =
| official_website = {{official URL}}
| area_rank =
| today =
}}
'''ASEAN''' (pronounced as three [[Syllable|syllables]] A-SEA-AN),{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|æ|s|i|æ|n}} {{Respell|ah|see|an}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|ɑː|s|i|ɑː|n|,_|ˈ|ɑː|z|i|-}} {{Respell|AH|see|ahn|,_|AH|zee-an}},<ref name="Pronounce">{{cite web|title=How do you say ASEAN?|url=https://pronounce.voanews.com/phrasedetail.php?name=ASEAN|website=Voice of America Pronunciation Guide|publisher=VOA|access-date=31 January 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726093607/https://pronounce.voanews.com/phrasedetail.php?name=ASEAN|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/nls/other/ABC.html |title=NLS/BPH: Other Writings, The ABC Book, A Pronunciation Guide |website=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=12 January 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090112114625/http://www.loc.gov/nls/other/ABC.html| archive-date= 12 January 2009 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.asean.org/2833.htm Asean.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302193843/http://www.asean.org/2833.htm }}, ASEAN-10: Meeting the Challenges, by Termsak Chalermpalanupap, [http://www.asean.org/ Asean.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511153413/http://www.asean.org/ }}, ASEAN Secretariat official website. Retrieved 27 June 2008.</ref>}} officially the '''Association of Southeast Asian Nations''',<ref name=Overview /> is a [[Political union|political]] and [[economic union]] of 10 member [[Sovereign state|states]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. The union has a total area of {{convert|4,522,518|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and an estimated total population of about 668{{nbsp}}million, containing approximately 8.5% of the world population in 2021{{Citation needed}}. ASEAN generated a [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of around {{US$|10.2}}{{nbsp}}trillion in 2022, constituting approximately 6.5% of global [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|GDP (PPP)]].<ref name="IMFWEOASEAN"/>

ASEAN's primary objectives are: "(1) to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and (2) to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the [[Charter of the United Nations|United Nations Charter]]."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview - ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/fd/04_asean-generalin/04_asean-generalinfo.pdf}}</ref> With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN has broadened its objectives beyond the economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path similar to the [[European Union]] (EU) by agreeing to establish an ASEAN community that consists of three pillars: the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community, and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. The ten stalks of [[rice]] in the ASEAN flag and insignia represents the ten Southeast Asian countries bound together in solidarity.

ASEAN regularly engages other countries in the [[Asia-Pacific]] region and beyond. A major partner of the [[United Nations|UN]], [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]], [[Pacific Alliance|PA]], [[Gulf Cooperation Council|GCC]], [[Mercosur|MERCOSUR]], [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States|CELAC]], and [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asean.org/our-communities/asean-political-security-community/outward-looking-community/external-relations/international-regional-organisation/ |title=International/Regional Organisation |website=ASEAN}}</ref> ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue partners and is considered by many to be a global powerhouse,<ref name="aseanvisa">{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/asean-one-visa-travel-destination/|title=This is why ASEAN needs a common visa|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-date=25 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625002815/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/asean-one-visa-travel-destination/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aseanblock">{{cite web|url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/opinion/asean-bloc-must-be-tapped/news-story/59d00e4f65a6084f4be157ee95da3534|title=ASEAN bloc must be tapped|website=www.theaustralian.com.au|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424002421/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/opinion/asean-bloc-must-be-tapped/news-story/59d00e4f65a6084f4be157ee95da3534|url-status=live}}</ref> the central forum for cooperation in [[Asia-Pacific]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) |url=http://ustr.gov/issue-areas/trade-organizations/asia-pacific-economic-cooperation-apec |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=United States Trade Representative |language=en}}</ref> It is involved in numerous international affairs, and hosts diplomatic missions throughout the world.<ref name="ASEANTreaties">{{cite news|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/|title=Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) {{!}} Treaties & Regimes {{!}} NTI|newspaper=The Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=3 March 2018|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413082230/https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aseanUN">{{cite web|url=http://www.unaprcm.org/asean-un-partnership|title=ASEAN-UN Partnership|website=Asia-Pacific Regional Coordination Mechanism|access-date=7 December 2017|archive-date=12 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012012749/http://www.unaprcm.org/asean-un-partnership|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="aseanoverview">{{cite web|url=http://asean.org/?static_post=background-overview-united-nations|title=An Overview of ASEAN-United Nations Cooperation - ASEAN - ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY|access-date=28 April 2017|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053140/https://asean.org/?static_post=background-overview-united-nations|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UNgovorgs">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/index.html|title=Intergovernmental Organizations|website=www.un.org|access-date=28 April 2017|archive-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523053652/http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization's success has become the driving force of some of the largest trade blocs in history, including [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] and [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|RCEP]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/a-trade-pact-nearly-10-years-in-the-making-5-things-to-know-about-rcep | title=A trade pact nearly 10 years in the making: 5 things to know about RCEP | the Straits Times | date=15 November 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Trade/India-stays-away-from-RCEP-talks-in-Bali | title=India stays away from RCEP talks in Bali }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pecc.org/resources/doc_view/601-back-to-canberra-founding-apec | title=PECC - Back to Canberra: Founding APEC }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-asean | title=What is ASEAN? }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://harvardpolitics.com/asean-beats-the-odds/ | title=Beating the Odds: How ASEAN Helped Southeast Asia Succeed | date=15 March 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/asean-an-unexpected-success-story/ | title=ASEAN: An Unexpected Success Story | date=16 May 2018 }}</ref>
[[File:ASEAN HQ 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Secretariat of ASEAN in [[Jakarta]]]]
{{TOC limit}}

==History==

=== Founding ===
{{main|ASEAN Declaration|ASEAN Charter}}

ASEAN was preceded by an organisation formed on 31 July 1961 called the '''Association of Southeast Asia''' ('''ASA'''), a group consisting of [[Thailand]], the [[Philippines]], and the [[Federation of Malaya]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, Part 2, From World War II to the Present |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66372-4 |page=287 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0trzUvic-8C&pg=PA287 |access-date=7 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ooi |first1=Keat Gin |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA186 |access-date=7 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> ASEAN itself was created on 8 August 1967, when the [[foreign minister]]s of five countries:
[[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], and [[Thailand]], signed the [[ASEAN Declaration]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liow |first1=Joseph |last2=Leifer |first2=Michael |title=Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-62233-8 |pages=82–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |access-date=7 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> As set out in the Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are to accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region, to promote regional peace, collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities, to collaborate for better utilization of agriculture and industry to raise the living standards of the people, to promote [[Southeast Asian studies]] and to maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing international organisations with similar aims and purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/news/item/the-asean-declaration-bangkok-declaration|title=The Asean Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) Bangkok, 8 August 1967|publisher=ASEAN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211121705/http://www.asean.org/news/item/the-asean-declaration-bangkok-declaration|archive-date=11 February 2015|access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/overview|title=Overview|website=asean.org|publisher=ASEAN|access-date=7 February 2015|archive-date=17 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217005044/http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/overview|url-status=live}}</ref>

The creation of ASEAN was initially motivated by the desire to contain [[anti-communism|communism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is ASEAN? |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-asean |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Historical Overview of ASEAN |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representatives_committees?url=jfadt/asean/aseanch1.pdf}}</ref> Communism had taken a foothold in mainland Asia with the [[Soviet Union]] occupation of the [[North Korea|northern Korean]] peninsula after [[World War II]], establishing communist governments in [[North Korea]] (1945), [[China|People's Republic of China]] (1949) and portions of former [[French Indochina]] with [[North Vietnam]] (1954), accompanied by the communist insurgency "Emergency" in [[British Malaya]] and unrest in the recently independent [[Philippines]] from the U S. in the early 1950s.

These events also encouraged the earlier formation of SEATO ([[South East Asia Treaty Organization]]) led by the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] along with [[Australia]] with several Southeast Asian partners in 1954 as a "containment" extension and an eastern version of the early defensive bulwark [[NATO]] in western [[Europe]] of 1949.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Asia-Pacific Profile |author1=Bernard Eccleston |author2=Michael Dawson |author3=Deborah J. McNamara |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge (UK) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l07ak-yd6DAC&q=%22Bangkok+Declaration%22+ASEAN&pg=RA1-PA311 |isbn=978-0-415-17279-0 |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053135/https://books.google.com/books?id=l07ak-yd6DAC&pg=RA1-PA311&lpg=RA1-PA311&dq=%22Bangkok+Declaration%22+ASEAN |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the local member states of ASEAN group achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following a change in the balance of power after the fall of Saigon and the end of the [[Vietnam War]] in April 1975 and the decline of SEATO.

ASEAN's first summit meeting, held in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]] in 1976, resulted in an agreement on several industrial projects and the signing of a [[Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia|Treaty of Amity and Cooperation]], and a Declaration of Concord. The end of the [[Cold War]] allowed ASEAN countries to exercise greater political independence in the region, and in the 1990s, ASEAN emerged as a leading voice on [[regional trade]] and security issues.<ref>Moon, C. (2014). ASEAN. Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>

On 15 December 1995, the [[Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty]] was signed to turn Southeast Asia into a [[nuclear-weapon-free zone]]. The treaty took effect on 28 March 1997 after all but one of the member states had ratified it. It became fully effective on 21 June 2001 after the Philippines ratified it, effectively banning all nuclear weapons in the region.<ref name="NWFZ">[http://disarmament.un.org/TreatyStatus.nsf/Bangkok%20Treaty%20(in%20alphabetical%20order)?OpenView Bangkok Treaty (in alphabetical order) At UNODA] United Nations. Retrieved 4 September 2008. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143121/http://disarmament.un.org/TreatyStatus.nsf/Bangkok%20Treaty%20%28in%20alphabetical%20order%29?OpenView}}</ref>

=== Expansion ===
On 7 January 1984, [[Brunei]] became ASEAN's sixth member<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2700.htm|title=Background Note:Brunei Darussalam/Profile:/Foreign Relations|publisher=US State Department|access-date=6 March 2007|archive-date=4 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183451/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2700.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and on 28 July 1995, following the end of the [[Cold War]], [[Vietnam]] joined as the seventh member.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/10098.htm|title=Vietnam in ASEAN: Toward Cooperation for Mutual Benefits|year=2007|work=ASEAN Secretariat|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511153326/http://www.asean.org/10098.htm|archive-date=11 May 2011|access-date=28 August 2009}}</ref> [[Laos]] and [[Myanmar]] (formerly Burma) joined two years later on 23 July 1997.<ref name="enlargement">{{cite book|title=ASEAN Enlargement: impacts and implications|author1=Carolyn L. Gates|author2=Mya Than|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2001|isbn=978-981-230-081-2}}</ref> [[Cambodia]] was to join at the same time as [[Laos]] and [[Myanmar]], but a [[1997 Cambodian coup|coup in 1997]] and other internal instability delayed its entry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Diplomatic pragmatism: ASEAN's response to the July 1997 coup {{!}} Conciliation Resources|url=https://www.c-r.org/accord/cambodia/diplomatic-pragmatism-aseans-response-july-1997-coup|access-date=2021-02-27|website=www.c-r.org}}</ref> It then joined on 30 April 1999 following the stabilization of its government.<ref name="enlargement" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/3338.htm|title=Statement by the Secretary-General of ASEAN Welcoming the Kingdom of Cambodia as the Tenth Member State of ASEAN: 30 April 1999, ASEAN Secretariat|year=2008|work=ASEAN Secretariat|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511153639/http://www.asean.org/3338.htm|archive-date=11 May 2011|access-date=28 August 2009}}</ref>

In 2006, ASEAN was given [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer status at the United Nations General Assembly]].<ref>[http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/news/view_article.php?article_id=28822 RP resolution for observer status in UN assembly OK'd], Philippine Daily Inquirer, 13 March 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826051047/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/news/view_article.php?article_id=28822 }}</ref> In response, the organisation awarded the status of "dialogue partner" to the UN.<ref>{{cite news |title=Philippines to Represent ASEAN in UN Meetings in NY, Geneva |url=http://asia.news.yahoo.com/070307/4/2ykdn.html |work=Yahoo! News |access-date=13 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312113724/http://asia.news.yahoo.com/070307/4/2ykdn.html |archive-date=12 March 2007 }}</ref>

=== Commonality===
{{Main articles|History of Southeast Asia}}
Besides their close geographic proximity, political scholars consider [[Southeast Asia]]n nations a cultural crossroads between [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]], located at critical junctions of the [[South China Sea]] as well as the [[Indian Ocean]], and as a result received much influence from [[Arabic|Islamic]] and [[Persians|Persian]] influences prior to the [[Europe]]an colonial ages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2TRPCAAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+southeast+asia&pg=PA13 |title=A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-51293-7|page=13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2000/03/JSS_088_0q_Marcinkowski_PersianReligiousCulturalInfluences.pdf|author=Muhammad Ismail Marcinkowski|title=Persian Religious and Cultural Influences in Siam/Thailand and Maritime Southeast Asia in Historical Perspective: A Plea for a Concerted Interdisciplinary Approach|website=Thesiamsociety.org|access-date=28 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718124016/https://thesiamsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2000/03/JSS_088_0q_Marcinkowski_PersianReligiousCulturalInfluences.pdf|archive-date=18 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since around 100 BCE, the Southeast Asian archipelago occupied a central position at the crossroads of the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[South China Sea]] trading routes, which stimulated the economy and the influx of ideas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Anthony |title=An 'Age of Commerce' in Southeast Asian History |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/an-age-of-commerce-in-southeast-asian-history/E09ED31B7CDB61464CA851C688C83A28 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00001153 |s2cid=128602618 |issn=1469-8099}}</ref> This included the introduction of [[Abugida|abugida scripts]] to Southeast Asia as well as the [[Chinese scripts|Chinese script]] to [[Literary Chinese in Vietnam|Vietnam]]. Besides various indigenous scripts, various abugida [[Brahmic scripts]] were widespread in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malay etc. Historically, scripts such as [[Pallava script|Pallava]], [[Kawi script|Kawi]] (from ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] script) and [[Rencong script|Rencong]] or [[Surat Ulu script|Surat Ulu]] were used to write [[Old Malay]], until they were replaced by [[Jawi script|Jawi]] during [[Islam]]ic [[missionary]] missions in the [[Malay Archipelago]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fadeli |first=Muhammad Al-Amin Mohd |display-authors=etal |title=Malay History & Culture |via=Academia}}</ref>

Historical [[European colonial]] influence to various ASEAN countries, including [[French Indochina]] (present-day [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]] & [[Cambodia]]), [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and [[British Borneo|Borneo]] (present-day [[Myanmar]], [[Malaysia]] & [[Singapore]], and [[Borneo]]), [[Dutch East Indies]] (present day [[Indonesia]]), [[Spanish East Indies]] (present-day [[Philippines]] and various other colonies), and [[Portuguese Timor]] (present-day [[East Timor|Timor-Leste]]) influenced all Southeast Asian countries, with only [[Thailand]] (then [[Siam]]) being the only Southeast Asian country not formed from a prior European colony.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Acharya |first=Amitav |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789814311250/html |title=The Making of Southeast Asia |publisher=ISEAS Publishing |isbn=978-981-4311-25-0 |language=en |doi=10.1355/9789814311250}}</ref> [[Thailand|Siam]] served as a convenient buffer state, sandwiched between [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]] and [[French Indochina]], but its kings had to contend with [[Bowring Treaty|unequal treaties]] as well as British and French political interference and territorial losses after the [[Franco-Siamese War]] in 1893 and the [[Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Treaty between Great Britain and Siam |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=297–304 |doi=10.2307/2212641 |jstor=2212641 |s2cid=246007886 |issn=0002-9300}}</ref> Under European colonization, Southeast Asian nations were introduced to European religions and technologies, as well as the [[Latin alphabet]].

The [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]], in the vein of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere]] concept, sought to unite and create a pan-Asian identity against [[Western imperialism in Asia|Western colonial occupation]], but Japan's alliance with the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]] soured relations between many colonies of Europe and the United States. {{Citation needed|reason=States overarching claim without reasonable sources}} [[Atomic bombings of Japan]] eventuated in [[Decolonization of Asia|decolonization movements]] throughout the Southeast Asian region, resulting in mostly independent ASEAN states today.

=== The ASEAN Charter ===

On 15 December 2008, member states met in [[Jakarta]] to launch a charter, signed in November 2007, to move closer to "an [[European Union|EU]]-style community".<ref name="AFPCharter">{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/momentous-day-for-asean-as-charter-comes-into-force-20081215-6yx4.html|title='Momentous' day for ASEAN as charter comes into force|website=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=16 December 2008}}</ref> The charter turned ASEAN into a legal entity and aimed to create a single free-trade area for the region encompassing 500 million people. [[List of Presidents of Indonesia|President of Indonesia]] [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] stated: "This is a momentous development when ASEAN is consolidating, integrating, and transforming itself into a community. It is achieved while ASEAN seeks a more vigorous role in Asian and global affairs at a time when the international system is experiencing a seismic shift". Referring to climate change and economic upheaval, he concluded: "Southeast Asia is no longer the bitterly divided, war-torn region it was in the 1960s and 1970s".

The [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] was seen as a threat to the charter's goals,<ref name="ReutersCharter">{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-37031520081215|title=ASEAN launches charter under shadow of crisis|author1=Olivia Rondon |author2=Suhartono, Harry|work=Reuters |access-date=16 December 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081220192555/http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-37031520081215| archive-date= 20 December 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> and also set forth the idea of a proposed human rights body to be discussed at a future summit in February 2009. This proposition caused controversy, as the body would not have the power to impose sanctions or punish countries which violated citizens' rights and would, therefore, be limited in effectiveness.<ref name="IHTCharter">{{cite news|title=ASEAN charter comes into force |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/12/15/asia/AS-ASEAN-Charter.php |access-date=12 May 2015 |work=International Herald Tribune |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210032138/http://iht.com/articles/ap/2008/12/15/asia/AS-ASEAN-Charter.php |archive-date=10 February 2009 }}</ref> The body was established later in 2009 as the [[ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights]] (AICHR).

In November 2012, the commission adopted the [[ASEAN Human Rights Declaration]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wong|first1=Chun Han|title=Asean Human-Rights Pledge Leaves Critics Cool|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323353204578126803863141948|access-date=8 February 2015|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] Asia|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053136/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323353204578126803863141948|url-status=live}}</ref> However, their human rights declaration has been critiqued widely by the international community, with the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights stating that the declaration was worded in problematic ways that do not easily align with international norms. Likewise, the Human Rights Watch in the United States noted several important fundamental rights were omitted or not clearly established.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ASEAN Political-Security Community and Its Dilemmas {{!}} The SAGE Handbook of Asian Foreign Policy - Credo Reference |url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/sageukasian/the_asean_political_security_community_and_its_dilemmas/0 |access-date=2023-05-22 |website=search.credoreference.com}}</ref>

The ASEAN Chairmanship role for 2023 is held by Indonesia. It has been held by the following nations in recent years:<ref>{{Cite web |title=ASEAN Chairmanship Role |url=https://asean.org/category/chairmanship/ |access-date=22 May 2023 |website=ASEAN Website}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ASEAN Chairs
!Country
!Year
|-
|Thailand
|2008-9
|-
|Viet Nam
|2010
|-
|Indonesia
|2011
|-
|Cambodia
|2012
|-
|Brunei
|2013
|-
|Myanmar
|2014
|-
|Malaysia
|2015
|-
|Lao PDR
|2016
|-
|Philippines
|2017
|-
|Singapore
|2018
|-
|Thailand
|2019
|-
|Viet Nam
|2020
|-
|Brunei
|2021
|-
|Cambodia
|2022
|}

=== Public health ===
In response to pandemics, ASEAN has coordinated with ASEAN+3 and other actors to create a regional public health response.

==== SARS outbreak ====
During the [[2002–2004 SARS outbreak|SARS outbreak]], ASEAN and ASEAN+3 worked together to devise a response to the outbreak. Immediate and short-to-medium term measures were devised. The parties agreed to enhance sharing of best practices against the disease while also agreeing to bolster collaboration between their respective health authorities and harmonize travel procedures to ensure that proper health screening would occur. In addition, China offered to contribute $1.2 million to the ASEAN SARS fund, made both to show that it was willing to cooperate with the rest of the region and make amends for its withholding of information during the initial stages of the outbreak.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caballero-Anthony |first=Mely |title=SARS in Asia: Crisis, Vulnerabilities, and Regional Responses |url=https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2005.45.3.475 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=475–495|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.3.475 }}</ref>

==== H1N1 pandemic ====
ASEAN held a special meeting between ASEAN and ASEAN+3 health ministers on May 8, 2009 on responding to the [[2009 swine flu pandemic|H1N1 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Release – "Full Marks" for ASEAN in Common Defense Against Influenza A (H1N1), Bangkok, 8 May 2009 |url=https://asean.org/press-release-full-marks-for-asean-in-common-defense-against-influenza-a-h1n1-bangkok-8-may-2009-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615011241/https://asean.org/press-release-full-marks-for-asean-in-common-defense-against-influenza-a-h1n1-bangkok-8-may-2009-2/ |archive-date=15 June 2021 |website=ASEAN}}</ref> At this meeting, it was agreed that hotlines would be established between public health authorities, joint response teams would be formed, and ongoing research efforts would be bolstered.

=== Myanmar crisis ===
Since 2017, political, military and ethnic affairs in [[Myanmar]] have posed unusual challenges for ASEAN, creating precedent-breaking situations and threatening the traditions and unity of the group, and its global standing<ref name="myanmar_coup_asean_split_2021_03_29_dw_com">[https://www.dw.com/en/myanmar-coup-asean-ties/a-57042503 "Myanmar coup: ASEAN split over the way forward,"] March 29, 2021, [[Deutsche Welle]], ([https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/4163647 same article] at ''[[Taiwan News]]'') retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="aseans_future_2021_06_21_foreignpolicy_com">Laksmana, Evan A. (Centre on Asia and Globalisation, [[National University of Singapore]]): [https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/06/21/asean-myanmar-brunei-southeast-asia-special-envoy-junta-humanitarian-aid-aha-center/ "ASEAN's Future Will Be Decided in Myanmar,"] date, ''[[Foreign Policy (magazine)|Foreign Policy]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="myanmar_pushes_asean_lowyinstitute_org">Williams, Nicola: [https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/myanmar-pushes-asean-brink "Myanmar pushes ASEAN to the brink,"] June 10, 2021, ''The Interpreter,'' [[Lowy Institute]], retrieved November 8, 2021 (''"The Myanmar coup presents to ASEAN the most serious threat to the importance of its regional diplomacy since the Cold War."'')</ref><ref name="myanmars_crisis_tests_asean_2021_08_27_brookings_edu">[https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/08/27/myanmars-crisis-tests-asean/ "Myanmar's crisis tests ASEAN,"] August 27, 2021, ''Southeast Asia Insights,'' [[Brookings Institution]], retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="myanmar_crisis_2021_03_04_asia_times">Bowie, Nile [https://asiatimes.com/2021/03/myanmar-crisis-now-or-never-moment-for-asean/ "Myanmar crisis now or never moment for ASEAN,"] March 4, 2021, ''[[Asia Times]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref>—with ASEAN responses indicating possible fundamental change in the nature of the organization.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com">[https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-11-08/rohingya-crisis-suu-kyi-under-the-microscope-at-southeast-asia-summit "Rohingya Crisis, Suu Kyi Under the Microscope at Southeast Asia Summit,"] November 8, 2018, [[Reuters News Service]] in ''[[U.S. News]],'' (same article at ''[[New York Times]]'' [https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/11/08/world/asia/08reuters-asean-summit.html]), retrieved November 2018</ref><ref name="breaking_resistance_2018_12_06_jakarta_post">Wisnu, Dinna (Indonesian representative to the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights): [http://www.thejakartapost.com/academia/2018/12/06/breaking-resistance-to-human-rights-democracies-and-rohingya.html "Breaking resistance to human rights: Democracies and Rohingya,"] December 6, 2018, ''[[Jakarta Post]]'' retrieved December 2018</ref><ref name="asean_pushes_boundaries_2021_04_26_reuters">{{Cite news |last=Wongcha-um |first=Panu |last2=Johnson |first2=Kay |title=Analysis: On Myanmar, ASEAN pushes boundaries of "non-interference" |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/myanmar-asean-pushes-boundaries-non-interference-2021-04-26/ |access-date=2023-05-22}}</ref><ref name="why_aseans_rebuke_2021_10_21_iiss_org">[https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2021/10/why-aseans-rebuke-of-myanmars-top-general-matters Analysis: "Why ASEAN's rebuke of Myanmar's top general matters,"] October 21, 2021, [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]], retrieved November, 2021</ref><ref name="sign_of_change_2021_10_20_asialink">Coppel, Nicholas ([[Monash University]], former Australian Ambassador to Myanmar): [https://asialink.unimelb.edu.au/insights/aseans-snub-to-myanmar-junta-a-sign-of-change "ASEAN's snub to Myanmar junta a sign of change,"] October 20, 2021, ''[[Asialink#Asialink Insights|Asialink Insights]],'' [[Asialink]], [[University of Melbourne]], retrieved November 8, 2021</ref>

==== Rohingya genocide ====

The [[Rohingya genocide]] erupting in [[Myanmar]] in August 2017—killing thousands of [[Rohingya people]] in Myanmar,<ref name="msf_estimates_2017_12_13_bbc">[http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42348214 "MSF estimates more than 6,700 Rohingya killed in Myanmar,"] December 13, 2017, [[BBC News]], retrieved December 2017 (same topic at [[CBS News]][https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rohingya-myanmar-thousands-killed-2-months-doctors-without-borders-msf-says/], [[The Independent]][http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/rohingya-crisis-latest-6700-muslims-killed-two-months-burma-doctors-without-borders-persecution-a8109131.html], [[Toronto Star]][https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/12/14/at-least-6700-rohingya-killed-in-myanmar-between-august-and-september-aid-group-says.html], and [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]][http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-14/rohingya-death-toll-in-the-thousands-says-msf/9260552])</ref><ref name="kill_all_you_see_2020_09_08_nytimes_com ">[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/08/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-genocide.html "'Kill All You See': In a First, Myanmar Soldiers Tell of Rohingya Slaughter,"] September 8, 2020, ''[[New York Times]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="estimated_24000_murdered_2018_08_17_dhaka_tribune">[https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/south-asia/2018/08/17/study-claims-an-estimated-24-000-rohingya-murdered-in-myanmar "Study claims an estimated 24,000 Rohingyas murdered in Myanmar"] August 17, 2018, ''[[Dhaka Tribune]]'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref> driving most into neighboring [[Bangladesh]], and continuing for months<ref name="refugees_flee_2017_09_05_reuters_nbc">[https://www.nbcnews.com/slideshow/rohingya-muslims-flee-myanmar-trudging-through-treacherous-terrain-n798896 "Over 123,000 Rohingya Refugees Flee Violence in Myanmar,"], September 5, 2017, [[Reuters News Service]] / ''[[NBC]]'' retrieved September 2017</ref><ref name="textbook_example_2017_09_12_wash_post">[https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/textbook-example-of-ethnic-cleansing--370000-rohingyas-flood-bangladesh-as-crisis-worsens/2017/09/12/24bf290e-8792-41e9-a769-c79d7326bed0_story.html "'Textbook example of ethnic cleansing': 370,000 Rohingyas flood Bangladesh as crisis worsens,"], September 12, 2017, ''[[Washington Post]]'' retrieved September 2017</ref><ref name="myanmar_planned_attacks_2017_21_19_afp_cna">[https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/myanmar-planned-rohingya-attacks-possibly-genocide-un-rights-9508588 "Myanmar 'planned' Rohingya attacks, possibly 'genocide': UN rights chief,"] December 19, 2017, [[Agence France-Presse]] in ''[[Channel NewsAsia]],'' (also at [[SBS News]] [https://www.sbs.com.au/news/myanmar-planned-rohingya-attacks-possibly-genocide-un-rights-chief], retrieved December 2017</ref><ref name="genocide_survivors_2017_12_17_smh_com_au">[http://www.smh.com.au/interactive/2017/Rohingya-crisis-lives-in-limbo/ "Genocide survivors in Bangladesh refugee camps face new threats,"], ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'' retrieved December 2017</ref>—created a global outcry demanding ASEAN take action against the civilian-military [[coalition government]] of Myanmar, which had long discriminated against the Rohingya, and had launched the 2017 attacks upon them.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="aseans_limited_role_2018_10_12_thediplomat_com ">[https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/aseans-limited-role-in-solving-the-rohingya-crisis/ "ASEAN's Limited Role in Solving the Rohingya Crisis,"] October 12, 2018, ''[[The Diplomat]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="the_rohingya_crisis_us_response_2017_10_05_state_gov ">[https://2017-2021.state.gov/the-rohingya-crisis-u-s-response-to-the-tragedy-in-burma/index.html " The Rohingya Crisis: U.S. Response to the Tragedy in Burma,"] testimony, October 5, 2017, ''[[U.S. State Department]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="totally_shameful_2020_06_26_jakarta_post">Septiari, Dian: [https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2020/06/26/totally-shameful-outrage-as-asean-nations-abandon-rohingya-boat-people.html "'Totally shameful': Outrage as ASEAN nations abandon Rohingya boat people,"] June 26, 2020, ''[[Jakarta Post]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref>

As the Rohingya were predominantly [[Muslim]] (in [[Buddhist]]-dominated Myanmar), and the ethnic cleansing was framed in religious terms, other largely-Muslim ASEAN nations (particularly Malaysia,<ref name="barely_a_peep_2017_12_17_forbes">Muslimin, Anis Shakirah Mohd: [https://www.forbes.com/sites/anismuslimin/2017/12/17/aseans-rohingya-response-barely-a-peep-outside-of-malaysia/ "ASEAN's Rohingya Response: Barely a Peep Outside of Malaysia"] December 17, 2017, ''[[Forbes]]'' retrieved December 2017</ref><ref name="aung_san_suu_kyi_asks_2018_03_18_theguardian_com">[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/18/aung-san-suu-kyi-asks-australia-and-asean-for-help-with-rohingya-crisis "Aung San Suu Kyi asks Australia and ASEAN for help with Rohingya crisis,"] March 18, 2018, ''[[The Guardian]],'' retrieved March 2018</ref><ref name="mahathir_slams_suu_kyi_2018_11_13_ap_foxnews">[https://www.foxnews.com/world/mahathir-slams-myanmars-suu-kyi-for-handling-of-rohingya "Mahathir slams Myanmar's Suu Kyi for handling of Rohingya"] November 13, 2018, [[Associated Press]] in [[Fox News]], retrieved November 6, 2021</ref> Indonesia,<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="barely_a_peep_2017_12_17_forbes" /> Singapore,<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /> and Brunei<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="barely_a_peep_2017_12_17_forbes" />) objected, some strongly<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="myanmar_coup_asean_split_2021_03_29_dw_com" /><ref name="islamic_countries_2018_05_07_times_of_india">[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/islamic-countries-call-rohingya-crisis-ethnic-cleansing/articleshow/64063168.cms "Islamic countries call Rohingya crisis 'ethnic cleansing',"] May 7, 2018, ''[[Times of India]]'' retrieved May 2018</ref>—and also objected to the burden of Rohingya refugees arriving on their shores<ref name="totally_shameful_2020_06_26_jakarta_post"/> (as did ASEAN neighbors Buddhist-dominated Thailand<ref name="totally_shameful_2020_06_26_jakarta_post" /><ref name="asean_must_pressure_2018_12_17_thestar_com_my">[https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2018/12/17/asean-must-pressure-myanmar-and-suu-kyi-on-rohingya-issue/ "ASEAN must pressure Myanmar and Suu Kyi on Rohingya issue, says Dr M.,"] December 17, 2018, ''[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]]'' (Malaysia) retrieved December 2018</ref> and Muslim-dominated observer-nation Bangladesh.<ref name="bd_wants_safe_zone_2019 Jan 29_unb_com_bd">[http://unb.com.bd/category/Bangladesh/bd-wants-myanmar-to-create-safe-zone-for-rohingyas-under-supervision-of-asean/11615 "BD wants Myanmar to create safe zone for Rohingyas under supervision of ASEAN,"] January 29, 2019, ''[[United News of Bangladesh]],'' retrieved February 2019</ref><ref name="dhaka_seeks_2019_07_22_thedailystar_net">[https://www.thedailystar.net/rohingya-crisis/myanmar-rohingya-crisis-dhaka-seeks-nam-asean-member-states-role-1775227 "Dhaka seeks NAM, ASEAN member states' role,"] July 22, 2019, ''[[Daily Star (Bangladesh)]],'' retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="bangladesh_calls_2021_04_20_cnbc">[https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/bangladesh-calls-on-asean-to-pressure-myanmar-to-take-rohingya-refugees-.html "Bangladesh calls on ASEAN to pressure Myanmar to take Rohingya refugees,"] April 20, 2021, ''[[CNBC]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref>

Myanmar's civilian leader, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], also reportedly asked ASEAN for help with the Rohingya crisis, in March 2018, but was rebuffed by ASEAN's chair, who said it was an "internal matter."<ref name="aung_san_suu_kyi_asks_2018_03_18_theguardian_com" />

ASEAN had a longstanding firm policy of "non-interference in the internal affairs of member nations," and was reluctant, as an organization, to take sides in the conflict, or act materially.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="barely_a_peep_2017_12_17_forbes" /><ref name="se_asia_summit_draft_2017_11_12_reuters">[http://www.reuters.com/article/us-asean-summit-myanmar/southeast-asia-summit-draft-statement-skips-over-rohingya-crisis-idUSKBN1DD0CP?il=0 "Southeast Asia summit draft statement skips over Rohingya crisis,"] November 12, 2017, [[Reuters News Service]] (also at ''[[Bangkok Post]]'' [https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asean/1359704/asean-summit-draft-statement-skips-over-rohingya-crisis]), retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="suu_kyi_benefits_2017_11_13_cbs">[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/asean-summit-aung-san-suu-kyi-rohingya-crisis-myanmar/ "Suu Kyi benefits from neighbors' silence on Rohingya,"] November 13, 2017, [[CBS News]], retrieved November 6, 2021</ref>

Internal<ref name="asean_mps_2018_09_08_unb_thedailystar_net">[https://www.thedailystar.net/rohingya-crisis/news/asean-mps-lawmakers-welcome-icc-jurisdiction-over-crimes-against-rohingya-myanmar-1630597 "Asean MPs welcome ICC jurisdiction over crimes against Rohingya,"] September 8, 2018, [[United News of Bangladesh]] in ''[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]],'' retrieved November 6, 2021</ref> and international<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="asean_prioritize_2019_06_19_dhaka_tribune">[https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/rohingya-crisis/2019/06/19/human-rights-organizations-call-on-asean-to-prioritize-rohingya-rights "Asean: Prioritize Rohingya rights, safety; The organizations highlighted this as Southeast Asian leaders prepare to meet in Bangkok,"] June 19, 2019, ''[[Dhaka Tribune]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref> pressure mounted for ASEAN to take a firmer stance on the Rohingya crisis, and by late 2018, the group's global credibility was threatened by its inaction.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="totally_shameful_2020_06_26_jakarta_post" /><ref name="asean_will_help_2018_09_30_straits_times">Ghosh, Nirmal: [https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/asean-will-help-but-myanmar-has-to-exercise-responsibility-on-rohingya-issue Singapore's Foreign Minister: "Asean will help, but Myanmar has to exercise responsibility on Rohingya issue,"] September 30, 2018, ''[[Straits Times]]'' (Singapore), retrieved October 2018</ref>

In response, ASEAN began to put pressure on Myanmar to be less hostile to the Rohingya, and to hold accountable those responsible for atrocities against them.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="asean_will_help_2018_09_30_straits_times" /><ref name="asean_must_pressure_2018_12_17_thestar_com_my" />

However ASEAN's positions on the issue largely divided on religious lines, with Muslim nations siding more with the Rohingya, while Buddhist nations initially sided more with Myanmar's government, threatening a [[sectarianism|sectarian]] division of ASEAN. [[authoritarianism|Authoritarian]] ASEAN nations, too (mostly Buddhist), were less enthusiastic than [[democracy|democratic]] ASEAN nations (mostly Muslim), about holding Myanmar officials accountable for crimes against their Rohingya minority.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="barely_a_peep_2017_12_17_forbes" /><ref name="bd_wants_safe_zone_2019 Jan 29_unb_com_bd" />

But, by late-2018, most ASEAN nations had begun to advocate for a more forceful ASEAN response to the Rohingya crisis, and a harder line against Myanmar—breaking with the group's traditional policy of "non-interference" in members' "internal affairs"—a break emphasized by the Rohingya crisis being formally placed on the December 2018 ASEAN summit agenda.<ref name="under_microscope_2018_11_08_reuters_usnews_com" /><ref name="asean_must_pressure_2018_12_17_thestar_com_my" /><ref name="on_the_rohingya_2018_12_27_aseannews_net">[http://www.aseannews.net/rohingya-asean-meeting-message/ "On the Rohingya, the ASEAN Meeting was the Message,"] December 27, 2018, ''[[ASEAN News]]'' (also at ''[[Bangkok Post]]'' [http://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/1169161/rohingya-plight-now-an-asean-issue]) retrieved November 6, 2021</ref>

In early 2019, Bangladesh suggested that Myanmar create a safe haven for the Rohingya within its borders, under ASEAN supervision<ref name="bd_wants_safe_zone_2019 Jan 29_unb_com_bd" /> (later expanding that idea to include India, China and Japan among the supervisors).<ref name="india_should_monitor_2019_02_10_the_hindu">[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-should-monitor-safety-of-rohingya/article26231318.ece "'India should monitor safety of Rohingya': Bangladesh,"] February 10, 2019, ''[[The Hindu]]'' (India), retrieved February 2019</ref><ref name="myanmar_asean_team 2019_07_26_irrawaddy">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-asean-team-visit-rohingyas-camp.html "Myanmar, ASEAN Team to Visit Rohingyas Camp,"] July 26, 2019, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved November 6, 2021</ref>

In mid-2019, ASEAN was heavily criticized by human rights organizations for a report, which ASEAN commissioned, which turned out to praise Myanmar's work on Rohingya [[repatriation]], while glossing over atrocities and abuses against the Rohingya.<ref name="outcry_asean_report_2019_06_07_dhaka_tribune">[https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/rohingya-crisis/2019/06/08/outcry-as-asean-predicts-smooth-rohingya-return-to-myanmar "Outcry as ASEAN report predicts 'smooth' return of Rohingya to Myanmar,"] June 8, 2019, ''[[Dhaka Tribune]]'' (Bangladesh), retrieved June 2019 (same topic at ''[[Straits Times]]'' [https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/outcry-as-an-asean-report-predicts-smooth-return-of-rohingya-to-myanmar] and ''[[Jakarta Post]]'' [https://www.thejakartapost.com/seasia/2019/06/08/outcry-over-leaked-rohingya-report.html])</ref><ref name="asean_prioritize_2019_06_19_dhaka_tribune" /><ref name="aha_centre_defends_2019_06_10_channelnewsasia">[https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/aaha-centre-defends-leaked-report-on-rohingya-refugees-11613142 "AHA Centre defends leaked report on Rohingya refugees,"] June 10, 2019, ''[[Channel NewsAsia]]'' (Singapore), retrieved June 2019</ref><ref name="malaysia_rattles_2019_06_22_new_straits_times">[https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2019/06/498302/malaysia-rattles-asean-summit-demands-justice-rohingya "Malaysia rattles ASEAN summit, demands 'justice' for Rohingya,"] June 22, 2019, [[Agence France-Presse]] in ''[[New Straits Times]]'' (Singapore), (same article at ''[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|Daily Star]]'' (Bangladesh) [https://www.thedailystar.net/rohingya-crisis/news/malaysia-calls-justice-and-citizenship-rohingya-muslims-1760779] ), retrieved June 2019</ref><ref name="asean_dont_whitewash_2019_06_19_hrw_org">[https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/06/19/asean-dont-whitewash-atrocities-against-rohingya "ASEAN: Don't Whitewash Atrocities Against Rohingya; Repatriation Report Ignores Dire Situation in Myanmar,"] June 26, 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]], retrieved November 7, 2021</ref>

The June 2019 ASEAN summit was shaken by the Malaysian foreign minister's declaration that persons responsible for the abuses of the Rohingya be prosecuted and punished—conduct unusually undiplomatic at ASEAN summits.<ref name="malaysia_rattles_2019_06_22_new_straits_times" /> ASEAN pressed Myanmar for a firm timeline for the repatriation of Rohingya refugees who fled Myanmar<ref name="seek_time_frame_2019_06_22_kyodo_news">[https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2019/06/cbf10cb092e6-update1-asean-foreign-ministers-seek-time-frame-for-return-of-rohingya.html "ASEAN foreign ministers seek time frame for return of Rohingya,"] June 22, 2019, ''[[Kyodo News]]'' (Japan), retrieved November 6, 2021</ref>—pressuring Myanmar to provide "safety and security for all communities in Rakhine State as effectively as possible and facilitate the voluntary return of displaced persons in a safe, secure and dignified manner."<ref name="asean_leaders_hold_off_2019_06_23_bloomberg">[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-23/asean-leaders-hold-off-from-demanding-citizenship-for-rohingyas "ASEAN Leaders Hold Off From Demanding Citizenship for Rohingyas,"] June 23, 2019, ''[[Bloomberg News]]'' retrieved June 2019</ref>

In August 2019, the annual ASEAN Foreign Ministers' meeting concluded with a joint [[communique]] calling on Myanmar's government to guarantee the safety of all Rohingya—both in Myanmar and in exile—and pushed for more dialogue with the refugees about their repatriation to Myanmar. But later that month ASEAN's Inter-Parliamentary Assembly (AIPA) supported Myanmar's "efforts" on repatriation, with aid, restraining some members' desire for more intrusive proposals.<ref name="asean_meeting_2019_08_05_jakarta_post ">[https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/08/05/asean-calls-safety-rohingya.html "ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting: ASEAN calls for safety of Rohingya,"] August 5, 2019, ''[[Jakarta Post]]'' retrieved August 2019</ref><ref name="most_asean_members_2019_08_28_irrawaddy ">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/asean-members-back-myanmars-repatriation-aid-efforts-rakhine.html "Most ASEAN Members Back Myanmar's Repatriation, Aid Efforts in Rakhine,"] August 28, 2019, ''[[The Irrawaddy]]'' retrieved August 2018</ref>

By January 2020, ASEAN had made little progress to prepare safe conditions for the Rohingyas' return to Myanmar.<ref name="indonesia_urges_2021_01_22_jakarta_post">[https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/safe-01212021153814.html "Indonesia Urges Myanmar to Create Safe Conditions for Rohingya Repatriation,"] January 22, 2021, ''[[Jakarta Post]]'' retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="totally_shameful_2020_06_26_jakarta_post" />

==== 2021 Myanmar coup ====

On 1 February 2021, the day before a newly elected slate of civilian leaders was to take office in Myanmar, a military junta overthrew Myanmar's civilian government in a [[2021 Myanmar coup d'etat|coup d'etat]], declaring a national [[state of emergency]], imposing [[martial law]], arresting elected civilian leaders, violently clamping down on dissent, and replacing civilian government with the military's appointees.<ref name="military_seizes_power_2021_02_01_thedailystar_net">[https://www.thedailystar.net/asia/news/myanmar-military-seizes-power-detains-elected-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-2037309 "Myanmar military seizes power, detains elected leader Aung San Suu Kyi." ] February 1–2, 2021, ''[[Daily Star (Bangladesh)]]'' retrieved February 2021</ref><ref name="asean_leaders_agree_2021_04_25_afp_bangkok_post">[https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/2104915/asean-leaders-agree-5-point-plan-for-myanmar "Asean leaders agree 5-point plan for Myanmar,"], ''[[Bangkok Post]]'' with [[Agence France-Presse]], retrieved November 2021</ref><ref name="aseans_indecision_2021_06_15_amnesty_org">[https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2021/06/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-goes-on-trial-asean-indecision-enabling-military-rampage/ "Myanmar: As Aung San Suu Kyi goes on trial, ASEAN's indecision is enabling military rampage,"] 15 June 2021, [[Amnesty International]], retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/tradition-vs-credibility-inside-se-asian-meet-that-snubbed-myanmar-2021-10-19/ "Tradition vs credibility: Inside the SE Asian meet that snubbed Myanmar,"] October 19, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved November 8, 2021</ref>

Widespread protests and resistance erupted, and elements of the civilian leadership formed an underground "[[National Unity Government of Myanmar|National Unity Government]]" (NUG). Global opposition to the coup emerged, and global pressure was brought on ASEAN to take action.<ref name="un_calls_for_reversal_2021_03_10_ap">[https://apnews.com/article/aung-san-suu-kyi-asia-pacific-myanmar-united-nations-4d0b4e78b8b740784c7ed5adb0aec3b4 "UN calls for reversal of Myanmar coup and condemns violence,"] March 10, 2021, [[Associated Press]], (same article at: [[U.S. News]] [https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2021-03-10/diplomats-un-to-condemn-violence-against-myanmar-protesters] and [[CTV News]] (Canada) [https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/un-calls-for-reversal-of-myanmar-coup-and-condemns-violence-1.5342124]), retrieved March 2021</ref><ref name="un_calls_for_reversal_2021_07_29_ap_abc_news">[https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-urges-council-press-myanmar-return-democracy-79153798 "US urges UN Council to press Myanmar to return to democracy.,"] July 29, 2021, [[Associated Press]], retrieved July 2021</ref><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" /><ref name="aseans_snub_2021_10_20_channelnewsasia">[https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/asean-myanmar-protest-military-government-nug-sac-min-aung-hlaing-un-2254311 "Commentary: Is ASEAN's snub to Myanmar military the start of a new approach?"] October 20, 2021, [[Channel NewsAsia]], retrieved November 9, 2021</ref><ref name="asean_inflection_2021_08_airuniversity_af_edu">Durst, Charles ([[Eurasia Group]]): [https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/2747515/the-myanmar-coup-as-an-asean-inflection-point/ "The Myanmar Coup as an ASEAN Inflection Point"] August 2021 (Special Issue), ''[[Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs]],'' [[Air University (United States Air Force)|Air University]], (also print edition PDF at: [https://media.defense.gov/2021/Aug/26/2002840264/-1/-1/1/DUNST.PDF]), retrieved November 9, 2021</ref>

Initially, ASEAN remained detached from the controversy, though Muslim-dominated members (mostly democracies, already vocal against the Rohingya genocide) expressed strong objection to the coup, while the mostly-Buddhist authoritarian members of ASEAN remained quiet.<ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" /><ref name="myanmar_crisis_2021_03_04_asia_times" /><ref name="myanmar_coup_asean_split_2021_03_29_dw_com" />

In April 2021, in the first-ever ASEAN summit called to deal primarily with a domestic crisis in a member state,<ref name="myanmar_coup_asean_split_2021_03_29_dw_com" /> ASEAN leaders met with Myanmar's coup leader, Senior General [[Min Aung Hlaing]], and agreed to a five-point consensus solution to the crisis in Myanmar:<ref name="asean_leaders_agree_2021_04_25_afp_bangkok_post" /><ref name="chairmans_statement_2021_04_24_asean">[https://asean.org/chairmans-statement-on-the-asean-leaders-meeting-24-april-2021-and-five-point-consensus-2/ "Chairman's Statement on the ASEAN Leaders' Meeting "] (and appendix: "Five-Point Consensus"), April 24, 2021, ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia, retrieved November 6, 2021</ref>
*The immediate cessation of violence in Myanmar;
*Constructive dialogue among all parties concerned... to seek a peaceful solution in the interests of the people;
*Mediation facilitated by an envoy of ASEAN's Chair, with the assistance of ASEAN's Secretary-General;
*Humanitarian assistance provided by ASEAN through its AHA Centre; and
*A visit to Myanmar, by the special envoy and delegation, to meet with all parties concerned.

The ASEAN agreement with Myanmar drew strong criticism from over 150 human rights organizations for its lax approach,<ref name="statement_on_myanmar_2021_05_05_hrw_org">[https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/05/05/global-civil-society-statement-myanmar "Global Civil Society Statement on Myanmar; Call for Arms Embargo on Myanmar,"], May 5, 2021, [[Human Rights Watch]] and 150 other organizations, jointly, including: [[Amnesty International]], [[Fortify Rights]], [[ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights]], [[International Council of Jurists]], and the [[World Council of Churches]], retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="aseans_indecision_2021_06_15_amnesty_org" /> yet the Myanmar junta did not comply with any of the points of the plan.<ref name="aseans_indecision_2021_06_15_amnesty_org" /><ref name="us_urges_un_council_2021_07_29_ap_abc_news">[https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-urges-council-press-myanmar-return-democracy-79153798 "US urges UN Council to press Myanmar to return to democracy,"] July 29, 2021, [[Associated Press]] / [[ABC News]], retrieved July 2021</ref><ref name="hlaing_excluded_2021_10_16_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58938489 "Myanmar army general Min Aung Hlaing excluded from leaders' summit,"] October 16, 2021, [[BBC News]], retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" />

On 18 June 2021, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA) — in a rare move, with a nearly unanimous resolution — condemned Myanmar's coup, and called for an [[arms embargo]] against the country. The UNGA consulted with ASEAN and integrated most of ASEAN's 5-point consensus into the resolution (adding demands that the junta release all political prisoners). But, while Communist Vietnam voted "yes," along with the ASEAN democracies (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines), most authoritarian ASEAN states (Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Brunei) abstained.<ref name="un_assembly_condemns_2021_06_18_apnews">[https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-general-assembly-united-nations-myanmar-business-global-trade-72dbb95927b735de2b83dc1a85abdd72 "UN assembly condemns Myanmar coup, calls for arms embargo,"] June 18, 2021, [[Associated Press]] retrieved June 2021</ref><ref name="resolution_75_287_unga_2021_06_18_undocs_org">[https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/75/287 "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 18 June 2021: 75/287. The situation in Myanmar"], June 18, 2021, ''[[United Nations General Assembly]]'' retrieved June 2021</ref>

In October 2021, despite its consensus agreement with ASEAN, Myanmar's junta refused to allow ASEAN representatives to speak with Myanmar's deposed and imprisoned civilian leader [[Aung San Suu Kyi]].<ref name="hlaing_excluded_2021_10_16_bbc" /><ref name="junta_rebuffs_2021_10_04_irrawaddy">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-junta-rebuffs-asean-request-to-meet-suu-kyi.html "Myanmar Junta Rebuffs ASEAN Request to Meet Suu Kyi,"], October 4, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]]'' retrieved November 6, 2021</ref><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" />

Following lobbying by the [[United Nations]], [[United States of America|United States]], [[European Union]], [[United Kingdom]], and other nations, ASEAN declined to invite Myanmar's Gen. Hlaing to represent Myanmar at ASEAN's October 2021 summit — the first time in ASEAN's history that it did not invite a political leader from a member nation to one of its summits. Nor did ASEAN invite a representative of Myanmar's underground National Unity Government, saying it would consider inviting a non-political representative of the country, instead, (though none was actually invited).<ref name="us_urges_un_council_2021_07_29_ap_abc_news" /><ref name="asean_to_exclude_2021_10_15_apnews">[https://apnews.com/article/business-asia-myanmar-global-trade-southeast-asia-020da6ef264d3a95c1cbffaa020cda59 "ASEAN to exclude Myanmar's leader from summit in key rebuke,"], October 15, 2021, ''[[Associated Press]]'' (same article at ''[[Globe and Mail]]'' (Canada) [https://apnews.com/article/business-asia-myanmar-global-trade-southeast-asia-020da6ef264d3a95c1cbffaa020cda59]), retrieved October 2021</ref><ref name="hlaing_excluded_2021_10_16_bbc" /><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" /><ref name="can_asean_overcome_2021_11_01_nikkei_asia">Robinson, Gwen: [https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Comment/Can-ASEAN-overcome-the-Myanmar-curse "Can ASEAN overcome the 'Myanmar curse'?: Regional grouping struggles with changing dynamics due to 'pariah' member,"] November 1, 2021, ''[[Nikkei Asia]],'' retrieved November 7, 2021</ref><ref name="aseans_snub_2021_10_20_channelnewsasia" />

The unusual ASEAN action was widely seen as a major setback for the Myanmar junta's attempt to achieve global recognition as the legitimate government of Myanmar,<ref name="why_aseans_rebuke_2021_10_21_iiss_org" /><ref name="asean_to_exclude_2021_10_15_apnews" /><ref name="hlaing_excluded_2021_10_16_bbc" /><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" /> and a sign of broader change in the behavior and role of ASEAN.<ref name="asean_pushes_boundaries_2021_04_26_reuters" /><ref name="why_aseans_rebuke_2021_10_21_iiss_org" /><ref name="sign_of_change_2021_10_20_asialink" /><ref name="tradition_vs_credibility_2021_10_19_reuters" />

=== South China Sea disputes ===
{{Main articles|Territorial disputes in the South China Sea}}
With perceptions that there have been [[Territorial disputes in the South China Sea|multiple incursions]] into the [[South China Sea]] by the PRC (China) and ROC (Taiwan), with land, islands and resources all having had previous overlapping claims between [[Vietnam]], [[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Indonesia]], and various other countries, the PRC and ROC's claim into the region is seen as intrusive by many Southeast Asian countries as of 2022, potentially a reflection of the threat of [[Chinese expansionism]] into the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea |url=https://cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/territorial-disputes-south-china-sea |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=Global Conflict Tracker |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Stiffening the ASEAN spine in the South China Sea |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/stiffening-asean-spine-south-china-sea |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=www.lowyinstitute.org |language=en}}</ref> This follows the infamous 11 dash line that was produced by the [[Republic of China]] (ROC, [[Taiwan]]), followed by the infamous [[Nine-dash line|9-dash line]] by the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (PRC). ASEAN sought for a more unified response against what it perceived to be Chinese penetration and hegemony into the region. There have been attempts to counterbalance this sway by attempting to align with other military alliances such as the nations in the [[Quadrilateral Security Dialogue]] (QUAD).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://media.defense.gov/2020/Aug/31/2002488087/-1/-1/1/BURGESS.PDF|title=Confronting China's Maritime Expansion in the South China Sea|author=Dr. Stephen byurgess|website=Media.defense.gov|access-date=28 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916174929/https://media.defense.gov/2020/Aug/31/2002488087/-1/-1/1/BURGESS.PDF|archive-date=16 September 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Both the PRC (China) and the ROC (Taiwan) have employed several strategies in an attempt to wrestle hold of South China Sea islands, such as the [[Chinese salami slicing strategy|salami slicing strategy]] and [[cabbage tactics]] from the PRC. There has also been calls to end the ROC (Taiwan)'s illegal military actions in the South China Sea, especially on [[Taiping Island]] (Itu Aba), which is referred to the East Sea in Vietnamese.<ref>{{Cite web |last=VietnamPlus |title=Vietnam demands Taiwan to end illegal actions in East Sea {{!}} Politics {{!}} Vietnam+ (VietnamPlus) |url=https://en.vietnamplus.vn/vietnam-demands-taiwan-to-end-illegal-actions-in-east-sea/215733.vnp |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=VietnamPlus |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, China passed a law in January 2021 allowing [[China Coast Guard|its coast guard]] to fire on foreign vessels, causing greater concern amongst ASEAN states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippines seeks US help as it vows to ignore China maritime law |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/10/dutertes-defence-chief-says-manila-got-less-from-us-pact |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> It is considered that the [[Chams|Cham people]], an [[Austronesian people]] indigenous to Central and South Vietnam, were the "ancient rulers of the South China Sea", having had conducted extensive trade and maritime routes throughout the Southeast Asian region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rulers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute From Sidelines |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/140616-south-china-sea-vietnam-china-cambodia-champa |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=Science |language=en}}</ref>

==Member states==
{{main|Member states of ASEAN}}
[[File:Map of ASEAN member states.svg|550px|thumb|Map showing the member states of ASEAN.]]

===List of member states{{Anchor|Details of member states}}===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"; white-space: nowrap;"
! scope="col" | [[Member states of ASEAN|State]]
! scope="col" | Accession<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/|title=Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)|access-date=2017-08-19|newspaper=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|BRN}} [[Brunei]]
| align=right| 7 January 1984
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|CAM}} [[Cambodia]]
| align=right| 30 April 1999
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|IDN}} [[Indonesia]]
| align=right| 8 August 1967
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|LAO}} [[Laos]]
| align=right| 23 July 1997
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|MAS}} [[Malaysia]]
| align=right| 8 August 1967
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|MYA}} [[Myanmar]]
| align=right| 23 July 1997
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|PHL}} [[Philippines]]
| align=right| 8 August 1967
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|SGP}} [[Singapore]]
| align=right| 8 August 1967
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|THA}} [[Thailand]]
| align=right| 8 August 1967
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagicon|VIE}} [[Vietnam]]
| align=right| 28 July 1995
|-
|}

===Observers===
{{main|Enlargement of ASEAN}}
There are currently two states seeking accession to ASEAN: [[Papua New Guinea]]<ref name="PNGPHIL">{{cite web|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/154860/news/nation/papua-new-guinea-asks-rp-support-for-asean-membership-bid|title=Papua New Guinea asks RP support for Asean membership bid|access-date=26 January 2013|publisher=[[GMA News and Public Affairs]]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.op.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=22879&Itemid=2 Somare seeks PGMA's support for PNG's ASEAN membership bid] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306192700/http://www.op.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=22879&Itemid=2 }} Retrieved 8 July 2009</ref> and [[East Timor]].<ref name="East Timor">[http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/east-timor-asean-bid/2006/07/22/1153166635002.html East Timor ASEAN Bid] Retrieved 28 July 2006</ref>
*[[Accession of Papua New Guinea to ASEAN]] (observer status since 1976)
*[[Accession of East Timor to ASEAN]] (since 2002, observer status since 2022<ref>{{cite web |last1=ASEAN |title=ASEAN Leaders' Statement on the Application of Timor-Leste for ASEAN Membership |url=https://asean.org/asean-leaders-statement-on-the-application-of-timor-leste-for-asean-membership |website=ASEAN |access-date=14 November 2022}}</ref>)

== Demographics ==

{{as of|2019|July|1}}, the population of the ASEAN was about 655 million people (8.5% of the world population).<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ASYB_2020.pdf|title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2020|access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aseanstats.org/publication/asyb_2020/|title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2020|access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref> In 2019, 55.2 million children were age 0-4 and 46.3 million were older than 65 in the ASEAN. This corresponds to 8.4% and 7.1% of the total ASEAN population. The region's population growth is 1.1% per year with [[Thailand]] being the smallest at 0.2% per year, and [[Cambodia]] being the largest at 1.9% per year. ASEAN's sex ratio is 99.6, with 326.4 million males and 327.8 million females.{{Clarify}}

== The ASEAN Way ==
The "ASEAN Way" refers to a methodology or approach to solving issues that respect Southeast Asia's cultural norms. Masilamani and Peterson summarise it as "a working process or style that is informal and personal. Policymakers constantly utilise compromise, consensus, and consultation in the informal decision-making process... it above all prioritises a consensus-based, non-conflictual way of addressing problems. Quiet diplomacy allows ASEAN leaders to communicate without bringing the discussions into the public view. Members avoid the embarrassment that may lead to further conflict."<ref name="Masilamani">{{cite journal|last1=Masilamani|first1=Logan|last2=Peterson|first2=Jimmy|title=The "ASEAN Way": The Structural Underpinnings of Constructive Engagement|journal=Foreign Policy Journal|url=http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/10/15/the-asean-way-the-structural-underpinnings-of-constructive-engagement/|access-date=12 May 2015|archive-date=13 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513043858/http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/10/15/the-asean-way-the-structural-underpinnings-of-constructive-engagement/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been said that the merits of the ASEAN Way might "be usefully applied to global conflict management".
However, critics have argued that such an approach can be only applied to Asian countries, to specific cultural norms and understandings notably, due to a difference in mindset and level of tension.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goh|first1=Gillian|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal3/geasia1.pdf|title=The 'ASEAN Way'; Non-Intervention and ASEAN's Role in Conflict Management|journal=Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs|pages=113–18|volume=3|issue=1|access-date=2 March 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626113326/http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal3/geasia1.pdf|archive-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>{{RP|pp113-118}}

Critics object, claiming that the ASEAN Way's emphasis on consultation, consensus, and non-interference forces the organisation to adopt only those policies which satisfy the lowest common denominator. Decision-making by consensus requires members to see eye-to-eye before ASEAN can move forward on an issue. Members may not have a common conception of the meaning of the ASEAN Way. Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos emphasize non-interference while older member countries focus on co-operation and co-ordination. These differences hinder efforts to find common solutions to particular issues, but also make it difficult to determine when collective action is appropriate in a given situation.<ref name=Leviter>{{cite journal|last1=Leviter|first1=Lee|title=The ASEAN Charter: ASEAN Failure or Member Failure?|journal=New York University Journal of International Law and Politics|volume=43|pages=159–210}}</ref>{{RP|161–163}}

==Structure==
Beginning in 1997, heads of each member state adopted the ASEAN Vision 2020 during the group's 30th anniversary meeting held in Kuala Lumpur. As a means for the realisation of a single ASEAN community, this vision provides provisions on peace and stability, a nuclear-free region, closer economic integration, human development, sustainable development, cultural heritage, being a drug-free region, environment among others. The vision also aimed to "see an outward-looking ASEAN playing a pivotal role in the international fora, and advancing ASEAN's common interests".<ref>[http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-vision-2020 "ASEAN Vision 2020"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429050655/http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-vision-2020 }} 15 December 1997. Retrieved 10 December 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A united region: The ASEAN Community 2015|url=http://www.rappler.com/world/specials/southeast-asia/asean-journey/47239-asean-community-2015-overview|author1=Julio Amador|author2=Joycee A. Teodoro|work=Rappler|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510023020/http://www.rappler.com/world/specials/southeast-asia/asean-journey/47239-asean-community-2015-overview|url-status=live}}</ref>

ASEAN Vision 2020 was formalised and made comprehensive through the Bali Concord II in 2003. Three major pillars of a single ASEAN community were established: Political-Security Community (APSC), Economic Community (AEC) and Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/news/item/declaration-of-asean-concord-ii-bali-concord-ii|title=Declaration of ASEAN Concord II (Bali Concord II)|publisher=ASEAN|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702050633/http://www.asean.org/news/item/declaration-of-asean-concord-ii-bali-concord-ii|archive-date=2 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="Overview">{{cite web|title=Overview|url=http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/overview|website=ASEAN|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-date=17 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217005044/http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/overview|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="APSC-FS">{{cite book|title=Fact Sheet ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-7643-49-9|url=http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20APSC.pdf|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20APSC.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="AEC-FS">{{cite book|title=Fact Sheet ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-7643-50-5|url=http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20AEC.pdf|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20AEC.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="ASCC-FS">{{cite book|title=Fact Sheet of ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-7643-51-2|url=http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20ASCC.pdf|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/2013/factsheet/2013%20(6.%20Jun)%20-%20ASCC.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> To fully embody the three pillars as part of the 2015 integration, blueprints for APSC and ASCC were subsequently adopted in 2009 in [[Cha-am]], Thailand.<ref>{{cite book|title=Towards A Sustainable Asia: Environment and Climate Change|author=The Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia|location=Beijing|publisher=Science Press}}</ref> The ASEAN Community, initially planned to commence by 2020, was accelerated to begin by 31 December 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=TODAY Online - Countries must work together to deal with shared problems: PM Lee|url=http://www.gov.sg/news/content/today-online-countries-must-work-together-to-deal-with-shared-problems-pm-lee|website=Government of Singapore|access-date=25 November 2015|archive-date=26 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126041217/http://www.gov.sg/news/content/today-online-countries-must-work-together-to-deal-with-shared-problems-pm-lee|url-status=live}}</ref> It was decided during the 12th ASEAN Summit in [[Cebu]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cebu declaration on the acceleration of the establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015|url=http://www.asean.org/component/zoo/item/about-asean-overview-cebu-declaration-on-the-acceleration-of-the-establishment-of-an-asean-community-by-2015?Itemid=185|access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617102112/http://www.asean.org/component/zoo/item/about-asean-overview-cebu-declaration-on-the-acceleration-of-the-establishment-of-an-asean-community-by-2015?Itemid=185|archive-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

At the 23rd ASEAN Summit in November 2013, leaders decided to develop a post-2015 Vision and created the High-Level Task Force (HLTF) that consists of ten high-level representatives from all member states. The Vision was adopted at the 27th Summit in November 2015 in Kuala Lumpur. The ASEAN community would revise and renew its vision every ten years to provide a framework for continuous development and further integration.

The terms in the post-2015 Vision are divided into four subcategories, namely APSC, AEC, ASCC, and Moving Forward. APSC issues are covered under articles 7 and 8. The former generally states the community's overall aspiration to aim for a united, inclusive and resilient community. It also puts human and environmental security as crucial points. Deepening engagement with both internal and external parties are also stressed to contribute to international peace, security and stability.<ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN COMMUNITY VISION 2025|url=http://www.asean.org/storage/images/2015/November/aec-page/ASEAN-Community-Vision-2025.pdf|access-date=24 September 2016|archive-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010184551/http://www.asean.org/storage/images/2015/November/aec-page/ASEAN-Community-Vision-2025.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The "Moving Forward" subcategory implies the acknowledgement of weaknesses of the institution's capacity to process and coordinate ASEAN work. Strengthening ASEAN Secretariat and other ASEAN organs and bodies is therefore desired. There is also a call for a higher level of ASEAN institutional presence at the national, regional and international levels.{{citation needed}}

Additionally, ASEAN institutional weakness has been further amplified by the ineffectiveness of its initiatives in fighting against COVID-19. ASEAN has been making painstaking efforts to combat the pandemic by establishing both intra and extra-regional ad hoc agencies such as theASEAN-China Ad-Hoc Health Ministers Joint Task Force, the Special ASEAN Summit on the COVID-19, COVID-19 ASEAN Response Fund, and the Special ASEAN Plus Three Summit on COVID-19. These mechanisms aim to facilitate senior discussions among regional actors on how to contain the pandemic's spread and reduce its negative impacts. However, their practical implementations are still insignificant when the cooperation among member states is insubstantial, as illustrated by the polarisation of their COVID-19 policies and the high number of cases and deaths in the region.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Phuong|first=Pham|title=COVID-19 has revealed ASEAN's institutional weaknesses|work=Global-is-asian|publisher=Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore|url=https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/gia/article/covid-19-has-revealed-asean-s-institutional-weaknesses|url-status=live|access-date=10 September 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053214/https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/gia/article/covid-19-has-revealed-asean-s-institutional-weaknesses}}</ref>

===AEC Blueprint===
[[File:KL Declaration Signing 11.22.15.jpg|thumb|ASEAN leaders sign the declaration of the ASEAN Economic Community during the 27th ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur, 2015]]

The AEC aims to "implement economic integration initiatives" to create a single market for member states.<ref name="Primer">{{cite book |url=http://www.dfa.gov.ph/images/PDF/AEC%20Primer_Ebook2.pdf |title=Understanding the ASEAN Economic Community; A Primer |publisher=Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines) |edition=1st |access-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053213/https://www.dfa.gov.ph/images/PDF/AEC%20Primer_Ebook2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community|title=ASEAN Economic Community - ASEAN - ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY|access-date=6 September 2014|archive-date=3 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903023000/http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community|url-status=live}}</ref> The blueprint that serves as a comprehensive guide for the establishment of the community was adopted on 20 November 2007 at the 13th ASEAN Summit in Singapore.<ref name="Primer"/><ref name="Blueprint">{{cite book|title=ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-979-3496-77-1|pages=56|url=http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-10.pdf|access-date=7 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203402/http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-10.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> Its characteristics include a single market and production base, a highly competitive economic region, a region of fair economic development, and a region fully integrated into the global economy. The areas of cooperation include human resources development, recognition of professional qualifications, closer consultation economic policies, enhanced infrastructure and communications connectivity, integrating industries for regional sourcing, and strengthening private sector involvement. Through the free movement of skilled labour, goods, services and investment, ASEAN would rise globally as one market, thus increasing its competitiveness and opportunities for development.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.lga.gov.ph/sites/default/files/knowledgeProducts-pdf/Rising%20As%20One%20The%20ASEAN%20Economic%20Integration.pdf |title=Rising as One: The Filipino Nation Towards the ASEAN Economic Integration |publisher=Local Government Academy of the Philippines |isbn=978-971-0576-41-8 |pages=23 |access-date=11 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731172032/http://www.lga.gov.ph/sites/default/files/knowledgeProducts-pdf/Rising%20As%20One%20The%20ASEAN%20Economic%20Integration.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2014 }}</ref>

===APSC Blueprint===
During the 14th ASEAN Summit, the group adopted the APSC Blueprint.<ref>{{cite book|title=ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-8411-06-6|pages=20|url=http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-18.pdf|access-date=7 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203428/http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-18.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> This document is aimed at creating a robust political-security environment within ASEAN, with programs and activities outlined to establish the APSC by 2016. It is based on the ASEAN Charter, the ASEAN Security Community Plan of Action, and the Vientiane Action Program. The APSC aims to create a sense of responsibility toward comprehensive security and a dynamic, outward-looking region in an increasingly integrated and interdependent world.

The ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration (ADIC) was proposed at the 4th ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting (ADMM) on 11 May 2010 in [[Hanoi]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|title=Annex 10- ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting: Concept Paper on Establishing ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration|url=http://admm.asean.org|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053217/https://admm.asean.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has the purpose, among others, to reduce defence imports from non-ASEAN countries by half and to further develop the defence industry in the region.<ref>Sneha Raghavan and Guy Ben-Ari (7 September 2011) Current Issues- No. 25: ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration -www.csis.org/ISP/DIIG</ref> It was formally adopted on the next ADMM on 19 May 2011, in Jakarta, Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|title=2011 JOINT DECLARATION OF THE ASEAN DEFENCE MINISTERS ON STRENGTHENING DEFENCE COOPERATION OF ASEAN IN THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY TO FACE NEW CHALLENGES|url=http://www.asean.org/news/item/joint-declaration-of-the-asean-defence-ministers-on-strengthening-defence-cooperation-of-asean-in-the-global-community-to-face-new-challenges-jakarta-19-may-2011|website=www.asean.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109042135/http://www.asean.org/news/item/joint-declaration-of-the-asean-defence-ministers-on-strengthening-defence-cooperation-of-asean-in-the-global-community-to-face-new-challenges-jakarta-19-may-2011|archive-date=9 January 2015}}</ref> The main focus is to industrially and technologically boost the security capability of ASEAN,<ref name="csis.org">{{cite web|title=Sneha Raghavan and Guy Ben-Ari (2011, September 7) Current Issues- No. 25: ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration|url=http://www.csis.org/ISP/DIIG|access-date=18 February 2019|archive-date=10 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610105520/http://www.csis.org/isp/diig/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Last Meeting: 2nd ADMM-Plus, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam, 29 August 2013|url=http://ADMM.ASEAN.org|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=17 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817115534/https://admm.asean.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> consistent with the principles of flexibility and non-binding and voluntary participation among the member states.<ref>{{cite web|title=3rd ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration Workshop|url=http://www2.mindef.gov.bn|access-date=30 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625035140/http://mindef.gov.bn/|archive-date=25 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting: Concept Paper on Establishing ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration|url=http://admm.asean.org|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053223/https://admm.asean.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> The concept revolves around education and capability-building programs to develop the skills and capabilities of the workforce, production of capital for defence products, and the provision of numerous services to address the security needs of each member state. It also aims to develop an intra-ASEAN defence trade.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> ADIC aims to establish a strong defence industry relying on the local capabilities of each member state and limit annual procurement from external original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Countries like the US, Germany, Russia, France, Italy, UK, China, South Korea, Israel, and the Netherlands are among the major suppliers to ASEAN.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sneha Raghavan and Guy Ben-Ari (2011, September 7) Current Issues- No. 25: ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration|url=http://www.csis.org/ISP/DIIG/|access-date=18 February 2019|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053223/https://www.csis.org/programs/international-security-program/defense-industrial-initiatives-group|url-status=live}}</ref> ASEAN defence budget rose by 147% from 2004 to 2013 and is expected to rise further in the future.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fear Us: Military Expenditures in Southeast Asia (11 Sep 2014)|url=http://www.IndoPacificReview.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921200104/http://www.indopacificreview.com/|archive-date=2013-09-21}}</ref> Factors affecting the increase include economic growth, ageing equipment, and the plan to strengthen the establishment of the defence industry.<ref>{{cite news|author1=J. Dowdy |author2=D. Chinn |author3=M. Mancini |author4=J. Ng |title=Southeast Asia: The next growth opportunity in defence McKinsey - Innovation Campus Aerospace and Defence Practice}}</ref> ASEANAPOL is also established to enhance cooperation on law enforcement and crime control among police forces of member states.<ref>{{cite web |title=ASEANAPOL, The Urgency to Keep The Region Safe – ICOAS |url=https://icoas.ppispanyol.org/2017/12/31/aseanapol-the-urgency-to-keep-the-region-safe/ |website=icoas.ppispanyol.org |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053224/https://ups-error.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

However, the unequal level of capabilities among the member states in the defence industry and the lack of established defence trade pose challenges.<ref name="csis.org"/> Before the adoption of the ADIC concept, the status of the defence industry base in each of the member states was at a different level.<ref name="csis.org"/> Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand are among the top member states with an established defence industry base, but they possess different levels of capacity. The remaining member states have yet to develop and enhance their capabilities.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="csis.org"/> Indonesia and Singapore are among the most competitive players; the former is the only one recognised as one of the top 100 global defence suppliers from between 2010 and 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sneha Raghavan and Guy Ben-Ari (2010, September 7) Current Issues- No. 25: ASEAN Defence Industry Collaboration|url=http://www.csis.org/ISP/DIIG|access-date=18 February 2019|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053232/https://www.csis.org/programs/international-security-program/defense-industrial-initiatives-group|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://special.DefenseNews.com|title=Defense News Top 100 for 2013|website=Special.defencenews.com|access-date=28 July 2022}}</ref> ASEAN member states purchase virtually no defence products from within ASEAN. Singapore purchases products from Germany, France, and Israel. Malaysia purchased only 0.49% from ASEAN, Indonesia 0.1%, and Thailand 8.02%.<ref name="csis.org"/>

The ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT) serves as a framework for regional cooperation to counter, prevent, and suppress terrorism and deepen counter-terrorism cooperation.<ref name="ACCT">{{cite news|title=ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process|url=http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process|access-date=10 February 2015|agency=ASEAN News|publisher=ASEAN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429045413/http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> It was signed by ASEAN leaders in 2007. On 28 April 2011, Brunei ratified the convention and a month later, the convention came into force. Malaysia became the tenth member state to ratify ACCT on 11 January 2013.<ref name="ACCT"/>

===ASCC Blueprint===
The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) was also adopted during the 14th ASEAN Summit.<ref>{{cite book|title=ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint|publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-8411-07-3|pages=32|url=http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-19.pdf|access-date=7 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203437/http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-19.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> It envisions an "ASEAN Community that is people-centered and socially responsible with a view to achieving enduring solidarity and unity among the countries and peoples of ASEAN by forging a common identity and building a caring and sharing society which is inclusive and harmonious where the well-being, livelihood, and welfare of the peoples are enhanced". Among its focus areas include human development, social welfare and protection, social justice and rights, environmental sustainability, building the ASEAN identity, and narrowing the development gap.

To track the progress of the AEC, a compliance tool called the AEC Scorecard was developed based on the EU Internal Market Scorecard.<ref name=Xianbai /> It is the only one in effect<ref name="aseanec.blogspot.com">{{cite web|url=http://aseanec.blogspot.com/2012/05/grading-asean-economic-community.html|title=AEC Blog: Grading the ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard|author=Edmund Sim|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815124400/http://aseanec.blogspot.com/2012/05/grading-asean-economic-community.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and is expected to serve as an unbiased assessment tool to measure the extent of integration and the economic health of the region. It is expected to provide relevant information about regional priorities, and thus foster productive, inclusive, and sustainable growth.<ref name="eastasiaforum.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2012/06/01/a-critical-look-at-the-asean-economic-community-scorecard/|title=A critical look at the ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard|work=East Asia Forum|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053233/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2012/06/01/a-critical-look-at-the-asean-economic-community-scorecard/|url-status=live}}</ref> It makes it possible to monitor the implementation of ASEAN agreements, and the achievement of milestones indicated in the AEC Strategic Schedule. The scorecard outlines specific actions that must be undertaken collectively and individually to establish AEC by 2015.<ref name="eastasiaforum.org"/> To date, two official scorecards have been published, one in 2010,<ref>{{cite book|title=ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard: Charting Progress Towards Regional Economic Integration|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-8411-35-6|url=http://www.asean.org/images/2012/publications/AEC%20Scorecard.pdf|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203548/http://www.asean.org/images/2012/publications/AEC%20Scorecard.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> and the other in 2012.<ref name="Scorecard-2012">{{cite book|title=ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat|location=Jakarka|isbn=978-602-8411-96-7|url=http://www.asean.org/images/2012/publications/scorecard_final.pdf|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203612/http://www.asean.org/images/2012/publications/scorecard_final.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="Xianbai"/> However, the scorecard is purely quantitative, as it only examines whether a member state has performed the AEC task or not. The more "yes" answers, the higher the score.<ref name="aseanec.blogspot.com"/>

While Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand have eliminated 99.65% of their tariff lines, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam have decreased tariffs on 98.86% of their lines to the 0-5% tariff range in 2010, and are projected to eliminate tariffs on these goods by 2015, with the ability to do so for a few import duty lines until 2018.<ref name="tax-news.com">{{cite news|last1=Swire|first1=Mary|title=Singapore Plugs ASEAN Trade Integration|url=http://www.tax-news.com/news/Singapore_Plugs_ASEAN_Trade_Integration____65778.html#sthash.zPWaW4hW.dpuf|access-date=12 May 2015|work=Tax-News|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053235/https://www.tax-news.com/news/Singapore_Plugs_ASEAN_Trade_Integration____65778.html#sthash.zPWaW4hW.dpuf|url-status=live}}</ref> A recent study by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited has projected that five of the top fifteen manufacturing locations in the world will be in ASEAN by 2018. Furthermore, by 2050, ASEAN is expected to be the fourth-largest economy in the world (after the European Union, the US, and China).<ref name="tax-news.com"/>

The AEC envisions the free flow of overseas labour. However, receiving countries may require would-be workers to take licensing examinations in those countries regardless of whether or not the worker has a professional license from their home country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sbr.com.sg/economy/commentary/what-aec-2015-means-singaporean-businesses|title=What the AEC 2015 means for Singaporean businesses|work=Singapore Business Review|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=25 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425024551/http://sbr.com.sg/economy/commentary/what-aec-2015-means-singaporean-businesses|url-status=live}}</ref> Singapore is a major destination for skilled migrants from other ASEAN countries, mostly from Malaysia and the Philippines. Total employment there doubled between 1992 and 2008 from 1.5 million to three million, and the number of foreign workers almost tripled, from fewer than 400,000 to nearly 1.1 million. High-skilled foreign talents (customer service, nursing, engineering, IT) earn at least several thousand US dollars a month and with a credential (usually a college degree) receive employment passes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Southeast Asia: ASEAN 2015|journal=Migration News|volume=20|issue=4|url=https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3868_0_3_0|access-date=12 February 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053232/https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3868_0_3_0|url-status=live}}</ref> In recent years, Singapore has been slowly cutting down the number of foreign workers to challenge companies to upgrade their hiring criteria and offer more jobs to local residents.

Narrowing the Development Gap (NDG) is the framework for addressing disparities among, and within, member states where pockets of underdevelopment exist. Under NDG, ASEAN has continued to coordinate closely with other sub-regional cooperation frameworks (e.g., [[BIMP-EAGA]], IMT-GT, GMS, Mekong programs), viewing them as "equal partners in the development of regional production and distribution networks" in the AEC, and as a platform to "mainstream social development issues in developing and implementing projects" in the context of the ASCC.<ref name="asean.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/category/overview-ndg-iai-iai-work-plan-iai-task-force-idcf|title=Overview|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630140736/http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/category/overview-ndg-iai-iai-work-plan-iai-task-force-idcf|archive-date=30 June 2015}}</ref>

The six-year Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI) Work Plans have been developed to assist Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam, as well as other sub-regions to ensure quick growth. The First IAI Work Plan was implemented from 2002 to 2008. The second plan (2009-2015) supports the goals of the ASEAN Community and is composed of 182 prescribed actions, which includes studies, training programs, and policy implementation support, conducted through projects supported by older ASEAN member states, and ASEAN's Dialogue partners and external parties. The IAI Work Plan is patterned after and supports the key program areas in the three ASEAN Community Blueprints: ASPC, AEC, and ASCC. The IAI Task Force, composed of representatives of the Committee of Permanent Representatives and its working group from all member states, is in charge of providing general advice and policy guidelines and directions in the design and implementation of the plan. All member states are represented in the IAI Task Force, chaired by representatives of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam. The ASEAN Secretariat, in particular through the IAI and NDG Division, supports the implementation and management of the IAI Work Plan and coordinates activities related to sub-regional frameworks. The division works closely with the Dialogue Partners, and international agencies, to develop strategies and programs to assist in promoting and implementing IAI and NDG activities in ASEAN.<ref name="asean.org"/>

ASEAN's planned integration has challenged its citizens to embrace a regional identity. It delivers a challenge to construct dynamic institutions and foster sufficient amount of social capital. The underlying assumption is that the creation of a regional identity is of special interest to ASEAN and the intent of the 2020 Vision policy document was to reassert the belief in a regional framework designed as an action plan related to human development and civic empowerment. Accordingly, these assumptions will be the basis for recommendations and strategies in developing a participatory regional identity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Michael E.|title=Forging an ASEAN Identity: The Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny|journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia|volume=26|issue=1|pages=140–154|url=https://www.academia.edu/981239|access-date=12 February 2015|doi=10.1355/cs26-1g|s2cid=154782260 |archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053237/https://www.academia.edu/981239/Forging_an_ASEAN_Identity_The_Challenge_to_Construct_a_Shared_Destiny|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== APAEC blueprint ====
Part of the work towards the ASEAN Economic Community is the integration of the energy systems of the ASEAN member states. The blueprint for this integration is provided by the ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC).<ref name="Overland 100019">{{Cite journal|last1=Overland|first1=Indra|last2=Sagbakken|first2=Haakon Fossum|last3=Chan|first3=Hoy-Yen|last4=Merdekawati|first4=Monika|last5=Suryadi|first5=Beni|last6=Utama|first6=Nuki Agya|last7=Vakulchuk|first7=Roman|title=The ASEAN climate and energy paradox|journal=Energy and Climate Change|language=en|volume=2|pages=100019|doi=10.1016/j.egycc.2020.100019 |issn=2666-2787 |hdl=11250/2734506|hdl-access=free}}</ref> APAEC is managed by the ASEAN Center for Energy.

==== 2020 ASEAN Banking Integration Framework ====
As trade is liberalised with the integration in 2015, the need arises for ASEAN banking institutions to accommodate and expand their services to an intra-ASEAN market. Experts, however, have already forecast a shaky economic transition, especially for smaller players in the banking and financial services industry. Two separate reports by [[Standard & Poor's]] (S&P) outline the challenges that ASEAN financial institutions face as they prepare for the 2020 banking integration.{{efn|name=fn1|''ASEAN Financial Integration: The Long Road to Bank Consolidation'' and ''The Philippines' Banking System: The Good, the Bad and the Ambivalent''.}} The reports point out that overcrowded banking sector in the Philippines is expected to feel the most pressure as the integration welcomes tighter competition with bigger and more established foreign banks.<ref name="mb.com.ph">{{cite web|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/sp-cites-moves-by-philippine-banks/|title=S&P cites moves by Philippine banks|author=Manila Bulletin|website=[[Manila Bulletin]] |access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=14 November 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/2014.11.14-060935/http://www.mb.com.ph/sp-cites-moves-by-philippine-banks/|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, there needs to be a regional expansion by countries with a small banking sector to lessen the impact of the post-integration environment. In a follow-up report, S&P recently cited the Philippines for "shoring up its network bases and building up capital ahead of the banking integration – playing defence and strengthening their domestic networks".<ref name="mb.com.ph"/>

====Financial integration roadmap====
The roadmap for financial integration is the latest regional initiative that aims to strengthen local self-help and support mechanisms. The roadmap's implementation would contribute to the realisation of the AEC. Adoption of a common currency, when conditions are ripe, could be the final stage of the AEC. The roadmap identifies approaches and milestones in capital market development, capital account and financial services liberalisation, and ASEAN currency cooperation. Capital market development entails promoting institutional capacity as well as the facilitation of greater cross-border collaboration, linkages, and harmonisation between capital markets. Orderly capital account liberalisation would be promoted with adequate safeguards against volatility and systemic risks. To expedite the process of financial services liberalisation, ASEAN has agreed on a positive list modality and adopted milestones to facilitate negotiations. Currency cooperation would involve the exploration of possible currency arrangements, including an ASEAN currency payment system for trade in local goods to reduce the demand for US dollars and to help promote stability of regional currencies, such as by settling intra-ASEAN trade using regional currencies.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

In regards to a common currency, ASEAN leaders agreed in November 1999 to create the establishment of currency swaps and repurchase agreements as a credit line against future financial shocks. In May 2000, ASEAN finance ministers agreed to plan for closer cooperation through the [[Chiang Mai Initiative]] (CMI).<ref>Financial Integration and Common Currency Area in ASEAN</ref> The CMI has two components, an expanded ASEAN Swap Arrangement (ASA), and a network of bilateral swap arrangements among the ASEAN Plus Three. The ASA preceded the 1997 Asian financial crisis and was originally established by the monetary authorities of the five founding member states to help meet temporary liquidity problems. The ASA now includes all ten member states with an expanded facility of US$1 billion. In recognition of the economic interdependence of [[East Asia]], which has combined foreign exchange reserves amounting to about US$1 trillion, a network of bilateral swap arrangements and repurchase agreements among the [[#ASEAN Plus Three|ASEAN Plus Three]] has been agreed upon. The supplementary facility aims to provide temporary financing for member states with balance-of-payments difficulties. In 2009, 16 bilateral swap arrangements (BSAs) were concluded with a combined amount of about US$35.5 billion.<ref name="ReferenceA">Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralzation</ref> The CMI was signed on 9 December 2009 and took effect on 20 March 2014 while the amended version, the multilateralisation of CMI (CMIM), was on 17 July 2014. The CMIM is a multilateral currency swap arrangement governed by a single contractual agreement. In addition, an independent regional surveillance unit called the ASEAN+3 Macroeconomic Research Office (AMRO) was established to monitor and analyse economies and to support the CMIM decision-making process.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The amendments would allow access for the auction of a crisis prevention facility. These amendments are expected to fortify CMIM as the region's financial safety net in the event of any potential or actual liquidity difficulty.<ref>The Amended Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralization (CMIM) Comes into Effect Today, 17 July 2014 Media Releases</ref>

During peacetime, the AMRO would conduct annual consultations with individual member economies and prepare quarterly-consolidated reports on the macroeconomic assessment of the ASEAN+3 region and individual member countries. In a time of crisis, the AMRO would prepare recommendations on any swap request based on macroeconomic analysis of a member state and monitor the use and impact of funds once an application is approved. AMRO was officially incorporated as a company limited by guarantee in Singapore on 20 April 2011. Governance of AMRO is being exercised by the executive committee (EC) and its operational direction by the Advisory Panel (AP). AMRO is currently headed by Dr Yoichi Nemoto of Japan, who is serving his second two-year term until 26 May 2016.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/>

====Food security====
Member states recognise the importance of strengthening [[food security]] to maintain stability and prosperity in the region.<ref>{{cite web|title=Food Security |url=https://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/ |website=World Health Organisation |access-date=10 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917112705/http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/ |archive-date=17 September 2015 }}</ref> As ASEAN moves towards AEC and beyond, food security would be an integral part of the community-building agenda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Desker|first1=Barry|last2=Caballero-Anthony|first2=Mely|last3=Teng|first3=Paul|title=Thought/Issues Paper on ASEAN Food Security: Towards a more Comprehensive Framework|publisher=Nanyang Technological University|location=Singapore|url=http://www.eria.org/ERIA-DP-2013-20.pdf|access-date=10 February 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053232/https://www.eria.org/ERIA-DP-2013-20.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Strengthened food security is even more relevant in light of potentially severe risks from climate change with agriculture and fisheries being the most affected industries.<ref>Overland, Indra et al. (2017) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061128/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312_Impact_of_Climate_Change_on_ASEAN_International_Affairs_Risk_and_Opportunity_Multiplier }}, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref>

Part of the aim of ASEAN integration is to achieve food security collectively via [[trade]] in rice and maize. [[Trade facilitation]] measures and the harmonisation/equivalency of food regulation and control standards would reduce the cost of trade in food products. While specialisation and revealed comparative and competitive indices point to complementarities between trade patterns among the member states, intra-ASEAN trade in agriculture is quite small, something that integration could address.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bello|first1=Amelia L.|title=Ensuring Food Security--A Case for ASEAN Integration|journal=Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development|volume=2|issue=1,2|url=http://searca.org/ajad/index.php/previous-issues/13-view-article?aid=28|access-date=12 February 2015|issn=1656-4383|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053236/https://ajad.searca.org/index.php/previous-issues/13-view-article?aid=28|url-status=live}}</ref> The MARKET project would provide flexible and demand-driven support to the ASEAN Secretariat while bringing more private-sector and civil-society input into regional agriculture policy dialogue. By building an environment that reduces barriers to trade, ASEAN trade would increase, thereby decreasing the risk of food price crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/strengthening-food-security-for-asean-citizens-asean-us-cooperation-on-food-security-initiative-market-project-reduces-market-volatility-through-increased-regional-trade|title=Strengthening Food Security for ASEAN Citizens: ASEAN – U.S. Cooperation on Food Security initiative "MARKET" Project Reduces Market Volatility through Increased Regional Trade|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429043831/http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/strengthening-food-security-for-asean-citizens-asean-us-cooperation-on-food-security-initiative-market-project-reduces-market-volatility-through-increased-regional-trade|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref>

==Economy==

[[File:GDP PPP 2021 Selection.svg|upright=1.25|thumb|Selection of GDP PPP data (top 10 countries and blocks) in no particular order]]

The group sought economic integration by creating the AEC by the end of 2015 that established a [[single market]].<ref name="asil1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.asil.org/aseanevent/Sim_Intro_to_ASEAN.pdf|title=Trade & Customs Singapore : Introduction to ASEAN Economic Community|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218183029/http://www.asil.org/aseanevent/Sim_Intro_to_ASEAN.pdf |access-date=28 July 2022|archive-date=18 February 2012 }}</ref> The average economic growth of member states from 1989 to 2009 was between 3.8% and 7%. This was greater than the average growth of APEC, which was 2.8%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/05/11/asean-economies-past-and-future.html |title=ASEAN economies past and future |work=The Jakarta Post |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=12 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512043847/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/05/11/asean-economies-past-and-future.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), established on 28 January 1992,<ref name="AFTA" /> includes a Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) to promote the free flow of goods between member states.<ref name="asil1"/> ASEAN had only six members when it was signed. The new member states (Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia) have not fully met AFTA's obligations, but are officially considered part of the agreement as they were required to sign it upon entry into ASEAN, and were given longer time frames to meet AFTA's tariff reduction obligations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/12021.htm |title=Overview |publisher=ASEAN |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022142043/http://www.asean.org/12021.htm |archive-date=22 October 2008 }}</ref> The next steps are to create a single market and production base, a competitive economic region, a region of equitable economic development, and a region that is fully integrated into the global economy. Since 2007, ASEAN countries have gradually lowered their import duties to member states, with a target of zero import duties by 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) |url=http://www.miti.gov.my/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.article.Article_b5e22087-c0a81573-aba0aba0-ab12873b |website=Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Malaysia) |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820145429/http://www.miti.gov.my/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.article.Article_b5e22087-c0a81573-aba0aba0-ab12873b |archive-date=20 August 2014 }}</ref>

ASEAN countries have many economic zones (industrial parks, eco-industrial parks, special economic zones, technology parks, and innovation districts) (see reference for comprehensive list from 2015).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media_upgrade/Resources/Publications/UCO_Viet_Nam_Study_FINAL.pdf|title=Economic Zones in the ASEAN|access-date=20 November 2016|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053234/https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2015-08/UCO_Viet_Nam_Study_FINAL_0.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2018, eight of the ASEAN members are among the world's outperforming economies, with positive long-term prospect for the region.<ref>{{cite news |title=ASEAN countries among world's outperforming emerging economies: Report |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-countries-among-world-s-outperforming-emerging-economies-10718216 |work=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917181637/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-countries-among-world-s-outperforming-emerging-economies-10718216 |url-status=live }}</ref> ASEAN's Secretariat projects that the regional body will grow to become the world's fourth largest economy by 2030.<ref name="E&E-20191120">{{cite news |last1=Gronewold |first1=Nathanial |title=Booming Southeast Asia's dirty secret: Coal |url=https://www.eenews.net/stories/1061593609 |access-date=22 November 2019 |work=E&E News |agency=Climatewire |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053238/https://www.eenews.net/stories/1061593609 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ASEAN Centre for Energy publishes the ASEAN Energy Outlook every five years, analysing and promoting the integration of national energy systems across the region. The sixth edition was published in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The 6th ASEAN Energy Outlook|url=https://aseanenergy.org/the-6th-asean-energy-outlook/|access-date=2021-02-20|website=ASEAN Centre for Energy|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Internal market===
ASEAN planned to establish a single market based upon the [[Four Freedoms (European Union)|four freedoms]] by the end of 2015, with the goal of ensuring free flow of goods, services, skilled labour, and capital. The ASEAN Economic Community was formed in 2015,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asean.org/asean-economic-community/|title=You are being redirected...|website=asean.org}}</ref> but the group deferred about 20% of the harmonization provisions needed to create a [[common market]] and set a new deadline of 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiapathways-adbi.org/2017/07/will-2025-be-the-final-deadline-for-the-asean-economic-community/|title=Will 2025 be the final deadline for the ASEAN Economic Community?|first=Jayant|last=Menon}}</ref>

Until the end of 2010, intra-ASEAN trade was still low as trade involved mainly exports to countries outside the region, with the exception of Laos and Myanmar, whose foreign trade was ASEAN-oriented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/77403/asean-feared-to-become-multinational-companies-market-only|work=Anatara News|title=ASEAN feared to become multinational companies market only|access-date=10 November 2011|archive-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112112614/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/77403/asean-feared-to-become-multinational-companies-market-only|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, realised [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) was US$37.9 billion and increased two-fold in 2010 to US$75.8 billion. 22% of FDI came from the [[European Union]], followed by ASEAN countries (16%), and by Japan and the United States.

The ASEAN Framework Agreement on Trade in Services (AFAS) was adopted at the ASEAN Summit in Bangkok in December 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/6628.htm |title=ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (1995) |publisher=ASEAN |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226223120/http://www.asean.org/6628.htm |archive-date=26 December 2009 }}</ref> Under the agreement, member states enter into successive rounds of negotiations to liberalise trade in services with the aim of submitting increasingly higher levels of commitment. ASEAN has concluded seven packages of commitments under AFAS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/6626.htm |title=Overview |publisher=ASEAN |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206130652/http://www.asean.org/6626.htm |archive-date=6 February 2011 }}</ref>

Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) have been agreed upon by ASEAN for eight professions: physicians, dentists, nurses, architects, engineers, accountants, surveyors, and tourism professionals. Individuals in these professions will be free to work in any ASEAN states effective 31 December 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Buranasomphop|first1=Duangkamol|title=Asean 2015: Free movement of labour|url=http://en.aectourismthai.com/content1/1411|access-date=11 May 2015|publisher=AEC Tourism Thailand|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518070624/http://en.aectourismthai.com/content1/1411|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Concern over free flow of labour after AEC starts|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Concern-over-free-flow-of-labour-after-AEC-starts-30238365.html|access-date=11 May 2015|work=The Nation|archive-date=18 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518102622/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Concern-over-free-flow-of-labour-after-AEC-starts-30238365.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Why the AEC in 2015 Will Lead to Few Changes in Thailand |url=http://www.norcham.com/news/why-the-aec-in-2015-will-lead-to-few-changes-in-thailand |website=Thai-Norwegian Chamber of Commerce |access-date=12 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518093814/http://www.norcham.com/news/why-the-aec-in-2015-will-lead-to-few-changes-in-thailand |archive-date=18 May 2015 }}</ref>

In addition, six member states ([[Malaysia]], [[Vietnam]] (2 exchanges), [[Indonesia]], [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], and [[Singapore]]) have collaborated on integrating their stock exchanges, which includes 70% of its transaction values with the goal to compete with international exchanges.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://investasi.kontan.co.id/news/indonesia-belum-akan-masuk-asean-linkage |title=Indonesia belum akan masuk Asean Linkage |author=Anna Suci Perwitasari |access-date=17 January 2014 |archive-date=10 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210101112/http://investasi.kontan.co.id/news/indonesia-belum-akan-masuk-asean-linkage |url-status=live }}</ref>

Single market will also include the [[ASEAN Single Aviation Market]] (ASEAN-SAM), the region's aviation policy geared towards the development of a [[Open skies|unified and single aviation market]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. It was proposed by the ASEAN Air Transport Working Group, supported by the ASEAN Senior Transport Officials Meeting, and endorsed by the ASEAN Transport Ministers.<ref name="ASEAN SAM">{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-aerocad.com/news/news.php?newsid=23 |title=Asean Single Aviation Market |access-date=26 September 2008 |work=Straits Times |location=Singapore |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209063906/http://www.asian-aerocad.com/news/news.php?newsid=23 |archive-date=9 December 2008 }}</ref> It is expected to liberalise air travel between member states allowing ASEAN airlines to benefit directly from the growth in air travel, and also free up tourism, trade, investment, and service flows.<ref name="ASEAN SAM" /><ref name="LHL on SAM">{{cite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-11/01/content_6990497.htm |title=Singaporean PM urges ASEAN to liberalise aviation |access-date=26 September 2008 |work=chinaview.cn |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |archive-date=11 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211012727/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-11/01/content_6990497.htm }}</ref> Since 1 December 2008, restrictions on the third and fourth [[freedoms of the air]] between capital cities of member states for air passenger services have been removed,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Singapore/Story/STIStory_282410.html | title=Tiger offers 50,000 free seats |access-date=26 September 2008 |last=Kaur |first= Karamjit |work=Straits Times |location=Singapore | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927183958/http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Singapore/Story/STIStory_282410.html| archive-date= 27 September 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> while from 1 January 2009, full liberalisation of air freight services in the region took effect.<ref name="ASEAN SAM" /><ref name="LHL on SAM" /> On 1 January 2011, full liberalisation on fifth freedom traffic rights between all capital cities took effect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centreforaviation.com/aviation/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5015 |title=Three-quarters of a million more seats and counting- KL-Singapore benefits from liberalisation |access-date=26 September 2008 |publisher=Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060405030709/http://content.nejm.org/icons/home/cme_button.gif |archive-date=5 April 2006 }}</ref> This policy supersedes existing unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral air services agreements among member states which are inconsistent with its provisions.

===Monetary union===
The concept of an [[Asian Currency Unit]] (ACU) started in the middle of the 1990s, prior to the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref name="Baby Steps to a Common Currency">Baby Steps to a Common Currency</ref> It is a proposed basket of Asian currencies, similar to the European Currency Unit, which was the precursor of the [[Euro]]. The [[Asian Development Bank]] is responsible for exploring the feasibility and construction of the basket.<ref name="Baby Steps to a Common Currency"/><ref>Asian Currency Unit</ref> Since the ACU is being considered to be a precursor to a common currency, it has a dynamic outlook of the region.<ref>Prospects for a Single Asian Currency</ref> The overall goal of a common currency is to contribute to the financial stability of a regional economy, including price stability. It means lower cost of cross-border business through the elimination of currency risk. Greater flows of intra-trade would put pressure on prices, resulting in cheaper goods and services. Individuals benefit not only from the lowering of prices, they save by not having to change money when travelling, by being able to compare prices more readily, and by the reduced cost of transferring money across borders.

However, there are conditions for a common currency: the intensity of intra-regional trade and the convergence of [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] conditions. Substantial intra-ASEAN trade (which is growing, partly as a result of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Economic Community.) and economic integration is an incentive for a monetary union. Member states currently trade more with other countries (80%) than among themselves (20%). Therefore, their economies are more concerned about currency stability against major international currencies, like the US dollar. On macroeconomic conditions, member states have different levels of economic development, capacity, and priorities that translate into different levels of interest and readiness. Monetary integration, however, implies less control over national monetary and fiscal policy to stimulate the economy. Therefore, greater convergence in macroeconomic conditions is being enacted to improve conditions and confidence in a common currency.<ref name="ReferenceB">Towards ASEAN Financial Integration</ref> Other concerns include weaknesses in the financial sectors, inadequacy of regional-level resource pooling mechanisms and institutions required to form and manage a currency union, and lack of political preconditions for monetary co-operation and a common currency.<ref>Cost and Benefits for A Common Currency in ASEAN</ref>

===Free trade===

In 1992, the Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) scheme was adopted as a schedule for phasing out tariffs to increase the "region's competitive advantage as a production base geared for the world market". This law would act as the framework for the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] (AFTA), which is an agreement by member states concerning local manufacturing in ASEAN. It was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore.<ref name="AFTA">{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/12375.htm|title=Agreement on the Common Effective Preferential Tariff Scheme for the ASEAN Free Trade Area, Singapore, 28 Jan 1992|publisher=Asean.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414223453/http://www.asean.org/12375.htm|archive-date=14 April 2009|access-date=21 December 2008}}</ref>

Free trade initiatives in ASEAN are spearheaded by the implementation of the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (ATIGA) and the Agreement on Customs. These agreements are supported by several sector bodies to plan and to execute free trade measures, guided by the provisions and the requirements of ATIGA and the Agreement on Customs. They form a backbone for achieving targets of the AEC Blueprint and establishing the ASEAN Economic Community by the end of 2015.<ref name="InvestAsian">{{cite web|url=http://www.investasian.com/2015/01/15/asean-economic-communitys-progress/|title=The ASEAN Economic Community's Progress|work=InvestAsian|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053243/https://www.investasian.com/2015/01/15/aec-2015-problems/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 26 August 2007, ASEAN stated its aim of completing free trade agreements (FTA) with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, and New Zealand by 2013, which is in line with the start of the ASEAN Economic Community by 2015.<ref>{{cite news|title=ASEAN to complete free trade agreements by 2013 |url=https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/08/26/afx4054320.html |work=Forbes |access-date=27 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012121738/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/08/26/afx4054320.html |archive-date=12 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Christine |last=Ong |title=ASEAN confident of concluding FTAs with partners by 2013 |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/economicnews/view/296149/1/.html |publisher=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=27 August 2007 }}{{dead link}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In November 2007, ASEAN states signed the ASEAN Charter, a constitution governing relations among member states and establishing the group itself as an international legal entity.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.asean.org/asean/asean-charter/ | title=ASEAN Charter | publisher=ASEAN | access-date=4 March 2016 | archive-date=30 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053247/https://asean.org/asean/asean-charter/charter-of-the-association-of-southeast-asian-nations/ | url-status=live }}</ref> During the same year, the [[Cebu Declaration on East Asian Energy Security]] was signed by ASEAN and the other members of the [[East Asian Summit|EAS]] (Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea), which pursues [[energy security]] by finding [[renewable|energy alternatives]] to [[fossil fuels]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/eas/energy0701.html | title=CEBU DECLARATION ON EAST ASIAN ENERGY SECURITY | publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan | access-date=4 March 2016 | archive-date=30 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053238/https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/eas/energy0701.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

On 27 February 2009, an FTA with [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] was signed. It is believed that this FTA would boost combined GDP across the 12 countries by more than US$48 billion over the period between 2000 and 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/Trade-Agreements/Asean/index.php |title=ASEAN, Australia and New Zealand Free Trade Agreement – NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |publisher=Mfat.govt.nz |access-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415060123/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/Trade-Agreements/Asean/index.php |archive-date=15 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aul8rxM98Jg4 |title=Asean, Australia, New Zealand Sign Free-Trade Deal (Update1) |publisher=Bloomberg |access-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202160359/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aul8rxM98Jg4 |archive-date=2 December 2010 }}</ref> The agreement with China created the [[ASEAN–China Free Trade Area]] (ACFTA), which went into full effect on 1 January 2010. In addition, ASEAN was noted to be negotiating an FTA with the [[European Union]].<ref name="FTA">{{cite web |url=http://www.fta.gov.sg/sg_fta.asp |title=Welcome to Singapore FTA Network |publisher=Fta.gov.sg |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209033340/http://www.fta.gov.sg/sg_fta.asp |archive-date=9 December 2008 }}</ref> Bilateral trade with India crossed the US$70 billion target in 2012 (target was to reach the level by 2015).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/650795/trade-value-asean-countries-with-india/|title=India - trade value with ASEAN countries 2016 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|access-date=2018-08-29|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053248/https://www.statista.com/statistics/650795/trade-value-asean-countries-with-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> Taiwan has also expressed interest in an agreement with ASEAN but needs to overcome diplomatic objections from China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/10/12/2003425653 |title=Siew calls for pragmatic approach to ASEAN ties |work=The Taipei Times |location=Taiwan (ROC) |access-date=21 December 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081211235752/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/10/12/2003425653| archive-date= 11 December 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref>

ASEAN, together with its six major trading partners (Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea), began the first round of negotiations on 26–28 February 2013, in Bali, Indonesia on the establishment of [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)]],<ref name="ref2013022305">{{Cite news| title = ASEAN+6 trade bloc in the making| publisher = Investvine.com| date = 23 February 2013| url = http://investvine.com/asean6-trade-bloc-in-the-making/| access-date = 24 February 2013| archive-date = 28 March 2013| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130328045835/http://investvine.com/asean6-trade-bloc-in-the-making| url-status = live}}</ref> which is an extension of ASEAN Plus Three and Six that covers 45% of the world's population and about a third of the world's total GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/2-Trade-Relationships-and-Agreements/RCEP/ |title=Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) |access-date=29 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029151938/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Trade-and-Economic-Relations/2-Trade-Relationships-and-Agreements/RCEP/ |archive-date=29 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fta.gov.sg/press_release%5CFACTSHEET%20ON%20RCEP_final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626012240/http://www.fta.gov.sg/press_release%5CFACTSHEET%20ON%20RCEP_final.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2013 |title=Factsheet on the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) |access-date=29 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>Regional integration: the ASEAN vision in 2020 by Rosabel B. Guerrero; Director, Department of Economic Statistics, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, Manila, Philippines.</ref>

In 2017, ASEAN and [[Canada]] initiated exploratory discussions for an ASEAN-Canada free trade agreement.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Canada| first = Global Affairs| title = Exploratory discussions for a possible Canada-ASEAN free trade agreement| work = GAC| access-date = 2021-10-25| date = 2012-08-29| url = https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/asean-anase/fta-ale/background-contexte.aspx?lang=eng}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Canada| first = Global Affairs| title = Canada takes another strategic step in the Asia-Pacific region: exploratory free trade agreement talks agreed to with ASEAN nations| format = news releases| access-date = 2021-10-25| date = 2017-09-08| url = https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2017/09/canada_takes_anotherstrategicstepintheasia-pacificregionexplorat.html}}</ref>

In 2019, [[Reuters]] highlighted a mechanism used by traders to avoid the 70% tariff on [[ethanol]] imported into China from the United States, involving importing the fuel into Malaysia, mixing it with at least 40% ASEAN-produced fuel, and re-exporting it to China tariff-free under ACFTA rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-ethanol-insight/long-strange-trip-how-u-s-ethanol-reaches-china-tariff-free-idUSKCN1PW0BR|title=Long, strange trip: How U.S. ethanol reaches China tariff-free|work=reuters.com|first1=Chris|last1=Prentice|first2=A.|last2=Ananthalakshmi|access-date=7 February 2019|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053244/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-ethanol-insight/long-strange-trip-how-u-s-ethanol-reaches-china-tariff-free-idUSKCN1PW0BR|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Electricity trade ===
Cross-border electricity trade in ASEAN has been limited, despite efforts since 1997 to establish an ASEAN Power Grid and associated trade. Electricity trade accounts for only about 5% of the generation, whereas trades in coal and gas are 86% and 53% respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Do |first1=Thang Nam |last2=Burke |first2=Paul J. |title=Is ASEAN ready to move to multilateral cross‐border electricity trade? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/apv.12343 |journal=Asia Pacific Viewpoint |volume=64 |language=en |pages=110–125 |doi=10.1111/apv.12343 |s2cid=248689540 |issn=1360-7456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nian |first1=Victor |last2=Mignacca |first2=Benito |last3=Locatelli |first3=Giorgio |title=Policies toward net-zero: Benchmarking the economic competitiveness of nuclear against wind and solar energy |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261922006328 |journal=Applied Energy |language=en |volume=320 |pages=119275 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119275 |s2cid=249223353 |issn=0306-2619}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{see also|Visa policy of ASEAN members}}

With the institutionalisation of visa-free travel between ASEAN member states, intra-ASEAN travel has escalated. In 2010, 47% or 34 million out of 73 million tourists in ASEAN member-states were from other ASEAN countries.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Anjaiah|first1=Veeramalla|title=Perfect 10 Paradise: ASEAN tourist industry is booming with intra-ASEAN travelers|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/09/27/perfect-10-paradise-asean-tourist-industry-booming-with-intra-asean-travelers.html|access-date=10 February 2015|work=The Jakarta Post|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053245/https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/09/27/perfect-10-paradise-asean-tourist-industry-booming-with-intra-asean-travelers.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Cooperation in tourism was formalised in 1976, following the formation of the Sub-Committee on Tourism (SCOT) under the ASEAN Committee on Trade and Tourism. The 1st ASEAN Tourism Forum was held on 18–26 October 1981 in [[Kuala Lumpur]]. In 1986, ASEAN Promotional Chapters for Tourism (APCT) were established in Hong Kong, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Australia/New Zealand, Japan, and North America.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Thoeun|first1=In|title=Tourism Cooperation Towards AEC|url=http://www.moc.gov.kh/tradeswap/userfiles/file/uploadedfiles/Gallery/9.%20Tourism%20Cooperation%20Towards%20AEC9_16_2014_13_56_52.pdf|website=Kingdom of Cambodia, Ministry of Commerce|publisher=Workshop on ASEAN Economic Community Outreach|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-date=2 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102083250/http://www.moc.gov.kh/tradeswap/userfiles/file/uploadedfiles/Gallery/9.%20Tourism%20Cooperation%20Towards%20AEC9_16_2014_13_56_52.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tourism has been one of the key growth sectors in ASEAN and has proven resilient amid global economic challenges. The wide array of tourist attractions across the region drew 109 million tourists to ASEAN in 2015, up by 34% compared to 81 million tourists in 2011. As of 2012, tourism was estimated to account for 4.6% of ASEAN GDP—10.9% when taking into account all indirect contributions. It directly employed 9.3 million people, or 3.2% of total employment, and indirectly supported some 25 million jobs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tourism Statistics - ASEAN {{!}} ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY|url=http://asean.org/?static_post=tourism-statistics|website=ASEAN {{!}} ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY|access-date=23 November 2017|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053249/https://asean.org/?static_post=tourism-statistics|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_ASEAN_Report_2012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829211257/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_ASEAN_Report_2012.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-29|title=The ASEAN Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2012|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]}}</ref> In addition, the sector accounted for an estimated 8% of total capital investment in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investasean.asean.org/index.php/page/view/tourism |title=Tourism | ASEAN Investment |access-date=2014-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029213600/http://investasean.asean.org/index.php/page/view/tourism |archive-date=29 October 2014 }}</ref> In January 2012, ASEAN tourism ministers called for the development of a marketing strategy. The strategy represents the consensus of ASEAN National Tourism Organisations (NTOs) on marketing directions for ASEAN moving forward to 2015.<ref>{{cite book|title=ASEAN Tourism Marketing Strategy (ATMS) 2012-2015|publisher=The ASEAN Secretariat Public Outreach and Civil Society Division|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-8411-97-4|url=http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2012/10151.pdf|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203358/http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2012/10151.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> In the 2013 ''Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index'' (TTCI) report, Singapore placed 1st, Malaysia placed 8th, Thailand placed 9th, Indonesia placed 12th, Brunei placed 13th, Vietnam placed 16th, Philippines placed 17th, and Cambodia placed 20th as the top destinations of travellers in the Asia Pacific region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf|title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013|year=2013|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|access-date=1 November 2014|archive-date=5 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105024651/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

1981 The ASEAN Tourism Forum (ATF) was established. It is a regional meeting of NGOs, Ministers, sellers, buyers and journalists to promote the ASEAN countries as a single one tourist destination. The annual event 2019 in Ha Long marks the 38th anniversary and involves all the tourism industry sectors of the 10 member states of ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. It was organized by TTG Events from Singapore.

<gallery widths="160">
File:Indonesian Press Conference ATF 2019.ogv|Indonesian Press Conference AFT 2019
File:ASEAN Tourism Forum 2019 Vietnam woman cloth parade.jpg|ASEAN Tourism Forum 2019 - Traditional Vietnam woman cloth parade
File:ASEAN Tourism Awards 2019.jpg|ASEAN Tourism Awards 2019 - Gzhel costumes Vietnam style
File:Nguyễn Ngọc Thiện.jpg|Nguyễn Ngọc Thiện, Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Vietnam at the ASEAN Tourism Awards 2019 in Ha Long Bay
File:Thai Village Princesses.jpg|Children from Thai Hai Reserve Area of Ecological Houses-on-stilts Ethnic Village at the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2019 in Ha Long Bay, Viet Nam; organised by TTG Events,
File:Gala ATF 2019 Salute.jpg|Closing Ceremony of Visit Vietnam Year 2018 & Gala Celebrating the Success of ATF 2019
</gallery>

==Foreign relations==
[[File:Asean flag flying at Royal Thai Embassy Helsinki.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Royal Thai Embassy, Helsinki, flying its own national flag as well as ASEAN's flag]]
{{main|ASEAN Summit}}[[File:ASEAN 50th Anniversary.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte poses for a photo with the ASEAN foreign ministers during the 50th anniversary of the group's foundation on 8 August 2017.]]

ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances, dialogue partners and diplomatic missions, and is involved in numerous international affairs.<ref name="ASEANTreaties"/><ref name="aseanUN"/><ref name="aseanoverview"/><ref name="UNgovorgs"/> The organisation maintains good relationships on an international scale, particularly towards Asia-Pacific nations, and upholds itself as a neutral party in politics. It holds [[ASEAN Summit]]s, where [[head of government|heads of government]] of each member states meet to discuss and resolve regional issues, as well as to conduct other meetings with countries outside the bloc to promote external relations and deal with international affairs. The first summit was held in [[Bali]] in 1976. The third summit was in [[Manila]] in 1987, and during this meeting, it was decided that the leaders would meet every five years.<ref name="summit">[http://www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm ASEAN Structure], ''ASEAN Primer'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222144528/http://www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm }}</ref> The fourth meeting was held in [[Singapore]] in 1992 where the leaders decided to meet more frequently, every three years.<ref name=summit /> In 2001, it was decided that the organisation will meet annually to address urgent issues affecting the region. In December 2008, the ASEAN Charter came into force and with it, the ASEAN Summit will be held twice a year. The formal summit meets for three days, and usually includes internal organisation meeting, a conference with foreign ministers of the ASEAN Regional Forum, an ASEAN Plus Three meeting and ASEAN-CER, a meeting of member states with Australia and New Zealand.<ref>[http://asean.org/asean-cer-meeting-trade-is-the-key-driver-in-fostering-growth-siem-reap-31-august-2012/ ASEAN-CER Meeting: Trade is the Key Driver in Fostering Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053248/https://asean.org/asean-cer-meeting-trade-is-the-key-driver-in-fostering-growth-siem-reap-31-august-2012/ }}, 31 August 2012, ASEAN Secretariat News</ref>

ASEAN is a major partner of the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]], developing cooperation model with the organisation in the field of security, economy, finance, tourism, culture, environmental protection, development and sustainability.<ref name="Eurasia Future">{{cite news|url=https://www.eurasiafuture.com/2018/06/07/the-shanghai-cooperation-organisation-and-brics-should-combine-to-form-a-single-cohesive-group/|title=The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and BRICS Should Combine to Form a Single Cohesive Group - Eurasia Future|work=Eurasia Future|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053246/https://eurasiafuture.com/is-chad-losing-control-of-the-central-african-pivot-space/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="eng.sectsco.org">{{cite web|url=http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20170806/309746.html|title=Shanghai Cooperation Organisation {{!}} SCO|website=eng.sectsco.org|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053311/http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20170806/309746.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="www.xinhuanet.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/10/c_137244965.htm|title=Interview: Cambodian FM says Cambodia can bridge SCO and ASEAN - Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|work=xinhuanet.com|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053250/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/10/c_137244965.htm}}</ref><ref name="en.sco-russia.ru">{{cite web|url=http://en.sco-russia.ru/cooperation/20140905/1013179818.html|title=SCO-ASEAN Cooperation for Mutual Interests|website=en.sco-russia.ru|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053251/http://en.sco-russia.ru/cooperation/20140905/1013179818.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, the grouping has been closely aligned with [[China]], cooperating across numerous areas, including economy, security, education, culture, technology, agriculture, human resource, society, development, investment, energy, transport, public health, tourism, media, environment, and sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asean.org/storage/2016/01/Overview-of-ASEAN-China-Relations-April-2017.pdf |title=Overview of ASEAN-China Dialogue Relations |series = ASEAN Secretariat Information Paper | date = April 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825002517/https://asean.org/storage/2016/01/Overview-of-ASEAN-China-Relations-April-2017.pdf |archive-date=25 August 2018 |access-date=29 November 2018 | pages = 3-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Taking Asean-China ties to the next level |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/taking-asean-china-ties-to-the-next-level |work=The Straits Times |access-date=24 August 2018 |archive-date=25 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825002519/https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/taking-asean-china-ties-to-the-next-level |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=First ASEAN-China maritime field training exercise to be held in October: MINDEF |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/first-asean-china-maritime-exercise-training-navy-mindef-10586432 |work=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=24 August 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053251/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/first-asean-china-maritime-exercise-training-navy-mindef-10586432 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also the linchpin in the foreign policy of Australia and New Zealand, with the three sides being integrated into an essential alliance.<ref>{{cite news |title=ASEAN-Australia Special Summit ends with commitments on cybersecurity, free trade |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-australia-special-summit-commitment-cybersecurity-trade-10054114 |work=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053252/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-australia-special-summit-commitment-cybersecurity-trade-10054114 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Trade |first1=New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and |title=Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) |url=https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/countries-and-regions/south-east-asia/association-of-south-east-asian-nations-asean/ |work=New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053320/https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/countries-and-regions/south-east-asia/association-of-south-east-asian-nations-asean/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ASEAN seeks to strengthen trade relations with partners - Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-09/01/c_137437019.htm |work=xinhuanet.com |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053257/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-09/01/c_137437019.htm }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stolarchuk |first1=Jewel |title=Reflecting on the ASEAN–Australian relationship |url=http://theindependent.sg/reflecting-on-the-asean-australian-relationship/ |work=The Independent |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330181723/http://theindependent.sg/reflecting-on-the-asean-australian-relationship/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Progressing towards an integrated ASEAN |url=https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/hub-projects/deepening-asean-economic-integration/progressing-towards-an-integrated-asean |work=The Business Times |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053257/https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/hub-projects/deepening-asean-economic-integration/progressing-towards-an-integrated-asean |url-status=live }}</ref>

ASEAN also participates in the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS), a pan-Asian forum held annually by the leaders of eighteen countries in the [[East Asia]]n region, with ASEAN in a leadership position. Initially, membership included all member states of ASEAN plus China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, and New Zealand, but was expanded to include the United States and Russia at the Sixth EAS in 2011. The first summit was held in [[Kuala Lumpur]] on 14 December 2005, and subsequent meetings have been held after the annual ASEAN Leaders' Meeting. The summit has discussed issues including trade, [[energy]], and security and the summit has a role in [[East Asia Community|regional community building]].

Other meetings include the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting<ref name="ministry">[http://www.asean.org/89.htm ASEAN Ministerial Meetings], ASEAN Secretariat. Retrieved 13 March 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302194224/http://www.asean.org/89.htm }}</ref><ref>[http://www.asean.org/73.htm Asean.org], ASEAN Secretariat. Retrieved 16 March 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622232333/http://www.asean.org/73.htm }}</ref> that focus mostly on specific topics, such as defence or the environment,<ref>{{cite news|title=Malaysians have had enough of haze woes |url=http://www.malaysianbar.org.my/content/view/4967/2/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/2012.12.19-224631/http://www.malaysianbar.org.my/content/view/4967/2/ |archive-date=19 December 2012 |publisher=The Malaysian Bar |access-date=13 March 2007 }}</ref> and are attended by [[Minister (government)|ministers]]. The {{visible anchor|ASEAN Regional Forum}} (ARF), which met for the first time in 1994, fosters dialogue and consultation, and to promote confidence-building and preventive diplomacy in the region.<ref>[http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/Default.aspx?tabid=49 About Us] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725021423/http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/Default.aspx?tabid=49 }}, [http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/ ASEAN Regional Forum official website] . Retrieved 12 June 2006.</ref> As of July 2007, it consists of twenty-seven participants that include all ASEAN member states, Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, China, the EU, India, Japan, North and South Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Russia, East Timor, the United States, and Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/asean/pages/asean-regional-forum-arf.aspx|website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|publisher=Government of Australia|access-date=12 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227150707/http://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/asean/pages/asean-regional-forum-arf.aspx|archive-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> Taiwan has been excluded since the establishment of the ARF, and issues regarding the Taiwan Strait are neither discussed at ARF meetings nor stated in the ARF Chairman's Statements.

ASEAN also holds meetings with Europe during the [[Asia–Europe Meeting]] (ASEM), an informal dialogue process initiated in 1996 with the intention of strengthening co-operation between the countries of Europe and Asia, especially members of the [[European Union]] and ASEAN in particular.<ref>{{cite book |title=Asia and Europe: the development and different dimensions of ASEM |author=Lay Hwee Yeo |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge (UK) |isbn=978-0-415-30697-3 }}</ref> ASEAN, represented by its secretariat, is one of the forty-five ASEM partners. It also appoints a representative to sit on the governing board of [[Asia-Europe Foundation]] (ASEF), a socio-cultural organisation associated with the meeting. Annual bilateral meetings between ASEAN and India, Russia and the United States are also held.

On 12 November 2022, Ukrainian Foreign Minister [[Dmytro Kuleba]] urged ASEAN countries to abandon their neutrality and condemn Russia's [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukraine minister urges ASEAN bloc to stop Russia's 'hunger games' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/11/12/ukraine-minister-urges-asean-bloc-to-stop-russias-hunger-games |work=Al Jazeera }}</ref>

=== China and ASEAN ===
China and ASEAN have had a complex relationship over the years, as a powerful individual country and multinational organization. There have been periods of great success and collaboration for the two actors. As an organization, ASEAN has put forth many treaties, protocols and negotiations. Foreign minister of China, Wang Yi, reported in an address to ASEAN member states, that China has collaborated with the ASEAN countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, cooperated with ASEAN in protocols for nuclear disarmament, and that both China and ASEAN countries are each other's largest trading partner.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wang Yi Attends ASEAN-China (10+1) Foreign Ministers' Meeting |url=https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202208/t20220811_10741168.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.fmprc.gov.cn}}</ref> All that was said in his speech in Jakarta highlighted the glorified moments of Chinese-ASEAN relations, stressing China's good natured, neighborly behavior. ASEAN was one of China's first supporters of the Belt and Road Initiative.<ref>{{Cite web |last=张辉 |title=The China-ASEAN Relations in the Era of Big Power Competition |url=http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/ctenglish/2018/commentaries/202201/t20220121_800273555.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=China Today |language=en}}</ref>

ASEAN, the Association of SouthEast Asian Nations, was created in 1967 specifically promoting interregional governmental cooperation in order to maximize regional security within the area. As the region consists of not only nations neighboring China, but nations throughout the South China Sea, the involvement of ASEAN seeks to promote solutions to conflicts. ASEAN follows international law relatively strictly, and China does what it can to achieve power and territory in the region. In 1982, ASEAN and United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea |url=https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Legal/Pages/UnitedNationsConventionOnTheLawOfTheSea.aspx |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.imo.org}}</ref> created a distinct outline on the extent of territorial claim each nation has within the Region, pushing China away from areas surrounding the islands within SouthEast Asia. However, within recent years, China has demanded to exceed the legal claims of the UNCLOS agreement, claiming that they have a right to various areas given to other nations. With this external pressure, ASEAN's routine of having conferences and meetings to ensure peace and regional alignment has been proven to not counter conflicts caused by external characters such as China.

=== Relations with other blocs ===
[[File:ASEAN with Plus 3 and Plus 6.png|thumb|upright=1.8|right|
{{legend|#1743a6|ASEAN}}
{{legend|#6330d5|ASEAN Plus Three}}
{{legend|#0d675e|ASEAN Plus Six}}
]]

==== ASEAN Plus Three ====
In 1990, Malaysia proposed the creation of an [[East Asia Economic Caucus]]<ref name="caucus">[http://www.asean.org/9303.htm East Asia Economic Caucus]. ASEAN Secretariat. Retrieved 14 March 2007. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302193928/http://www.asean.org/9303.htm}}</ref> composed of the members of ASEAN, China, Japan, and South Korea. It intended to counterbalance the growing US influence in [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and Asia as a whole.<ref name="oppose">[http://www.asiaviews.org/?content=ger53rger567664&voices=20060125184254 Asiaviews.org], Whither East Asia? Retrieved 14 March 2007. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105102541/http://www.asiaviews.org/?content=ger53rger567664&voices=20060125184254}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100605002320/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs//data/1993/upl-meta-crs-66/93-633f_1993Jun30.txt?PHPSESSID=f7a7ec622077fa19bfce9ec9def6f3d9 UNT.edu], Asia's Reaction to NAFTA, Nancy J. Hamilton. CRS – Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 14 March 2007.</ref> However, the proposal failed because of strong opposition from the US and Japan.<ref name="oppose" /><ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/1994/07/26/caucus.php IHT.com], Japan Straddles Fence on Issue of East Asia Caucus. [[International Herald Tribune]]. Retrieved 14 March 2007. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212201202/http://www.iht.com/articles/1994/07/26/caucus.php}}</ref> Work for further integration continued, and the [[ASEAN Plus Three]],<ref name="aseanplusthree">[https://aseanplusthree.asean.org ASEAN Plus Three]</ref> consisting of ASEAN, China, Japan, and South Korea, was created in 1997.

[[ASEAN Plus Three]]<ref name="aseanplusthree"/> is a forum that functions as a coordinator of co-operation between the ASEAN and the three [[East Asia]]n nations of China, South Korea, and Japan. Government leaders, ministers, and senior officials from the ten members of the ASEAN and the three East Asian states consult on an increasing range of issues.<ref>[http://www.irchina.org/en/pdf/zxm06.pdf "The Rise of China and Community Building in East Asia"]{{dead link|bot=R92008846 |fix-attempted=yes }}, Zhang Xiaoming, ASIAN Perspective, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2006, pp. 129-148.</ref> The ASEAN Plus Three is the latest development of Southeast Asia-East Asia regional co-operation. In the past, proposals, such as South Korea's call for an Asian Common Market in 1970 and Japan's 1988 suggestion for an Asian Network, have been made to bring closer regional co-operation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aseansec.org/16580.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528001949/http://www.aseansec.org/16580.htm |archive-date=28 May 2013 }} ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation</ref>

The first leaders' meetings were held in 1996, and 1997 to deal with [[Asia–Europe Meeting]] issues, and China and Japan each wanted regular summit meetings with ASEAN members afterwards. The group's significance and importance were strengthened by the [[Asian Financial Crisis]]. In response to the crisis, ASEAN closely cooperated with China, South Korea, and Japan. Since the implementation of the Joint Statement on East Asia Cooperation in 1999 at the Manila Summit, ASEAN Plus Three finance ministers have been holding periodic consultations.<ref>Stubbs, R. "ASEAN Plus Three: Emerging East Asian Regionalism?" n.d. web. 12 May 2012.</ref> ASEAN Plus Three, in establishing the [[Chiang Mai Initiative]], has been credited as forming the basis for financial stability in Asia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aseansec.org/17902.pdf|title=Welcome To The World Of Smokeless Cigarettes!|author=atinder|work=E-Cigarette Review Council|access-date=28 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716172317/http://www.aseansec.org/17902.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> the lack of such stability having contributed to the Asian Financial Crisis.

Since the process began in 1997, ASEAN Plus Three has also focused on subjects other than finance such as the areas of food and energy security, financial co-operation, trade facilitation, disaster management, people-to-people contacts, narrowing the development gap, rural development, and poverty alleviation, human trafficking, labour movement, communicable diseases, environment and sustainable development, and [[transnational crime]], including counter-terrorism. With the aim of further strengthening the nations' co-operation, East Asia Vision Group (EAVG) II was established at the 13th ASEAN Plus Three Summit on 29 October 2010 in [[Hanoi]] to stock-take, review, and identify the future direction of the co-operation.

==== ASEAN Plus Six ====

ASEAN Plus Three was the first of attempts for further integration to improve existing ties of Southeast Asia with [[East Asia]]n countries of China, Japan and South Korea. This was followed by the even larger [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS), which included ASEAN Plus Three as well as India, Australia, and New Zealand. This group acted as a prerequisite for the planned [[East Asia Community]] which was supposedly patterned after the [[European Community]] (now transformed into the [[European Union]]). The [[ASEAN Eminent Persons Group]] was created to study this policy's possible successes and failures.

The group became ASEAN Plus Six with Australia, New Zealand, and India, and stands as the linchpin of [[Asia-Pacific|Asia Pacific]]'s economic, political, security, socio-cultural architecture, as well as the global economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jcer.or.jp/eng/pdf/asia07.pdf |title=An ASEAN+6 Economic Partnership: Significance and Tasks |last=Urata |first=Shujiro |access-date=29 November 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053153/https://www.jcer.or.jp/eng/pdf/asia07.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/con_sep07_e/kawai_wignaraja_e.pdf |title=ASEAN+3 or ASEAN+6: Which Way Forward? |last1=Kawai |first1=Masahiro |last2=Wignaraja |first2=Ganeshan |access-date=29 November 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053202/https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/con_sep07_e/kawai_wignaraja_e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Conclusion for Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 'finally in sight': PM Lee |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership-pm-lee-10662722 |work=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916164051/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership-pm-lee-10662722 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="East Asia Forum">{{cite news|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2009/05/15/asean6-as-a-step-towards-an-asian-economic-community/|title=ASEAN+6 as a step towards an Asian Economic Community|work=East Asia Forum|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053206/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2009/05/15/asean6-as-a-step-towards-an-asian-economic-community/|url-status=live}}</ref> Codification of the relations between these countries has seen progress through the development of the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]], a free-trade agreement involving the 15 countries of ASEAN Plus Six (excluding India). RCEP would, in part, allow the members to protect local sectors and give more time to comply with the aim for developed country members.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/tpp-rcep-ftaap-a-users-guide-to-alphabet-soup-of-trade-deals |title=TPP, RCEP, FTAAP - a user's guide to alphabet soup of trade deals |newspaper=The Straits Times |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053205/http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/tpp-rcep-ftaap-a-users-guide-to-alphabet-soup-of-trade-deals |url-status=live }}</ref>

The economies in this region that have not joined the RCEP are: Hong Kong, India, Macau, North Korea and Taiwan.

[[Hong Kong]] is actively seeking to join. Hong Kong itself has signed free trade agreements with ASEAN, New Zealand, Mainland China, and Australia. Mainland China welcomes Hong Kong's participation. According to the 2018 policy address of the Special Chief Executive, the Special Chief Executive She will start negotiations with RCEP member states after the signing of RCEP.{{Citation needed}}
As Asia's [[financial center]] and Asia's trading hub, Hong Kong can provide member countries with high-quality financial services.

[[India]] temporarily does not join the RCEP for the protection of its own market, but Japan, China, and ASEAN welcomes India's participation.<ref name="Chinese government official website. 1–25">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2019-11/08/content_5450257.htm |script-title=zh:中方：无意追求对印度贸易顺差欢迎印度尽早加入Rcep_滚动新闻_中国政府网 |script-website=zh:中国政府网_中央人民政府门户网站}}</ref> The members stated that "the door will always be open" and promised to create convenient conditions for India to participate in RCEP. And India itself has signed free trade agreements with ASEAN, Japan and South Korea.

As a free trade port, [[Macau]]'s tax rate itself is very low. Macau's economy does not depend on import and export trade. Tourism and gaming are the main economic industries in Macau. The Macau government did not state whether to join RCEP. Macau still{{when}} has room for openness in the service industry.{{citation needed}}

[[Taiwan]] has been excluded from participating with the organization owing to China's influence on the [[Asia Pacific]] through its economic and diplomatic influence.<ref name="Hsieh pp. 1–25">{{cite journal | last=Hsieh | first=Pasha L. | title=Rethinking non-recognition: Taiwan's new pivot to ASEAN and the one-China policy | journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs | publisher=Informa UK Limited | date=2019-09-09 | volume=33 | issue=2 | issn=0955-7571 | doi=10.1080/09557571.2019.1657796 | pages=204–228 | s2cid=203301979 | url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/2953 | access-date=3 September 2020 | archive-date=30 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053205/https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sol_research/2953/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Because Taiwan itself has a [[New Southbound Policy]], the inability to join the RCEP is expected to have little impact on Taiwan.{{according to whom}} At the same time, Taiwan is also considering whether to cancel [[Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement|ECFA]] to counter China.{{citation needed}}

==Environment==
[[File:Borneo fires October 2006.jpg|thumb|left|Haze over [[Borneo]], 2006]]
At the turn of the 21st century, ASEAN began to discuss environmental agreements. These included the signing of the [[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]] in 2002 as an attempt to control haze pollution in Southeast Asia, arguably the region's most high-profile environmental issue.<ref>ASEAN Secretariat. [http://www.asean.org/8914.htm ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]. Extracted 12 October 2006 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302193935/http://www.asean.org/8914.htm }}</ref> Unfortunately, this was unsuccessful due to the outbreaks of haze in [[2005 Malaysian haze|2005]], [[2006 Southeast Asian haze|2006]], [[2009 Southeast Asian haze|2009]], [[2013 Southeast Asian haze|2013]], and [[2015 Southeast Asian haze|2015]].
As of 2015, thirteen years after signing the [[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]], the situation with respect to the long term issue of [[Southeast Asian haze]] has not been changed for 50% of the ASEAN member states, and still remains as a crisis every two years during summer and fall.<ref>{{cite web|title=Travel Advise for Swiss Abroad in Singapore (German)|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/countries/singapore/de/home/reisehinweise/vor-ort.html|access-date=19 September 2015|archive-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025050641/https://www.eda.admin.ch/countries/singapore/de/home/reisehinweise/vor-ort.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Travel advise for Swiss abroad in Malaysia|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/de/home/vertretungen-und-reisehinweise/malaysia/reisehinweise-fuermalaysia.html|access-date=19 September 2015|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016162730/https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/de/home/vertretungen-und-reisehinweise/malaysia/reisehinweise-fuermalaysia.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Travel advise for Swiss abroad in Indonesia|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/de/home/vertretungen-und-reisehinweise/indonesien/reisehinweise-fuerindonesien.html|access-date=19 September 2015|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016162730/https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/de/home/vertretungen-und-reisehinweise/indonesien/reisehinweise-fuerindonesien.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:ASEAN explained in 5 minutes.webm|thumb|Video: ASEAN explained in 5 minutes]]
Trash dumping from foreign countries (such as Japan and Canada) to ASEAN has yet to be discussed and resolved.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/years-after-2500-tonnes-of-canadian-trash-landed-in-manila-philippines-demanding-we-take-it-back | title=Years after 2,500 tonnes of Canadian trash landed in Manila, Philippines demanding we take it back | newspaper=National Post | access-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> Important issues include deforestation (with Indonesia recorded the largest loss of forest in the region, more than other member states combined in the 2001-2013 period<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Rankings|url=http://www.globalforestwatch.org/countries/overview|website=Global Forest Loss|access-date=2 March 2015|archive-date=7 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407032917/http://www.globalforestwatch.org/countries/overview}}</ref>), plastic waste dumping (5 member states were among the top 10 out of 192 countries based on 2010 data, with Indonesia ranked as second worst polluter<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jambeck|first1=Jenna R.|s2cid=206562155|title=Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean|journal=Science| volume=347|issue=6223|pages=768–771|doi=10.1126/science.1260352 |pmid=25678662|bibcode=2015Sci...347..768J}}</ref>), threatened mammal species (Indonesia ranked the worst in the region with 184 species under threat<ref>{{cite web|title=Mammal species, threatened|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.MAM.THRD.NO/countries|website=World Bank|publisher=UN Environmental Forum; [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]]; [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN)|access-date=24 June 2015|archive-date=26 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626100548/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.MAM.THRD.NO/countries|url-status=live}}</ref>), threatened fish species (Indonesia ranked the worst in the region<ref>{{cite web|title=Fish species, threatened|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.FSH.THRD.NO/countries|website=The World Bank|access-date=24 June 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053308/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.FSH.THRD.NO|url-status=live}}</ref>), threatened (higher) plant species (Malaysia ranked the worst in the region<ref>{{cite web|title=Plant species (higher), threatened|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.HPT.THRD.NO/countries|website=The World Bank|access-date=24 June 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053308/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.HPT.THRD.NO|url-status=live}}</ref>).

ASEAN's aggregate economy is one of the fastest growing in the world. It is expected to grow by 4.6% in 2019, and 4.8% in 2020, but at the cost of the release about 1.5 billion [[tonne]]s of CO2 to the atmosphere every year. That makes ASEAN a greater source of greenhouse gas emissions than Japan (1.3 billion tonnes per year) or Germany (796 million tonnes per year). It is the only region in the world where coal is expected to increase its share of the [[energy mix]].<ref name="Overland 100019"/> According to the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), "Since 2000 [ASEAN's] overall energy demand has grown by more than 80% and the lion's share of this growth has been met by a doubling in fossil fuel use,... Oil is the largest element in the regional energy mix and coal, largely for power generation, has been the fastest growing."<ref name="E&E-20191120" /> ASEAN has been criticized for not doing enough to mitigate climate change although it is the world's most vulnerable region in terms of climate impact.<ref name="Overland 100019"/>

ASEAN has many opportunities for renewable energy.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Bin|last2=Blakers|first2=Andrew|last3=Stocks|first3=Matthew|last4=Do|first4=Thang Nam|title=Low-cost, low-emission 100% renewable electricity in Southeast Asia supported by pumped hydro storage|journal=Energy|language=en|volume=236|pages=121387|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2021.121387|issn=0360-5442|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Do|first1=Thang Nam|last2=Burke|first2=Paul J.|last3=Nguyen|first3=Hoang Nam|last4=Overland|first4=Indra|last5=Suryadi|first5=Beni|last6=Swandaru|first6=Akbar|last7=Yurnaidi|first7=Zulfikar|title=Vietnam's solar and wind power success: Policy implications for the other ASEAN countries|journal=Energy for Sustainable Development|language=en|volume=65|pages=1–11|doi=10.1016/j.esd.2021.09.002|issn=0973-0826|doi-access=free}}</ref> With solar and wind power plus off river pumped hydro storage, ASEAN electricity industry could achieve very high penetration (78%–97%) of domestic solar and wind energy resources at a competitive levelised costs of electricity range from 55 to 115 U.S. dollars per megawatt-hour based on 2020 technology costs.<ref name=":2" /> Vietnam's experience in solar and wind power development provides relevant implications for the other ASEAN countries.<ref name=":3" />

==Education==
To enhance the region's status in education, ASEAN education ministers have agreed four priorities for education at all levels, promoting ASEAN awareness among ASEAN citizens, particularly youth, strengthening ASEAN identity through education, building ASEAN human resources in the field of education strengthening the [[ASEAN University Network]].<ref name="Education 2009">"ASEANWEB - Education." ASEANWEB - Education. N.p., 2009. Web. 23 October 2012.</ref> At the 11th ASEAN Summit in December 2005, leaders set new direction for regional education collaboration when they welcomed the decision of the ASEAN education ministers to convene meetings on a regular basis. The annual ASEAN Education Ministers Meeting oversees co-operation efforts on education at the ministerial level. With regard to implementation, programs, and activities are carried out by the ASEAN Senior Officials on Education (SOM-ED). SOM-ED also manages co-operation on [[higher education]] through the [[ASEAN University Network]] (AUN).<ref>ASEAN. "ASEAN Education Ministers Meeting". Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Secretariat. 2012. {{cite web |url=http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-community/category/asean-education-ministers-meeting-ased |title=ASEAN Education Ministers Meeting (ASED) |access-date=2015-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211074208/http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-community/category/asean-education-ministers-meeting-ased |archive-date=11 February 2015 }}</ref> It is a consortium of [[Southeast Asia]]n tertiary institutions of which 30 currently belong as participating universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aun-sec.org/member_u.html |title=ASEAN University Network/Board Member |publisher=Aun-sec.org |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080731123240/http://www.aun-sec.org/member_u.html |archive-date = 31 July 2008}}</ref> Founded in November 1995 by 11 universities,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aun-sec.org/about_agreement.html |title=ASEAN University Network/Agreement |publisher=Aun-sec.org |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201084304/http://www.aun-sec.org/about_agreement.html |archive-date=1 February 2009 }}</ref> the AUN was established to:<ref name="Education 2009" /> promote co-operation among ASEAN scholars, academics, and scientists, develop academic and professional human resources, promote information dissemination among the ASEAN academic community, enhance awareness of a regional identity and the sense of "ASEAN-ness" among member states.

The Southeast Asia Engineering Education Development Network (SEED-Net) Project was established as an autonomous sub-network of AUN in April 2001. It is aimed at promoting human resource development in engineering. The network consists of 26 member institutions selected by higher education ministries of each ASEAN member state, and 11 supporting Japanese universities selected by the Japanese government. This network is mainly supported by the Japanese government through the [[Japan International Cooperation Agency]] (JICA) and partially supported by the ASEAN Foundation. SEED-Net activities are implemented by the SEED-Net secretariat with the support of the JICA Project for SEED-Net now based at [[Chulalongkorn University]].

ASEAN also has a [[scholarship]] program offered by Singapore to the 9 other member states for secondary school, junior college, and university education. It covers accommodation, food, medical benefits and accident insurance, school fees, and examination fees. Its recipients, who perform well on the [[GCE Advanced Level]] Examination, may apply for ASEAN undergraduate scholarships, which are tailored specifically to undergraduate institutions in Singapore and other ASEAN member countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moe.gov.sg/admissions/scholarships/asean|title=About the ASEAN Scholarships|website=Ministry of Education Singapore|access-date=1 May 2017|archive-date=3 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703220100/https://www.moe.gov.sg/admissions/scholarships/asean|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ascklee.org/CV/iKMS-Article-2010.pdf |author=Keong, Lee Chu |title=Knowledge Management: Some Definitions. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705153359/http://ascklee.org/CV/iKMS-Article-2010.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2013 |access-date=29 November 2018}}</ref>

'Australia for ASEAN' scholarships are also offered by the [[Australian Government]] to the 'next generation of leaders' from ASEAN member states. By undertaking a [[Master's degree]], recipients are to develop the skills and knowledge to drive change, help build links with Australia, and also participate in the Indo-Pacific Emerging Leaders Program to help develop the ASEAN Outlook for the Indo-Pacific. Each ASEAN member state is able to receive ten 'Australia for ASEAN' scholarships.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/australia-awards/participating-countries/australia-asean-scholarships |title=Australia for ASEAN scholarships |publisher=Australian Government – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref>

==Culture==
The organization hosts cultural activities in an attempt to further integrate the region. These include sports and educational activities as well as writing awards. Examples of these include the [[ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity]], [[ASEAN Heritage Parks]]<ref>{{cite web|title=ASEAN Heritage Parks|url=http://chm.aseanbiodiversity.org/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=110&current=110|website=Biodiversity Information Sharing Service|publisher=ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB)|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132522/http://chm.aseanbiodiversity.org/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=110&current=110|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[ASEAN Outstanding Scientist and Technologist Award]]. In addition, the ASEAN region has been recognized as one of the world's most diverse regions ethnically, religiously and linguistically.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lehmann |first1=Jean-Pierre |title=What's Next For ASEAN |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jplehmann/2017/04/26/whats-next-for-asean/#54a0054656d0 |work=Forbes |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053335/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jplehmann/2017/04/26/whats-next-for-asean/#54a0054656d0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zein |first1=Mksabbirrahman |last2=Stroupe |first2=Richmond |title=English and language-in-education policy in the ASEAN Plus Three Forum |journal=Asian Englishes |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=193–196|doi=10.1080/13488678.2017.1389061 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Media===
Member states have promoted co-operation in information to help build an ASEAN identity. One of the main bodies in ASEAN co-operation in information is the ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information (COCI). Established in 1978, its mission is to promote effective co-operation in the fields of information, as well as culture, through its various projects and activities. It includes representatives from national institutions like the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministries of Culture and Information, national radio and television networks, museums, archives and libraries, among others. Together, they meet once a year to formulate and agree on projects to fulfil their mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-community/category/asean-ministers-responsible-for-information-amri|title=ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Information (AMRI)|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627073720/http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-community/category/asean-ministers-responsible-for-information-amri|archive-date=27 June 2015}}</ref> On 14 November 2014, foreign ministers of member states launched the ASEAN Communication Master Plan (ACPM).<ref name="ACMP">{{cite book|title=ASEAN Communication Master Plan – ASEAN: A Community of Opportunities|publisher=ASEAN Secretariat; Public Outreach and Civil Society Division|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-602-0980-02-7|url=http://www.asean.org/images/pdf/2014_upload/ACMP_Print_pdf_final.pdf|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205203744/http://www.asean.org/images/pdf/2014_upload/ACMP_Print_pdf_final.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> It provides a framework for communicating the character, structure, and overall vision of ASEAN and the ASEAN community to key audiences within the region and globally.<ref name="ACMP-Remarks">{{cite web|title=Opening Remarks by Secretary-General of ASEAN, H.E. Le Luong Minh at the Launching of the ASEAN Communication Master Plan|url=http://www.asean.org/images/pdf/2014_upload/Remarks_SG_forACMP_Launch_POCS.pdf|website=ASEAN|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/pdf/2014_upload/Remarks_SG_forACMP_Launch_POCS.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> The plan seeks to demonstrate the relevance and benefits of the ASEAN through fact-based and compelling communications, recognising that the ASEAN community is unique and different from other country integration models.

ASEAN Media Cooperation (AMC) sets digital television standards and policies in preparation for broadcasters to transition from analogue to digital broadcasting. This collaboration was conceptualised during the 11th ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Information (AMRI) Conference in Malaysia on 1 March 2012 where a consensus declared that both new and traditional media were keys to connecting ASEAN peoples and bridging cultural gaps in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?article=2101331018243 |archive-url=https://archive.today/2012.12.22-010758/http://www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?article=2101331018243 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |title=ASEAN Promotes Use of Social Media |work=Philippine Information Agency |access-date=1 October 2012 }}</ref> Several key initiatives under the AMC include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mda.gov.sg/International/Pages/ASEAN.aspx |title=Deepening ASEAN Media Cooperation Within and Beyond |publisher=Media Development Authority |access-date=31 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510001847/http://www.mda.gov.sg/International/Pages/ASEAN.aspx |archive-date=10 May 2012 }}</ref>
* The ASEAN Media Portal<ref>{{cite web|last=Media Development Authority |title=New Media Portal to Enhance ASEAN'S COCI Website and Offer Access to the Region's Media Industry |url=http://www.mda.gov.sg/NewsAndEvents/PressRelease/2007/Pages/16112007a.aspx |access-date=1 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206072830/http://mda.gov.sg/NewsAndEvents/PressRelease/2007/Pages/16112007a.aspx |archive-date=6 February 2011 }}</ref> was launched 16 November 2007. The portal aims to provide a one-stop site that contains documentaries, games, music videos, and multimedia clips on the culture, arts, and heritage of the ASEAN countries to showcase ASEAN culture and the capabilities of its media industry.
* The ASEAN NewsMaker Project, an initiative launched in 2009, trains students and teachers to produce informational video clips about their countries. The project was initiated by Singapore. Students trained in NewsMaker software, video production, together with developing narrative storytelling skills. Dr Soeung Rathchavy, Deputy Secretary-General of ASEAN for ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community noted that: "Raising ASEAN awareness amongst the youth is part and parcel of our efforts to build the ASEAN Community by 2015. Using ICT and the media, our youths in the region will get to know ASEAN better, deepening their understanding and appreciation of the cultures, social traditions and values in ASEAN."<ref>{{Cite web|title = Launch of the ASEAN NewsMaker Project: Students to promote cross-cultural understanding by creating video clips for ASEAN Media Portal, Singapore, 2 June 2009|url = http://www.asean.org/news/asean-statement-communiques/item/launch-of-the-asean-newsmaker-project-students-to-promote-cross-cultural-understanding-by-creating-video-clips-for-asean-media-portal-singapore-2-june-2009|website = www.asean.org|access-date = 25 August 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/news/asean-statement-communiques/item/launch-of-the-asean-newsmaker-project-students-to-promote-cross-cultural-understanding-by-creating-video-clips-for-asean-media-portal-singapore-2-june-2009|archive-date = 4 September 2015}}</ref>
* The ASEAN Digital Broadcasting Meeting, is an annual forum for ASEAN members to set digital television (DTV) standards and policies, and to discuss progress in the implementation of the blueprint from analogue to digital TV broadcasting by 2020. During the 11th ASEAN Digital Broadcasting Meeting<ref>{{cite web|work=ASEAN Secretariat News|title=11th ASEAN Digital Broadcasting Meeting|url=http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/11th-asean-digital-broadcasting-meeting|access-date=1 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530020045/http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/11th-asean-digital-broadcasting-meeting|archive-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> members updated the status on DTV implementation and agreed to inform ASEAN members on the ''Guidelines for ASEAN Digital Switchover''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Guidelines for ASEAN Digital Switch-Over|url=http://hq.prd.go.th/engineer/download/Genenal/Guidelines%20for%20ASEAN%20Digital%20Switch-Over_Final.pdf|publisher=ASEAN|access-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002205/http://hq.prd.go.th/engineer/download/Genenal/Guidelines%20for%20ASEAN%20Digital%20Switch-Over_Final.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> An issue was raised around the availability and affordability of [[set-top box]]es (STB), thus ASEAN members were asked to make policies to determine funding for STBs, methods of allocation, subsidies and rebates, and other methods for the allocation of STBs. It was also agreed in the meeting to form a task force to develop STB specifications for [[DVB-T2]] to ensure efficiency.
*The ASEAN Post was launched on 8 August 2017 to commemorate ASEAN's 50th Anniversary. It is an independent regional digital media company that is headquartered in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It was founded by former investment banker Rohan Ramakrishnan.

[[File:ASEAN Nations Flags in Jakarta 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The flags of the ASEAN member states in [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]]]

===Music===
Music plays a significant role in ASEAN affairs, as evidenced by the new music composed for, and to be performed at, the 34th ASEAN Summit in Bangkok in June 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Phataranawik |first1=Phatarawadee |title=Asean's message to the world takes musical flight |url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/national/30371538 |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=The Nation |archive-date=22 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622013555/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/detail/national/30371538 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since ASEAN's founding, a number of songs have been written for the regional alliance:

* "[[The ASEAN Way]]", the official regional [[anthem]] of ASEAN. Music by Kittikhun Sodprasert and Sampow Triudom; lyrics by Payom Valaiphatchra.
* "ASEAN Song of Unity" or "[[ASEAN Hymn]]". Music by [[Ryan Cayabyab]].
* "Let Us Move Ahead", an ASEAN song. Composed by Candra Darusman.
* "[[ASEAN Rise]]", ASEAN's 40th anniversary song. Music by [[Dick Lee]]; lyrics by [[Stefanie Sun]].
* "ASEAN Spirit", ASEAN's 50th anniversary song. Composed by Chino Toledo. Lyrics by [[National Artist of the Philippines|National Artist for Literature]], [[Rio Alma]]. Performed by [[Christian Bautista]]; video directed by Joaquin Pedro Valdes.

===Sports===
The main sporting event of ASEAN is the Southeast Asian Games, a biennial meet of athletes from the ten member-states. A non-member state Timor Leste (also known as East Timor) is now participating the SEA Games.
* [[Southeast Asian Games]]
* [[ASEAN University Games]]
* [[ASEAN School Games]]
* [[ASEAN Para Games]]
* [[AFF Championship]]
* [[SEABA Championship]]

==Global influence and reception==
ASEAN has been credited by many as among the world's most influential organisations and a global powerhouse.<ref name="aseanvisa"/><ref name="aseanblock"/> The organisation plays a prominent role in regional and international diplomacy, politics, security, economy and trade.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Sze Ming |title=ASEAN in the Changing Asia Pacific Security Order |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326208056 |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053351/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326208056_ASEAN_in_the_Changing_Asia_Pacific_Security_Order |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal|title=Asean's Pivotal Role in Asian-Pacific Regional Cooperation|journal = Global Governance|volume = 3|issue = 3|last1=Haas|first1=Michael|pages=329–348|jstor = 27800175|doi = 10.1163/19426720-00303009}}</ref><ref name="aseansummit2">{{cite news|url= https://www.untvweb.com/news/world-leaders-praised-the-philippines-on-how-it-hosted-the-asean-summit/|title= World leaders praised the Philippines on how it hosted the ASEAN Summit|publisher= UNTV News|work= untvweb.com|access-date= 7 December 2017|archive-date= 15 June 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180615222947/https://www.untvweb.com/news/world-leaders-praised-the-philippines-on-how-it-hosted-the-asean-summit/}}</ref><ref name="news.teletrader.com">{{cite news|url=https://news.teletrader.com/russia-supports-increasing-aseans-global-influence/news/details/37150210?culture=en-Inter|title=Russia supports increasing ASEAN's global influence|website=news.teletrader.com}}{{Dead link|bot=Kumar Blog |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://asean.org/?static_post=the-world-to-come-asean-s-political-and-economic-prospects-in-the-new-century |title= The World to Come: ASEAN's Political and Economic Prospects in the New Century |website= asean.org |access-date= 29 November 2018 |archive-date= 30 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053320/https://asean.org/?static_post=the-world-to-come-asean-s-political-and-economic-prospects-in-the-new-century |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="siiaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.siiaonline.org/|title=Singapore Institute of International Affairs {{!}} A think tank for thinking people|website=siiaonline.org|access-date=26 November 2017|archive-date=2 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202011313/http://www.siiaonline.org/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= What Are the Opportunities for ASEAN? |url= https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/what-are-the-opportunities-for-asean |website= Yale Insights |access-date= 17 September 2018 |archive-date= 30 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053341/https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/what-are-the-opportunities-for-asean |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ASEAN, an important regional and global partner |url=https://english.vov.vn/politics/asean-an-important-regional-and-global-partner-355925.vov |work=VOV.vn |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=7 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007011541/http://english.vov.vn/politics/asean-an-important-regional-and-global-partner-355925.vov |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ASEAN's rise in the global economy">{{cite news|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2013/03/aseans-rise-in-the-global-economy/|title=ASEAN's rise in the global economy|work=World Economic Forum|access-date=17 September 2018|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053356/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2013/03/aseans-rise-in-the-global-economy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Canberra">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pecc.org/resources/regional-cooperation/601-back-to-canberra-founding-apec/file|title=The Evolution of PECC: The First 25 Years, chapter 5: Back to Canberra: Founding APEC|last=Elek|first=Andrew|via=pecc.org|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-date=29 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329012108/https://www.pecc.org/resources/regional-cooperation/601-back-to-canberra-founding-apec/file|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mea.gov.in">{{Cite news |url= http://mea.gov.in/aseanindia/about-eas.htm |title= India at the East Asia Summit |work= mea.gov.in |publisher= Ministry of External Affairs, India |access-date= 21 February 2019 |archive-date= 23 February 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190223233245/http://www.mea.gov.in/aseanindia/about-eas.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Conclusion for RCEP">{{Cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership-pm-lee-10662722|title=Conclusion for RCEP|work=channelnewsasia.com|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916164051/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/asean-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership-pm-lee-10662722|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline}} The [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] also stands as one of the largest and most important free trade areas in the world, and together with its network of dialogue partners, drove some of the world's largest multilateral forums and blocs, including [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], [[East Asia Summit|EAS]] and [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|RCEP]].<ref name="mea.gov.in" /><ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite news|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2016/02/06/trade-agreements-are-in-aseans-best-interests/|title=Trade agreements are in ASEAN's best interests|work=EastAsiaForum.org|access-date=17 September 2018|archive-date=9 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309091059/http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2016/02/06/trade-agreements-are-in-aseans-best-interests/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ASEAN's role in Asia Pacific: In the driver's seat or just a back-seat driver? |url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=ami |website=smu.edu.sg |last=Devare |first=Sudhir |publisher=[[Singapore Management University]] |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917181851/https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=ami |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-APEC/History |website=apec.org |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=4 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304034820/http://apec.org/About-Us/About-APEC/History |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name= Canberra /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/2014/02/13/understanding-aseans-free-trade-agreements.html|title=Understanding ASEAN free trade agreements|work=aseanbriefing.com|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-date=27 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127035750/https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/2014/02/13/understanding-aseans-free-trade-agreements.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline}} Being one of the world's forefront political, economic and security meetings, the [[ASEAN Summit]] serves as a prominent regional (Asia) and international (worldwide) conference, with world leaders attending its related summits and meetings to discuss about various problems and global issues, strengthening cooperation, and making decisions.<ref name="aseanroadmap">{{cite book|title=Roadmap to an Asean Economic Community| first= Denis | last= Hew|publisher= Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2005|isbn= 978-981-230-347-9}}</ref><ref name="manilasummit">{{cite web | url= http://m.philstar.com/782974/show/7eb7803727e8504defe21782560fab71/? | title= World leaders in Manila: Key events at ASEAN | work= The Philippine Star | via= philstar.com | access-date= 5 March 2018 | archive-date= 1 December 2017 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035820/http://m.philstar.com/782974/show/7eb7803727e8504defe21782560fab71/ }}</ref>

Critics have charged ASEAN with weakly promoting human rights and democracy, particularly in junta-led Myanmar.<ref>{{cite news|title=ADB president calls for building Asian economic integration |url= http://peacejournalism.com/ReadArticle.asp?ArticleID=16729 |publisher= Peace Journalism |work= peacejournalism.com |access-date=3 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717061741/http://peacejournalism.com/ReadArticle.asp?ArticleID=16729 |archive-date= 17 July 2011 }}</ref> Some scholars think that non-interference has hindered ASEAN efforts to handle the Myanmar issue, human rights abuse, and haze pollution in the area. Despite global outrage at the military crack-down on unarmed protesters in Yangon, ASEAN has refused to suspend Myanmar as a member and also rejects proposals for economic sanctions.<ref>{{cite news |title= Japan Cancels Burma Grant |url=http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5iy-MfhLN9Q7MwtQ1VlrvexLjr2dAD8SA9CS00 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=18 October 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071114032051/http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5iy-MfhLN9Q7MwtQ1VlrvexLjr2dAD8SA9CS00| archive-date= 14 November 2007}}</ref> This has caused concern as the European Union has refused to conduct free trade negotiations at a regional level for these political reasons.<ref>{{cite news|title=Burma an Issue in Asean-EU Trade Talks |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=6693&z=163 |first=Sai |last=Silp | work= The Irawaddy News Magazine Online Edition |via= irrawaddy.org |access-date=4 March 2007 }}{{dead link|bot= medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> During a UN vote against the ethnic cleansing of [[Rohingya]], most member states voted to either abstain or against the condemnation. Only the Muslim-majority countries Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei voted to condemn the cleansing of Rohingya.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/11/18/1760042/philippines-wont-join-un-condemnation-attacks-rohingya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225163157/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/11/18/1760042/philippines-wont-join-un-condemnation-attacks-rohingya|archive-date=2017-12-25|title=Philippines won't join UN condemnation of attacks on Rohingya|work= philstar.com|access-date=16 April 2018}}</ref> Some international observers view ASEAN as a "talk shop",<ref>{{cite news |title=Malaysian foreign minister says ASEAN is no 'talk shop'|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2005_Dec_5/ai_n15900039 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012193523/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2005_Dec_5/ai_n15900039 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=6 March 2007 | work=Asian Political News}}</ref> stating that the organisation is: "big on words, but small on action".<ref>{{cite news |title=BBC Country/International Organisation Profile: Association of Southeast Asian Nations |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/4114415.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=6 March 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070315215944/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/4114415.stm| archive-date= 15 March 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> "ASEAN policies have proven to be mostly rhetoric, rather than actual implementation", according to Pokpong Lawansiri, a Bangkok-based independent analyst of ASEAN. "It has been noted that less than 50% of ASEAN agreements are actually implemented, while ASEAN holds more than six hundred meetings annually".<ref>{{cite web |last=McLean |first=John |url=http://development.asia/issue03/cover-03.asp |title=Will ASEAN's New Charter Bring Greater Cooperation? |work= Development Asia |publisher=Asian Development Bank | access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706085143/http://development.asia/issue03/cover-03.asp |archive-date= 6 July 2011 }}</ref>

The head of the [[International Institute of Strategic Studies]], Tim Huxley, cites the diverse political systems present in the grouping, including many young states, as a barrier to far-reaching co-operation beyond economics. He also asserts that, without an external threat to rally against after the [[Cold War]] ended, ASEAN has less successfully restrained its members and resolved such border disputes as those between Myanmar and Thailand or Indonesia and Malaysia.<ref>{{cite news|last1= Huxley|first1=Tim|title=ASEAN's Mixed Bag|url=http://apac2020.thediplomat.com/feature/asean%E2%80%99s-mixed-bag/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828143320/http://apac2020.thediplomat.com/feature/asean%E2%80%99s-mixed-bag/|archive-date=2012-08-28|access-date=11 February 2015|work=The Diplomat}}</ref> During the 12th ASEAN Summit in [[Metro Cebu|Cebu]], several activist groups staged [[anti-globalisation]] protests,<ref>{{cite news |title=About 100 militants stage protest vs Asean Summit in Cebu |url=http://www.gmanews.tv/video/3465/About-100-militants-stage-protest-vs-Asean-Summit-in-Cebu |website=[[GMANews.tv]] |access-date=6 March 2007 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053350/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/video/24oras/3465/about-100-militants-stage-protest-vs-asean-summit-in-cebu/video/ |url-status=live }}</ref> arguing that the agenda of economic integration would negatively affect industries in the Philippines and would deprive thousands of Filipinos of their jobs.<ref name="KMU">{{cite news|url=http://www.kilusangmayouno.org/asean-protests-cebu-will-also-underscore-massive-opposition-charter-change |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009121459/http://www.kilusangmayouno.org/asean-protests-cebu-will-also-underscore-massive-opposition-charter-change |archive-date=9 October 2007 |title=ASEAN protests in Cebu will also underscore massive opposition to Charter Change |publisher= Kilusang Mayo Uno |via= kilusangmayouno.org }}</ref>

Corruption remains a widespread issue, as "tea money" remains an important requirement to grease business transactions and to receive public services. Following the release of the ''[[Corruption Perceptions Index]] 2015'' by Berlin-based graft watchdog Transparency International on 27 January, its Asia Pacific director, Srirak Plipat, noted that: "if there was one common challenge to unite the Asia-Pacific region, it would be corruption", noting that: "from campaign pledges to media coverage to civil society forums, corruption dominates the discussion. Yet despite all this talk, there's little sign of action."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://investvine.com/corruption-still-widespread-in-southeast-asia/|title=Corruption still widespread in Southeast Asia|last=Maierbrugger|first=Arno|website=Investvine.com|access-date=3 March 2016|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053324/http://investvine.com/corruption-still-widespread-in-southeast-asia/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Economic integration===
The group's integration plan has raised concerns, in particular, the 2015 deadline. Business and economy experts who attended the Lippo-UPH Dialogue in [[Naypyidaw]] cited unresolved issues relating to aviation, agriculture, and human resources.<ref>{{cite news|last1=K.|first1=Reid|title=Southeast Asia is Not Ready for AEC|url=http://www.investasian.com/2015/01/27/southeast-asia-not-ready-aec/|access-date=10 February 2015|work=InvestAsian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207161612/http://www.investasian.com/2015/01/27/southeast-asia-not-ready-aec/|archive-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> Some panelists, among them, [[Kishore Mahbubani]], warned against high expectations at the onset. He stated: "Please do not expect a big bang event in 2015 where everything is going to happen overnight when the ASEAN Economic Community comes into being. We've made progress in some areas and unfortunately regressed in some areas."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/world/06/10/13/asean-people-unaware-2015-economic-integration |title=ASEAN people unaware of 2015 economic integration |work=ABS-CBNNews.com |agency=Reuters |access-date=1 December 2014 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053324/https://news.abs-cbn.com/global-filipino/world/06/10/13/asean-people-unaware-2015-economic-integration |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some panelists enumerated other matters to be dealt with for a successful launch. Among them were the communications issues involving the 600 million citizens living in the region, increasing understanding in business, current visa arrangements, demand for specific skills, banking connections, and economic differences. Former Philippine [[Philippine Statistics Authority|National Statistical Coordination Board]] (NSCB) Secretary General Romulo A. Virola, said in 2012 that the Philippines seems unready to benefit from the integration due to its "wobbly" economic performance compared to other member states. According to Virola, the Philippines continues to lag behind in terms of employment rate, tourism, life expectancy, and cellular subscriptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/business/economy-watch/12203-ph-may-not-ready-to-benefit-from-asean-integration-expert|title=PH may not be ready for ASEAN integration - expert|work=Rappler.com|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619224002/http://www.rappler.com/business/economy-watch/12203-ph-may-not-ready-to-benefit-from-asean-integration-expert|url-status=live}}</ref> Nestor Tan, head of [[BDO Unibank|BDO Unibank Inc.]], said that while some businesses see the Asian Economic Blueprint (AEC) as an opportunity, the integration would be more of a threat to local firms. Tan added that protecting the Philippines' agricultural and financial services sectors, as well as the labour sector, would be necessary for the implementation of AEC by 2015.<ref name="PhilStar">{{cite news |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/04/24/1315836/news-analysis-asean-economic-integration-2015-draws-conflicting-views |title=News Analysis: ASEAN economic integration in 2015 draws conflicting views in Phl |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |access-date=24 November 2014 |archive-date=30 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053409/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/04/24/1315836/news-analysis-asean-economic-integration-2015-draws-conflicting-views-phl |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Standard & Poor's]] also believed that banks in the Philippines are not yet prepared for the tougher competition that would result from the integration. In one of its latest publications, S&P said banks in the country, although profitable and stable, operate on a much smaller scale than their counterparts in the region.<ref name=PhilStar />

The [[US Chamber of Commerce]] has highlighted widespread concern that the much-anticipated AEC could not be launched by the 2015 deadline.<ref name="AmCham">{{cite book|last1=McNutt|first1=Thomas H|title=ASEAN Business Outlook Survey 2015|publisher=US Chamber of Commerce|location=Singapore|pages=56|url=https://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/asean_business_outlook_survey_2015.pdf|access-date=10 February 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053352/https://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/asean_business_outlook_survey_2015.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2014, former ASEAN Secretary-General Rodolfo C. Severino, wrote: "while ASEAN should not be condemned for its members' failure to make good on their commitments, any failure to deliver will likely lead to a loss of credibility and could mean that member states fall further behind in the global competition for export markets and [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI)".<ref name="EAF-20140131">{{cite news|last1=Severino|first1=Rodolfo C|title=Let's be honest about what ASEAN can and cannot do|url=http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2014/01/31/lets-be-honest-about-what-asean-can-and-cannot-do/|access-date=10 May 2015|work=East Asia Forum|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053359/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2014/01/31/lets-be-honest-about-what-asean-can-and-cannot-do/|url-status=live}}</ref> This is not the first time that AEC faces a probable delay. In 2012, the commencement of the AEC was postponed to 31 December 2015 from the original plan of 1 January. Despite Secretary-General Surin Pitsuwan's firm reassurance that "[t]here will be no more delays and that all ten ASEAN countries will participate", even the most fervent proponents of AEC worried that AEC would not be delivered on time as December 2015 neared.<ref name="Xianbai">{{cite news|last1=Xianbai|first1=Ji|title=Why the ASEAN Economic Community Will Struggle|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/09/why-the-asean-economic-community-will-struggle/|access-date=12 May 2015|work=The Diplomat|archive-date=9 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509232716/https://thediplomat.com/2014/09/why-the-asean-economic-community-will-struggle/|url-status=live}}</ref>

An article published by ''[[Vietnam News]]'' echoed some of the challenges and opportunities that Vietnam faces in preparation for the AEC. The article said that the deputy head of the [[Ministry of Industry and Trade (Vietnam)|Ministry of Industry and Trade]], Tran Thanh Hai, was concerned about local enterprises' lack of knowledge of the AEC. It was said that 80% of local enterprises surveyed acknowledged that they have little information about the interests and challenges available for them in the ASEAN market. The article also noted that the general secretary of the Vietnam Steel Association, Chu Duc Khai, said that most of the local steel making enterprises lack information about doing business in the ASEAN market; they have not had a chance to study it, and have only exported small amounts of steel to ASEAN countries.<ref name="Movetoasia">{{cite web|url=https://movetoasia.com/en/vietnam/sourcing-manufacturing/|title=Import-Export Department|work=Movetoasia|access-date=10 July 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053403/https://movetoasia.com/en/vietnam/sourcing-manufacturing/|url-status=live}}</ref> Another challenge is the need to compete with other countries in the ASEAN market to export raw products since the country had mainly exported raw products.<ref>{{cite news|title=New ASEAN community offers export opportunities|url=http://vietnamnews.vn/economy/253874/new-asean-community-offers-export-opportunities.html|access-date=12 May 2015|work=Vietnam News|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053347/https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/253874/new-asean-community-offers-export-opportunities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Asian Development Bank]] also has doubts about Cambodia's ability to meet the AEC deadline. The leading economist of ADB, Jayant Menon, said that Cambodia needs to speed up its customs reform and to press ahead with automating processes to reduce trade costs and minimise the opportunities for corruption and be ready for the implementation of its National Single Window by 2015.<ref name="Maierbrugger">{{cite news|last1=Maierbrugger|first1=Arno|title=Cambodia May Miss Date For ASEAN Economic Community|url=http://investvine.com/cambodia-may-miss-date-for-asean-economic-community/|access-date=12 May 2015|work=Investvine|archive-date=4 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103518/http://investvine.com/cambodia-may-miss-date-for-asean-economic-community/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite an ASEAN Economic Community goal of significant economic integration as laid out in the AEC Blueprint 2025, ASEAN continues to face challenges towards integration.<ref>"[https://www.asean.org/storage/2016/03/AECBP_2025r_FINAL.pdf AEC Blueprint 2025] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053407/https://www.asean.org/storage/2016/03/AECBP_2025r_FINAL.pdf }}," ''The ASEAN Secretariat,'' November 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2019.</ref> A report published by the Asian Trade Centre in 2019 identified multiple sectors that face challenges towards integration due to non-tariff barriers that still exist in the region. The report stated that the goals of the AEC 2025 would not be accomplished if ASEAN fails to address the issues of non-tariff measures and eliminate non-tariff barriers in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asiantradecentre.org/talkingtrade/tackling-non-tariff-barriers-in-asean|title=Tackling Non-Tariff Barriers in ASEAN|website=Asian Trade Centre|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-25|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053329/http://asiantradecentre.org/talkingtrade/tackling-non-tariff-barriers-in-asean|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>"[https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/63371b_6d469e4b28ec472c8da54c1d86f7edc9.pdf Non-tariff barriers in ASEAN and their elimination from a business perspective] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053329/https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/63371b_6d469e4b28ec472c8da54c1d86f7edc9.pdf }}," ''The Asian Trade Centre'', 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2019.</ref>

===Territorial disputes===
Several [[territorial dispute]]s have affected the unity of ASEAN such as the [[Cambodian–Thai border dispute]] between Cambodia and Thailand, [[Cambodia–Vietnam relations#recent events|Cambodian–Vietnamese border dispute]] between Cambodia and Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web| url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/lesser-known-border-tensions-between-cambodia-and-vietnam-0| title=Lesser known border tensions between Cambodia and Vietnam| work=theaseanpost.com| date=9 April 2018| access-date=5 February 2020| archive-date=4 February 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204234627/https://theaseanpost.com/article/lesser-known-border-tensions-between-cambodia-and-vietnam-0| url-status=live}}</ref> the [[North Borneo dispute]] between the Philippines and Malaysia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/27/1557213/binay-pursue-territorial-claim-sabah-if-elected|title=Binay to pursue territorial claim to Sabah if elected| first1= Helen | last1= Flores| first2= Alexis | last2= Romero| work=The Philippine Star|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325101019/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/27/1557213/binay-pursue-territorial-claim-sabah-if-elected|archive-date= 25 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2479&dat=20000402&id=P1M1AAAAIBAJ&pg=2032,892348&hl=en|title=Marcos order: Destabilize, take Sabah|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|access-date=19 June 2015|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053330/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2479&dat=20000402&id=P1M1AAAAIBAJ&pg=2032%2C892348&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/citing-militant-threats-on-sabah-bn-mp-tells-putrajaya-to-cut-diplomatic-ti|title=Citing militant threats on Sabah, BN MP tells Putrajaya to cut diplomatic ties to Manila|author= Yiswaree Palansamy|newspaper=The Malay Mail|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100426/http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/citing-militant-threats-on-sabah-bn-mp-tells-putrajaya-to-cut-diplomatic-ti|archive-date=25 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/malaysia-asks-philippines/2565596.html|title=Malaysia asks Philippines not to threaten ties over Sabah claim| first= Sumisha | last= Naidu|publisher=Channel NewsAsia|access-date=25 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325095839/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/malaysia-asks-philippines/2565596.html|archive-date=25 March 2016}}</ref> and the [[South China Sea dispute]] which includes Vietnam, Brunei, the Philippines, Malaysia, and possibly Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/world/asia/indonesia-south-china-sea-military-buildup.html| title=Indonesia, Long on Sidelines, Starts to Confront China's Territorial Claims| newspaper=The New York Times| date=10 September 2017| last1=Cochrane| first1=Joe| access-date=20 October 2018| archive-date=30 September 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930053331/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/world/asia/indonesia-south-china-sea-military-buildup.html| url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia]] in 1978, backed by the Soviet Union, was not accepted by ASEAN. They rejected it as a violation of the principles of regional integration. ASEAN cooperated with US and Australia to oppose Vietnam's move and it sponsored a Cambodian resolution in the United Nations General Assembly. ASEAN played a major role starting in 1980 in the peace process, leading to the 1991 Paris Agreement.

== Security ==
ASEAN is recognized by its members to be one of the main forums to discuss security issues; based on the principles in its [[ASEAN Charter|charter]], its main aim is to provide an environment of common understanding and cooperation between the member states to "respond effectively to all forms of threats, transitional crimes and transboundary challenges".<ref>{{Cite web|last=ASEAN|title=The ASEAN Charter|url=https://asean.org/storage/images/archive/publications/ASEAN-Charter.pdf|access-date=30 May 2021|archive-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228203249/https://asean.org/storage/images/archive/publications/ASEAN-Charter.pdf}}</ref> Accordingly, ASEAN has embraced the idea of cooperative security<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nasu|first=Hitoshi|title=The legal authority of ASEAN as a security institution|others=Rob McLaughlin, Donald Rothwell, See Seng Tan|isbn=978-1-108-66951-1|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|oclc=1100418969}}</ref> which means that ASEAN's approach to security issues is through confidence-building measures and transparency for reducing the tension and conflict between its members. Security policies and plans are concerted by the ASEAN Political-Security Community to envision "a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies."<ref>{{Cite web|last=ASEAN|title=ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint|url=https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/archive/5187-18.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327183749/https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/archive/5187-18.pdf|archive-date=27 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Piracy ===
[[Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Piracy in the strait of Malacca]] and in the Sulu and Celebes Sea is one of the main non-traditional security threats for the region, it has challenged the capacity of its members to ensure coordination of effective policy actions to reduce this phenomenon. As highlighted by the [[ReCAAP]] report of 2020: "The increase of incidents (in Asia) during January–June 2020 occurred in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, South China Sea and Singapore Strait."<ref>{{Cite web|last=ReCAAP|title=ReCAAP ISC Half Yearly Report 2020|url=https://www.recaap.org/resources/ck/files/reports/half-year/ReCAAP%20ISC%20Half%20Yearly%20Report%202020.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717105841/https://www.recaap.org/resources/ck/files/reports/half-year/ReCAAP%20ISC%20Half%20Yearly%20Report%202020.pdf|archive-date=17 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The increment of incidents during 2020, have raised alerts in the region as the phenomenon of piracy could be fostered by the social consequences of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], in their Fourteenth Asean Ministerial Meeting On Transnational Crime<ref>{{Cite web|last=ASEAN|title=JOINT STATEMENT FOURTEENTH ASEAN MINISTERIAL MEETING ON TRANSNATIONAL CRIME (14th AMMTC)Cohesive and Responsive ASEAN against Transnational Crime|url=https://asean.org/storage/ADOPTED-JOINT-STATEMENT-14TH-AMMTC.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195106/https://asean.org/storage/ADOPTED-JOINT-STATEMENT-14TH-AMMTC.pdf|archive-date=24 February 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref> the ministers agreed that ASEAN should embrace a greater commitment to strengthen the measures in combating transnational crime in the context of the pandemic. Despite this statement, ASEAN has not updated their plans for combating piracy, although member states created and enforced the [[Maritime Security Plan of Action 2018-2020]], to address the national legal enforcement capacities and creating a common protocol of action to counter piracy allowing the region to cooperate for ensuring the security of the Pacific Ocean, new discussions and agendas for new measures has not been enforced yet.

Accordingly, this plan reinforces the necessity to secure the seas due to the importance of this region geographical and economically, its strategic position as the main link between the Indian and the Pacific Ocean and the region serving as the main passage that connects middle east economies and India with China, Japan, South Korea and Australia. This plan is mainly focused in three priorities:<ref>{{Cite web|last=ASEAN|title=ASEAN Regional Forum Work Plan For Maritime Security 2018-2020|url=https://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ARF-Maritime-Security-Work-Plan-2018-2020.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524183935/https://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ARF-Maritime-Security-Work-Plan-2018-2020.pdf|archive-date=24 May 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

# Shared Awareness and exchange of best practices.
# Confidence building measures based on international and regional legal frameworks, arrangements and cooperation.
# Capacity building and enhancing cooperation of maritime law enforcement agencies in the region.

In this sense, spread all over the countries of Southeast Asia, criminal organizations with complex structures pose a challenge to ASEAN's coordination capacity to solve the problem despite the plans created within its institutional framework. Although some measures have been implemented by ASEAN,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Haward|first=Marcus|title=Editorial|journal=Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs|volume=6|issue=3|pages=117–118|doi=10.1080/18366503.2014.954300|s2cid=220296737|issn=1836-6503}}</ref> still the complexity of the problem requires deep solutions of cooperation that might alter the balance of its framework. The maritime security plans for the region are based on the ASEAN idea of political-security community; the two main objectives of the APSC are: "to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development by promoting an identity of equality and partnership as the main foundations of peace and prosperity".<ref name=":0" /> Additionally, the APSC promotes "regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Putra|first1=Bama|last2=Darwis|first2=Darwis|last3=Burhanuddin|first3=Burhanuddin|title=ASEAN Political-Security Community: Challenges of establishing regional security in the Southeast Asia|url=https://www.jois.eu/?488,en_asean-political-security-community-challenges-of-establishing-regional-security-in-the-southeast-asia|journal=Journal of International Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=33–49|doi=10.14254/2071-8330.2019/12-1/2|issn=2071-8330|doi-access=free}}</ref>  

Nonetheless, the institutional framework and decision-making procedures in ASEAN make difficult to reach agreements on piracy. ASEAN has struggled to deliver a coordinated response to solve this problem in the region mainly by two reasons: the first one, could be related to the focalized nature of the problem in subregions rather than the whole region. Consequently, this focalization generates that the discussions in the main forums (The ASEAN maritime forum (AMF) and Maritime Security Expert Working Group (MSEWG)) have not resulted in actual measures that tackle piracy and involve all member states as major consensus should be reached to enforce them. One example of this, is the possibility discussed by the 10 ASEAN member states to create a joint ASEAN navy in 2015 to carry on operations in one of the piracy hotspots in the region,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Southgate|first=Laura|title=Piracy in the Malacca Strait: Can ASEAN Respond?|work=The Diplomat|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/piracy-in-the-malacca-strait-can-asean-respond/}}</ref> the strait of Malacca, this proposal ended up being enforced by bilateral/sub-regional efforts rather than in the ASEAN framework (see [[ReCAAP]] for further information).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Piracy, maritime terrorism and securing the Malacca Straits|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|editor=Graham Gerard Ong |isbn=981-230-391-X|location=Singapore|oclc=77502405}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhattacharyya|first=Anushree|title=Understanding Security in Regionalism Framework: ASEAN Maritime Security in Perspective|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09733159.2010.559786|journal=Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=72–89|doi=10.1080/09733159.2010.559786|s2cid=109034519|issn=0973-3159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haacke|first=Jürgen|title=The ASEAN Regional Forum: from dialogue to practical security cooperation?|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09557570903104057|journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=427–449|doi=10.1080/09557570903104057|s2cid=144870373|issn=0955-7571}}</ref>  The second one, consensus on non-traditional security issues has been difficult to reach due to contradictory interest between member states, particularly in joint operations between navies and the reach of these joint operations. These issues are generated mainly by unresolved territorial disputes, specially in the maritime domain, at some extent they pose a challenge to ASEAN members in their capacity to cooperate in regards to the [[maritime security]] approach.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Andrew|first=Ivan Mario|title=Developing Defence Cooperation in Maintaining ASEAN's Resilience in Managing Conflict and Unconventional Threat|journal=The Journal of Defence and Security|volume=8|pages=14–27|via=ProQuest Central}}</ref>  

Consequently, a greater multilateral cooperation has been pushed by the members to solve the piracy challenges on economy, trading and security. Members of the ASEAN, have addressed the necessity for the regional organization to make some concessions and rearrangements to respond to the challenges that non-traditional security (specifically piracy) issues posse to the security of the ASEAN members. Despite the efforts and plans made by the ASEAN, this organization is expected to overcome the image of being regarded solely as a forum to discuss security issues. Two possible solutions has been proposed by some member states for this purpose: 1. Promoting relationships with other major actors regionally to overcome the short-time challenges and 2. Rearrange the institutional framework to "avoid contention and seek cooperation to maximize the aggregate ability in order to benefit from making the sea fulfil its economic, security and other goals".<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography||Asia|}}
{{Div col}}
* [[ASEAN Smart Cities Network]]
*[[ASEAN Commission on the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Women]]
* [[ASEAN Common Time]]
* [[ASEAN-India Car Rally 2012]]
* [[ASEAN Sculpture Garden]]
* [[Asian Monetary Unit]]
* [[Asia Pacific Forum]]
* [[International Motor Insurance Card System#Blue card system|Blue card system]] – ASEAN motor insurance scheme
* [[Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia]]
* [[List of ASEAN countries by GDP (nominal)]]
* [[List of country groupings]]
* [[List of the largest trading partners of the ASEAN]]
* [[List of multilateral free-trade agreements]]
* [[Mekong-Ganga Cooperation]]
* [[Pan-Asianism]]
* [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]]
* [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation]]

{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist
| notes =
{{efn
| name = adress
| Address: Jalan Sisingamangaraja No.70A, [[Kebayoran Baru]], [[South Jakarta]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ASEAN Centres & Facilities |url=http://www.asean.org/asean/asean-centres-facilities |website=ASEAN |publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations |access-date=16 September 2015 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906100841/http://www.asean.org/asean/asean-centres-facilities |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{cite book |author=Asian Development Bank Institute |title=ASEAN 2030: Toward a Borderless Economic Community |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=9784899740520 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dF0JDAAAQBAJ}}
* Taiwan ASEAN Studies Center; ASEAN Outlook Magazine; May 2013. [http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/ASEAN-Outlook-Magazine-June-2013-David-DuByne-Myanmars-Overlooked-Industry-Opportunities-and-Investment-Climate-.pdf Myanmar's Overlooked Industry Opportunities and Investment Climate], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828224807/http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/ASEAN-Outlook-Magazine-June-2013-David-DuByne-Myanmars-Overlooked-Industry-Opportunities-and-Investment-Climate-.pdf }}, by David DuByne
* {{Citation |title=ASEAN Community in Figures (ACIF) 2012 |publisher=Association of Southeast Asian Nations |place=Jakarta |year=2012 |isbn=978-602-7643-22-2 |url=http://www.asean.org/images/2013/resources/publication/2013_ACIF_2012%20Mar.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904103519/http://www.asean.org/images/2013/resources/publication/2013_ACIF_2012%20Mar.pdf |archive-date=4 September 2015 }}
* {{Citation |first=Amitav |last=Acharya |author-link=Amitav Acharya |title=Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the problem of regional order |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |place=Abingdon, Oxfordshire/New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-41428-9|ref=none}}
* {{Citation |first=Allan |last=Collins |title=Building a People-oriented Security Community the ASEAN Way |publisher=Routledge |place=Abingdon, Oxfordshire/New York |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-46052-1|ref=none}}
* {{Citation |first=Gerald W. |last=Fry |title=The Association of Southeast Asian Nations |publisher=Chelsea House |place=New York |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7910-9609-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/associationofsou0000fryg |ref=none}}
* {{Citation |editor-first=Yoong |editor-last=Lee |title=ASEAN Matters! Reflecting on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations |publisher=World Scientific Publishing |place=Singapore |year=2011 |isbn=978-981-4335-06-5|ref=none}}
* {{Citation |editor1-first=Jürgen |editor-last1=Haacke |editor2-first=Noel M. |editor2-last=Morada |title=Cooperative Security in the Asia-Pacific: The ASEAN Regional Forum |publisher=Routledge |place=Abingdon, Oxfordshire/New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-415-46052-1|ref=none}}
* Seah, Daniel (2015) [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9709226&fileId=S2044251315000016 ''Problems Concerning the International Law-Making Practice of ASEAN''] Asian Journal of International Law (Cambridge University Press)
* {{Citation |first=Rodolfo |last=Severino |title=ASEAN |publisher=ISEAS Publications |place=Singapore |year=2008 |isbn=978-981-230-750-7|ref=none}}
* Amador III J, Teodoro J. (2014), [http://www.rappler.com/world/specials/southeast-asia/asean-journey/47239-asean-community-2015-overview A united region: The ASEAN Community 2015]

==External links==

'''Organisations'''
* [http://www.asean.org/ ASEAN Secretariat], retrieved 13 March 2007.
* [http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/ ASEAN Regional Forum], retrieved 13 March 2007.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/4114415.stm BBC Country Profile/ASEAN], retrieved 13 March 2007.

'''[[ASEAN Summit]]s'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141021175031/http://www.asean.org/news/item/24th-asean-summit 24th ASEAN Summit] (archived 21 October 2014)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141021174933/http://www.asean.org/asean/asean-structure/item/twentythird-asean-summit-bandar-seri-begawan-brunei-darussalam-9-10-october-2013 23rd ASEAN Summit] (archived 21 October 2014)
* [http://www.14thaseansummit.org 14th ASEAN Summit]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014001035/http://www.13thaseansummit.org.sg/ 13th ASEAN Summit] official site. Retrieved 16 September 2007 (archived 14 October 2007)
* [http://www.12thaseansummit.org.ph 12th ASEAN Summit], retrieved 13 March 2007.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180621052502/http://11thaseansummit.org.my/ 11th ASEAN Summit (official site)] 12–14 December 2005 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Retrieved 13 March 2007 (archived 21 June 2018)

'''ASEAN organisations'''
* [http://www.asean.org/ ASEAN's official directory of ASEAN organisations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090807003731/http://www.act.or.th/asean_architect/index.html ASEAN Architect] (archived 7 August 2009)
* [http://www.aseanlawassociation.org/ ASEAN Law Association]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130127084240/http://www.aseanports.com/ ASEAN Ports Association] (archived 27January 2013)
* [http://www.us-asean.org/ US-ASEAN Business Council]
* [http://www.asean-cn.org/ ASEAN-China Free Trade Area]

'''ASEAN related websites'''
* [http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community ASEAN Economic Community]
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/eap/regional/asean/ Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); U.S. State Department]
* [https://aseanstory.com/ ASEAN Story]

{{Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)}}
{{Regional organizations}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to ASEAN
|list =
{{Current ASEAN Leaders}}
{{ASEAN Foreign}}
{{ASEAN Finance}}
{{Association of SouthEast Asian Nations Armed Forces}}
{{ASEAN TV}}
{{Asia topics}}
{{Regional organisations}}
{{Trade}}
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation |collapsed}}
{{South-South}}
{{International power |collapsed}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:ASEAN}}
[[Category:ASEAN| ]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly observers]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Jakarta]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1967]]
[[Category:Ramon Magsaysay Award winners]]
[[Category:Southeast Asia]]

Sikh festivals

2022-04-11T12:24:23Z

WikiJoy: Created an enlightening write-up.

#REDIRECT [[List of Sikh festivals]]

Ana Akther

2021-09-13T12:06:59Z

WikiJoy:

{{Infobox person
| name = Ana Akther
| image = Ana Akther.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = আনা আক্তার
| native_name_lang = bn
| birth_name = Ana Akther
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1997|01|08}}
| birth_place = [[Bogra]], [[Rajshahi]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents =
| nationality = Bangladeshi
| religion =
| other_names =
| years_active = 2017 – present
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Rabindra Bharati University]]
| organization =
| occupation = [[Bharatanatyam]] dancer
| website =
}}
'''Ana Akther''' ({{lang-bn|আনা আক্তার}}) is a Bangladeshi [[Bharatanatyam]] dancer. She was awarded an [[Indian Council for Cultural Relations|ICCR scholarship]] in 2018 for studying Bachelor of Arts in Dance at [[Rabindra Bharati University]], [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Ana Akther, a student at Rabindra Bharati University, is pursuing her B A under an ICCR scholarship |work=[[The Daily Star]]|url= https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/theatre-arts/news/uniting-the-bengals-through-dance-2152766|access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= To honor the birth centenary of Bangabandhu, Ana Akther has previously performed for Akram Khan's company's "Father vision of the floating world" in 2020 |work=The Business Standard |url= https://www.tbsnews.net/glitz/bangladesh-india-lets-unite-through-dance-two-bengals-288955?amp |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>
==Early life and education==
Ana Akther was born on 8 January 1997 in [[Bogra]], [[Rajshahi]]. Her father was an Army Officer. She got trained by [[Bangladesh National Cadet Corps]] in Mohasthan Regiment for 2 years as a cadet. She completed her schooling at Cantonment board High School Jahangirabad, [[Bogra]]. And later Bogra Cantonment Public school and College. She is pursuing her BA under an ICCR scholarship at [[Rabindra Bharati University]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Uniting the Bengals through dance|work=[[The Daily Star]]|url= https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/theatre-arts/news/uniting-the-bengals-through-dance-2152766|access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Father vision of the floating world |work=akramkhancompany.net |url= https://www.akramkhancompany.net/productions/father-vision-of-the-floating-world/ |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>
==Career==
She took her dancing lessons from guru Abdus Samad Polash and Guru Mahabub Hasan Sohag. Later she shifted to the guidance of Guru Sujatha Ramalingam.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Projonmo (a place for performance), will present their second and third productions on August 25 |work=[[The Daily Star]]|url= https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/theatre-arts/news/uniting-the-bengals-through-dance-2152766|access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Bangladesh-India: Let’s unite through dance in two Bengals |work=The Business Stranderd |url= https://www.tbsnews.net/glitz/bangladesh-india-lets-unite-through-dance-two-bengals-288955?amp |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>
==Performances==
* [[ATN Bangla]]
*[[Bangladesh Television]]
*[[Shilpakala Academy]]
*Baramkhana Dance Drama
*Chitrangada Dance Drama
*Father Vision of the Floating World
*Fireflies - Dance drama (2021)
*Jhalak - Solo Classical dance (2021)
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1997 births]]
==External links==
* {{Facebook|mstana.akther}}
* {{Instagram|mst.anaakther8180}}

User talk:WikiDwarf

2021-09-11T14:47:36Z

WikiJoy:

{{User talk}}

== Issue with Notice ==

Hi, I have joined wikipedia India just today. I noticed some buggy notice coming up in misaligned manner. Just wanted to let you know about this. I can appreciate the initiative and I found only you to be doing most of the administrative works as of now here, so thought to drop a message. --[[User:Guy|Guy]] ([[User talk:Guy|talk]]) 15:51, 22 September 2020 (IST)

:Hello and welcome to Bharatpedia, can you be more specific what buggy notice coming up so I can look up at? Thanks for notifying and happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 16:12, 22 September 2020 (IST)

== Spamming ==

I found a number of new users using their user space for link spamming. So I reverted those. Hope it was fine to do so. Please let me know if it is otherwise.

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | [[File:Admin Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Admin's Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | You are doing a great work. Keep going. [[User:Kannadaguy|Kannadaguy]] ([[User talk:Kannadaguy|talk]]) 17:34, 6 October 2020 (IST)
|}

== The Reviewer Barnstar ==

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | {{#ifeq:{{{2}}}|alt|[[File:Reviewer Barnstar Hires.png|100px]]|[[File:Barnstar-RTFM.png|100px]]}}
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Reviewer Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for review [[User:Kannadaguy|Kannadaguy]] ([[User talk:Kannadaguy|talk]]) 17:42, 6 October 2020 (IST)
|}

== How to submit the article ==

I have created the article help me in submitting the article — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Digitalpivot30|Digitalpivot30]] ([[User talk:Digitalpivot30#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Digitalpivot30|contribs]]) 

:{{re|Digitalpivot30}} Hello and welcome, please start a new page in the [[Bharatpedia:Drafts#Creating and editing drafts|draft namespace]] and once it's ready for the mainspace please submit it for a review by placing the {{tl|submit}} template at the top of the page. Thanks - [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:12, 27 November 2020 (IST)
Sure thanks — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Digitalpivot30|Digitalpivot30]] ([[User talk:Digitalpivot30#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Digitalpivot30|contribs]]) 
Have edited & summited the draft..

How to disclose the paid contribution?

== Review of article ==

Hello, can you please review my article [[Shalkal]] and delete the page [[Draft:Shalkal Carty]]. --[[User:Guy|Guy]] ([[User talk:Guy|talk]]) 22:07, 3 December 2020 (IST)

== Thanks for creating article of Mukesh Ambani bomb scare case ==

Thank you. [[User:Subhash Rama|Subhash Rama]] ([[User talk:Subhash Rama|talk]]) 11:15, 22 March 2021 (IST)

== Article creation ==

Hi, why can't I create new page about person? [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 16:24, 10 April 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{re|Rehan}} and welcome! As I can see your account hasn't reached the [[Bharatpedia:Autoconfirmed users|autoconfirmed]] level yet so you won't be able to create a page in the main namespace, but you can create an article in the draft namespace using the [[Bharatpedia:Article wizard|article wizard]] and submit it for a review by placing <code><nowiki>{{subst:submit}}</nowiki></code> at the top of the article once it's ready. Please see [[Bharatpedia:Articles for creation]] for more and let me know if you need any help. Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 16:48, 10 April 2021 (IST)
::Thanks for your response. I have created the draft [[Draft:Syed_Falak]] now I need to add image. How can I add?
[[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:12, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

== Question ==

Hi, thank you so much for your help. I want to know are you an admin in this Wikipedia? [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 01:19, 13 April 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Rehan}} Hello Rehan, yes I'm an admin here. Please let me know if you need any help. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:35, 13 April 2021 (IST)

== Please approve my page ==

Hello sir, i created a page can you approve? thanks — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Ajay Kumar|Ajay Kumar]] ([[User talk:Ajay Kumar#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ajay Kumar|contribs]]) 18:47, 19 April 2021 (IST) (UTC)
:{{re|Ajay Kumar}} I have moved the page to main namespace after some improvements in sources and added some categories. The subject looks notable so please try to add some more sources. Happy editing, [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:23, 19 April 2021 (IST)
Thank you sir. I added more details with source. [[User:Ajay Kumar|Ajay Kumar]] ([[User talk:Ajay Kumar|talk]]) 19:29, 19 April 2021 (IST)
==A curious query==
Hello Wiki Dwarf! I am an old user in English Wikipedia. When I tried to log in here with the same account and password, it failed. Btw, my queries are: 1) Is this wikipedia a part of Wikimedia sister projects? 2) Sometimes, I found some articles, though not original of here (I mean they seems to be imported from the simple English wikipedia), does this mean that all the articles are imported? 3) Can I create my user account here and at the same time, can I create original articles here? Though articles with similar names exist in the en wikipedia?
[[Special:Contributions/47.29.19.238|47.29.19.238]] ([[User talk:47.29.19.238|talk]]) 00:04, 8 May 2021 (IST)
:{{re|47.29.19.238}} Hello there, Bharatpedia is an independent platform (please see [[Bharatpedia:General disclaimer]]) so you won't be able to login using your Wikipedia account details, but you may create a new account under the same username. Account creation is not required in order to read or edit this site, but if you wish to create new articles you can sign up with a new account and can create articles on notable topics, no matter if the particular article exists on Wikipedia under the same or similar name. Some articles here are imported from Wikipedia and you may notice a disclosure at the end of each page such as [[Achappam]] and if you can't find such disclosure, you can add one by placing <code><nowiki>{{en-Wikipedia}}</nowiki></code> at the end of the article. Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 00:36, 8 May 2021 (IST)
:::Finally, I read the article you cited. Next, 4) Is it mandatory for me to create my new user account here with the exactly same username from the wikipedia org? Next, 5) Do I need special permission to edit, create an article here? 6) Like wikipedia, can I perform edits here normally? 7) Can I import article from the wikipedia? For that, do I need special rights or powers here? I mean all these in good faith. And I have a strong desire to have my service here. [[Special:Contributions/47.29.19.238|47.29.19.238]] ([[User talk:47.29.19.238|talk]]) 00:59, 8 May 2021 (IST)
::::{{re|47.29.19.238}} No it's not mandatory to create a new account with exactly the same user name on Wikipedia, it's your choice if you wish to keep both accounts under the same username. You don't need special user rights to edit pages on this site, but several actions including article creation in the main namespace are restricted to user accounts that are at least 4 days old and have made at least 10 edits. The use of the tool to import pages is only limited to admins, patrollers and extended-confirmed users, but a user without these rights can still import pages manually. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:17, 8 May 2021 (IST)

== Talk back notice ==

Hello brother! I have a talk back for you in my talk page. Besides, I want to know something from you. Is this wikipedia still have connection with Wikimedia Commons and translate wiki? I saw this very wikipedia supports some Manipuri language technical version. Next, does this wikipedia also have multiple language wiki versions? SonOfZeus 10:48, 9 May 2021 (IST)

:{{re|SonOfZeus}} Hello and welcome! this is an independent platform unrelated to the Wikimedia Foundation and is currently only available in the English language. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 10:54, 9 May 2021 (IST)

::Brother! Can I create my sandbox here in this wiki too? And, where shall I see the number of articles of this wiki? And, about the list of active users, if I want to see! And lastly, does this wiki also follow the INDIC SCRIPT policy of English wikipedia? SonOfZeus 18:46, 9 May 2021 (IST)

::And, another thing, can I create a draft page and how should I start that? SonOfZeus 18:49, 9 May 2021 (IST)
:::Yes you can experience in your sandbox. The number of articles you can see on the main page and unfortunately the list of active users is only limited to sysops. To create a draft you can visit [[Bharatpedia:Article wizard]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 10:12, 10 May 2021 (IST)
::::And lastly, does Indic script policy also apply here? SonOfZeus 18:29, 10 May 2021 (IST)
:::::No, you can use the Indic script in the lead and infobox to address the name of the subject. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:30, 10 May 2021 (IST)
:::::: Thank you. SonOfZeus 20:55, 11 May 2021 (IST)
::{{Ping|WikiDwarf}} Hello WikiDwarf, I don't find any user with your name in English wikipedia. Are you there in English wikipedia? If yes, may I know what is your username there? If that affects your privacy, then I am sorry. Else, please tell me.
::And another thing, can I request you for importing articles from wikipedia? SonOfZeus 12:30, 12 May 2021 (IST)
:::Sure you can list the articles [[Bharatpedia:Requested articles|on this page]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:40, 12 May 2021 (IST)
::::But sir, I don't find any link to go to any particular page where I can write the name of the article which I want to request for import.(1) Could you please show me the link for the page where I could write the request? (2) At the same, if I could personally request you at your talk page, please import [[Meitei deities]] and [[List of figures in Meitei mythology]] from simple English Wikipedia. SonOfZeus 11:57, 13 May 2021 (IST)

::::::Thank you for pointing it out. I have created a button that will take you to the request page and also imported the two pages you requested above. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:50, 13 May 2021 (IST)
:: But sir, (1) [[Meitei deities]] is a redirect page of another page. The main page is not imported yet from Simple English Wikipedia. (2) How many articles can I request at a time? Is there any limitation of number of articles at a single request? (3) If something gets changed in the article at general wikipedia, will it's imported equivalent article in this wikipedia get affected? For example, an article "x" has been deleted in general wiki, what about its equivalent article "x" in this wiki? SonOfZeus 10:55, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::I have imported its corresponding article please see [[List of Meitei gods and goddesses]]. You can request as many articles as you wish as there is no limit. If an article is changed or deleted on Wikipedia it will not automatically affect its copy on Bharatpedia so one need to update the particular article manually. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:02, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::: Thank you sir. And, one thing is that can a page be created or imported by anonymous users? I saw [[Irai Leima]] being imported by an anonymous. Is that a vandalism? As you are a check user also, what do you see. Who's that? SonOfZeus 13:27, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::::No, that article was imported using the tool by an admin and the most recent revision was included so that's the reason [[Irai Leima]] looks like created/imported by anon. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 14:06, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::::I have imported all the articles as per your request at [[Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests]], please place <code><nowiki>{{simple-Wikipedia}}</nowiki></code> at the end of each article to avoid copyright issue. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 14:32, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::::::Sure, sir! I will do as soon as possible. Thanks! I have more request in the page. Please import those too. SonOfZeus 15:08, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::Thanks for those import! And one thing, (1) I am trying my best to put the "simple English wikipedia template " at the bottom of every imported article. But if I missed some, will there be assured chance of facing copyright issues? (2) In case of edits performed by myself in the general wikipedia, can I directly copy and paste those here? SonOfZeus 20:08, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::(3) The page [[Khamba Thoibi]] has a very important long infobox and some wiki tables in the [[:en:Khamba Thoibi]] (general English wikipedia). Can we import those partially here? SonOfZeus 20:10, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::I don't see any issue if you wish to directly copy and paste your edits from Wikipedia, but it still needs a disclosure at the end of the page. I have imported the contents from [[:en:Khamba Thoibi]] into [[Khamba Thoibi]] please let me know if there is anything else I can do. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:35, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:: Hello brother! (1) In the main page of the Bharatpedia, some names of religions are given. Could you add [[Sanamahism]] also? SonOfZeus 22:37, 15 May 2021 (IST)
:::Done. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:47, 16 May 2021 (IST)
::(2) Please create infobox religion. (3) Please create Template:Lang-zh_TW (language template for traditional Chinese) and Template:Lang-zh_CN (language template for simplified Chinese). SonOfZeus 23:46, 15 May 2021 (IST)
:::Please use [[:Template:Infobox religious group]] instead of Infobox religion and for the traditional Chinese, please use <code><nowiki>{{Lang-zh|t=中國}}</nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki>{{Lang-zh|s=中国}}</nowiki></code> for simplified Chinese. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:47, 16 May 2021 (IST)
::::{{Ping|WikiDwarf}} Sir! (1) I have new import request. Please see. (2) I have more than 500 edits. So, I think I am extended confirmed user now. Could you please grant me the right of importer to me? What special steps are needed for importing? If possible, please teach me. SonOfZeus 20:16, 18 May 2021 (IST)
:::::Your account has not yet reached the extendedconfirmed level. A registered editor becomes extendedconfirmed automatically when the account is both at least 30 days old and has made at least 500 edits (including deleted edits) so, I will take a look at the list and import as much as possible. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:30, 21 May 2021 (IST)
::Sir, I have new requests in the request page for import. BTW, due to multiplicity of the articles, I can't put square brackets in every title of the requested article. Please don't mind. Hope you will adjust them easily. At the same time, I will try my best. SonOfZeus 21:50, 4 June 2021 (IST)
:::Hello Sir! As my user account is 1 month old, could you grant me the importer right? If possible, it will definitely help me and you. I might no longer disturb you by requesting exhaustive list of articles for import! SonOfZeus 14:22, 7 June 2021 (IST)
::::{{reply|SonOfZeus}} Please attach an email id to your account so I can grant you the importer right and share instructions. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:06, 8 June 2021 (IST)
:::::{{re|WikiDwarf}}(1) Brother! I have attached the email id. Now, please share me the instructions. SonOfZeus 16:36, 2 July 2021 (IST)
::::::(2) And why we're those list of requested articles removed? SonOfZeus 12:18, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::{{reply|SonOfZeus}} Thank you for attaching your email address, I will soon send you the instructions. The page ([[Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests‎‎]]) was converted to an article by a couple of users but their edits have been reverted and the list is visible now. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:40, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::: I received your email, but I think I am still not getting any instruction about how to import an article from the general wikipedia run by Wikimedia Foundation to this Bharatpedia. May I get that, bro! I am eager to learn that! And thank you for all those useful links you send me, those will also help me in future. SonOfZeus 13:23, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::::That might be one of some other automatic emails. I have not yet sent you the instructions to use the import tool, once I do, I will notify you on your talk page. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 13:33, 3 July 2021 (IST)
----
Wow! I did it, bro! After properly following your instructions, I succeed in importing files to here! But as I am a birdie, I am importing only one at a time. SonOfZeus 19:49, 1 August 2021 (IST)
:{{re|SonOfZeus}} That's great, please let me know if you need any help. Also, please note that articles created using a tool such as "importer" will not be counted at the edit-a-thon so please only list those you have created manually. Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 21:31, 3 August 2021 (IST)
::But what about the expansion of already existing article? I mean there are some articles brought here through importer before the beginning of this contest. If I expand such article, are they able to be counted for the contest? SonOfZeus 22:28, 3 August 2021 (IST)
:::Yes, they will be counted as valid entries. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:06, 4 August 2021 (IST)
___
Hello brother! Please check if any of the articles I have added for the contest is ineligible or eligible! If found any problem, please tell me so that I may either fix the problem or create a substitute in time. Besides, you have a mail from me. Please check it too. Regards! SonOfZeus 22:26, 4 August 2021 (IST)

== Issue in Reviewing ==
([[User:Pixerark|Pixerark]]) Hello editor, I'm New user of Bharatpedia.My published two articles are still in review. will you please explain me review submission process please ? & when my articles will be reviewed ?

== Revert Rights ==
[[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] hello,i had requested you to tell me about how to submit article drafts in afc after 10+ edits but someone demotes my user right will you please revert it...because of this my direct page move option is not appearing please do promote me again so i can move page.Thank You.Waiting For Your Response(-[[User:Pixerark|Pixerark]] ([[User talk:Pixerark|talk]]) 22:16, 14 May 2021 (IST))
:Please see my reply on your talk page. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:36, 14 May 2021 (IST)

== Index ==

Hi, I created page many days ago and it is still not visible in Google search results. Please review [[Reza Abbaszadeh]] page and index it. Thank you! [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 22:49, 17 May 2021 (IST)

== Please approve my page ==

Hello sir, I created a page can you please approve? thanks

== Review Timeline ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}, I am planning to introduce a good amount of fashion and film people articles to this place. I have auto petrol rights in English Wikipedia so I know what I am doing. I just want to know, what are the indexing/review timelines here. This is just for a better understanding of the process. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 14:50, 29 May 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{re|Kingfisher}} and thank you for your interest. First of all, there is no fixed timeline for the review process since we have very few reviewers at the moment. Secondly, I will be glad to grant you the same user right(s) that you have on Wikipedia if you can share the details for verification purpose. If you don't want to disclose it publicly for any reason you can mail me. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:35, 29 May 2021 (IST)
:: Here is my user rights screen in en.wikipedia.org. https://tinyurl . com/ykxumuxm. I can't reveal my username because Wiki people keep an eye on everywhere. I find it risky. You can give me the rights for a temporary period and see the work or you may wait. Whatever it is, I am feeling excited about this project. The opportunities are endless. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 17:14, 30 May 2021 (IST)
:::That is totally fine if you don't want to disclose it publicly. Can you attach an email id to your account here so I can share some details? Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:06, 30 May 2021 (IST)
::::That sounds good. I did that. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 01:03, 31 May 2021 (IST)

== User Rights ==
Hey there, I just saw you changed my user rights to confirmed and later again removed that. I would request you to kindly update my user rights to confirmed. Thank you -- [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 16:08, 30 May 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Plts}}, you already have confirmed status. Please verify it by visiting [[Special:UserRights]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:12, 30 May 2021 (IST)
::{{reply to|WikiDwarf}} Thanks for the information. Happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 14:50, 31 May 2021 (IST)

== Will making a page here interrupt with Wikipedia English ? ==

I want to know if same article with same name gets made here and wiki English Will there be copyright or interruption cuz the two pages Under same name? [[User:Positivesoul|Positivesoul]] ([[User talk:Positivesoul|talk]]) 10:06, 1 June 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Positivesoul}}, In order to reuse contents from one site to another, you need to provide attribution. This is done by either saying in your edit summary that the material was copied, and where you got it. There will be no interruption in creating two pages under the same name. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 13:49, 2 June 2021 (IST)

== can you approve this page ? let me know if it qualifies==
https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:Emma_Jonnz

Hi sir, I have no conflict of interest with this person. he is a famous youtube in west Bengal. And he got a gold play button from youtube

== Draft Request ==
Hey [[User:WikiDwarf]], I just saw my article was deleted by you under criteria A7. I just read what it means, I would request you to provide me a draft for article [[Piyush Monga]] so that I can improve it. Also, please suggest some improvements to my first article [[Youth Against Rape]]. Thank you soo much for your help. Happy editing -- [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 17:00, 8 June 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Plts}} {{done}}. I have restored the article in the draft namespace as per your request above. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:43, 8 June 2021 (IST)
::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Thank you. Happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 14:23, 9 June 2021 (IST)

== Draft: Bhupesh Bansal ==

Hello, I submitted a draft. Please check and approve it if it is well.

Thank you.

== Asking a Favour ==
Hello [[User:WikiDwarf]] I am a Wikipedia editor from the northern part of the country and I also create articles related to Nepal. is it legal to create articles about people from Nepal or any other country? I have created more than 25 articles on English [[Wikipedia]](directly on namespace) and more than 20 of them got reviewed and are live on the wiki but unfortunately, 5 of them got deleted. I will be happily contributing on [[Bharatpedia]] as well if provided the required access, also I agree to all your terms and conditions if found violating any of them you are free to take the required action. --[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 08:00, 17 June 2021 (IST)

:Hello {{u|Mailblog34}} and welcome to Bharatpedia. There are no restrictions on creating articles on any topic but the subject must be notable enough to have an independent article. Since your account has not yet reached the autoconfirmed status I would suggest you create new articles in the draft namespace and once your account is autoconfirmed (i.e. four days old and you've made ten edits) then you will be able to move/create articles directly in the main namespace. If you need any help please let me know. Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 09:01, 17 June 2021 (IST)
* Hello [[User:WikiDwarf]] i am already four days old and made more than 30 edits but still did not get option of "create the pge" , and did not get option to move pages . Help me out on my limited access .--[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 23:19, 19 June 2021 (IST)
::{{re|Mailblog34}} Your account was registered on 16 June 2021 at 09:45 (IST) so please wait for one more day and your account will be autoconfirmed. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:26, 19 June 2021 (IST)

== Vandalism ==

Hello sir. Somebody is keep vandalizing [[Harish Pednekar]] please lock the page from spammers. [[Special:Contributions/206.84.238.118|206.84.238.118]] ([[User talk:206.84.238.118|talk]]) 17:40, 25 June 2021 (IST)

== Draft Request ==

Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]], Could you please review this article [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]], link: https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/User:Alialfaisal/sandbox ,Thank You.--[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 17:56, 28 June 2021 (IST)

* My dear [[User:WikiDwarf]], Sources have been added to the article, I can supplement them with additional sources if you wish, [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]] I hope to review. Thank you. --[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 18:26, 1 July 2021 (IST)

* My dear [[User:WikiDwarf]], I did not understand why the article was not approved, even though I added several news sources in it and can supplement it with additional sources?--[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 19:21, 3 July 2021 (IST)

== I requested that add me admin on Bharatpedia. ==

I will be work forever to wikipedia. Please add me admin group member in Bharat wikipedia.
[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 12:09, 29 June 2021 (IST)Hembram Bakhul

== Kindly clear the pending DRAFT ASAP. ==

Hi, kindly Clear the pending draft asap so that a contributor like me gets the motivation to contribute more too this open and neutral place. [[User:Marvel|Marvel]][[User talk:Marvel|(talk)]]

== How to upload image ==

Hi WikiDwarf. I am User:VF814324. I am new here. How can I upload an Image with CC-BY-SA license? Wher to upload ? When I click on 'Upload file' button, it brings me to Wikimedia commons. Can I publish file locally on Bharatpedia? [[User:VF814324|VF814324]] ([[User talk:VF814324|talk]]) 13:45, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|VF814324}} and welcome to Bharatpedia! Unfortunately uploading images locally is only limited to sysops at the moment so you can send the image along with its copyright permission to permission@bharatmedia.org. Happy editing, [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:04, 4 July 2021 (IST)
:: Thanks, I've mailed as you said. [[User:VF814324|VF814324]] ([[User talk:VF814324|talk]]) 17:59, 7 July 2021 (IST)

== AFC Submission cleaned? ==
Hey there, I hope you're doing well. I'm writing to get your attention on an error I faced.
[[Draft:Sunil ydv SS]], a draft(stub) that I created and submitted around a month ago to AFC. Now, when I see, the AFC tag has disappeared and no reason is shown for this. I would request you to kindly check this issue as well as review this draft as I believe it qualifies [[Bharatpedia:Notability]]. Thank you & happy editing - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 13:56, 5 July 2021 (IST)
:The same error occurred on another draft that I created [[Draft:Piyush Monga]], the AFC tag has been removed and no reason is shown. I would request you to kindly review this draft too. Thank you & happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 18:50, 5 July 2021 (IST)
::{{re|Plts}} The tags were removed by user [[User:Hembram_Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] at the time they moved both pages to the main namespace, but I have restored the tags on both drafts. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:02, 5 July 2021 (IST)
:::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Thank you. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 11:49, 27 July 2021 (IST)

== Copyright issue ==

hey [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] a user - [[User:Hembram_Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] is copying the articles and pasting them here from English Wikipedia without any edits, just informing you as it may violate copyright. Ignore if it doesn't violate copyright policy. --[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 21:51, 7 July 2021 (IST)
:{{reply|Mailblog34}} Hi, I think reusing Wikipedia content is generally allowed as per [[:en:Wikipedia:Reusing Wikipedia content]]. [[User:Pradip89|Pradip89]] ([[User talk:Pradip89|talk]]) 08:42, 9 July 2021 (IST)

== Photo upload ==

Hi i want to upload photo but when I click on upload it take me to wikimedia which is wikipedia portal will you please guide me on it. --[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 12:58, 8 July 2021 (IST)

== Protection Of Wikipedia Article ==

How to add protection to articles so as to stop dispute and vandalism. 
[[User:Wandererkanishk|Wandererkanishk]] ([[User talk:Wandererkanishk|talk]])

== article review ==

Hi [User:WikiDwarf] thanks for your suggestion on article [Sheikh Asif] will you please review it again thanks .

--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 21:14, 8 July 2021 (IST)

== Grant Me as a auto confirmed user ==

Hi, i want to be an auto confirmed user. As I have experience on english wikipedia. So I am much experienced about it. So I please grant me permission. Thanks [[User:Villageboy|Villageboy]] ([[User talk:Villageboy|talk]]) 16:13, 9 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Villageboy}} and welcome to Bharatpedia! I can see you made 10 edits already so, your account will be automatically flagged as autoconfirmed on or after July 13, 2020. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:43, 10 July 2021 (IST)

== Haters are editing the pages ==

Hey wiki, the pages I have created are of public figures, entrepreneurs and places. But some of the people are editing and using harsh language on the page I have created. I request you to kindly give me permission to lock the pages or do it from your end. It would be great.

I am not contributing since one day because of this issue only. As soon as solved will start adding more pages which should be here.

Thankyou [[User:Saumyasingh|Saumyasingh]] ([[User talk:Saumyasingh|talk]]) 03:15, 11 July 2021 (IST)

== Add me admin member group ==

I am hembram Bakhul saying that I five hundred articles edited. I hoped that I shall work the best on Bharatpedia.
[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]])Hembram Bakhul

== please publish this ==

hi [User:WikiDwarf] will you please review [https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:The_Press_Walla] and publish it .

--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 13:58, 14 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|HamzhaSaleem}}, The draft lacks sources that establish notability so, please cite some third party sources that cover the subject and submit it for a review once the draft is ready. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:15, 14 July 2021 (IST)

-- [[User:WikiDwarf]] thanks for your revert actually its a new eMagazine and news website maybe they will get more sources in future.--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 19:08, 14 July 2021 (IST)

== Draft Request ==

Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]],Since June 28, 2021, I am requesting a review of the article. I have attached many news sources and authority control to the article, but so far it has not been approved. I hope you will review the article. Thanks. [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]] --[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 04:17, 29 July 2021 (IST)

== Premtosh Debnath - Real Name Premtosh Nath ==

Dear Bharatpedia Admin Please Change Name Of Premtosh Debnath to Premtosh Nath, I Have His I card, Media Articles Added His name Premtosh Debnath some issue.[[Special:Contributions/47.29.9.5|47.29.9.5]] ([[User talk:47.29.9.5|talk]]) 01:49, 1 August 2021 (IST)

==Requirements for New page Reviewer==
Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]] sir, Could you please help to know the minimum requirements for Bharatpedia New Page Reviewer? I can not find any article about the minimum requirements for Bharatpedia New Page Reviewer. [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 01:16, 14 August 2021 (IST)
== Request ==
Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]] sir, Could you please unprotected the user draft of Danish Maniyar he is Google notable entrepreneur of India guide me with it draft making I can make his name article page with him of urs please unprotected it . I'm help bharatpedia with my contribution I hope I can be patroller in bharatpedia please[[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk:Lucasraven12|talk]])

== Sir, is BharatPedia a Paid, is that why he is not approving my page? ==

Dear
Bhartpedia Team,

I am Anshuman Tiwari, better known as Anshuman Tiwari Musician, from Dehradun, Uttarakhand. is an Indian Musician. And I am Verified On different music platforms like Spotify, Google Play Music, Apple Music, iTunes, Amazon Music, JioSaavn and many others international platforms like Deezer, Tidal and Napster. You get Anshuman Tiwari music on TikTok, Instagram or Facebook library also. and i am verified on facebook And Google.

Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/anshumantiwariofficials

Google: https://g.co/kgs/knU5xV

https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:Anshuman_Tiwari_(musician)

Sir i am verified in so many platforms and i have lot of news on google.
Sir why is my page being deleted from Bharatpedia?

Sir, is BharatPedia a Paid, is that why he is not approving my page?

Sir like this i got many complaints against in Bharatpedia,
Sir this time I am making last time making a page.
If it is deleted here then we will have to take further action
:{{re|Iamanshumantiwari}} No, Bharatpedia is not a paid platform it's a free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. Your article was deleted due to a lack of reliable sources that discuss the subject in detail, and cited sources are not reliable. Please see [[Bharatpedia:Reliable sources]] to understand what we consider reliable and also please see [[Bharatpedia:Notability (music)]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 20:56, 28 August 2021 (IST)

== Autoconfirmed... ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me autoconfirmed rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User:Anjuman|Anjuman]] ([[User talk:Anjuman|talk]]) 19:01, 31 August 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Anjuman}} You can apply for the user-right at [[Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions#Autopatrolled]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:14, 31 August 2021 (IST)
::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Well, both the rights are different. Autopatrolled marks articles as patrolled whilst [[Bharatpedia:User access levels#Autoconfirmed and confirmed users|autoconfirmed]] is a right lower than that of Extended confirmed. I'll have a look at RfP later as autoconfirmed would be autogranted five days later, perhaps. Thanks. [[User:Anjuman|Anjuman]] ([[User talk:Anjuman|talk]]) 19:26, 31 August 2021 (IST)

==Fix the problem==
Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}} sir I have created a page in the name of [[Deepthi Sunaina]] 1 month ago, the article is marked as an Autopatrolled.But it is not showing on google. please look into it and fix the problem. [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 20:16, 11 September 2021 (IST)

User:WikiJoy

2021-08-31T04:17:22Z

WikiJoy: Replaced content with "{{autoconfirmed topicon}} {{Autopatrolled topicon}}"

Ritwick Chakraborty

2021-08-22T09:42:19Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Bengali actor (born 1977)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox person | name = <!-- include..."

{{short description|Bengali actor (born 1977)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ritwick Chakraborty
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Rittik Chakroborty
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1977|03|31}}
| birth_place = [[Barrackpore, West Bengal]], India
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| spouse = [[Aparajita Ghosh Das]]
| known_for =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2007–present
}}
'''Ritwick Chakraborty''' is an Indian actor who works in [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali cinema]].<ref name="Ritwick Chakraborty filmography">{{cite web|title=Ritwick Chakraborty filmography|url=http://www.gomolo.com/ritwick-chakraborty-movies-list-filmography/17538|publisher=Gomolo|accessdate=11 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Did you know how life was for Ritwick Chakraborty before becoming an actor? - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/did-you-know/did-you-know-how-life-was-for-ritwick-chakraborty-before-becoming-an-actor/articleshow/80495333.cms|access-date=2021-02-09|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
Chakraborty was associated with [[Bengali theatre]] from a very early age. As he grew older he became passionate about acting. After his initial struggle in the Bengali film industry he worked in a few television serials and telefilms. He debuted in the film ''Pagol Premi''.<ref name="Tollywood Actor Ritwick Chakraborty">{{cite web|title=Tollywood Actor Ritwick Chakraborty|url=http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/32136311-tollywood-actor-ritwick-chakraborty-talks-about-bengali-films-necklace-bakita-bekti|publisher=WBRi|accessdate=11 November 2012}}</ref>
After which, he appeared in [[Anjan Dutt]]'s cult film ''[[Chalo Let's Go]]'', alongside in 2008, followed by ''[[Cross Connection]]'' with [[Rimjhim Mitra]], [[Abir Chatterjee]] and [[Payel Sarkar]], and [[Raj Chakraborty]]'s ''[[Le Chakka]]'', playing the second lead alongside [[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]] in 2010. He appeared in six films in 2013, and for ''[[Shabdo]]'' he won the Filmfare East Best Actor's award in 2014.

== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* ''[[Pagol Premi (film)|Pagol Premi]]'' (2007) (Debut Film)
* ''[[Biswas Nao Korte Paren]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Chalo Let's Go]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Cross Connection]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Le Chakka]]'' (2010)
* ''[[Necklace]]'' (2011)
* ''[[Teen Patti]]''(2014)
* ''[[Phoring]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Shabdo]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Aborto]]'' (2013)
* ''Khancha'' (2013)
* ''Bicycle Kick'' (2013){{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
* ''[[Golemale Pirit Koro Na]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Bakita Byaktigato]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Mahapurush O Kapurush]]''(2013)
* ''[[Teen Patti]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Ek Phaali Rodh]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Ebar Shabor]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Open Tee Bioscope]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Bheetu]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Nirbaak]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Daaker Saaj]]'' (unreleased)
* ''[[Asha Jaoar Majhe]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Anubroto Bhalo acho?]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Bitnoon]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Cross Connection 2]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Har Har Byomkesh]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Pichutaan]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Chawlochitro Circus]]''
* ''[[The Violin Player]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Saheb Bibi Golaam]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Byomkesh Pawrbo]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Bibaho Diaries]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Chhaya O Chhobi]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Asamapta]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Valobashar Sohor]]''
* ''[[Maacher Jhol]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Good Night City]]''(2018)
* ''[[Happy Pill]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Ahare Mon]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Rongberonger Korhi]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Tarikh (film)|Tarikh]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Nagarkirtan]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Jeshtoputro]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Vinci Da]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Parineeta (2019 film)|Parineeta]]'' (2019)<ref>{{Cite web|title=‘Parineeta’ completes one year: Why Raj Chakraborty’s film more than just a typical family drama - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/parineeta-completes-one-year-why-raj-chakrabortys-film-more-than-just-a-typical-family-drama/articleshow/77973146.cms|access-date=2021-02-09|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
* ''[[Shantilal O Projapoti Rohoshyo]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Samsara]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Rajlokhi O Srikanto]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Buro Sadhu]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Teko (film)|Teko]]'' (2019)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ritwick Chakraborty on Teko|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/ritwick-chakraborty-on-teko/cid/1720463|access-date=2021-02-09|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref>
* ''[[Borunbabur Bondhu]]''(2020)
* ''[[Mayar Jonjwal]]''(2021)
* ''[[Binisutoy]]'' (2021)
* ''[[The Hunger Artist (film)|The Hunger Artist]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Antar Bahir]]'' (2021)
* ''[[Anonto]]''(2021)
* ''[[Tarokar Mrittyu]]'' (2021)
* ''[[Bhootpori]]'' (2021)
* ''[[Dharmajuddho]]'' (2021)
* ''[[Kabaddi Kabaddi]]''(2021)
}}

=== Television & Web===
*''Josh''
*''[[Kanakanjali (TV series)|Kanakanjali]]''
*''[[Ek Paloke Ektu Dekha]]''
*''[[Kuheli (TV series)|Kuheli]]''
*''Neer Bhanga Jhor''
*''Bandhan''
*''[[Roilo Pherar Nimontron]]''
*''[[Khela (TV series)|Khela]]''
*''Banhisikha''
*''Neel Simana''
*''Bhor Bristi''
*''[[Goyenda Ginni]]'' As himself
*''Gora'' (Web Series) (Hoichoi)

==Awards==
*West Bengal Film Journalists' Association [Winner] (2020),
Best Actor in a Negetive Role for
Vinci Da .

*Filmfare Awards East
Critic's Choice [Nominee] (2020),
Best Actor Male for
Rajlokhi O Srikanto (2019)

*Filmfare Award [Winner] (2018),
Best Supporting Actor for
Jyeshthoputro (2019)

*The Eunuch and the Flute Player (2017) Best actor nominated for WBFJA

*WBFJA [Nominee] (2018)
Best Actor for
Maacher Jhol (2017)

*Raindance Film Festival,
Jury Prize [Nominee] (2016)
Best Actor for
The Violin Player (2015)

*Filmfare Award [Winner] (2014),
Best Actor for
Shabdo (2012)

== See also ==
* [[Dev (Bengali actor)]]
* [[Kanchan Mullick]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|3368782}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chakraborty, Ritwick}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Bengali cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:1969 births]]

United States Air Force

2021-08-20T07:26:02Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{Short description|Air service branch of the United States Armed Forces}} {{For|civilian military department for air and space forces|United States Department of the Air Forc..."

{{Short description|Air service branch of the United States Armed Forces}}
{{For|civilian military department for air and space forces|United States Department of the Air Force}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|The U.S. Air Force|USAF|the song|The U.S. Air Force (song)|other uses|USAF (disambiguation)}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = United States Air Force
| image = [[File:Military service mark of the United States Air Force.svg|frameless]] Emblem of the United States Air Force<ref>{{Cite web |title=AF Branding & Trademark Licensing |url=https://www.trademark.af.mil/About-Us/Other-Properties/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704034936/http://www.trademark.af.mil/About-Us/Other-Properties/ |archive-date=4 July 2018 |access-date=5 April 2019 |website=www.trademark.af.mil |df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[File:US Air Force Logo Solid Colour.svg|frameless]] [[United States Air Force symbol]]
| image_size =
| caption =
| start_date = 18 September 1947 ({{Age in years and months|1947|09|18}}) (''as independent service'')
----
1 August 1907 ({{Age in years and months|1907|8|1}}) (''as [[Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps]]'')
----
| dates =
| country = {{flagu|United States}}
| type = [[Air force]]<ref name="loc.gov">{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/OLH_2015_Ch23.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011073132/http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/OLH_2015_Ch23.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=30 December 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| role = [[Aerial warfare|Air superiority]] [[intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance|Global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance]] [[airlift|Rapid global mobility]] [[Strategic bombing|Global strike]] [[Command and control]]
| size = 329,614 active duty personnel 172,857 civilians<ref name="Air Force Personnel Demographics">{{Cite web |title=Air Force Personnel Demographics |url=http://www.afpc.af.mil/Air-Force-Demographics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084855/http://www.afpc.af.mil/Air-Force-Demographics |archive-date=9 October 2016 |website=Air Force Personnel Center |publisher=af.mil}}</ref> 69,056 reserve personnel<ref name="DoD Budget and Manpower Details">{{Cite web |date=9 February 2016 |title=Department of Defense (DoD) Releases Fiscal Year 2017 President's Budget Proposal |url=http://www.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/652687/department-of-defense-dod-releases-fiscal-year-2017-presidents-budget-proposal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216212344/http://www.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/652687/department-of-defense-dod-releases-fiscal-year-2017-presidents-budget-proposal |archive-date=16 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense}}</ref> 107,414 air national guard personnel<ref name="airforce-magazine 2012 Almanac">{{Cite web |date=May 2012 |title=Air Force Magazine |url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2012/May%202012/0512facts_figs.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914034846/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2012/May%202012/0512facts_figs.pdf |archive-date=14 September 2012 |publisher=Air Force Magazine}}</ref> 5,047 manned aircraft<ref name="WAF2018">{{Cite journal |title=World Air Forces 2018 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/21905 |url-status=live |journal=Flightglobal |page=17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614045619/https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/21905 |archive-date=14 June 2018 |access-date=13 June 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> 406 ICBMs<ref name="Deployed ICBMs">{{Cite web |date=20 March 2017 |title=Air Force Arsenal of Land-Based Nukes Shrinking as Planned |url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_NUCLEAR_CUTS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319130420/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_NUCLEAR_CUTS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |archive-date=19 March 2017 |access-date=20 March 2017 |website=Associated Press}}</ref> 
| command_structure = [[United States Armed Forces]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Air Force.svg|25px]] [[United States Department of the Air Force|Department of the Air Force]]
| garrison = [[The Pentagon]] {{nowrap|[[Arlington County, Virginia]], U.S.}}
| garrison_label = Headquarters
| motto = ''"Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win"''<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 October 2010 |title=Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win to be Air Force motto USAF |url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=34807778346 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109121819/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=34807778346 |archive-date=9 January 2018 |access-date=19 October 2010 |publisher=United States Air Force}}</ref> ''"Integrity first, Service before self, Excellence in all we do"''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ventura |url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/maxwell/mp11.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829050722/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/maxwell/mp11.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2017 |access-date=2019-04-05 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| colors = [[Ultramarine|Ultramarine blue]], [[Gold (color)#Yellow|Golden yellow]]<ref name="AFcolors">{{Cite web |date=24 March 2007 |title=The Air Force Flag |url=http://www.jbsa.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070324-002.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902192925/http://www.jbsa.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070324-002.pdf |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=7 August 2017 |website=Air Force Historical Research Agency |publisher=United States Air Force}}</ref> {{color box|#00308F}} {{color box|#ffdf00}}
| colors_label = Colors
| march = "[[The U.S. Air Force (song)|The U.S. Air Force]]" {{audio|The U.S. Air Force, 1998.ogg|Play}}
| anniversaries = 18 September
| battles = {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title = ''See list''
|[[File:Streamer MS.PNG|200px]] [[Pancho Villa Expedition|Mexican Expedition]] (As [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps]]) [[File:Streamer WWI V.PNG|200px]] [[World War I]] (As [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps]] and [[United States Army Air Service|Army Air Service]]) [[File:World War II - American Campaign Streamer (Plain).png|200px]] [[File:Streamer APC.PNG|200px]] [[File:European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal streamer.png|200px]] [[World War II]] (As [[U.S. Army Air Forces|USAAF]]) [[File:Korean Service Medal - Streamer.png|200px]] [[Korean War]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[1958 Lebanon crisis|Lebanon Crisis]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Second Taiwan Strait Crisis]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Second Taiwan Strait Crisis|Quemoy and Matsu Islands]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[War in Vietnam (1959-1963)|Vietnam Assistance]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Congo Crisis]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Berlin Crisis of 1961|Berlin Crisis]] [[File:Vietnam Service Streamer vector.svg|200px]] [[Vietnam War]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Laotian Civil War]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Operation Dragon Rouge|Congo – Operation Dragon Rouge]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Dominican Civil War]] – Operation Power Pack [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Korean DMZ Conflict (1966–1969)|Korean DMZ Conflict]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Cambodian Campaign]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Communist insurgency in Thailand]] [[Operation Eagle Pull|Cambodia – Operation Eagle Pull]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Operation Frequent Wind|Vietnam – Operation Frequent Wind]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Mayaguez incident|Mayaguez Operation]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Invasion of Grenada|Grenada – Operation Urgent Fury]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Lebanese Civil War]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Operation Earnest Will|Persian Gulf – Operation Earnest Will]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|Libya – Operation El Dorado Canyon]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[United States invasion of Panama|Panama – Operation Just Cause]] [[File:Streamer SAS.PNG|200px]] [[Persian Gulf War|Southwest Asia Conflict]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Somali Civil War]] [[File:Streamer AFE.PNG|200px]] [[Operation Uphold Democracy|Haiti – Operation Uphold Democracy]] [[File:Streamer KC.PNG|200px]] [[Kosovo War|Kosovo Campaign]] [[File:Streamer AFGCS.PNG|200px]] [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan Campaign]] [[File:Streamer gwotE.PNG|200px]] [[War on Terror|Global War on Terrorism]] [[File:Iraq Campaign streamer (USMC).svg|200px]] [[Iraq War|Iraq Campaign]] [[Operation Inherent Resolve]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a1/publication/afi34-1201/afi34-1201.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023011230/http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a1/publication/afi34-1201/afi34-1201.pdf |archive-date=23 October 2017 |access-date=22 October 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
}}
| equipment = [[List of equipment of the United States Air Force|List of U.S. Air Force equipment]]
| decorations =
| website = {{URL|www.af.mil}} {{URL|www.Airforce.com}}

| commander1 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the President of the United States of America.svg|size=23px}} [[President of the United States|President]] [[Joe Biden]]
| commander1_label = [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|Commander-in-Chief]]
| commander2 = {{Flagicon image|USSecDefflag.svg|size=23px}} [[Lloyd Austin]]
| commander2_label = [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]
| commander3 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Secretary of the Air Force.svg|size=23px}} [[Frank Kendall III]]
| commander3_label = [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]]
| commander4 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force.svg|size=23px}} [[General (United States)|Gen]] [[Charles Q. Brown Jr.]]
| commander4_label = [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff]]
| commander5 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force.svg|size=23px}} Gen [[David W. Allvin]]
| commander5_label = [[Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Vice Chief of Staff]]
| commander6 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force.svg|size=23px}} CMSAF [[JoAnne S. Bass]]
| commander6_label = [[Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force]]

| identification_symbol = [[File:Flag of the United States Air Force.svg|border|150px]]
| identification_symbol_label = [[Flag of the United States Air Force|Flag]]
| identification_symbol_3 = [[File:Roundel of the USAF.svg|150px]]
| identification_symbol_3_label = [[United States military aircraft national insignia|Roundel]]
| identification_symbol_4 = [[File:US Army Air Corps Hap Arnold Wings.svg|150px]]
| identification_symbol_4_label = "Hap" Arnold Symbol

| aircraft_attack = [[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]], [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130]], [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|MQ-9]]
| aircraft_bomber = [[B-1 Lancer|B-1B]], [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2]], [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52H]]
| aircraft_electronic = [[E-3 Sentry|E-3]], [[E-4 Nightwatch|E-4]], [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8]], [[EC-130]]
| aircraft_fighter = [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15C]], [[F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E]], [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|F-22]], [[F-35 Lightning II|F-35A]]
| aircraft_helicopter = [[HH-60 Pave Hawk|HH-60]], [[UH-1N Twin Huey|UH-1N]], [[MH-139 Grey Wolf|MH-139]]
| aircraft_recon = [[MC-12 Liberty|MC-12]], [[Boeing RC-135|RC-135]], [[RQ-4 Global Hawk|RQ-4]], [[Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel|RQ-170]], [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]], [[Pilatus PC-12|U-28]]
| aircraft_trainer = [[T-1A Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-6 Texan II|T-6]], [[T-38 Talon|T-38]], [[Cessna T-41 Mescalero|T-41]], [[Cessna 150|T-51]], [[Cirrus SR20|T-53]], [[DG Flugzeugbau DG-1000|TG-16]]
| aircraft_transport = [[C-5 Galaxy|C-5M]], [[C-12 Huron|C-12]], [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]], [[Learjet 35A|C-21]], [[Boeing C-32|C-32]], [[Gulfstream G550|C-37]], [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]], [[C-40 Clipper|C-40]], [[V-22 Osprey|CV-22]], [[VC-25]]
| aircraft_tanker = [[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]], [[KC-135 Stratotanker|KC-135]], [[KC-46 Pegasus|KC-46]]
}}
{{United States Armed Forces sidebar}}

The '''United States Air Force''' ('''USAF''') is the [[Atmosphere of Earth|air]] [[military branch|service branch]] of the [[United States Armed Forces]]. It is one of the eight [[uniformed services of the United States|U.S. uniformed services]]. Initially formed as a part of the [[United States Army]] on 1 August 1907, the USAF was established as a separate branch of the U.S. Armed Forces on 18 September 1947 with the passing of the [[National Security Act of 1947]]. It is the second youngest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces{{Efn|After the [[U.S. Space Force]], founded in 2019|name=|group=}} and the fourth in [[order of precedence]]. The U.S. Air Force articulates its core missions as [[Aerial warfare|air superiority]], [[intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance|global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance]], [[airlift|rapid global mobility]], [[Strategic bombing|global strike]], and [[command and control]].

The U.S. Air Force is a military service branch organized within the [[United States Department of the Air Force|Department of the Air Force]], one of the three military departments of the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]. The Air Force through the Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]], who reports to the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] and is appointed by the President with [[United States Senate|Senate]] [[advice and consent|confirmation]]. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff of the Air Force]], who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. As directed by the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned to [[unified combatant command]]s. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the Secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members.

Along with conducting independent air operations, the U.S. Air Force provides [[air support]] for land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. {{As of|2017}}, the service operates more than 5,369 [[military aircraft]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Case for Fifth-Generation and NGAD Airpower |url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-case-for-fifth-generation-and-ngad-airpower/ |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=Air Force Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> and 406 [[ICBM]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How many nuclear weapons does the US have? |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/pentagon-plans-modernize-us-nuclear-arsenal/story?id=44372054 |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref> It has a $156.3 billion budget<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force President's Budget FY19 |url=https://www.saffm.hq.af.mil/FM-Resources/Budget/Air-Force-Presidents-Budget-FY19/ |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=www.saffm.hq.af.mil}}</ref> and is the second largest service branch, with 329,614 [[active duty personnel|active duty airmen]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-01 |title=Military Demographics Jan. 2020 |url=https://www.afpc.af.mil/Portals/70/documents/03_ABOUT/Military%20Demographics%20Jan%202020.pdf?ver=2020-01-27-093137-550 |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=Air Force's Personnel Center |archive-date=17 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417185216/https://www.afpc.af.mil/Portals/70/documents/03_ABOUT/Military%20Demographics%20Jan%202020.pdf?ver=2020-01-27-093137-550 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 172,857 civilian personnel,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-01 |title=Civilian Demographics Jan. 2020 |url=https://www.afpc.af.mil/Portals/70/documents/03_ABOUT/Civilian%20Demographics%20Jan%202020.pdf?ver=2020-01-27-093138-583 |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=Air Force Personnel Center |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727043117/https://www.afpc.af.mil/Portals/70/documents/03_ABOUT/Civilian%20Demographics%20Jan%202020.pdf?ver=2020-01-27-093138-583 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 69,056 [[Air Force Reserve Command|reserve]] airmen,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force Reserve |url=https://afreserve.com/about |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=afreserve.com}}</ref> and 107,414 [[Air National Guard]] airmen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ANG's Outstanding NCO of the Year: Tech. Sgt. Jason D. Selberg |url=https://www.ang.af.mil/Media/Article-Display/Article/1269380/angs-outstanding-nco-of-the-year-tech-sgt-jason-d-selberg/ |access-date=2020-05-13 |website=Air National Guard |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Mission, vision, and functions==
===Missions===
According to the [[National Security Act of 1947]] (61 ''Stat''. 502), which created the USAF:
<blockquote>
:''In general, the United States Air Force shall include aviation forces both [[combat]] and service not otherwise assigned. It shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The Air Force shall be responsible for the preparation of the air forces necessary for the effective prosecution of war except as otherwise assigned and, in accordance with integrated joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of the peacetime components of the Air Force to meet the needs of war.''
</blockquote>

Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as:<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 October 2009|title=10 USC 9062|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/9062|access-date=8 December 2020|publisher=Law.cornell.edu}}</ref>
* to preserve the peace and security, and provide for the defense, of the United States, the Territories, Commonwealths, and possessions, and any areas occupied by the United States;
* to support national policy;
* to implement national objectives;
* to overcome any nations responsible for aggressive acts that imperil the peace and security of the United States.

===Core missions===
The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/DocumentFile/Documents/2015/Future_Operating_Concept.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412083735/http://www.airforcemag.com/DocumentFile/Documents/2015/Future_Operating_Concept.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2019 |access-date=26 February 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

====Air superiority====
{{main|Aerial warfare}}
Air superiority is "that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force" (JP 1-02).<ref name="AFDD1">[http://www.apc.maxwell.af.mil/l004/pubs/afdd1.pdf Air Force Basic Doctrine, Organization, and Command] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618030147/http://www.apc.maxwell.af.mil/l004/pubs/afdd1.pdf |date=18 June 2016 }} (PDF), 14 October 2011</ref>

[[File:First F-35 Lightning Arrives at Eglin AFB Florida.jpg|thumb|The first [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 Lightning II]] of the [[33rd Fighter Wing]] arriving at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin AFB]]]]

[[Offensive counter air|Offensive Counter-Air]] (OCA) is defined as "offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense.<ref name="AFDD1" />

[[Anti-aircraft warfare|Defensive Counter-Air]] (DCA) is defined as "all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is "the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is "measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Airspace control is "a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations.<ref name="AFDD1" />

====Global integrated ISR====
{{main|Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance}}
Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations.<ref name="AFDD1" />

[[File:Global Hawk 1.jpg|thumb|An Air Force RQ-4 strategic reconnaissance aircraft]]

Planning and directing is "the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Collection is "the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO).<ref name="AFDD1" />

Processing and exploitation is "the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Analysis and production is "the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Dissemination and integration is "the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers.<ref name="AFDD1" />

====Rapid global mobility====
{{main|Airlift|Aerial refueling}}
[[File:Pegasus refuels Globemaster (2).jpg|thumb|An Air Force KC-46 Pegasus refuels a C-17A Globemaster III]]

Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Airlift is "operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Air refueling is "the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Aeromedical evacuation is "the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as "the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission." Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward as [[fixed-wing aircraft]] are able to conduct airland operations.<ref name="AFDD1" />

====Global strike====
{{main|Strategic bombing|Nuclear warfare}}

Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains.<ref name="AFDD1" />

[[File:A-10 simulates close air support.jpg|thumb|An Air Force [[A-10]] demonstrating close air support at [[Nellis Air Force Base|Nellis AFB]]]]

Strategic attack is defined as "offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack).<ref name="AFDD1" />

Air Interdiction is defined as "air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations).<ref name="AFDD1" />

Close Air Support is defined as "air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO.<ref name="AFDD1" />

The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are:<ref name="AFDD1" />

[[File:Minuteman3launch.jpg|thumb|Test launch of a [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] Intercontinental Ballistic Missile from [[Vandenberg Air Force Base|Vandenberg AFB]]]]

Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the [[Continental United States]], within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (a [[Broken Arrow incident]]). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function.<ref name="AFDD1" />

====Command and control====
{{main|Command and control|Air Operations Center|Joint Force Air Component Commander}}
Command and control is "the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives.<ref name="AFDD1" />

[[File:Combined Air and Space Operations Center 151007-F-MS415-015.jpg|thumb|Combined Air Operations Center at [[Al Udeid Air Base]]]]

At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater.<ref name="AFDD1" />

At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives.<ref name="AFDD1" />

Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative.<ref name="AFDD1" />

==History==
{{main|History of the United States Air Force}}
The [[United States Department of War|U.S. War Department]] created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. In [[World War II]], almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.<ref>Robert Pitta, Gordon Rottman, Jeff Fannell (1993). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ydRaKBTQ0AgC&pg=PA3&dq=&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false US Army Air Force (1)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428174544/https://books.google.com/books?id=ydRaKBTQ0AgC&pg=PA3&dq=&hl=en |date=28 April 2016 }}''. Osprey Publishing. p. 3. {{ISBN|1-85532-295-1}}</ref> In practice, the [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] ([[USAAF]]) was virtually independent of the [[United States Army|Army]] during World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Army Air Forces in World War II Volume VI: Men and Planes: Chapter 2 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/VI/AAF-VI-2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028090810/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/VI/AAF-VI-2.html |archive-date=28 October 2017 |access-date=8 November 2017 |website=www.ibiblio.org |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The [[National Security Act of 1947]] was signed on 26 July 1947 by President [[Harry S. Truman]], which established the [[Department of the Air Force]], but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, [[W. Stuart Symington]], was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104613/the-us-air-force.aspx "The Air Force Fact Sheet"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208042018/http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104613/the-us-air-force.aspx |date=8 December 2014 }}. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 30 December 2014.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512165955/http://www.intelligence.gov/0-natsecact_1947.shtml ''National Security Act of 1947'']. U.S. Intelligence Community, October 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2006.</ref>

The act created the ''National Military Establishment'' (renamed [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the [[Department of the Army]], the [[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]], and the newly created Department of the Air Force.<ref>U.S. Department of State. ''[https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NationalSecurityAct National Security Act of 1947] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727111301/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NationalSecurityAct |date=27 July 2013 }}''. Retrieved 3 October 2010.</ref> Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), the [[United States Navy|Navy]] (for sea-based operations from [[aircraft carrier]]s and [[amphibious warfare|amphibious]] aircraft), and the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] (for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force Captain [[Chuck Yeager]] broke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wildsmith |first=Snow |url=http://www.mcfarlandbooks.com/book-2.php?id=978-0-7864-4758-9 |title=Joining the United States Air Force |publisher=McFarland |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-4758-9 |location=United States of America |page=56 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904030356/http://www.mcfarlandbooks.com/book-2.php?id=978-0-7864-4758-9 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Usaroundelevo.gif|thumb|right|[[United States military aircraft national insignia|Roundels]] that have appeared on U.S. military aircraft 1.) 5/1917–2/1918 2.) 2/1918–8/1919 3.) 8/1919–5/1942 4.) 5/1942–6/1943 5.) 6/1943–9/1943 6.) 9/1943–1/1947 7.) 1/1947– ]]

===Antecedents===

The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are:
* [[Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps|Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps]] (1 August 1907 – 18 July 1914)
* [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps|Aviation Section, Signal Corps]] (18 July 1914 – 20 May 1918)
* [[Division of Military Aeronautics]] (20 May 1918 to 24 May 1918)
* [[U.S. Army Air Service]] (24 May 1918 to 2 July 1926)
* [[U.S. Army Air Corps]] (2 July 1926 to 20 June 1941) and
* [[U.S. Army Air Forces]] (20 June 1941 to 18 September 1947)

===21st century===
During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, the [[KC-X]] and [[F-35]] programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age.<ref>Bennett, John T. [https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/dotmil/2012/05/14/panetta-selects-trusted-hand-for-new-air-force-chief "Panetta Selects Trusted Hand for New Air Force Chief."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629130713/https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/dotmil/2012/05/14/panetta-selects-trusted-hand-for-new-air-force-chief |date=29 June 2017 }} ''U.S. News & World Report'', 14 May 2012.</ref>

Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement of [[United States Air Force Basic Military Training|Basic Military Training]] (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force Basic Military Training – Home |url=http://www.basictraining.af.mil/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408013544/http://www.basictraining.af.mil/ |archive-date=8 April 2015 |access-date=1 April 2015 |website=af.mil}}</ref>

In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.<ref name="AF_mag_rif">[http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2008/October%202008/1008aircraft.aspx Needed: 200 New Aircraft a Year] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120030910/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2008/October%202008/1008aircraft.aspx |date=20 January 2013}}, ''Air Force Magazine'', October 2008.</ref> The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the first [[Gulf War]] in 1991.<ref name="downsize">{{Cite web |title=2008 USAF Almanac: People |url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2008/May%202008/0508facts_figs.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707095725/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2008/May%202008/0508facts_figs.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2011 |access-date=2 September 2011 |publisher=AIR FORCE Magazine |df=dmy-all}} 1991: 510,000; 2007: 328,600</ref> However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.<ref name="AF_mag_rif" /> These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force Magazine |url=http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2008/January |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170524215714/http://www.airforcemag.com/Pages/HomePage.aspx |archive-date=24 May 2017 |website=wayback.archive-it.org}}</ref> and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Maj. Timothy Farr |title=Airmen's time tour makes follow-up visits |url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123159900 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120718134054/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123159900 |archive-date=18 July 2012 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Af.mil}}</ref>

On 5 June 2008, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Robert Gates]] accepted the resignations of both the [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]], [[Michael Wynne]], and the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff of the Air Force]], [[General (United States)|General]] [[T. Michael Moseley]]. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited "systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance".<ref name="auto">{{Cite news |date=July 2008 |title=The Gates Case |publisher=Air Force Magazine |agency=Air Force Magazine |issue=July 2008 |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2008/July%202008/0708gates.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=22 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053048/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2008/July%202008/0708gates.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref> Left unmentioned by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.<ref name="auto" /> This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling of [[nuclear weapons]]: specifically a [[2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident|nuclear weapons incident]] aboard a B-52 flight between [[Minot AFB]] and [[Barksdale AFB]], and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.<ref>[http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2008/July%202008/0708watch.aspx "Washington watch"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120031054/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2008/July%202008/0708watch.aspx |date=20 January 2013 }}, ''AIR FORCE Magazine'', July 2008, Vol. 91 No. 7, pp. 8.</ref> To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focused [[Air Force Global Strike Command]] on 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft.<ref>Chavanne, Bettina H. [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/GSC102408.xml&headline=USAF%20Creates%20Global%20Strike%20Command "USAF Creates Global Strike Command"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111032006/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=defense&id=news%2FGSC102408.xml&headline=USAF%20Creates%20Global%20Strike%20Command |date=11 January 2012 }}. ''Aviation Week'', 24 October 2008.</ref>

On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plan reshapes U.S. air power |url=http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2009/07/airforce_realignment_070609w/ |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Airforcetimes.com}}</ref> On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gerry J. Gilmore |title=Unmanned aircraft take on increased importance |url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123160247 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729070849/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123160247 |archive-date=29 July 2012 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Af.mil}}</ref> One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.<ref>{{Cite web |last=7 October 2009— |date=7 October 2009 |title=Future U.S. Defense Needs in a High Technology Present – Up Front Blog – Brookings Institution |url=http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/1007_defense_prioirties_chat.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026171504/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/1007_defense_prioirties_chat.aspx |archive-date=26 October 2010 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Brookings.edu}}</ref> According to Air Force Chief Scientist, Dr. [[Greg Zacharias]], the USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonic RPAs by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.<ref name="nationalinterest.org">{{Cite web |date=12 August 2017 |title=Get Ready, Russia and China: America's Next Fighter Jet Will Dominate the Skies |url=http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/get-ready-russia-china-americas-next-fighter-jet-will-21876 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903190214/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/get-ready-russia-china-americas-next-fighter-jet-will-21876 |archive-date=3 September 2017 |access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref> Air Force intends to deploy a [[Sixth-generation jet fighter]] by the mid–2030s.<ref name="nationalinterest.org" />

===Conflicts===
[[File:Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (modified).jpg|thumb|The [[SR-71 Blackbird]] was a [[Cold War]] [[reconnaissance plane]].]]
[[File:F-117 Nighthawk Front.jpg|thumb|The [[F-117 Nighthawk]] was a [[stealth aircraft|stealth]] attack aircraft (retired from service in April 2008).]]

The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907:
* [[Pancho Villa Expedition|Mexican Expedition]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/06/2001329754/-1/-1/0/AFD-101006-029.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050710/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Oct/06/2001329754/-1/-1/0/AFD-101006-029.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2017 |access-date=4 October 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> as [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps]]
* [[World War I]]<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/pubfiles/af/36/afpam36%2D2241/afpam36%2D2241.pdf "Air Force Pamphlet 36-2241"]{{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. USAF, 1 July 2007.</ref> as [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps]] and [[United States Army Air Service]]
* [[World War II]]<ref name="autogenerated1" /> as [[United States Army Air Forces]]
* [[Cold War]]
* [[Korean War]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Operation Eagle Claw]] (1980 Iranian hostage rescue)
* [[Operation Urgent Fury]] (1983 US invasion of Grenada)
* [[Bombing of Libya (1986)|Operation El Dorado Canyon]] (1986 US Bombing of Libya)
* [[United States invasion of Panama|Operation Just Cause]] (1989–1990 US invasion of Panama)
* [[Gulf War|Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm]] (1990–1991 Persian Gulf War)
* [[Operation Southern Watch]] (1992–2003 Iraq no-fly zone)
* [[Operation Deliberate Force]] (1995 NATO bombing in Bosnia and Herzegovina)
* [[Operation Northern Watch]] (1997–2003 Iraq no-fly zone)
* [[Operation Desert Fox]] (1998 bombing of Iraq)
* [[Operation Allied Force]] (1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia)
* [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Operation Enduring Freedom]] (2001–2014 Afghanistan War)
* [[Iraq War|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] (2003–2010 Iraq War)
* [[Iraq War#2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn|Operation New Dawn]] (2010–2011 Iraq War)
* [[Operation Odyssey Dawn]] (2011 Libyan no-fly zone)
* [[Operation Inherent Resolve]] (2014–present: intervention against the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]])
* [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Operation Freedom's Sentinel]] (2015–present Afghanistan War)

In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the [[Operation Serval|2013 French campaign in Mali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=USAF to help transport French troops to Mali. |url=http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2013/01/air-force-helps-transport-french-troops-mali-011713/ |access-date=1 April 2015 |website=airforcetimes.com}}</ref>

===Humanitarian operations===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1985-064-10A, Frankfurt-Main, Luftbrücke, Flugzeuge.jpg|thumb|right|A row of [[Douglas C-54 Skymaster]]s during the [[Berlin Airlift]] in 1949]]
The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following:<ref>The primary source for the humanitarian operations of the USAF is the United States Air Force Supervisory Examination Study Guide (2005)</ref>
* [[Berlin Blockade#The Berlin Airlift|Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 1948–1949]]
* [[Operation Safe Haven (1957)|Operation Safe Haven, 1956–1957]]
* Operations [[Operation Babylift|Babylift]], [[Operation New Life|New Life]], [[Operation Frequent Wind|Frequent Wind]], and [[Operation New Arrivals|New Arrivals]], 1975
* [[Operation Provide Comfort]], 1991
* [[Operation Sea Angel]], 1991
* [[Operation Provide Hope]], 1992–1993
* [[Operation Provide Promise]], 1992–1996
* [[Operation Unified Assistance]], [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|December 2004 – April 2005]]
* [[Operation Unified Response]], 14 January 2010–present<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.amc.af.mil/Portals/12/documents/AFD-131018-050.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417144102/http://www.amc.af.mil/Portals/12/documents/AFD-131018-050.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=9 July 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* [[Operation Tomodachi]], 12 March 2011 – 1 May 2011<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yesterday's Air Force: Operation Tomodachi |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/691286/yesterdays-air-force-operation-tomodachi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708221024/http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/691286/yesterdays-air-force-operation-tomodachi/ |archive-date=8 July 2018 |access-date=5 April 2019 |website=U.S. Air Force |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Culture==
The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by the [[Bomber Mafia]]), followed by fighters ([[Fighter Mafia]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force Culture and Conventional Strategic Airpower |url=http://www.stormingmedia.us/01/0155/A015524.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629153840/http://www.stormingmedia.us/01/0155/A015524.html |archive-date=29 June 2011 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Stormingmedia.us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Thompson |first=Mark |date=8 July 2013 |title=The Air Force's Future May Be in Drones, But Its Generals Won't Be |work=Time |url=http://nation.time.com/2013/07/08/the-air-forces-future-may-be-in-drones-but-its-generals-wont-be/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712020243/http://nation.time.com/2013/07/08/the-air-forces-future-may-be-in-drones-but-its-generals-wont-be/ |archive-date=12 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Worden |first=Michael |date=November 1997 |title=The Rise of the Fighter Generals |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA338755 |access-date=12 March 2014 |website=dtic.mil |publisher=Air University Press}}</ref>

In response to a [[2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident]], Secretary of Defense [[Robert Gates]] accepted in June 2009 the resignations of [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] [[Michael Wynne]] and the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff of the Air Force]] [[General (United States)|General]] [[T. Michael Moseley]]. Moseley's successor, General [[Norton A. Schwartz]], a former airlift and special operations pilot was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barnes |first=Julian E. |last2=Spiegel |first2=Peter |date=10 June 2008 |title=A different type of Air Force leader |work=Los Angeles Times |url=http://articles.latimes.com/p/2008/jun/10/nation/na-schwartz10 |url-status=live |access-date=30 August 2010 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525180517/http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jun/10/nation/na-schwartz10 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jaffe |first=Greg |date=27 February 2010 |title=Combat Generation: Drone operators climb on winds of change in the Air Force |work=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/27/AR2010022703754_2.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616001620/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/27/AR2010022703754_2.html |archive-date=16 June 2012}}</ref>

In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force's [[Missile combat crew|missile launch officer]] community, Secretary of the Air Force [[Deborah Lee James]] admitted that there remained a "systemic problem" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Everstine |first=Brian |date=29 January 2014 |title=James: AF is addressing 'systemic' problem in nuclear force |url=http://www.airforcetimes.com/article/20140129/NEWS/301290017/James-AF-addressing-systemic-problem-nuclear-force |access-date=29 January 2014 |website=airforcetimes.com |publisher=Gannett Government Media}}</ref>

Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magruder Jr. |first=Daniel L. |year=2009 |title=The US Air Force and Irregular Warfare: Success as a Hurdle |url=http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/journal/docs-temp/272-magruder.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055349/http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/journal/docs-temp/272-magruder.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=15 October 2015 |website=Small Wars Journal}}</ref> [[Major General]] [[Charles J. Dunlap Jr.]] adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an [[egalitarianism]] bred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal "warriors" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social "distance" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding Airmen: A primer for soldiers |url=http://usacac.army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/MilitaryReview_20071031_art019.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111091555/http://usacac.army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/MilitaryReview_20071031_art019.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012 |access-date=13 December 2011}}</ref>

Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed [[Unmanned combat aerial vehicle|UAV]] operators.<ref>{{Cite web |title=US Air Force Lacks Volunteers To Operate Drones |url=http://www.defensenews.com/article/20130821/DEFREG02/308210013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130821133601/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20130821/DEFREG02/308210013 |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 August 2013 |access-date=1 April 2015 |website=Defense News}}</ref> In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Whitlock |first=Craig |date=13 November 2013 |title=Drone combat missions may be scaled back eventually, Air Force chief says |work=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/drone-combat-missions-may-be-scaled-back-eventually-air-force-chief-says/2013/11/13/470deda4-4c97-11e3-b692-e722f1795169_story.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728015335/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/drone-combat-missions-may-be-scaled-back-eventually-air-force-chief-says/2013/11/13/470deda4-4c97-11e3-b692-e722f1795169_story.html |archive-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wasserbly |first=Daniel |date=12 May 2014 |title=AUVSI 2014: USAF looking to refine RPA training regime, reduce accidents |work=IHS Jane's 360 |publisher=IHS |url=http://www.janes.com/article/37833/auvsi-2014-usaf-looking-to-refine-rpa-training-regime-reduce-accidents |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514073050/http://www.janes.com/article/37833/auvsi-2014-usaf-looking-to-refine-rpa-training-regime-reduce-accidents |archive-date=14 May 2014}}</ref> and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cox |first=Matthew |date=24 April 2014 |title=Air Force Criticized for Mismanaging Drone Program |work=military.com |publisher=Monster |url=http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/04/24/air-force-criticized-for-mismanaging-drone-program.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728074035/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/04/24/air-force-criticized-for-mismanaging-drone-program.html |archive-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handing innovations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scharre |first=Paul |date=29 July 2014 |title=How to Lose the Robotics Revolution |work=warontherocks.com |publisher=Texas National Security Review |url=http://warontherocks.com/2014/07/how-to-lose-the-robotics-revolution/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729203250/http://warontherocks.com/2014/07/how-to-lose-the-robotics-revolution/ |archive-date=29 July 2014}}</ref>

Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the [[Royal Air Force]] (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the [[U.S. Army Air Service]], [[U.S. Army Air Corps]] and the [[U.S. Army Air Forces]]. Some of these traditions range from "Friday Name Tags" in flying units to an annual "Mustache Month". The use of [[Challenge coin|"challenge coins"]] dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 2012 |title=A Brief History of Challenge Coins |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/12630/brief-history-challenge-coins |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124222827/http://mentalfloss.com/article/12630/brief-history-challenge-coins |archive-date=24 January 2018 |access-date=24 January 2018 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the "[[roof stomp]]", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement.

==Organization==
{{main|Structure of the United States Air Force|Structure of the United States Armed Forces#Department_of_the_Air_Force|l2=Department of the Air Force structure}}
[[File:Organization_of_U.S._Space_Force.png|thumb|350px|Organization of the United States Air Force within the Department of Defense]]

===Administrative organization===
The [[United States Department of the Air Force|Department of the Air Force]] is one of three military departments within the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], and is managed by the civilian [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]], under the authority, direction, and control of the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]. The senior officials in the [[Office of the Secretary of the Air Force|Office of the Secretary]] are the [[United States Under Secretary of the Air Force|Under Secretary of the Air Force]], four [[Assistant Secretary of the Air Force|Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force]] and the [[General Counsel of the Department of the Air Force|General Counsel]], all of whom are appointed by the President with the [[advice and consent]] of the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. The senior uniformed leadership in the [[Air Staff (United States)|Air Staff]] is made up of the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff of the Air Force]] and the [[Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force]].<ref name="airforcemag.com">{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2013/May%202013/0513MC_RC.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417180827/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2013/May%202013/0513MC_RC.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2018 |access-date=31 December 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The directly subordinate commands and units are named [[List of United States Air Force Field Operating Agencies|Field Operating Agency]] (FOA), [[Direct Reporting Unit]] (DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency.

The [[List of Major Commands of the United States Air Force|Major Command]] (MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including the [[Air Force Reserve Command]], as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. The [[List of Numbered Air Forces of the United States Air Force|Numbered Air Force]] (NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused), [[USAF Air Division|Air Division]] (also now unused), [[List of Wings of the United States Air Force|Wing]], [[List of United States Air Force Groups|Group]], [[List of United States Air Force squadrons|Squadron]], and Flight.<ref name="airforcemag.com" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Powers |first=Rod |date=19 January 2019 |title=Air Force: Organizational Structure |url=https://www.thebalance.com/what-is-the-organizational-structure-of-the-air-force-3331713 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110225414/https://www.thebalance.com/what-is-the-organizational-structure-of-the-air-force-3331713 |archive-date=10 November 2017 |website=The Balance Careers |publisher=Dotdash |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Air Force structure and organization===
[[File:Headquarters US Air Force Badge.png|25px]] [[United States Department of the Air Force|Headquarters, United States Air Force]] (HQ USAF):
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Major Commands
!Current commander
!Location of headquarters
|-
|[[File:ACC Shield.svg|25px]] [[Air Combat Command]] (ACC) || Gen [[Mark D. Kelly]] || [[Langley Air Force Base]], [[Joint Base Langley-Eustis]], [[Virginia]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Education and Training Command.png|25px]] [[Air Education and Training Command]] (AETC) || Lt Gen [[Marshall B. Webb]]||[[Randolph Air Force Base]], [[Joint Base San Antonio]], [[Texas]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Force Global Strike Command.svg|25px]] [[Air Force Global Strike Command]] (AFGSC) || Gen [[Timothy Ray]] || [[Barksdale Air Force Base]], [[Louisiana]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Force Materiel Command.png|25px]] [[Air Force Materiel Command]] (AFMC) || Gen [[Arnold W. Bunch Jr.]]||[[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Ohio]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Force Reserve Command.png|25px]] [[Air Force Reserve Command]] (AFRC) || Lt Gen [[Richard W. Scobee]] || [[Robins Air Force Base]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Shield of the United States Air Force Special Operations Command.svg|25px]] [[Air Force Special Operations Command]] (AFSOC) || Lt Gen [[James C. Slife]] ||[[Hurlburt Field]], [[Florida]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Mobility Command.svg|25px]] [[Air Mobility Command]] (AMC) || Gen [[Jacqueline Van Ovost]] || [[Scott Air Force Base]], [[Illinois]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Pacific Air Forces.png|25px]] [[Pacific Air Forces]] (PACAF) || Gen [[Kenneth S. Wilsbach]] || [[Hickam Air Force Base]], [[Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam]], [[Hawaii]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:United States Air Forces in Europe.svg|25px]] [[File:US Air Forces Africa (emblem).png|23px]] [[United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa]] (USAFE-AFA) || Gen [[Jeffrey L. Harrigian]] ||[[Ramstein Air Base]], [[Rhineland-Palatinate]], [[Germany]]
|-
!Direct Reporting Units
!Current commander
!Location of headquarters
|-
|[[File:Air Force District of Washington.png|25px]] [[Air Force District of Washington]] (AFDW) || Maj Gen [[Ricky Rupp]] || [[Andrews Air Force Base]], [[Joint Base Andrews]], [[Maryland]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center.png|25px]] [[Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center]] (AFOTEC) || Maj Gen [[James R. Sears]] || [[Kirtland Air Force Base]], [[New Mexico]], U.S.
|-
|[[File:US-AirForceAcademy-Shield.svg|25px]] [[United States Air Force Academy]] (USAFA) || Lt Gen [[Richard M. Clark]]||[[Air Force Academy, Colorado|Air Force Academy]], [[Colorado]], U.S.
|}

The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following:<ref name="estab">{{Cite web |title=2007 USAF Almanac: Major Commands |url=http://www.afa.org/magazine/may2007/0507majcoms.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216020100/http://www.afa.org/magazine/may2007/0507majcoms.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 |access-date=9 February 2008 |publisher=AIR FORCE Magazine}}</ref>
* Active duty forces
** 57 flying wings and 55 non-flying wings
** nine flying groups, eight non-flying groups
*** 134 flying squadrons
* Air Force Reserve Command
** 35 flying wings
** four flying groups
*** 67 flying squadrons
* Air National Guard
** 87 flying wings
*** 101 flying squadrons
The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons.<ref name="orgsize">{{Cite web |title=2007 USAF Almanac: USAF Squadrons By Mission Type |url=http://www.afa.org/magazine/may2007/0507structure.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201002047/http://www.afa.org/magazine/may2007/0507structure.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2007 |access-date=9 February 2008 |publisher=AIR FORCE Magazine}}</ref>

===Operational organization===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2018}}

{{main|List of active United States Air Force aircraft squadrons}}

The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs the [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] (SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of a [[Unified Combatant Command|Regional]] [[Combatant commander]] (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to [[USTRANSCOM]] unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.

====Air Expeditionary Task Force====
"Chopped" units are referred to as ''forces''. The top-level structure of these forces is the [[Air Expeditionary Task Force]] (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the [[Unified Combatant Command|CCMD]]'s Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the [[Joint Forces Air Component Commander]] (JFACC).

====Commander, Air Force Forces====
The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.

====Air Operations Center====
The [[Air Operations Center]] (AOC) is the JFACC's [[Command and Control (Military)|Command and Control]] (C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.

====Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons====
The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives from [[Air Expeditionary Wing]]s (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.

==Personnel==
The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is the [[Air Force Specialty Code]] (AFSC).

AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot, [[combat systems officer]], [[United States Air Force Special Tactics Officer|special tactics]], nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, [[Aircrew Badge#Air Force|enlisted aircrew]], communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, [[Air Force Security Forces|security forces]], and search and rescue specialties.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2008 |title=Air Force Specialty Code Information |url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/ccaf/publications/afsc_info.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909211302/http://www.au.af.mil/au/ccaf/publications/afsc_info.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2008 |publisher=United States Air Force}}</ref>

Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs are [[Special Tactics Officer]], [[Bomb disposal|Explosive Ordnance Disposal]] (EOD), [[Combat Rescue Officer]], [[United States Air Force Pararescue|Pararescue]], [[Air Force Security Forces|Security Forces]], [[Combat Control Team|Combat Control]], [[Air Force Special Operations Weather Technician|Combat Weather]], [[Tactical Air Control Party]], [[Special Operations Weather Technician]], and [[AFOSI]] agents.

Nearly all enlisted career fields are "entry level", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training.

Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically-rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year.

USAF rank is divided between [[Enlisted rank|enlisted]] airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enlisted Air Force Ranks |url=http://www.military.com/air-force/enlisted-ranks.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119110918/http://www.military.com/air-force/enlisted-ranks.html |archive-date=19 November 2016 |access-date=22 November 2016 |website=Military.com |publisher=Military.com}}</ref> Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force Officer Ranks |url=http://www.military.com/air-force/officer-ranks.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122230829/http://www.military.com/air-force/officer-ranks.html |archive-date=22 November 2016 |access-date=22 November 2016 |website=Military.com |publisher=Military.com}}</ref> General of the Air Force [[Henry H. Arnold|Henry "Hap" Arnold]] is the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Five Star Generals and Admirals of the United States |url=http://www.historyguy.com/5-star-military.htm#.WDRRCHrK-g4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053622/http://www.historyguy.com/5-star-military.htm#.WDRRCHrK-g4 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |access-date=22 November 2016 |website=The History Guy |publisher=The History Guy}}</ref>

71% of the Air Force is White and 15% Black. The average age is 35 and 21% female.<ref>https://www.afpc.af.mil/About/Air-Force-Demographics/</ref>

===Commissioned officers===
{{main|United States Air Force officer rank insignia}}

The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories: [[junior officer|company grade officers]], [[field grade officer]]s, and [[general officer]]s. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above.<ref>[[United States Air Force officer rank insignia]]</ref>

Air Force officer promotions are governed by the [[Defense Officer Personnel Management Act]] of 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard. DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval.

During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center at [[Randolph Air Force Base]] in San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the thirteen year (for officers who were promoted to major early "below the zone") and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be selected below zone (i.e., "early"), in zone (i.e., "on time") or above zone (i.e., "late") for promotion to lieutenant colonel. This process will repeat at the 16-year mark (for officers previously promoted early to major and lieutenant colonel) to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel.

The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs.<ref>Schwellenbach, Nick. [http://pogoblog.typepad.com/pogo/2011/04/brass-creep-and-the-pentagon-air-force-leads-the-way-as-top-offender.html "Brass Creep and the Pentagon: Air Force Leads the Way As Top Offender."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190625/http://pogoblog.typepad.com/pogo/2011/04/brass-creep-and-the-pentagon-air-force-leads-the-way-as-top-offender.html |date=3 March 2016 }} ''POGO'', 25 April 2011.</ref>

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
|- align=center
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
![[U.S. uniformed services pay grades#Officer pay grades|US DoD Pay Grade]]||O-1||O-2||O-3||O-4||O-5||O-6||O-7||O-8||O-9||O-10||Special grade
|-style="background:#ccc;" "text-align:center;"
![[Ranks and insignia of NATO#Definitions|NATO Code]]||colspan=2|OF-1||OF-2||OF-3||OF-4||OF-5||OF-6||OF-7||OF-8||OF-9||OF-10
|-style="text-align:center;"
||'''Insignia'''
|| [[File:US-O1 insignia.svg|22px]]
|| [[File:US-O2 insignia.svg|22px]]
|| [[File:US-O3 insignia.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US-O4 insignia.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US-O5 insignia.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US-O6 insignia.svg|70px]]
|| [[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|35px]]
|| [[File:US-O8 insignia.svg|65px]]
|| [[File:US-O9 insignia.svg|100px]]
|| [[File:US-O10 insignia.svg|135px]]
|| [[File:US-O11 insignia.svg|90px]]
|- align=center
||'''Service Dress Uniform Insignia'''
|| [[File:US Air Force O1 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O2 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O3 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O4 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O5 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O6 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O7 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O8 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O9 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O10 shoulderboard.svg|60px]]
|| [[File:US Air Force O11 shoulderboard with seal.svg|60px]]
|- align=center
||'''Title'''
|| [[US Second Lieutenant|Second lieutenant]]
|| [[US First Lieutenant|First lieutenant]]
|| [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]]
|| [[Major (United States)|Major]]
|| [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant colonel]]
|| [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]]
|| [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier general]]
|| [[Major general (United States)|Major general]]
|| [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant general]]
|| [[General (United States)|General]]
|| [[General of the Air Force]]
|- align=center
||'''Abbreviation'''||2d Lt||1st Lt||Capt||Maj||Lt Col||Col||Brig Gen||Maj Gen||Lt Gen||Gen||GAF
|-
|colspan=12|
* No periods are used in actual grade abbreviation, only in press releases to conform with [[AP Stylebook|AP standards]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.publicaffairs.af.mil/Portals/1/documents/DoD%20Captioning%20Style%20Guide%20141017%20(3).pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011073357/http://www.publicaffairs.af.mil/Portals/1/documents/DoD%20Captioning%20Style%20Guide%20141017%20(3).pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=3 October 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|}

===Warrant officers===
{{main|Warrant officer (United States)#Air Force}}
Although provision is made in [[Title 10 of the United States Code]] for the [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] to appoint warrant officers, the Air Force does not currently use [[warrant officer]] grades, and, along with the Space Force, are the only [[U.S. Armed Services]] not to do so. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from the [[United States Army|Army]] at its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,<ref name="WO-5">{{Cite web |title=Warrant Officer Programs of Other Services |url=http://www.usawoa.org/woheritage//WO_Prog_Other_Svc.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230211659/http://www.usawoa.org/woheritage/WO_Prog_Other_Svc.htm |archive-date=30 December 2006 |access-date=18 March 2007 |publisher=United States Army Warrant Officer Association}}</ref> the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade, [[Chief Master Sergeant]]. Most of the existing Air Force warrant officers entered the commissioned officer ranks during the 1960s, but small numbers continued to exist in the warrant officer grades for the next 21 years.

The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980 and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2006 |title=Warrant Officers of the US Military |url=http://www.militaryranks.us/us-military-warrant-officer.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618072906/http://www.militaryranks.us/us-military-warrant-officer.htm |archive-date=18 June 2010 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Militaryranks.us}}</ref> Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.<ref name="WO-5" /> Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, are not used.

===Enlisted airmen===
[[File:Pararescue.training exercise.jpg|thumb|Pararescuemen and a simulated "survivor" watch as an HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter comes in for a landing]]
{{main|United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia}}

Enlisted airmen have [[pay grade]]s from E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted). While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to as ''airmen'', in the same manner that all [[United States Army|Army]] personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to as ''soldiers'', the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level of [[non-commissioned officer]]s (NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into "NCOs" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and "senior NCOs" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term "junior NCO" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department of Defense Enlisted Rank Insignias |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/insignias/enlisted.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617194102/http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/insignias/enlisted.html |archive-date=17 June 2008 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Defenselink.mil}}</ref>

The USAF is the only branch of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., a [[corporal]] in the Army<ref>However, the Army has dual ranks at the E-4 paygrade with [[Specialist (rank)|Specialists]] not considered NCOs. Since the 1980s, the Army corporal rank has come to be awarded infrequently and is rarely found in modern units.</ref> and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], [[Petty Officer Third Class]] in the [[United States Navy|Navy]] and [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]]). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as "buck sergeant"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completed [[Airman Leadership School]] can be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618.
{|style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0;"
|-style="background:#ccc;"
![[U.S. uniformed services pay grades#Enlisted pay grades|U.S. DoD Pay grade]]||E-1||E-2||E-3||E-4||E-5||E-6||colspan=2|E-7||colspan=2|E-8||colspan=6|E-9
|-style="text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
!'''NATO Code'''||OR-1||OR-2||OR-3|||OR-4||OR-5||OR-6||colspan=2|OR-7||colspan=2|OR-8||colspan=6|OR-9
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''Insignia'''
|| ''No insignia''
|| [[File:E2 USAF AM.svg|47px]]
|| [[File:E3 USAF AM1.svg|47px]]
|| [[File:E4 USAF SAM.svg|47px]]
|| [[File:E5 USAF SSGT.svg|47px]]
|| [[File:E6 USAF TSGT.svg|47px]]
|| [[File:E7a USAF MSGT.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E7b USAF 1STSGT1.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E8a USAF SMSGT.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E8b USAF 1STSGT2.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E9a USAF CMSGT.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E9b USAF 1STSGT3.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E9c USAF CCMS.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:USAF Senior Enlisted Advisor for the National Guard Bureau.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:E9d USAF CMSAF.svg|44px]]
|| [[File:USAF SEAC.svg|44px]]
|- align=center
| '''Title'''
|| [[Airman Basic|Airman basic]]
|| [[Airman]]
|| [[Airman First Class|Airman First Class]]
|| [[Senior Airman|Senior Airman]]
|| [[Staff Sergeant|Staff Sergeant]]
|| [[Technical Sergeant|Technical Sergeant]]
|colspan=2| [[Master Sergeant|Master Sergeant]]¹
|colspan=2| [[Senior Master Sergeant|Senior Master Sergeant]]¹
|colspan=2| [[Chief Master Sergeant|Chief Master Sergeant]]¹
|| [[Command Chief Master Sergeant|Command Chief Master Sergeant]]
|| [[Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chief of the National Guard Bureau|Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chief of the National Guard Bureau]]
|| [[Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force|Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force]]
|| [[Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman|Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman]]
|- align=center
||Abbreviation||AB||Amn||A1C||SrA||SSgt||TSgt||colspan=2|MSgt||colspan=2|SMSgt||colspan=2|CMSgt||CCC/CCM||SEANGB||CMSAF||SEAC
|-
|colspan=15|
¹ Air Force [[First sergeant#United States Air Force and United States Space Force|first sergeants]] are considered temporary and lateral ranks and are senior to their non-diamond counterparts. First sergeants revert to their permanent rank within their paygrade upon leaving assignment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barnett |first=Robert |date=12 December 2012 |title=Air Force first sergeants work to help Airmen |url=https://www.jber.jb.mil/News/News-Articles/Article/290557/air-force-first-sergeants-work-to-help-airmen/ |access-date=11 September 2020 |website=Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson |publisher=Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson Public Affairs}}</ref>
|}

===Uniforms===
{{main|Uniforms of the United States Air Force}}

The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented "[[Uxbridge, MA|Uxbridge]] blue" after "Uxbridge 1683 blue", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.<ref name="uniforms">{{Cite web |title=Getting the Blues, by Tech. Sgt. Pat McKenna |url=http://www.af.mil/news/airman/1296/duds.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202154555/http://www.af.mil/news/airman/1296/duds.htm |archive-date=2 February 2007 |access-date=24 September 2007 |publisher=Air Force Link}}</ref> The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, "Air Force blue" (a darker purplish-blue).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Retrofit Service Dress - USAF Uniform History |url=http://usafeenlistedheritage.org/history/uniforms/detail/?id=11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409181623/http://usafeenlistedheritage.org/history/uniforms/detail/?id=11 |archive-date=9 April 2016 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver "U.S." pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements.

The [[Airman Combat Uniform]] (ACU) in the [[Operational Camouflage Pattern]] (OCP) replaced the previous [[Airman Battle Uniform]] (ABU) on 1 October 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The US Air Force Might Not be Adopting OCP Yet but Some Airmen Are Already Wearing It - Soldier Systems Daily |url=http://soldiersystems.net/2014/09/05/air-force-might-adopting-ocp-yet-airmen-already-wearing/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816192641/http://soldiersystems.net/2014/09/05/air-force-might-adopting-ocp-yet-airmen-already-wearing/ |archive-date=16 August 2017 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force transitions to a single combat uniform |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1520066/air-force-transitions-to-a-single-combat-uniform/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717153143/http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1520066/air-force-transitions-to-a-single-combat-uniform/ |archive-date=17 July 2018 |access-date=5 April 2019 |website=U.S. Air Force |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Awards and badges===
{{main|Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force|Badges of the United States Air Force}}

In addition to basic uniform clothing, [[Badges of the United States Air Force|various badges]] are used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based [[Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force|awards]]. Over time, [[Obsolete badges of the United States military|various badges]] have been discontinued and are no longer distributed.

===Training===
{{See also|Air Force Specialty Code}}
[[File:U.S. Air Force Buttstroke.jpg|thumb|U.S. Air Force trainee demonstrating a butt stroke on a strike dummy as part of Basic Military Training.]]
All enlisted Airmen attend [[United States Air Force Basic Military Training|Basic Military Training]] (BMT) at [[Lackland Air Force Base]] in [[San Antonio]], Texas for {{frac|8|1|2}} weeks. Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prior service program open but strictly limited |url=http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/484041/prior-service-program-open-but-strictly-limited/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816192233/http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/484041/prior-service-program-open-but-strictly-limited/ |archive-date=16 August 2017 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is It Possible to Enlist Again if You Have Prior Service? |url=https://www.thebalance.com/prior-service-enlistments-3354052 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816195538/https://www.thebalance.com/prior-service-enlistments-3354052 |archive-date=16 August 2017 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref>

Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from the [[United States Air Force Academy]], upon graduation from another college or university through the [[Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps]] (AFROTC) program, or through the [[Air Force Officer Training School]] (OTS). OTS, located at [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] since 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and the [[Academy of Military Science (United States)|Academy of Military Science]] (AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard.

The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations.

====Air Force Fitness Test====
[[File:USAF PT Uniform.jpg|thumb|USAF Airmen training at Lackland AFB]]
{{main|United States Air Force Fitness Assessment}}

The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of the ''Fit to Fight'' program, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a {{convert|1.5|mi|km|adj=on}} run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength test counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel may test once a year if he or she earns a score above a 90%. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test.
{{Clear}}

==Aircraft inventory==
{{main|List of active United States Air Force aircraft}}

The U.S. Air Force had over 5,638 aircraft in service as of September 2012.<ref name="USAF_Almanac">{{Cite web |date=May 2013 |title=USAF Almanac, The Air Force in Facts and Figures |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2013/May%202013/0513facts_figures.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211183535/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2013/May%202013/0513facts_figures.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2013 |access-date=2 August 2013 |publisher=Air Force Magazine}}</ref> Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to [[United States Department of Defense aerospace vehicle designation]]. The various aircraft of the Air Force include:
{{Clear}}


===A – Attack===
[[File:A-10 - 32156159151.jpg|thumb|[[Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10 Thunderbolt II]] [[ground-attack aircraft]]]]

The attack aircraft<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a8/publication/afi16-401/afi16-401.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224094602/http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a8/publication/afi16-401/afi16-401.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2016 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> of the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. The Air Force is currently running the OA-X experiment, with the intent to procure an off-the-shelf light attack aircraft. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command.
* [[Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10C Thunderbolt II]]
* [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130J Ghostrider]]
* [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130W Stinger II]]


===B – Bomber===
[[File:B-2 Spirit original.jpg|thumb|[[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirit]] [[stealth aircraft|stealth]] [[bomber]]]]

US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=B-1B Bombers Are The Aerial Weapon of Choice For Supporting Iraq's Ramadi Offensive |url=http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/b-1b-bombers-are-the-aerial-weapon-of-choice-for-suppor-1750018432 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816192020/http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/b-1b-bombers-are-the-aerial-weapon-of-choice-for-suppor-1750018432 |archive-date=16 August 2017 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AF realigns B-1, LRS-B under Air Force Global Strike Command |url=http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/585547/af-realigns-b-1-lrs-b-under-air-force-global-strike-command/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808233845/http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/585547/af-realigns-b-1-lrs-b-under-air-force-global-strike-command/ |archive-date=8 August 2017 |access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref>

The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. The [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52 Stratofortress]] airframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. The [[Northrop Grumman B-21|B-21]] is projected to replace the B-52 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gorrell |first=Mike |title=Northrop Grumman celebrates bomber contract in Utah |url=http://www.sltrib.com/home/3473421-155/northrop-grumman-celebrates-bomber-contract-in |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131210740/http://www.sltrib.com/home/3473421-155/northrop-grumman-celebrates-bomber-contract-in |archive-date=31 January 2016 |website=The Salt Lake Tribune}}</ref>
* [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1B Lancer]]
* [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2A Spirit]]
* [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52H Stratofortress]]


===C – Transport===
[[File:C17 aircraft alt.jpg|thumb|A [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17 Globemaster III]], the USAF's newest and most versatile [[Cargo aircraft|transport plane]] ]]

Transport aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are the [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130 Hercules]], [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17 Globemaster III]], and [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy|C-5 Galaxy]]. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized transportation roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J, C-145A, and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron ([[Beechcraft Super King Air]]) and C-146 ([[Dornier 328]]) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa.
* [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy|C-5B, C-5C and C-5M Galaxy]]
* [[Beechcraft C-12 Huron|C-12C, C-12D, C-12F and C-12J Huron]]
* [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17A Globemaster III]]
* [[Alenia C-27J Spartan|C-27J Spartan]]
* [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130H, LC-130H, and WC-130H Hercules]]
* [[Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules|C-130J and C-130J-30 Super Hercules]]
* [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|C-144]]
* [[PZL M28 Skytruck|C-145A Skytruck]]
* [[Dornier 328|C-146A Wolfhound]]
* [[Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey|CV-22B Osprey]]


===E – Special Electronic===
[[File:Usaf.e3sentry.750pix.jpg|thumb|[[Boeing E-3 Sentry|E-3 Sentry]] [[Airborne early warning and control|airborne warning and control system]]]]

The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EMS and ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called "the eye in the sky". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), ground targeting radar (E-8C), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B).
* [[Boeing E-3 Sentry|E-3B, E-3C and E-3G Sentry]]
* [[Boeing E-4|E-4B "Nightwatch"]]
* [[Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C JSTARS]]
* [[E-9A|E-9A Widget]]
* [[Bombardier Global Express|E-11A]]
* [[Lockheed EC-130|EC-130H Compass Call]]
* [[Lockheed EC-130|EC-130J Commando Solo]]
* [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk|EQ-4B Global Hawk]]


===F – Fighter===
[[File:Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor JSOH.jpg|thumb|[[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|F-22 Raptor]] stealth [[air superiority fighter]]]]

The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., the [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16 Fighting Falcon]]); the term "fighter" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as the [[F-117 Nighthawk]]. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, the [[United States Air Force Thunderbirds|Thunderbirds]], while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-rated [[F-4 Phantom II]] are retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012.<ref name=USAF_Almanac/>
* [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15C and F-15D Eagle]]
* [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E Strike Eagle]]
* [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle#F-15X/EX|F-15EX Eagle II]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Newdick |first1=Thomas |title=The F-15EX Is Now Officially Named The Eagle II |url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/40085/the-f-15ex-is-now-officially-named-the-eagle-ii |website=The Drive |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref>
* [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16C and F-16D Fighting Falcon]]
* [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|F-22A Raptor]]
* [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35A Lightning II]]


===H – Search and rescue===
These aircraft are used for [[search and rescue]] and [[combat search and rescue]] on land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60U are replacement aircraft for "G" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace both the "G" and "U" model Pave Hawks.
* [[Lockheed HC-130|HC-130N and HC-130P Combat King]]
* [[Lockheed HC-130|HC-130J Combat King II]]
* [[Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk|HH-60G and HH-60U Pave Hawk]]


===K – Tanker===
[[File:KC-10 Extender (2151957820).jpg|thumb|[[McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender|KC-10 Extender]] tri-jet [[Aerial refueling|air-to-air tanker]]]]

The USAF's KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with "probe and drogue" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known "tanker" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. The [[Boeing KC-46 Pegasus|KC-46A Pegasus]] began to be delivered to USAF units starting in 2019.
* [[McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender|KC-10A Extender]]
* [[Boeing KC-46A Pegasus|KC-46A Pegasus]]
* [[Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker|KC-135R and KC-135T Stratotanker]]


===M – Multi-mission===
[[File:427th Reconnaissance Squadron MC-12 10-0728.jpg|thumb|An MC-12W Liberty at [[Beale AFB]]]]

Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling for SOF teams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace "H" and "P" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the "intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance" (ISR) role.

Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an "unmanned combat aerial vehicle" (UCAV).
* [[Beechcraft MC-12W Liberty|MC-12W Liberty]]
* [[Lockheed MC-130|MC-130H Combat Talon II]]
* [[Lockheed MC-130|MC-130J Commando II]]
* [[Lockheed MC-130|MC-130P Combat Shadow]]
* [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator|MQ-1B Predator]]
* [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|MQ-9B Reaper]]

[[File:MQ-9 Reaper UAV (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|MQ-9]] [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]]]

===O – Observation===

These aircraft are modified to observe (through visual or other means) and report tactical information concerning composition and disposition of forces. The OC-135 is specifically designed to support the [[Treaty on Open Skies]] by observing bases and operations of party members under the 2002-signed treaty.
* [[Boeing OC-135B Open Skies|OC-135B Open Skies]]


===R – Reconnaissance===
[[File:Usaf.u2.750pix.jpg|thumb|[[Lockheed U-2]] [[Surveillance aircraft|spy plane]]]]

The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a "utility" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring (RC-26B), ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2)

Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews.
* [[Fairchild C-26 Metroliner|RC-26B]]
* [[Boeing RC-135|RC-135S Cobra Ball]]
* [[Boeing RC-135|RC-135U Combat Sent]]
* [[Boeing RC-135|RC-135V and RC-135W Rivet Joint]]
* [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk|RQ-4B Global Hawk]]
* [[AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven|RQ-11 Raven]]
* [[Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel|RQ-170 Sentinel]]
* [[Lockheed U-2|U-2S "Dragon Lady"]]

[[File:RQ-170 Wiki contributor 3Dartist.png|thumb|right|[[RQ-170 Sentinel]] stealth unmanned aerial vehicle [[reconnaissance aircraft]]]]

===T – Trainer===
The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties.
* [[Raytheon T-1 Jayhawk|T-1A Jayhawk]]
* [[Beechcraft T-6 Texan II|T-6A Texan II]]
* [[Northrop T-38 Talon|T-38A, T-38B, T-38C, and AT-38B Talon]]

===TG – Trainer gliders===
Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy.
* [[Schempp-Hirth Duo Discus|TG-15A]]
* [[Schempp-Hirth Discus-2|TG-15B]]
* [[DG Flugzeugbau|TG-16]]


===U – Utility===
Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, a [[Bell Huey family|Huey]] may be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft.
* [[Pilatus PC-12|U-28A]]
* [[Bell UH-1N Twin Huey|UH-1N Iroquois]]
* [[de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|UV-18B Twin Otter]]


===V – VIP staff transport===
[[File:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg|thumb|[[Boeing VC-25|VC-25A]] ([[Air Force One]])]]

These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel.
* [[Boeing VC-25|VC-25A]] (two used as [[Air Force One]])
* [[Gulfstream III|C-20A, C20B, C20C]], [[Gulfstream IV|C-20G and C20H]]
* [[Learjet 35|C-21A Learjet]]
* [[Boeing C-32|C-32A and C-32B]]
* [[Gulfstream V|C-37A]] and [[Gulfstream G550|C-37B]]
* [[Gulfstream G100|C-38A Courier]]
* [[Boeing C-40 Clipper|C-40B and C-40C]]


===W – Weather reconnaissance===
[[File:WC-130J Hercules of the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron.jpg|thumb|A WC-130J Hercules from the 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron]]
These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons.
* [[Lockheed WC-130|WC-130J Hurricane Hunter]]
* [[Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix|WC-135C and WC-135W Constant Phoenix]]


===Undesignated foreign aircraft===
* [[CASA/IPTN CN-235|CN-235-100]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 December 2004 |title=Photos: Airtech CN-235 Aircraft Pictures |url=http://www.airliners.net/open.file/775218/L/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505143933/http://www.airliners.net/open.file/775218/L/ |archive-date=5 May 2009 |access-date=30 August 2010 |publisher=Airliners.net |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ([[427th Special Operations Squadron]])

[[File:LGM-30G Minuteman III test launch.jpg|thumb|An unarmed Minuteman III ICBM shoots out of the silo during an operational test launch]]

===LGM – Ballistic missile===
* [[LGM-30|LGM-30G]] Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missile


==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
* [[Air Force Association]]
* [[Air Force Combat Ammunition Center]]
* [[Air Force Knowledge Now]]
* [[Airman's Creed]]
* [[Civil Air Patrol]]
* [[Company Grade Officers' Council]]
* [[Department of the Air Force Police]]
* [[Future military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[US Air Force aircraft|List of active United States military aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States (1909–1919)]]
* [[List of United States Air Force installations]]
* [[List of United States Airmen]]
* [[List of U.S. Air Force acronyms and expressions]]
* [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]
* [[Structure of the United States Air Force]]
* [[United States Air Force Band]]
* [[United States Air Force Chaplain Corps]]
* [[United States Air Force Combat Control Team]]
* [[United States Air Force Medical Service]]
* [[United States Air Force Thunderbirds]]
* [[Women in the United States Air Force]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|United States Air Force}}
{{Library resources box}}

===Official===
* [http://www.af.mil/ Official USAF site]
* [http://www.airforce.com/ Official USAF Recruiting site]
* [https://www.youtube.com/AFBlueTube Air Force Blue Tube page on youtube.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131014163529/http://airforcelive.dodlive.mil/ Air Force Live official blog]

===Other===
* [http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/ Searchable database of Air Force historical reports]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141222222945/http://www.usafpatches.com/ USAF emblems]
* [http://www.commtroop.net/ USAF Communications Troops]
* [https://www.rallypoint.com/branches/air-force/servicemembers Members of the US Air Force on RallyPoint]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084129/http://www.militarytimes.com/static/projects/pages/30yearaviation.pdf Aircraft Investment Plan, Fiscal Years (FY) 2011–2040, Submitted with the FY 2011 Budget]
* [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo45920 National Commission on the Structure of the Air Force: Report to the President and the Congress of the United States]
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("United States Air Force" OR "USAF")}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
|before = [[United States Army Air Forces]]
|title = United States Air Force
|years = 1947 – present
|after = Current
}}
{{S-end}}

{{US Air Force navbox}}
{{USAF Weapons}}
{{US military navbox}}
{{DOD agencies navbox}}
{{Uniformed services of the United States}}
{{Allied Air Command}}
{{Air forces}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:United States Air Force| ]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1947]]
[[Category:The Pentagon]]
[[Category:Uniformed services of the United States|Air Force]]
[[Category:United States Department of Defense]]
[[Category:1947 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Collier Trophy recipients]]
[[Category:United States Armed Forces service branches]]

Adedeji Bodunde Badiru

2021-08-20T07:24:40Z

WikiJoy: Fix Spelling

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Professor
| name = Adedeji Bodunde Badiru
| image = Adedeji Bodunde Badiru.jpg
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = Adedeji Bodunde Badiru
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| nationality =
| education =
| occupation = Author, academic, Teacher
| alma_mater = [[Tennessee Technological University]], [[University of Central Florida]],[[Orlando, Florida]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRwfEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Sustainability: A Systems Engineering Approach to the Global Grand Challenge |last2=Agustiady |first2=Tina |date=2021-03-29 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-36802-4 |language=en}}</ref>
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}}
'''Adedeji Bodunde Badiru''' also known as Adedeji Badiru is an [[author]] and the Dean of the Graduate School of Engineering and Management at the [[Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ThriftBooks |title=Adedeji Bodunde Badiru Books, List of books by author Adedeji Bodunde Badiru |url=https://www.thriftbooks.com/a/adedeji-bodunde-badiru/617534/ |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=ThriftBooks |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Books by Adedeji Bodunde Badiru (Author of Handbook of Industrial and Systems Engineering) |url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/856586.Adedeji_Bodunde_Badiru |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref> He is a registered professional engineer (PE), a certified project management professional (PMP), a Fellow of the Institute of Industrial Engineers, and a Fellow of the [[Nigerian Academy of Engineering]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GK6qRMF7bQ8C&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=STEP Project Management: Guide for Science, Technology, and Engineering Projects |date=2009-04-15 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-7236-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Management in Manufacturing and High Technology Operations, 2nd Edition |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Project+Management+in+Manufacturing+and+High+Technology+Operations%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9780471127215 |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=Wiley.com |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji Bodunde |url=https://books.google.com.na/books?id=Wc353OVHjMIC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_vpt_reviews#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Project Management in Manufacturing and High Technology Operations |date=1996-06-07 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-12721-5 |language=en}}</ref>
==Early life and education==
Professor Adedeji Bodunde Badiru completed his B.S. Distinction Industrial Engineering in 1979 [[Tennessee Technological University]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji Bodunde |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Project_Management.html?id=Pr0ZyAEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=Project Management: Systems, Principles, and Applications |date=2012 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-72728-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JN4zEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Innovation Fundamentals: Quantitative and Qualitative Techniques |last2=Lamont |first2=Gary |date=2021-08-05 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-42312-9 |language=en}}</ref> Completed his M.S Mathematics in 1981 at [[Tennessee Technological University]], [[Cookeville]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6nx_DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Manufacturing and Enterprise: An Integrated Systems Approach |last2=Ibidapo-Obe |first2=Oye |last3=Ayeni |first3=Babatunde J. |date=2018-12-14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-50887-5 |language=en}}</ref> In 1982 completed his M.S Industrial Engineering from [[Tennessee Technological University]], [[Cookeville]]. And later in 1984, he completed his Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from the [[University of Central Florida]], [[Orlando, Florida]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GJgoIe3-InQC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Handbook of Industrial Engineering Equations, Formulas, and Calculations |last2=Omitaomu |first2=Olufemi A. |date=2010-09-17 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-7629-5 |language=en}}</ref>In his post-high-school days, he worked as a graphic artist for children's television programs, as a writer and columnist for community newspapers, and as an accounts clerk, He is Specialize in Computationally based project systems modeling, management, and control.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji Bodunde |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Data_Analytics.html?id=ypqvzQEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=Data Analytics: Handbook of Formulas and Techniques |publisher=CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC |isbn=978-0-367-53741-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji Bodunde |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Project_Management.html?id=4dMuzgEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=Project Management: Systems, Principles, and Applications |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group |isbn=978-0-429-28282-9 |language=en}}</ref>
==Career==
Professor Adedeji Bodunde Badiru is the Dean and senior academic officer for the Graduate School of Engineering and Management at the [[Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFAsDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Work Design: A Systematic Approach |last2=Bommer |first2=Sharon C. |date=2017-07-12 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-64891-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Management in Manufacturing and High Technology Operations |url=https://blackwells.co.uk/bookshop/product/Project-Management-in-Manufacturing-and-High-Technology-Operations-by-Adedeji-Bodunde-Badiru/9780471127215 |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=blackwells.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> He is responsible for planning, directing, and controlling all operations related to granting doctoral and master’s degrees, professional continuing cyber education, and research and development programs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-n5CQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Global Manufacturing Technology Transfer: Africa-USA Strategies, Adaptations, and Management |date=2015-06-24 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4822-3554-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Adedeji Bodunde Badiru - AbeBooks |url=https://www.abebooks.com/book-search/author/adedeji-bodunde-badiru/ |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=www.abebooks.com |language=en}}</ref> He was previously Professor and Head of Systems Engineering and Management at AFIT, Professor and Department Head of Industrial & Information Engineering at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, and Professor of Industrial Engineering and Dean of University College at the [[University of Oklahoma]], [[Norman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dt6hNdImDtAC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Computational Economic Analysis for Engineering and Industry |last2=Omitaomu |first2=Olufemi A. |date=2007-06-07 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-0758-9 |language=en}}</ref> He is a registered professional engineer (PE), a certified Project Management Professional (PMP), a Fellow of the Institute of Industrial Engineers, and a Fellow of the Nigerian Academy of Engineering.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evaODwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Systems Engineering Models: Theory, Methods, and Applications |date=2019-03-19 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-26651-2 |language=en}}</ref> His areas of interest include mathematical modeling, systems efficiency analysis, and high-tech product development. He is the author of over 30 books, 35 book chapters, 75 technical journal articles, 115 conference proceedings and presentations. He has published 30 magazine articles and 20 editorials and periodicals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goo7EAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Artificial Intelligence and Digital Systems Engineering |date=2021-08-11 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-47251-6 |language=en}}</ref> He is a member of several professional associations and scholastic honor societies.He is the recipient of the 2009 Dayton Affiliate Society Council Award for Outstanding Scientists and Engineers in the Education category with a commendation from the 128th Senate of Ohio. He also won the 2010 IIE Joint Publishers Book-of-the-Year Award from the Institute of Industrial Engineers. He also won the 2010 ASEE John Imhoff Award for his global contributions to Industrial Engineering Education, the 2011 Federal Employee of the Year Award in the Managerial Category from the International Public Management Association, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, the 2012 Distinguished Engineering Alum Award from the [[University of Central Florida]], and the 2012 Medallion Award from the Institute of Industrial Engineers for his global contributions in the advancement of the profession.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQadDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Project Management: Systems, Principles, and Applications, Second Edition |date=2019-05-29 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-00114-3 |language=en}}</ref> In February 2013, he was selected as a finalist for the Jefferson Science Fellows (JSF) program by the US National Academy of Sciences and the US Department of State. Badiru was the leader of the AFIT team that won the 2013 Air Force Organizational Excellence Award for Air University C3 (Cost-Conscious Culture). His most recent award is the 2015 National Public Service Award at the overall US Air Force level. He has served as a consultant to several organizations around the world including [[Russia]], [[Mexico]], [[Taiwan]], [[Nigeria]], [[Ghana]], and [[Canada]]. He has conducted customized training workshops for numerous organizations including [[Sony]], AT&T, Seagate Technology, [[United States Air Force| U.S. Air Force]], Oklahoma Gas & Electric, Oklahoma Asphalt Pavement Association, Hitachi, Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation, and ExxonMobil. He holds a leadership certificate from the [[University of Tennessee]] Leadership Institute. He has served as a Technical Project Reviewer, curriculum reviewer, and proposal reviewer for several organizations including The Third-World Network of Scientific Organizations, Italy, National Science Foundation, National Research Council, and the American Council on Education. He is on the editorial and review boards of several technical journals and book publishers. He has also served as an Industrial Development Consultant to the United Nations Development Program. He is also a program evaluator for ABET, the international engineering, and technology accreditation body. In 2011, Prof. Badiru led a research team to develop analytical models for Systems Engineering Research Efficiency (SEER) for the Air Force acquisitions integration office at the Pentagon. He has led a multi-year composite manufacturing collaborative research between the Air Force Institute of Technology and Wyle Aerospace Group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Booktopia Search Results for 'Adedeji%20Bodunde%20Badiru'. We sell books, hardback, paperback, audio, CDs. |url=https://www.booktopia.com.au/search.ep?author=Adedeji%2520Bodunde%2520Badiru |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=www.booktopia.com.au}}</ref>
He has diverse areas of avocation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AFIT Bio for Dr. Adedeji B. Badiru Dean - Graduate School of Engineering & Management |url=https://www.afit.edu/bios/bio.cfm?facID=7 |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=www.afit.edu |language=en}}</ref> His professional accomplishments are coupled with his passion for writing about everyday events and interpersonal issues, especially those dealing with social responsibility. Outside of the academic realm, he writes motivational poems, editorials, and newspaper commentaries; as well as engaging in paintings and crafts. As a contribution to sparking the interest of kids in science and engineering, He runs the Physics of Soccer website. He is the founder of the Association of Military Industrial Engineers (AMIE). He also runs ABICS Publications, through which he publishes non-technical guide books for home, work, and leisure. A prolific researcher and author, Deji espouses the spirit of sharing knowledge freely and widely, which is the reason he offers self-published guide books to make his publications affordable and accessible to the general public<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adedeji Bodunde Badiru Books, Author Bio, Book Reviews & More at Alibris |url=https://www.alibris.com/search/books/author/Adedeji-Bodunde-Badiru?aid=275529 |access-date=2021-08-20 |website=www.alibris.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fuzzy Engineering Expert Systems With Neural Network Applications |url=https://www.sapnaonline.com/books/fuzzy-engineering-expert-systems-neural-adedeji-bodunde-0471293318-9780471293316 |access-date=2021-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Data_Analytics.html?id=v9EHEAAAQBAJ&source=kp_author_description&redir_esc=y |title=Data Analytics: Handbook of Formulas and Techniques |date=2020-12-22 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-29733-1 |language=en}}</ref>
==Awards==
*2016 Outstanding Global Engineering Education Award, Industrial Engineering and Operations Management (IEOM) award, Sept 24, 2016, Detroit, MI<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfZ1DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Mechanics of Project Management: Nuts and Bolts of Project Execution |last2=Badiru |first2=S. Abidemi |last3=Badiru |first3=I. Adetokunboh |date=2018-10-25 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-79122-2 |language=en}}</ref>
*2015 Air Force-level Winner of 2015 National Public Service Award, The American Society for Public Administration and the National Academy of Public Administration, 2015<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDwPEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Work Design: A Systematic Approach |last2=Bommer |first2=Sharon C. |date=2017-07-12 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4987-5574-0 |language=en}}</ref>
*2013 Father D. J. Slattery Excellence Award, Saint Finbarr’s College Alumni Association, North America Chapter, August 31, 2013<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qat-DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Project Management for Research: A Guide for Graduate Students |last2=Rusnock |first2=Christina F. |last3=Valencia |first3=Vhance V. |date=2018-09-03 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-315-36010-2 |language=en}}</ref>
*2013 Award Team Leader, Air Force Organizational Excellence Award for Air University C3 (Cost Conscious Culture), AFIT, Feb 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXvRDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Innovation: A Systems Approach |date=2020-03-04 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-57582-2 |language=en}}</ref>
*2013 Finalist, Jefferson Science Fellows Program, National Academy of Sciences, Feb 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwHMBQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Industrial Control Systems: Mathematical and Statistical Models and Techniques |last2=Ibidapo-Obe |first2=Oye |last3=Ayeni |first3=Babatunde J. |date=2016-04-19 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-7559-5 |language=en}}</ref>
*2012 IIE Medallion Award, Institute of Industrial Engineers, May 21, 2012<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IqADwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Manufacturing and Enterprise: An Integrated Systems Approach |last2=Ibidapo-Obe |first2=Oye |last3=Ayeni |first3=Babatunde J. |date=2018-12-14 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-50825-7 |language=en}}</ref>
*2012 Book of the Month Recognition for Statistical Techniques for Project Control, Institute of Industrial Engineers, May 2012<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nFAsDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Work Design: A Systematic Approach |last2=Bommer |first2=Sharon C. |date=2017-07-12 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-64891-2 |language=en}}</ref>
*2012 Distinguished Alumni Award, College of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, March 22, 2012.
*2011 Excellence Recognition Coin from Wing Commander, 689th Combat Communications Wing, Nov 2011
*2011 Nomination by Women in Operations Research and Management Science (WORMS) for outstanding professional mentorship for career advancement of women, INFORMS, Aug 2011
*2011 Federal Employee of the Year Award in the Managerial Category, International Public Management Association, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, May 5, 2011.
*2011 AFIT Graduate School Dean’s Coin Award for Recognition of Exceptional Performance on International Exchange Visit Program, March 2011
*2011 Commandant’s Recognition Plaque for Superior Service from Nigerian Air Force Institute of Technology, February 2011
*2010 ASEE John L. Imhoff Global Excellence Award for Industrial Engineering Education, American Society for Engineering Education
*2010 IIE/Joint Publishers Book-of-the-Year Award for “Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering,” Institute of Industrial Engineers.
*2009 Editor’s Choice Award for “The Physics of Soccer: Using math and science to improve your game,” iUniverse, Inc., November 2009.
*2009 Book-of-the-Month, “Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering,” IE Magazine, August 2009.
*2009 Blue Dart Award, Commander’s Academic Recognition, Air Education and Training Command, Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, AL, May 22, 2009.
*2009 Recipient of Dayton Affiliate Society Council (ASC) Award for Outstanding Scientists and Engineers in the Education category with a commendation from the 128th Senate of Ohio.
*2009 Wellington Award, Institute of Industrial Engineers, Engineering Economy Division.
*2008 Edelman Award Laureate, Institute for Operations Research and Management Science (INFORMS), Baltimore, MD, April 14, 2008.
*2007 Book-of-the-Month Award for “Industrial Project Management,” IE Magazine, Institute of Industrial Engineers, December 2007.
*2007 Runner-Up Award, Supervisor of the Year Award sponsored by Federally Employed Women, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, November 2007.
*2006 Election to Fellow of Nigerian Academy of Engineering, June 2006.
*2004 UPS Achievement Award for Minority Advancement, Institute of Industrial Engineers in recognition of his national accomplishments in advancing women and minorities in the Industrial Engineering profession.
*2003 GREAT BOSS Excellence Award, Staff, Department of Industrial & Information Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, October 2003
*2000 Educational Leadership and Service Award, (ROTC) Reserve Officers Training Corps Detachments, Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine, University of Oklahoma, July 2000
*1999 Distinguished Alumni Award, Department of Industrial Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee, April 1999.
*1998 Administrative Accomplishment Recognition from President of University of Oklahoma, April 98.
*1998 Distinguished Alumni Award, Saint Finbarr's College Alumni Association, Nigeria.
*1996 Election to Fellow of Institute of Industrial Engineers
*1998 Distinguished Professional Achievement Award, Nigerian Eagles Society, New Jersey, Apr 98
*1996 Outstanding Publication Award, Institute of Industrial Engineers, May 1996
*1995 Regents' Award for Superior Teaching, University of Oklahoma, April 1995
*1995 School of IE Outstanding Professor of the Year Award, Univ of Oklahoma, April 1995
*1995 Lectureship Award, College of Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Aug 1995
*1994 Eugene L. Grant Award for Best Paper in Volume 38 of The Engineering Economist; awarded by American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
*1994 Lectureship Award, College of Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Aug 1994
*1993 College of Engineering Outstanding Professor of the Year, University of Oklahoma, April 1993
*1993 School of IE Outstanding Professor of the Year Award, Univ of Oklahoma, April 1993
*1991 Distinguished Professional Achievement Award, Organization of Nigerian Professionals, New Orleans, LA, May 1991
*1990 Energy Liaison Award, Physical Plant Services, University of Oklahoma, in recognition of energy conservation services, April 1990
*1990 Summer Session Instructional Award, Oklahoma Center for Continuing Education, Aug 1990
*1989 Award of Excellence as Oklahoma City Chapter President, Institute of Industrial Engineers, 1989, Oklahoma City, OK
*1988 Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award, Society of Automotive Engineers, Aug 1988
*1988 University of Oklahoma Associates Distinguished Lectureship Award, April 1988
*1988 Finalist Achievement Award, Franz Edelman Management Science Award, The Institute of Management Sciences, with Ravi Ravindran, Bob Foote, L. Leemis, and L. Williams, Aug 1988
*1987 Faculty Advisor Award, Institute of Industrial Engineers Student Chapter, University of Oklahoma, April 1987<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fuZ3DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=The Story of Industrial Engineering: The Rise from Shop-Floor Management to Modern Digital Engineering |date=2018-11-09 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-86783-5 |language=en}}</ref>
==Publications==
===Books===
*Badiru, A. B. and Sharon C. Bommer (2017), Work Design: A Systematic Approach, Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl
*Badiru, A. B., Vhance C. Valencia, and David Liu (2017), Additive Manufacturing Handbook: Product Development for the Defense Industry, Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl
*Badiru, A. B., Christina F. Rusnock, and Vhance V. Valencia (2016), Project Management for Research: A Guide for Graduate Students, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and LeeAnn Racz (2016), Handbook of Measurements: Benchmarks for Systems Accuracy and Precision, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. (2016), Global Manufacturing Technology Transfer: Africa-USA Strategies, Adaptations, and Management, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), editor; Handbook of Industrial & Systems Engineering, Second Edition, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and LeeAnn Racz (2014), Handbook of Emergency Response: Human Factors and Systems Engineering Approach, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and S. O. Osisanya (2013), Project Management for the Oil & Gas Industry, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Agustiady, Tina and Badiru, A. B. (2013), Sustainability: Utilizing Lean Six Sigma Techniques, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B.; Oye Ibidapo-Obe; and B. J. Ayeni (2012), Industrial Control Systems: Mathematical and Statistical Models and Techniques, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. (2012), Project Management: Systems, Principles, and Applications, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and Tina Kovach, Statistical Techniques for Project Control (2012), Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and O. A. Omitaomu (2011), Handbook of Industrial Engineering Equations, Formulas, and Calculations, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. (2009), STEP Project Management: Guide for Science, Technology, and Engineering Projects, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and Marlin U. Thomas (2009), editors, Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2009. This book won the book-of-the-Year Award from the Institute of Industrial Engineers in 2010
*Badiru, A. B. (2008), Triple C Model of Project Management: Communication, Cooperation, and Coordination, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B.; Abi Badiru; Ade Badiru (2008), Industrial Project Management: Concepts, Tools, and Techniques, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2008. This book won book-of-the-Month Recognition from Institute of Industrial Engineers in Dec 2008
*Badiru, A. B. and O. A. Omitaomu (2007), Computational Economic Analysis for Engineering and Industry, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. (2006), editor; Handbook of Industrial & Systems Engineering, Taylor & Francis CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
*Badiru, A. B. and John Cheung (2002), Fuzzy Engineering Expert Systems with Neural Network Applications, John Wiley & Sons, New York
*Badiru, A. B. (1996), Project Management in Manufacturing and High Technology Operations, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York
*Badiru, A. B. (1996), Project Management for Research: A Guide for Engineering and Science, Chapman & Hall, London, UK. Out of Print
*Badiru, A. B. (1995), Industry's Guide to ISO 9000, John Wiley & Sons, New York
*Badiru, A. B. and P. S. Pulat (1995), Comprehensive Project Management: Integrating Optimization Models, Management Principles, and Computers, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
*Badiru, A. B. and B. J. Ayeni (1993), Practitioner's Guide to Quality and Process Improvement, Chapman & Hall, London, UK. Out of Print
*Badiru, A. B. (1993), Managing Industrial Development Projects: A Project Management Approach, Van Nostrand/John Wiley, New York.
*Badiru, A. B. (1993), Quantitative Models for Project Planning, Scheduling, and Control, Quorum Books, Greenwood Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut
*Badiru, A. B. (1992), Expert Systems Applications in Engineering and Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey
*Badiru, A. B. (1991), Project Management Tools for Engineering and Management Professionals, Industrial Engineering & Management Press, Norcross, GA
*Badiru, A. B. and Gary E. Whitehouse (1989), Computer Tools, Models, and Techniques for Project Management, TAB Professional & Reference Books, Inc., Blue Ridge Summit, PA
*Badiru, A. B. (1988), Project Management in Manufacturing and High Technology Operations, John Wiley & Sons, New York
*Badiru, A. B. and Iswat Badiru, Technical and Scientific Word Processing with Lotus Manuscript 2.0, Kern International, Inc., Rockland, MA 1989. Out of Print
*Badiru, A. B. and Iswat Badiru, A Complete Guide to Lotus Manuscript 2.0, Kern International, Inc., Rockland, MA, 1988. Out of Print<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pQlFp6VSyhkC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Triple C Model of Project Management: Communication, Cooperation, and Coordination |date=2008-04-18 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-5114-8 |language=en}}</ref>
===Guide Books(Independently Published)===
*Badiru, Deji, Kitchen Dynamics: The Rice Way, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2016.
*Badiru, Adedeji, Folaranmi Babatunde Odunayo – Festschrift in Honour of a Business Leader: Silent Works, Great Works, ABICS Publications, Dayton, Ohio, USA, 2015
*Badiru, Deji, Consumer Economics: Time Value of Dollars and Sense, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2015.
*Badiru, Deji, Youth Soccer Training Slides: A Math and Science Approach, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2014.
*Badiru, Deji, My Blue Book of Project Management: What, Where, When, Who, and How, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2014.
*Badiru, Deji, 8 by 3 Paradigm for Time Management: Balancing Work, Home, and Leisure, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2013.
*Badiru, Deji, Badiru’s Equation of Student Success: Intelligence, Common Sense, and Self-Discipline, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2013.
*Badiru, Iswat and Deji Badiru, Isi Cookbook: Collection of Easy Nigerian Recipes, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2013.
*Badiru, Deji and Iswat Badiru, Physics in the Nigerian Kitchen: The Science, the Art, and the Recipes, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2013.
*Badiru, Deji, Blessings of a Father: Education contributions of Father Slattery at Saint Finbarr’s College, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2013.
*Badiru, Deji, Physics of Soccer: Using Math and Science to Improve Your Game, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2010. Received Editor’s Choice Award.
*Badiru, Deji, Getting things done through project management, iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 2009. Received citation in Business Week's Business Exchange/ITBusinessEdge for Business Process Improvement literature, September 22, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., Blessings of a Father: A Tribute to the Life and Work of Reverend Father Denis J. Slattery, Heriz Designs and Prints, Lagos, Nigeria, 2005.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9foyEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Operational Excellence in the New Digital Era |last2=Cromarty |first2=Lauralee |date=2021-06-22 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-45371-3 |language=en}}</ref>
===Book Chapter===
*Badiru, A. B. (2016), “Global Engineering Education System: Badiru’s 15 Grand Challenges,” Book Chapter contribution to Festschrift in Honor of Professor Oye Ibidapo-Obe, University of Lagos, Nigeria
*Badiru, A. B. (2011), “Introduction to Half-Life Theory of Learning Curves,” in Jaber, M. editor, Learning Curves: Theory, Models, and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 129-161.
*Badiru, A. B. (2011), “Industrial Work Measurement through Multivariate Learning Curves” in Jaber, M. editor, Learning Curves: Theory, Models, and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 349-366.
*Badiru, A. B. and Anota Ijaduola (2009), “Half-Life Theory of Learning Curves,” in Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering, Badiru, A. B. and M. U. Thomas, Editors, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2009, pp. 33-1 to 33-28.
*Badiru, A. B., “Critical Resource Diagramming and Work Rate Analysis,” in Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering, Badiru, A. B. and M. U. Thomas, Editors, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2009, pp. 30-1 to 30-24.
*Badiru, A. B. and Charles H. Aikens, “Optimization Model for Military Budget Allocation and Capital Rationing,” in Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering, *Badiru, A. B. and M. U. Thomas, Editors, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2009, pp. 8-1 to 8-22.
*Badiru, A. B., “Hierarchical Dynamic Decision Making,” in Handbook of Military Industrial Engineering, Badiru, A. B. and M. U. Thomas, Editors, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2009, pp. 24-1 to 24-12.
*Hudson, C. Randy and A. Badiru, “Energy Systems,” in Operations Research and Management Science Handbook, A. Ravi Ravindran, editor, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2007, pp 19.1-19.29.
*Badiru, A. B., “Project Management,” in Operations Research and Management Science Handbook, A. Ravi Ravindran, editor, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, FL, 2007, pp. 15.1-15.37.
*Sawhney, R.; A. B. Badiru; and A. Niranjan, “A Model for Integrating and Managing Resources for Technical Training Programs,” in Internet Economy: Opportunities and Challenges for Developed and Developing Regions of the World , Y. A. Hosni and Tarek M. Khalil, editors, Elsevier, Boston, MA, 2004, pp. 337-351.
*Badiru, A. B., “Engineering Professional Practice in the Context of a Developing Nation,” in Engineering Education, Research and Practice: A Festschrift in Honour of Professor I. O. Oladapo, V. O. S. Olunloyo, Editor, Univ of Lagos Press, Lagos, Nigeria, 2002, pp. 281-303.
*Milanovic, M.; A. Badiru; T. Trafalis, "Taxonomical Analysis of Project Activity Networks Using Competitive Artificial Neural Networks," in Intelligent Engineering Systems Through Artificial Neural Networks, Vol. 10, C. H. Dagli et al, Editors, ASME Press, New York, 2000, pp. 437-442.
*McCauley-Bell, Pamela; Lesia L. Crumpton-Young; and A. B. Badiru, "Techniques and Applications of Fuzzy Theory in Quantifying Risk Levels in Occupational Injuries and Illnesses," in Fuzzy Theory Systems: Techniques and Applications, Vol. 1, Cornelius Leonides, Editor, Academic Press, 1999, pp. 223-265.
*Badiru, A. B., "PERT," in Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Volume 16, John Webster, Editor, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1999, pp. 126-143.
*Badiru, A. B., “Work Rate Analysis,” in Industrial Engineering Applications and Practice: Users’ Encyclopedia, Anil Mital, Editor, CD-ROM, International Journal of Industrial Engineering, ISBN 0-9654-506-0-0, 1999.
*Badiru, A. B., "Quality Improvement Through Learning Curve Analysis," in The Handbook of TQM, Christian Madu, Editor, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, 1998, pp. 87-107.
*Peters, J. W. and A. B. Badiru, "Heuristic DSS Database Structure for Diagnostic Expert Systems," in Manufacturing Decision Support Systems, H. Parsaei, Editor, Chapman & Hall, London, 1997, pp. 111-143.
*Pulat, P. S. and A. B. Badiru, "Computer Simulation Approach to Hierarchical Dynamic Decision Making," Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology, Vol. 33, Allen Kent and James G. Williams, Editors, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1995, pp. 73-96.
*Badiru, A. B., "Resource Management," in Handbook of Design, Manufacturing and Automation, Richard C. Dorf and Andrew Kusiak, Editors, John Wiley & Sons, 1994, pp. 779-799.
*Badiru, A. B. and R. E. Schlegel, "Project Management in Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Implementation," in Organization and Management of Advanced Manufacturing, W. Karwowski and G. Salvendy, Editors, John Wiley & Sons, 1994, pp. 255-279.
*Badiru, A. B., "Project Management in the Adoption and Implementation of New Technologies," in Management of New Technologies for Global Competitiveness, Madu, Christian N., Editor, Quorum Books, Greenwood Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1993, pp. 165-182.
*Badiru, A. B., "The Role of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems in New Technologies," in Management of New Technologies for Global Competitiveness, Madu, Christian N., Editor, Quorum Books, Greenwood Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1993, pp. 301-317.
*Badiru, A. B., "Scheduling of Concurrent Manufacturing Projects," in Concurrent Engineering, Parsaei, H. R. and W. G. Sullivan, Eds, Chapman & Hall, London, 1993, pp. 93-109.
*Badiru, A. B., "Multivariate Learning Curve Model for Manufacturing Economic Analysis," in Economics of Advanced Manufacturing Systems, Parsaei, H. R. and Anil Mital Editors, Chapman & Hall, London, 1992, pp. 141-162.
*Badiru, A. B. and B. L. Foote, "Utility-Based Justification of Advanced Manufacturing Technology," in Economic and Financial Justification of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies, Parsaei, H.; W. Sullivan; and T. Hanley, Editors, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, 1992, pp. 189-207.
*Whitehouse, Gary E. and A. B. Badiru, "Recent Developments in Resource-Constrained Network Analysis," in Management of R&D and Engineering, Dundar F. Kocaoglu, Editor, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, 1992, pp. 128-142.
*Foote, B. L.; A. Ravindran; A. Badiru, L. Leemis; and L. Williams, "An Application of Simulation and Network Analysis to Capacity Planning and Material Handling Systems at Tinker Air Force Base" in Excellence in Management Science Practice - A Readings Book, A. Assad, E. Wasil, and G. Lilien, eds., Prentice-Hall, 1992, pp. 349-362.
*Sundaram, Deepak, and A. B. Badiru, "JUSTEX: An Expert System for the Justification of Advanced Manufacturing Technology," in Knowledge-Based Systems and Neural Networks: Techniques and Applications, Sharda, R. et al., Eds, Elsevier, New York, 1991, pp. 89-98.
*Badiru, A. B., "Achieving Systems Integration Through Project Management Techniques," in Guide to Systems Integration, Joe H. Mize, Editor, Industrial Engineering & Management Press, Norcross, GA, 1991, pp. 374-379.
*Badiru, A. B., "Strategic Planning for Automated Manufacturing: Some Factors and Dimensions," in Justification Methods for Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, Parsaei, H. R., T. L. Ward, and W. Karwowski, Eds, Elsevier, The Netherlands, 1990, pp. 17-39.
*Badiru, A. B., "Artificial Intelligence Applications in Manufacturing," in The Automated Factory Handbook: Technology and Management, Cleland, David I. and Bopaya Bidanda, Editors, , TAB Professional and Reference Books, New York, 1990, pp. 496-526.
*Badiru, A. B. and Gary E. Whitehouse, "Introduction to STARC: A Project Scheduling Package," in Simulation, IIE Press, Norcross, GA, 1988, pp. 117-123.
*Badiru, A. B., "Expert Systems and Industrial Engineers," in Expert Systems, Industrial Engineering & Management Press, Norcross, GA, 1988, pp. 26-30.
*Badiru, A. B. and Christian S. Bauer, "Stochastic Rate of Return Analysis on a Microcomputer," in Softcover Software, IIE Press, Norcross, GA, 1985, pp. 127-135.
*Badiru, A. B., "Process Capability Analysis on a Microcomputer," in Softcover Software, Industrial Engineering & Management Press, Norcross, Georgia, 1985, pp. 7-14.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQbLBQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Statistical Techniques for Project Control |last2=Agustiady |first2=Tina |date=2012-01-18 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-8318-7 |language=en}}</ref>
===Refereed Journal Publications===
*Badiru, Adedeji B. (2016), “Equity Breakeven Point: A Graphical and Tabulation Tool for Engineering Managers,” Engineering Management Journal, Vol 28, Issue 4, pp. 249-255.
*Badiru, Adedeji B. (2016), “Quality Insights: Visualizing the Cost of Quality Investment Using Equity Breakeven Point,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6, Nos 1/2, pp. 40-53.
*Bommer, S. C. and A. B. Badiru (2016), “Quality Insights: Impact of Cognitive Load on the Manufacturing Cost of Quality,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology, Vol. 6, Nos 1/2, pp. 115-122.
*Badiru, Adedeji B. and Anna E. Maloney (2016), “A Conceptual Framework for the Application of Systems Approach to Intelligence Operations: Using HUMINT to augment SIGINT,” American Intelligence Journal, accepted to appear
*Badiru, Adedeji B., John Elshaw, and Ibrahim Ade Badiru (2015), “Quality Insights: Systems-based product quality assessment for customer preferences,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology (IJQET), Vol. 5, No. 3/4, 2015, pp. 266-280.
*Badiru, Adedeji B. and Anna E. Maloney (2015), “Quality Insights: Measurement and Quality Rationing: An Analytical Approach,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology (IJQET), Vol. 5, No. 2, 2015, pp. 178-188.
*Moore, Justin R., John J. Elshaw, Adedeji B. Badiru, and Jonathan D. Ritschel (2015), “Acquisition Challenge: The Importance of Incompressibility in Comparing Learning Curve Models,” Defense ARJ (Defense Acquisition Research Journal), Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 416-449.
*Badiru, Adedeji B. (2015), “A Systems Model for Global Engineering Education: The 15 Grand Challenges,” Engineering Education Letters, Vol. 1, Issue 1, Open Access Link: 2015:3
*Badiru, A. B. (2015), “Quality Insights: Learning, forgetting, and relearning quality: a half-life learning curve modeling approach,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 79-100.
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), “Quality Insights: The DEJI Model for Quality Design, Evaluation, Justification, and Integration,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 369-378.
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), “Quality Insights: Global Quality Research, Thoughts, and Perspectives,” International Journal of Quality Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 269-272.
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), “Adverse Impacts of Furlough Programs on Employee Work Rate and Organizational Productivity,” Defense ARJ (Defense Acquisition Research Journal), April 2014, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 595–624.
*Badiru, A. B., J. Elshaw, and M. Everly (2013), “Half-Life Learning Curve Computations for Airframe Life-Cycle Costing of Composite Manufacturing,” Journal of Aviation and Aerospace Perspectives, Fall 2013 – Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 6-37.
*Badiru, A. B. and Marlin Thomas (2013): Quantification of the PICK Chart for Process Improvement Decisions, Journal of Enterprise Transformation, 3:1, 1-15, 2013.
*Badiru, A. B. (2012), “Application of the DEJI Model for Aerospace Product Integration,” Journal of Aviation and Aerospace Perspectives (JAAP), Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 20-34, Fall 2012.
*Badiru, A. B. (2012), “Half-Life Learning Curves in the Defense Acquisition Lifecycle,” Defense Acquisition Research Journal, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 283-308, 2012.
*Wu, Teresa; Mengqi Hu; A. B. Badiru; and Som Soni (2012), “A Single Loop Deterministic Method for Reliability-Based Design Optimization,” Engineering Optimization, published online, iFirst, July 2012, pp. 1-24.
*Badiru, A. B. and Rochelle R. Jones (2012), “Project Management for Executing Distance Education Programs,” Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, Vol. 138, No. 3, July 2012, pp. 154-162.
*Badiru, A. B. and Rochelle R. Jones (2012), “A systems framework for distance learning in engineering graduate programs,” Systems Engineering, Vol. 15, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 191-202.
*Grimaila, Michael and A. B. Badiru (2011), “A Hybrid Dynamic Decision-Making Methodology for Defensive Information Technology Contingency Measure Selection in the Presence of Cyber Threats,” Operational Research: An International Journal, Vol. 10, No. 3, Jan 2011, pp. 1-22.
*Wu, Teresa; Som Soni; Mengqi Hu; Fan Li; and A. Badiru (2011), "The application of Memetic Algorithms for Forearm Crutch Design: A Case Study," Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Vol. 2011, Paper ID 162580, pp. 1-14.
*Omitaomu, O. A., MK Jeong, and A. B. Badiru (2011), “Online Support Vector Regression With Varying Parameters for Time-Dependent Data,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics-Part A: Systems and Humans, Vol. 41, No. 1, Jan 2011, pp. 191-197.
*Badiru, A. B. (2010), “Half-life of Learning Curves for Information Technology Project Management,” International Journal of IT Project Management, 1(3), 28-45, July-September 2010.
*Badiru, A. B., Jeremy M. Slagley, and David A. Smith (2010), “Project Management Application for Engineering Program Accreditation Preparation,” Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice, Vol 136, No. 1, Jan 2010, pp. 39-47.
*Badiru, A. B. (2009), “Earning Value to Save Projects,” Value World, Vol. 32, No. 3, Fall 2009, pp. 15-22.
*Yang, B., A. B. Badiru (2009), "A population management genetic algorithm on coordinated scheduling problem between suppliers and manufacturer," Journal of the Korea Safety Management and Science 11(3), 2009: 131-138,
*Badiru, A. B. and Anota Ijaduola (2009), “Half-Life Theory of Learning Curves for System Performance Analysis,” IEEE Systems Journal, Vol. 3, No 2, June 2009, pp. 154-165.
*Badiru, A. B. and O. Ibidapo-Obe (2008), “On Set-Theoretic Fundamentals of Systems Integration,” African Journal Of Computing & ICT (Journal of the IEEE Nigeria Computer Chapter), Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2008, pp. 3-25.
*Thal, Alfred E.; A. B. Badiru; and R. Sawhney (2007), “Distributed Project Management for New Product Development,” Int. Journal of Electronic Business Management, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2007, pp. 93-104.
*Omitaomu, Olufemi A. and A. B. Badiru (2007), “Fuzzy Present Value Analysis Model for Evaluating Information System Projects,” Engineering Economist , Vol. 52, 2007, pp. 157-178.
*O. A. Omitaomu, M. K. Jeong, A. B. Badiru, and J. Wesley Hines (2007), “Online Support Vector Regression Approach for the Monitoring of Motor Shaft Misalignment and Feedwater Flow Rate,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Part C, Vol. 37, No. 5, 2007, pp. 962-970.
*Jeong, M. K.; O. A. Omitaomu; A. B. Badiru; W. Hines (2006), “On-Line Prediction of Motor Shaft Misalignment Using Fourier-Transformed Power Spectrum Data and Support Vector Regression,” Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 128, Issue 4, 2006, pp. 1019-1024.
*Badiru, A. B.; O. A. Omitaomu; and A. S. Asaolu (2005), “Eyewitness Information Management System Using Neuro-Fuzzy Classification Schemes,” Journal of Information Science & Technology, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2005, pp. 49-64.
*Yang, Byoung-Hak, A. Badiru, and Sirisha Saripalli, “A Facility Resource Scheduling for Two-Stage Supply Chain,” Journal of the Korean Institute of Plant Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2005, pp. 67-78.
*Omitaomu, Olufemi A.; Levi Smith; and A. B. Badiru, “The ENGINeering Economic Analysis (ENGINEA) Software: Enhancing Teaching and Application of Economic Analysis Techniques,” Computers in Education Journal, Vol.15, No. 4, 2005, pp. 32-38.
*Hudson, C. Randy and A. B. Badiru, “Use of Time-Aggregated Data in Economic Screening Analyses of Combined Heat and Power Systems,” Cogeneration and Distributed Generation Journal, Vol 19, No. 3, 2004, pp. 7-19.
*Olunloyo, V. O. S., Abayomi Ajofoyinbo, and A. B. Badiru, “Neurofuzzy Mathematical Model for Monitoring Flow Parameters of Natural Gas,” Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 149, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 747-770.
*Milatovic, M. and A. B. Badiru, “Applied Mathematics Modeling of Intelligent Mapping and Scheduling of Interdependent and Multifunctional Project Resources,” Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 149, Issue 3, 2004, pp. 703-721.
*Badiru, A. B. and H. Olufemi Omitaomu, “Design and Analysis of Tent Cash Flow Models for Engineering Economy Lectures,” Engineering Economist, Vol. 48, No. 4, 2003, pp. 363-374.
*Asaolu, O. S.; Ibidapo-Obe, O.; and A. B. Badiru, "A New Method for the Numerical Solution of Simultaneous Nonlinear Equations," Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 125, 2002, pp. 133-140.
*Ibidapo-Obe, O.; O. S. Asaolu; and A. B. Badiru, "Generalized Solutions of the Pursuit Problem in Three-Dimensional Euclidean Space," Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 119, No. 1, 2001, pp. 35-45.
*Milatovic, M. and A. B. Badiru, "Control Sequence Generation in Multistage Fuzzy Control Systems for Design Process," AIEDAM (Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis, and Manufacturing), Vol. 15, 2001, pp. 81-87.
*Sieger, David; A. B. Badiru; and M. Milatovic (2000), "A Metric for Agility Measurement in Product Development," IIE Transactions, Vol. 32, pp. 637-645.
*Ibidapo-Obe, O.; O. S. Asaolu; and A. B. Badiru, "Optimal and Multicriteria Probabilistic Design of Homogeneous Beams," Engineering Design & Automation, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1998, pp. 335-341.
*Badiru, A. B.; M. Milatovic; and S. Vasilev, "Mathematical and Graphical Analysis of Investment Cash Flows," Engineering Valuation and Cost Analysis, Vol. 1, Issue 4, 1998, pp. 315-320.
*Milatovic, Milan and A. B. Badiru, "Fast Estimation of the Modal Position for Unimodally Distributed Data," Intelligent Data Analysis, Vol. 2, No. 1, Jan. 1998, On Line Journal
*Badiru, A. B. and D. B. Sieger, "Neural Network as a Simulation Metamodel in Economic Analysis of Risky Projects," European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 105, 1998, pp. 130-142.
*Ibidapo-Obe, O.; F. O. Ogunwolu; and A. B. Badiru, "Simulation and Analysis of the Mass Transit Routes in Lagos, Nigeria," International Journal of Computer Applications in Technology, Vol. 10, No. 1-2, 1997, pp. 73-80.
*McCauley-Bell, Pam and A. B. Badiru, "Fuzzy Modeling and Analytic Hierarchy Processing - Means to Quantify Risk Levels Associated with Occupational Injuries -- Part II: The Development of a Fuzzy Rule-Based Model for the Prediction of Injury," IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 4, No. 2, May 1996, pp. 132-138.
*McCauley-Bell, Pam and A. B. Badiru, "Fuzzy Modeling and Analytic Hierarchy Processing to Quantify Risk Levels Associated with Occupational Injuries -- Part I: The Development of Fuzzy Linguistic Risk Levels," IEEE Trans on Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 4, No. 2, May 1996, pp. 124-131.
*Badiru, A. B., "Simulation and Regression Metamodels of Activity Networks in Production Systems," International Journal in Computer Simulation, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1996, pp. 347-363.
*Badiru, A. B. and Alaa Arif, "Flexpert: Facility Layout Expert System Using Fuzzy Linguistic Relationship Codes," IIE Transactions, Vol. 28, No. 4, April 1996, pp. 295-308.
*Sieger, David B. and A. B. Badiru, "A Performance Parameter Model for Design Integration," Engineering Design and Automation, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 137-148, 1995.
*Al-Harkan, Ibrahim and A. B. Badiru, "Knowledge-Based Approach to Machine Sequencing," Engineering Design and Automation, Vol. 1, No. 1, Spring 1995, pp. 43-58.
*Badiru, A. B., "Incorporating Learning Curve Effects into Critical Resource Diagramming," Project Management Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2, June 1995, pp. 38-45.
*Ibidapo-Obe, O.; A. B. Alonge; and A. B. Badiru, "On Active Controls for a Biped Mechanism," Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 69, 1995, pp. 159-183.
*Badiru, A. B., "Multivariate Analysis of the Effect of Learning and Forgetting on Product Quality," International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1995, pp. 777-794.
*Badiru, A. B. and Vassilios Theodoracatos, "Analytical and Integrative Expert System Model for Design Project Management," Jnrl of Design and Manufacturing, Vol. 4, 1994, pp. 195-213.
*Badiru, A. B., "Multifactor Learning and Forgetting Models for Productivity and Performance Analysis," Int Journal of Human Factors in Manufacturing, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1994, pp. 37-54. Won the 1996 IIE Outstanding Publication Award.
*Badiru, A. B., "A New Computational Search Technique for AI-Based on Cantor Set," Applied Mathematics and Computation, Vol. 55, 1993, pp. 255-274.
*Badiru, A. B., "Activity-Resource Assignments Using Critical Resource Diagramming," Project Management Journal, Vol. 24, No. 3, Sept. 1993, pp. 15-21.
*Badiru, A. B.; P. S. Pulat; and M. Kang, "DDM: Decision Support System For Hierarchical Dynamic Decision Making," Decision Support Systems, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1993, pp. 1-18.
*Badiru, A. B.; Bob Foote; and J. W. Peters, "A Case Study of Economic Justification of Expert Systems in Maintenance Operations," Engineering Economist, Vol. 38, No. 2, 1993, pp. 99-117. Won the 1994 Eugene L. Grant award for Best Paper in Vol 38 of Engineering Economist.
*Badiru, A. B., B. L. Foote, L. Leemis, A. Ravindran, and L. Williams, "Recovering from a Crisis at Tinker Air Force Base," PM Network, Vol. 7, No. 2, Feb. 1993, pp. 10-23.
*Sieger, David B., and A. B. Badiru, "An Artificial Neural Network Case Study: Prediction versus Classification in a Manufacturing Application," Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, March 1993, pp. 381-384.
*Sieger, David B., and A. B. Badiru, "Real-Time Integrated Model for Visual Perception and Fuzzy Control," Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 23, Nos. 1-4, 1992, p. 355-358.
*Badiru, A. B. and Shivakumar Raman, "An Integrative Multiattribute Approach to Robot Selection," SME Transactions on Robotics Research, Vol. 2, 1992, pp. 717-752.
*Somasundaram, S. and A. B. Badiru, "Project Management for Successful Implementation of Continuous Quality Improvement," International Journal of Project Management, Vol. 10, No. 2, May 1992, pp. 89-101.
*Badiru, A. B., "Computational Survey of Univariate and Multivariate Learning Curve Models, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Vol. 39, No. 2, May 1992, pp. 176-188.
*Badiru, A. B., "Manufacturing Cost Estimation: A Multivariate Learning Curve Approach," Journal of Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 10, No. 6, 1991, pp. 431-441.
*Badiru, A. B., "A Simulation Approach to PERT Network Analysis," Simulation, Vol. 57, No. 4, October 1991, pp. 245-255.
*Badiru, A. B., "STARC 2.0: An Improved PERT Network Simulation Tool," Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1991, pp. 389-400.
*Badiru, A. B., "Systems Integration for Total Quality Management," Engineering Management Journal, Vol. 2, No. 3, Sept. 1990, pp. 23-28.
*Leemis, L., A. B. Badiru, B. L. Foote, and A. Ravindran, "Job Shop Configuration Optimization at Tinker Air Force Base," Simulation, Vol. 54, No. 6, June 1990, pp. 287-290.
*Ravindran, A.; Foote, B. L.; Badiru, A. B.; Leemis, L. M.; and Williams, Larry, "An Application of Simulation and Network Analysis to Capacity Planning and Material Handling Systems at Tinker Air Force Base," TIMS Interfaces, Vol. 19, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., 1989, pp. 102-115. Note: Recognized as one of the 20 best papers of the decade published in TIMS Interfaces.
*Badiru, A. B., "Successful Initiation of Expert Systems Projects," IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Vol. 35, No. 3, August 1988, pp. 186-190.
*Badiru, A. B., "Towards The Standardization of Performance Measures for Project Scheduling Heuristics," IEEE Trans on Engineering Management, Vol. 35, No. 2, May 1988, pp. 82-89.
*Badiru, A. B., "Cost-Integrated Network Planning Using Expert Systems," Project Management Journal, Vol. 19, No. 2, April 1988, pp. 59-62.
*Badiru, A. B., Janice Karasz, and Bob Holloway, "AREST: Armed Robbery Eidetic Suspect Typing Expert System," Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol 16, No 3, Sept 1988, pp. 210-216.
*Ravindran, A.; B. Foote; A. Badiru; and L. Leemis, "Mechanized Material Handling Systems Design & Routing," Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1988, pp. 251-270.
*Badiru, A. B., "Expert Systems and Industrial Engineers: A Practical Guide for a Successful Partnership," Computers & Industrial Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1988, pp. 1-13.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWwaLWy3qNEC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Project Management: Systems, Principles, and Applications |date=2011-12-12 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-8319-4 |language=en}}</ref>
===Referees Magazine Articles===
*Badiru, A. B. (2016), “Space: An Engineering Frontier,” ASEE PRISM, October 2016, p. 56.
*Badiru, A. B., LeeAnn Racz, and Rofelio Grinston, “Coordinated Maintenance: Keeping aging aircraft flying is critical for national defense,” Industrial Engineer, Jan 2016, p. 46-49.
*Badiru, A. B. (2015), “A Recipe for Meeting Broader Global Societal Challenges: STEM Education for the Service member has benefits now and in the future,” Military Advanced Education & Transition,” Sept 2015, Vol. 10, Issue 7/8, pp. 15-17.
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), “Beyond Swords and Plowshares: Military service can advance engineering education and address grand challenges,” ASEE PRISM, October 2014, p. 64.
*Badiru, A. B. (2013), “Up to the Task: Industrial engineering is essential to meeting NAE's grand challenges,” Industrial Engineer, Vol. 45, No. 11, pp. 42-45, Nov2013.
*Badiru, A. B., “The Intersection of Sports and STEM,” New York Academy of Sciences Magazine, Sept 2012, p. 3.
*Badiru, A. B., “EUROMATICS: Economic Challenges and Opportunities,” Industrial Engineer, July 2012, p. 45-48.
*Badiru, A. B., “A Systems View of Military Operations,” Industrial Engineer, May 2012, p. 26.
*Badiru, A. B., “Having a Ball: How can engineers engage the K-12 generation in STEM? Think sports,” ASEE PRISM magazine, April 2012, p. 52.
*Badiru, A. B., “The Many Languages of Sustainability,” Industrial Engineer, Nov 2010, pp. 31-34.
*Badiru, A. B., “Soccer Ball Path Optimization,” OR/MS Today, April 2010, p. 58.
*Badiru, A. B., “Global Situational Awareness using Project Management,” Industrial Engineer, November 2009, pp. 22-26. The article was selected for Front Cover Feature.
*Badiru, A. B., “Twin Fates: Partnerships will keep manufacturers’ doors open,” Industrial Engineer, March 2009, pp. 40-44.
*Badiru, A. B., “Publish and Flourish: A New Paradigm for OR/MS Faculty,” OR/MS Today, February 2008, pp. 18-19.
*Badiru, A. B., “New Power Generation: Energy Requirements Planning Must Drive Future Product Development,” Industrial Engineer, September 2008, pp. 36-40.
*Badiru, A. B., “An IE’s Guide to NAFTA,” Industrial Engineer, July 2008, pp. 30-34.
*Badiru, A. B., “Long live work measurement,” Industrial Engineer, March 2008, p. 24.
*Badiru, A. B., “Smart Ops for the 21st Century,” OR/MS Today, Feb 2007, page 28.
*Badiru, A. B., “The Air Force Needs Us,” Industrial Engineer, February 2007, p. 22.
*Badiru, A. B, “What’s In A Name?,” Industrial Engineer, June 2007, page 10.
*Badiru, A. B., “Requiem for Beloved Software,” OR/MS Today, June 2006, p. 16.
*Badiru, A. B., “The Niche of Industrial Engineering,” Industrial Engineer, July 2003, p 26.
*Arif, Alaa and A. B. Badiru, "Facility Layout with Fuzzy Logic: Expert System Uses Fuzzy Linguistic Relationship Codes To Optimize Layout Design," Appliance Manufacturer Magazine, Vol. 44, No. 11, November 1996, pp. 44-47.
*Badiru, A. B., "NAFTA and IE: A Case for Mexico," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 9, September 1994, pp. 14, 16.
*Badiru, A. B. and Herschel J. Baxi, "Industrial Engineering Education for the 21st Century," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 7, July 1994, pp. 66-68.
*Badiru, A. B., "Critical Resource Diagram: A New Tool for Resource Management," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 10, 1992, pp. 58-59, 65.
*Badiru, A. B. and Jacob Jen-Gwo Chen, “IEs Help Transform Industrial Productivity and Quality In Taiwan," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 6, June 1992, pp. 53-55.
*Badiru, A. B., "An Academic-Industry Interface Could Expand The Recognition of Industrial Engineering," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 5, May 1991, pp. 47-49.
*Badiru, A. B., "Analysis of Data Requirements for FMS Implementation is Crucial to Success," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 10, Oct. 1990, pp. 29-32.
*Badiru, A. B., "Moscow Diary: Star is Rising for Industrial Engineering and Industrial Engineers," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 8, August 1990, pp. 26-27.
*Badiru, A. B., "A Systems Approach to Total Quality Management," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 3, March 1990, pp. 33-36.
*Badiru, A. B., "A Management Guide to Automation Cost Justification," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 2, Feb. 1990, pp. 26-30.
*Badiru, A. B., "Graphic Evaluation of Amortization Schedules," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 9, September 1988, pp. 18-22.
*Foote, B.; A. Ravindran; A. B. Badiru; L. Leemis; and L. Williams, "Simulation and Network Analysis Pay Off in Conveyor System Design," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 6, June 1988, pp. 48-53.
*Badiru, A. B., "Training The IE For A Management Role," Industrial Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 12, December 1987, pp. 18-23.
*Conference Presentations, Speeches, Seminar, Invited Lectures, and Keynotes
*Adedeji Badiru, Annabelle Sharp, Anna Maloney, Samantha Bozada, and Matthew Loh (2016), “Visualizing STEM Learning: A Pedagogical Use of 3D Printing,” DESS2016, Dayton Engineering Sciences Symposium, Dayton, OH, 1Nov2016
*Badiru, A. B., Invited Distinguished Talk, “The Role of Industrial Engineers in Solving Global Societal Problems,” IEOM2016 (Industrial Engineering and Operations Management), Southfield, Michigan, 23 September 2016.
*Badiru, A. B., Invited Distinguished Lecture, “Industrial Engineering Education and NAE’s 14 Grand Challenges for Engineering,” University of Houston, Houston, Texas, Sept 2, 2016.
*Valencia, Vhance, Alfred Thal, Eric Holms, Adedeji Badiru, and Jason Freels (2016), “Materials Testing and Cost Modeling for Composite Parts Through Additive Manufacturing,” presented at 2016 NPS Research Acquisition Research Symposium, Monterey, CA, 5 May 2016
*Badiru, Adedeji, Brandon Johnson, Candice Honious, and John Elshaw (2016), “The Impact of Learning Curve Model Selection and Criteria for Cost Estimation Accuracy in The DOD,” presented at 2016 NPS Research Acquisition Research Symposium, Monterey, CA, 5 May 2016
*Singleton, B. J., J. Lieh, and A. B. Badiru (2015), “Improvement of Machine Shop Safety for College Students,” Paper presented at University of Cincinnati Engineering Research Center, 16th Annual PRP (Pilot Research Program) Symposium, October 8-9, 2015, Cincinnati, OH
*Badiru, A. B. and Anna E. Maloney (2015), “An Integrative Systems Engineering Model For Product Design And Development,” in Proceedings of the 2015 NDIA Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), Systems Engineering Technical Session, Novi, Michigan, Aug 4-6, 2015
*Badiru, Adedeji B., “Social Responsibility and Nation Building,” invited talk, African Leadership Institute, University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, 24 August 2015
*Badiru, Adedeji B., invited seminar, Lunch and Learn, International Public Management Association (IPMA-HR), “The Intersection of Social Responsibility and Professional Development," Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 3 June 2015
*Badiru, Adedeji B., invited keynote speech, “Providing Access to Success: Investing in our future through education, excellence, and opportunity,” Blacks in Government (BIG), Greater Dayton Chapter, annual banquet, Beavercreek, Ohio, 25 April 2015.
*Badiru, A. B. and Heidi Ries (2014), “Providing and Sustaining Research Leadership from the Top: A Dean’s Perspective,” 10th Annual Dayton Engineering Sciences Symposium, DESS2014, Dayton, OH, October 28, 2014
*Badiru, A. B. and Rochelle R. Jones (2014), “Effective Distance Learning Program Implementation Through Industry-University Collaboration,” Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Management 2014 International Annual Conference, S. Long, E-H. Ng, and C. Downing, eds., Virginia Beach, VA, October 15-18, 2014.
*Badiru, A. B. (2014), “Fourteen grand challenges and skills for engineers in 2020,” QScience Proceedings (World Congress on Engineering Education 2013) 2014:5
*Som, Soni and A. B. Badiru (2014), “Advanced Composite Air Frame Life Cycle Cost Estimation Model,” 2014 Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Conference, Jan 7-9, 2014, Bali, Indonesia.
*Omitaomu, O. A. and A. B. Badiru (2013), “A Framework for Joint Monitoring of Energy Usage in DOD Buildings,” Poster Presentation, Defense Energy Summit, Nov 11-13, 2013, Austin, TX.
*Badiru, A. B. (2013), “A Conceptual Template for Product Technology Transfer Visualization Using 3D Printing,” 2013 Dayton Engineering Sciences Symposium (DESS 2013), Dayton, Ohio, Oct 29, 2013.
*Murley, D.J., A.E. Thal., Jr., L.J. Wyatt, T.W. Johannes, and A.B. Badiru (2013), “Development of a Cooling Load Model for Geospatial Analysis of Energy Efficient Technology in Austere Environments,” in Proceedings of 2013 Annual Conference of Industrial & Systems Engineering Research Conference, San Juan, Puerto Rico, May 18-23, 2013.
*Chun, W., P.P. Feng, A.E. Thal., Jr., and A.B. Badiru (2013), “Life-Cycle Assessment of LEED vs. Conventionally Constructed Residential Units,” in Proceedings of 2013 Annual Conference of Industrial & Systems Engineering Research Conference, San Juan, Puerto Rico, May 18-23, 2013.
*Badiru, Adedeji B, invited seminar on “The 8 by 3 Paradigm: Effective and Efficient Management of Faculty Time and Effort,” Central State University, NSF LEADER ADVANCE distinguished seminar series, November 12, 2013
*Badiru, A. B., “Having a Ball with Science: Leveraging Sports to Spark Interest in STEM Subjects,” Invited TechFest Workshop, Graham High School, St. Paris, OH, April 11, 2013.
*Badiru, A. B., “Creating a Better World through STEM Education: The Crucial Roles of Underrepresented Groups,” Invited Banquet Keynote , College of Science and Engineering, Central State University, Wilberforce, OH, April 9, 2013.
*Badiru, A. B., “Having a Ball with Science: Leveraging Sports for Science Education,” Workshop for K-12 Science Teachers, TechFest 2013, Dayton, OH, Feb 16, 2013.
*Badiru, A. B., “14 Grand Challenges and 2020 Skills for Engineers,” Panel Discussion Keynote, World Congress on Engineering Education (WCEE2013), Doha, Qatar, January 7-9, 2013.
*Badiru, A. B., “How to be a Part of the future STEM Workforce Development: Don’t Just Sit and Watch,” Invited Keynote, Undergraduate Students STEM Research Symposium, Wilberforce University, Sept 15, 2012.
*Badiru, A. B., “Social responsibility and educational advancement for the future generation,” Keynote Address, Saint Finbarr’s College – North America, Alumni Association Reunion, Atlanta, GA, Sept 1, 2012.
*Badiru, A. B., “Preparing Resume, CV, and Cover Letter IIE Doctoral Colloquium,” Invited Lecture, Industrial & Systems Engineering Research Conference, May 19, 2012, Orlando, Florida.
*Badiru, A. B., “Human Factors in Coordinated Emergency Response,” invited luncheon keynote speech, NNSA (National Nuclear Security Administration) workshop, Wilberforce University, 24 March 2012.
*Soni, Som R.; A. Al-Romaihi; J. R. Wirthlin; and A. B. Badiru (2012), "Reliability Aspects In Z-Pinned Co-Cured Composites", IEOM 2012 (Industrial & Operations Management) Conference, Ankara, Turkey, July 3-6, 2012.
*Badiru, A. B. (2012), “Quantitative Modeling for Military Operational Efficiency, Effectiveness, and Productivity Analysis,” in Proceedings of 2012 Annual Conference of Industrial & Systems Engineering Research Conference, Orlando, FL, May 19-23, 2012.
*Omitaomu, O. A. and A. B. Badiru (2012), “An Economic Evaluation Framework for Assessing Renewable Energy Projects,” in Proceedings of 2012 Annual Conference of Industrial & Systems Engineering Research Conference, Orlando, FL, May 19-23, 2012.
*Badiru, A. B. (2012), “Taking flight with science in sports,” presented at Dayton-Cincinnati Aerospace Science Symposium (DCASS2012), Dayton, OH, March 5, 2012.
*Badiru, A. B. (2011), “Global Technology Management: A Project Management Approach,” ICTBM2011 (International Conference on Technology and Business Management Conference), Dubai, UAE, March 30, 2011
*Soni, Som; A. B. Badiru; and Teresa Wu, “Process Improvement Example in Product Design of Durable Forearm Crutch,” International Conference on Agile Manufacturing Systems (ICAM-2011), Agra, India, Dec 18-20, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Invited presentation, “Linking Science and Sports for STEM Education: The Case of the Soccer Ball, Gravity, and Friction,” 2011 Dayton Engineering Sciences Symposium (DESS), Dayton, Ohio, Oct 24, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Technical Seminar,“Enhancing Technology Interfaces Using Project Management Techniques,” 2011 TechNet-Aero Convention, Dayton, Ohio, Oct 17-20, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Technical seminar, “Systems Framework for Communication, Cooperation, and Coordination in Emergency Response,” 4th CBRNE Research and Education Collaboration Symposium, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, Sept 21, 2011.
*Wu, Teresa; Som R. Soni, and A. B. Badiru, Contributed presentation, “Applying Memetic Algorithm to Design Forearm Crutch,” presented at Structural Longevity Forum, Orlando, Florida, July 26, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Invited technical seminar, Wellington Award Inaugural Lecture:- “Pareto Distribution Revisited: National Wealth Creation and Distribution in an Era of Globalization,” presented at Industrial Engineering Research Conference, Reno, Nevada, May 22, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B. and M. N. Goltz, “Holistic Systems Approach to Sustainability: Bridging Environmental and Social Dimensions,” in Proceedings of Industrial Engineering Research Conference, Reno, Nevada, May 22-25, 2011.
*Jones, Rochelle and A. B. Badiru, “STEM Workforce Development for DoD Personnel: Using Mobile Devices for Distance Learning,” 2011 AETC Symposium, San Antonio, TX, 20 – 21 January 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Invited Discussant on International Research Collaboration, World Academy of Science, Engineering, and Technology (WASET 2011), Paris, France, Aug 23-26, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., “Advancements in Energy Technology: Implications for UAV Design and Development,” Invited Graduation Lecture, Nigeria Air Force Institute of Technology, Kaduna, Nigeria, July 29, 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., “What does Tenure Mean?” Faculty Development Seminar for AFIT Faculty, 9 June 2011.
*Badiru, A. B., Wellington Award Inaugural Lecture, “Pareto Distribution Revisited,” IIE Annual Conference, Reno, Nevada, May 22, 2011. Founding lecturer for the series.
*Badiru, A. B., Invited Book Launch Keynote Address, “Quality in Construction Management,” Kuwait City, Kuwait, Jan 12-14, 2011
*Badiru, A. B., Invited distinguished lecture, “Systems Value Modeling for Design Project Management,” University of Oklahoma, College of Engineering, Nov 5, 2010.
*Badiru, A. B., “D-E-J-I Model for Product Development,” AFIT-AFRL Product Development Research Symposium, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, November 12, 2010.
*Thomas, Marlin and A. Badiru, “Utilization of Industrial Engineers in the Air Force,” Air Force Air Education and Training Command (AETC) Symposium, San Antonio, TX, Jan 14-15, 2010.
*Badiru, A. B., “Half-Life Learning Curve Computations for Human Performance Enhancement,” presented at 2009 United States Air Trade and Technology (USATT) Expo, Dayton, OH, July 14-17, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., “Earning Value to SAVE Projects,” in Proceedings of 2009 SAVE International 49th Annual Conference, Detroit, MI, June 29 – July 2, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., Denise Jackson, and Greg Sedrick, “Functional Development of Performance Metrics for System of Systems,” in Proceedings of 2009 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Miami, Florida, May 29 – June 3, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., Ravindra Ahuja, and Ashish Nemani, “New Models and Algorithmic Approaches for Resource-Constrained Project Management,” in Proceedings of 2009 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Miami, Florida, May 29 – June 3, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., Jeremy Slagley, and David A. Smith, “Project Life Cycle Model for ABET Site Visit Preparation,” ABET Best Assessment Processes XI Symposium, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, April 3-4, 2009.
*Badiru, A., “Project Management Tools and Techniques for Education, Training, and Research,” Air Force Air Education and Training Command (AETC) Symposium, San Antonio, TX, Jan 15-16, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., “Differences between undergraduate and graduate education,” Graduate education seminar for AFIT faculty, October 1, 2009.
*Badiru, A. B., “Process Cost Control through Six Sigma Techniques,” Invited Lecture, Dept of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos, Nigeria, Dec 16, 2008.
*Badiru, A. B.; “World Citizenship and Global Economic Development,” Invited Seminar, Symposium on Democracy: Citizenship in the Age of Globalization, Westminster College, Fulton, MO, Nov 18, 2008.
*Badiru, A. B.; “Managing World Industrial Development Projects,” Invited Seminar, Symposium on Democracy: Citizenship in the Age of Globalization, Westminster College, Fulton, MO, Nov 18, 2008.
*Badiru, A. B.; “Industrial Project Management,” Invited Seminar for Dayton Chapter of the Institute of Industrial Engineers, Dayton, Ohio, April 26, 2008.
*Badiru, A., “Energy Requirements Planning for New Product Development: A Project Framework Approach,” 4th Annual Dayton Engineering Sciences Symposium, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, October 27, 2008.
*Badiru, A., “Half-Life Theory of Learning Curves for Project Performance Analysis,” INFORMS Annual Conference, Washington, DC, October 12-17, 2008.
*Nemani, Ashish, A. Badiru, and Ravindra Ahuja, “Mixed Integer Optimization Formulation for Critical Resource Diagramming Problem,” INFORMS Annual Conference, Washington, DC, October 12-17, 2008.
*Badiru, A. and G. Richard Freeman, “Project System Modeling and Simulation Approach to Human-Machine Resource Interface,” in Proceedings of 2008 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Vancouver, Canada, May 17-21, 2008.
*Badiru, A., “Qualitative Approach to Engineering Project Optimization,” in Proceedings of 2008 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Vancouver, Canada, May 17-21, 2008.
*Olunloyo, V. O. S.; Abayomi Ajofoyinbo; and A. Badiru, “An Alternative Approach for Computing the Union and Intersection of Fuzzy Sets: A Basis for Design of Robust Fuzzy Controller,” in Proceedings of 7th WSEAS International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Knowledge Engineering and Data Bases (AIKED '08), Cambridge, UK, February 23-25, 2008. Note: This paper won best student paper at the conference.
*Badiru, A., “Survival Toolkit for Engineering Faculty,” Proceedings of 2008 ASEE North Central Section Conference, Dayton, OH, March 28-29, 2008.
*Badiru, A., "OR/MS Modeling for AFSO21 Process Improvement in US Air Force," INFORMS Annual Conference, Seattle, WA, Nov 7, 2007.
*Thal, Al; Shahady, David; Badiru, A.; and Bedingfield, John, "Incorporating Customer Values in Trade-Off Decisions," INFORMS Annual Conference, Seattle, WA, Nov 7, 2007.
*Badiru, A. “Communication, Cooperation, and Coordination Model for Process Improvement of C2 Projects“, Proceedings of DOD’s 12th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS), Newport, RI, June 18-21, 2007.
*Badiru, A., Chuck Leakeas, and Sonia Leach, “MatLab-Based Modeling and Simulation of Large Project Networks,” Proceedings of 2007 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Nashville, TN, May 18-21, 2007.
*Badiru, A., Chuck Leakeas, and Sonia Leach, “Dynamic Cyber Systems Forecast Scenario Planning and Simulation,” Proceedings of 2007 Industrial Engineering Research Conference (IERC), Nashville, TN, May 18-21, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B.; “Systems Engineering Approach to Global Health Care Delivery,” Keynote Address, 2007 Pilot Research Project Symposium, Education and Research Center (ERC), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, October 11, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B., “Getting Things done through project management,” Training Seminar, Wright State University, Center for Performance Excellence, October 10, 2007
*Badiru, A. B.; “How to Succeed in the OR/MS Academic Profession,” Invited Distinguished Panelist, 2007 INFORMS Regional Conference, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, August 24-25, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B.; “The Discipline of Social Responsibility,” Invited Graduation Speech, Operational Technology (OpTech) program, Air Force Institute of Technology, June 13, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B.; “Administrative Process Improvement Using Project Management Techniques,” AFIT AFSO21 Seminar Series, Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, OH, May 10, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B., LtCol David Smith, and Major Jeremy Slagley, “Contemporary Collaborative Research for Occupational Health,” Invited Seminar, College of Nursing, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, April 20, 2007.
*Badiru, A. B., “Importance of Undergraduate Research in Science and Engineering Curriculum,” Keynote Speech, Central State University, Wilberforce, OH, April 14, 2007.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badiru |first=Adedeji B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wnMBQAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%2522Adedeji+B.+Badiru%2522&hl=en |title=Project Management for the Oil and Gas Industry: A World System Approach |last2=Osisanya |first2=Samuel O. |date=2016-04-19 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-9426-8 |language=en}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Academics]]

University of Tennessee

2021-08-20T07:21:57Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Public university in Knoxville, Tennessee, United States}} {{about|the Knoxville campus||University of Tennessee (disambiguation)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=Fe..."

{{short description|Public university in Knoxville, Tennessee, United States}}
{{about|the Knoxville campus||University of Tennessee (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox university
| name = University of Tennessee
| former_names = Blount College (1794–1807) East Tennessee College (1807–1840) East Tennessee University (1840–1879)
| image_name = University of Tennessee seal.png
| image_upright = .6
| motto = ''Veritatem cognoscetis, et veritas vos liberabit.'' ([[Latin]])
| mottoeng = You will know the truth and [[the truth will set you free|the truth shall set you free]].
| established = {{start date and age|1794|09|10}}
| type = [[Public university|Public]] [[Flagship university|flagship]] [[Land-grant university|land-grant]] [[research university]]
| endowment = $1.34 billion (2020)<ref>As of June 30, 2020. {{cite report |url=https://www.nacubo.org/-/media/Documents/Research/2020-NTSE-Public-Tables--Endowment-Market-Values--FINAL-FEBRUARY-19-2021.ashx |title=U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 |publisher=National Association of College and University Business Officers and [[TIAA]] |date=February 19, 2021 |access-date=February 19, 2021}}</ref>
| parent = [[University of Tennessee system]]
| academic_affiliations = [[Oak Ridge Associated Universities|ORAU]], [[Universities Research Association|URA]], [[Sun Grant Association|Sun-grant national participant]]
| chancellor = Donde Plowman<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tennessee.edu/execsearch/ut-knoxville-chancellor/donde-plowman/|title=Donde Plowman|access-date=July 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506162653/https://tennessee.edu/execsearch/ut-knoxville-chancellor/donde-plowman/|archive-date=May 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
| provost = John Zomchick<ref>{{cite web|url=https://provost.utk.edu/about-the-provost/|title=About the Provost|access-date=April 1, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
| faculty = 1,700+<ref name="quickfacts">{{cite web |url=http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/numbers/ |title=Quick Facts |publisher=University of Tennessee Knoxville |year=2017 |access-date=April 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402170528/http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/numbers/ |archive-date=April 2, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| administrative_staff = 9,791<ref name="quickfacts" />
| students = 30,559 (Fall 2020)<ref name="enrollment">{{cite web|title=University of Tennessee, Knoxville Fact Book |url=https://oira.utk.edu/reporting/fact-book/ |access-date=April 1, 2021}}</ref>
| undergrad = 24,254 (Fall 2020)<ref name="enrollment" />
| postgrad = 6,305 (Fall 2020)<ref name="enrollment" />
| city = [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]]
| state = [[Tennessee]]
| country = United States
| coor = {{Coord|35|57|6|N|83|55|48|W|type:airport|display=inline,title}}
| campus = {{convert|600|acre|ha}}<ref name="quickfacts" /> [[Summation|Total]]: {{convert|2128|acre|ha}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-155345882.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104194912/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-155345882.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 4, 2012 |title=Highbeam.com |publisher=Highbeam.com |access-date=May 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.graduateguide.com/University-of-Tennessee-Space-Institute.htm |title=Graduateguide.com |publisher=Graduateguide.com |date=October 13, 2010 |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820141537/http://www.graduateguide.com/University-of-Tennessee-Space-Institute.htm |archive-date=August 20, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utm.edu/ |title=UTM.edu |publisher=UTM.edu |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504015515/http://www.utm.edu/ |archive-date=May 4, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| colors = [[Shades of orange#UT orange|UT Orange]], White<ref name="Colors">{{cite web |title=Color Palettes | Brand Guidelines |url=http://brand.utk.edu/colors/palettes/ |access-date=September 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307195731/http://brand.utk.edu/colors/palettes/ |archive-date=March 7, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{color box|#FF8200}} {{color box|#FFFFFF}}
| sporting_affiliations = [[NCAA Division I]] [[NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision|FBS]] – [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]]
| nickname = {{nowrap| [[Tennessee Volunteers|Volunteers & Lady Volunteers]]}}
| mascot = [[Smokey (mascot)|Smokey X]]
| website = {{url|www.utk.edu}}
| logo = UT Knoxville logo left.svg
| logo_upright =
}}

The '''University of Tennessee''' ('''University of Tennessee, Knoxville'''; '''UT Knoxville'''; '''UTK'''; or '''UT''') is a [[Public university|public]] [[Land-grant university|land-grant]] [[research university]] in [[Knoxville, Tennessee]]. Founded in 1794, two years before Tennessee became the 16th state, it is the flagship campus of the [[University of Tennessee system]], with ten undergraduate colleges and eleven graduate colleges. It hosts more than 30,000 students from all 50 states and more than 100 foreign countries. It is [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education|classified]] among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".<ref>{{cite web |title=Carnegie Classifications Institution Lookup |url=https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/view_institution.php?unit_id=190415 |publisher=Center for Postsecondary Education |website=carnegieclassifications.iu.edu |access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref>

UT's ties to nearby [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]], established under UT President Andrew Holt and continued under the [[UT–Battelle]] partnership, allow for considerable research opportunities for faculty and students. Also affiliated with the university are the [[Howard H. Baker Jr. Center for Public Policy]], the [[University of Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility]], and the [[University of Tennessee Arboretum]], which occupies {{convert|250|acre|ha}} of nearby [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee|Oak Ridge]] and features hundreds of species of plants indigenous to the region. The university is a direct partner of the [[University of Tennessee Medical Center]], which is one of two [[Level I trauma center]]s in [[East Tennessee]].

The University of Tennessee is the only university in the nation to have three presidential papers editing projects. The university holds collections of the papers of all three U.S. presidents from Tennessee—[[Andrew Jackson]], [[James K. Polk]], and [[Andrew Johnson]]. Nine of its alumni have been selected as [[Rhodes Scholar]]s and one alumnus, [[James M. Buchanan]], received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Economics. UT is one of the oldest public universities in the United States and the oldest secular institution west of the [[Eastern Continental Divide]].

==History==
[[File:The Hill at UT Knoxville in the 1800s.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[The Hill (Knoxville)|The Hill]]''. The University of Tennessee was established in 1794, making it one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the U.S.]]

===Founding and early days===
On September 10, 1794, two years before Tennessee became a state and at a meeting of the legislature of the [[Southwest Territory]] at Knoxville, '''Blount College''' was established with a charter.<ref>{{cite web |title=The University of Tennessee: The Trip to the Hill - Knoxville History Project |url=http://knoxvillehistoryproject.org/2015/08/20/the-university-of-tennessee-the-trip-to-the-hill/ |website=Knoxville History Project |access-date=October 17, 2018 |date=August 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017203255/http://knoxvillehistoryproject.org/2015/08/20/the-university-of-tennessee-the-trip-to-the-hill/ |archive-date=October 17, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The new, all-male, non-sectarian institution struggled for 13 years with a small student body and faculty, and in 1807, the school was rechartered as '''East Tennessee College''' as a condition of receiving the proceeds from the settlement devised in the Compact of 1806. When [[Samuel Carrick]], its first president and only faculty member, died in 1809, the school was temporarily closed until 1820. When it reopened, it began experiencing growing pains. [[Thomas Jefferson]] had previously recommended that the college leave its confining single building in the city and relocate to a place it could spread out. In the summer of 1826 (coincidentally, the year that Thomas Jefferson died), the trustees explored "Barbara Hill" (today known simply as ''The Hill'') as a potential site and relocated there by 1828.<ref>Neeley, Jack. ''Knoxville's Secret History''. Knoxville: Scruffy City Publishing, 1995, pp. 81-83. Retrieved October 27, 2012</ref> In 1840, the college was elevated to '''East Tennessee University''' (ETU). The school's status as a religiously non-affiliated institution of higher learning was unusual for the period of time in which it was chartered, and the school is generally recognized as the oldest such establishment of its kind west of the Appalachian Divide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/history.shtml |title=UTK.edu |publisher=UTK.edu |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503185654/http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/history.shtml |archive-date=May 3, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Reconstruction===
Tennessee was a member of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] in 1862 when the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]] was passed, providing for endowment funds from the sale of federal land to state agricultural colleges. On February 28, 1867, Congress passed a special Act making the State of Tennessee eligible to participate in the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]] of 1862 program. In January 1869, ETU was designated as Tennessee's recipient of the Land-Grant designation and funds. In accepting the funds, the university would focus upon instructing students in military, agricultural, and mechanical subjects. ETU eventually received $396,000 as its endowment under the program. Trustees soon approved the establishment of a medical program under the auspices of the Nashville School of Medicine and added advanced degree programs. East Tennessee University was renamed the '''University of Tennessee''' in 1879 by the state legislature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Renaming of University of Tennessee |url=http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/history/ |access-date=December 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201051930/http://www.utk.edu/aboutut/history/ |archive-date=December 1, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===World War II===
During World War II, UT was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the [[V-12 Navy College Training Program]] which offered students a path to a Navy commission.<ref name="list-of-v-12">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Admin-Hist/115-8thND/115-8ND-23.html |title=U.S. Naval Administration in World War II |publisher=HyperWar Foundation |access-date=September 29, 2011 |year=2011 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6BpgktZlN?url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Admin-Hist/115-8thND/115-8ND-23.html |archive-date=October 31, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Civil rights era===
African-American attorney [[Rita Sanders Geier]] filed suit against the state of Tennessee in 1968 alleging that its higher education system remained segregated despite a federal mandate ordering desegregation. She claimed that the opening of a University of Tennessee campus at [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] would lead to the creation of another predominantly white institution that would strip resources from [[Tennessee State University]], the only state-funded [[Historically black university]]. The suit was not settled until 2001, when the Geier Consent Decree resulted in the appropriation of $77 million in state funding to increase diversity among student and faculty populations among all Tennessee institutions of higher learning.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chancellor.utk.edu/announcements/20070904.shtml |title=UTK.edu |publisher=Chancellor.utk.edu |date=September 4, 2007 |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325194031/http://chancellor.utk.edu/announcements/20070904.shtml |archive-date=March 25, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Organization==
[[File:UT Ayres Hall front.jpg|thumb|237px|[[Ayres Hall]]]]

===Administration===
The University of Tennessee, Knoxville is the flagship campus of the statewide [[University of Tennessee system]], which is governed by a 12-member [[board of trustees]] appointed by the [[Governor of Tennessee]]. The Board of Trustees appoints a president to oversee the operations of the system, four campuses, and two statewide institutes.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the UT System |url=http://tennessee.edu/about/ |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629181808/https://tennessee.edu/about/ |archive-date=June 29, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Randy Boyd, a former candidate for governor, is currently serving as interim president while a search is conducted for a replacement following the retirement of [[Joseph A. DiPietro]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Office of the President |url=https://president.tennessee.edu/ |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704052826/https://president.tennessee.edu/ |archive-date=July 4, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The president appoints, with Board of Trustees approval, chancellors for each campus. The Knoxville campus is headed by interim Chancellor Wayne Davis who functions as the chief executive officer of the campus and is responsible for its daily administration and management. Beginning July 1, 2019, Chancellor-Elect Donde Plowman will take leadership of the Knoxville campus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Office of the Chancellor |url=https://chancellor.utk.edu/ |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213080624/https://chancellor.utk.edu/ |archive-date=February 13, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor David Manderscheid is responsible for the academic administration of the Knoxville campus and is a member of the Chancellor's Cabinet.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chancellor's Cabinet |url=https://chancellor.utk.edu/cabinet/ |access-date=12 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606162614/https://chancellor.utk.edu/cabinet/ |archive-date=June 6, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Campus policing and security is provided by the [[University of Tennessee Police Department]].

====Controversy====
On December 15, 2016, the UT Board of Trustees confirmed [[Beverly J. Davenport]] as the next Chancellor of the Knoxville campus, succeeding [[Jimmy Cheek]]. She began her role on February 15, 2017, and was the first female Chancellor of UTK.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.tennessee.edu/2016/12/15/board-of-trustees-confirms-chancellor-appointments-general-counsel-reorganization/ |title=Board Confirms Chancellor Appointments, General Counsel Reorganization |publisher=University of Tennessee |date=December 15, 2016 |access-date=December 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120511/http://news.tennessee.edu/2016/12/15/board-of-trustees-confirms-chancellor-appointments-general-counsel-reorganization/ |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> On May 2, 2018, UT President Joe DiPietro fired Davenport. DiPietro cited poor communication and interpersonal skills, amongst other reasons. The decision received criticism from the student body and faculty, as these reasons were also listed as strengths of Davenport, and why DiPietro chose to hire her a little over one year earlier.<ref name="tenn20180502">{{cite news |url=https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2018/05/02/statement-soon-ut-chancellor-davenport/573782002/ |title=Davenport fired as UT's chancellor, will be retained as faculty at $439K annually |work=The Tennessean |first=Amy J. |last=Vellucci |date=May 2, 2018 |access-date=June 21, 2018}}</ref>

===Budget===
'''University of Tennessee Knoxville (2015)'''<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_budgetdocs/32 |title=FY 2015 Revised Budget Document |journal=Budget Documents |publisher=University of Tennessee |page=31 |date=2015 |access-date=July 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126070902/http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_budgetdocs/32/ |archive-date=January 26, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Educational and General Total: $578,766,711
**Instruction: $263,257,573
**Research: $41,848,637
**Public Service: $11,287,642
**Academic Support: $67,888,051
**Student Services: $39,438,427
**Institutional Support: $45,015,257
**Operation/Maintenance of Physical Plant: $69,694,749
**Scholarships and Fellowships: $59,827,375
*Total budget: $758,407,168

According to the University's 2009 budget, state appropriations increased 26.4 percent from 2000 to 2009, although this amounts to only a 1.1 percent when adjusted for inflation.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_budgetdocs/13 |title=FY 2009 Revised Budget Document |journal=Budget Documents |publisher=University of Tennessee |page=7 |date=2009 |access-date=July 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126133024/http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_budgetdocs/13/ |archive-date=January 26, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===University Medical Center===

The [[University of Tennessee Medical Center]], administered by University Health Systems and affiliated with the University of Tennessee Graduate School of Medicine, collaborates with the [[University of Tennessee Health Science Center]] to attract and train the majority of its medical staff. Many doctors and nurses at UTMC have integrated careers as teachers and healthcare professionals, and the center promotes itself as the area's only academic, or "teaching hospital."

The University Medical Center is the primary referral center for [[East Tennessee]], Western [[North Carolina]], and Southeastern [[Kentucky]]. It is one of three [[Level I trauma center]]s in the East Tennessee geographic region. Extensive expansion programs were embarked upon the 1990s and 2000s (decade) and saw the construction of two sprawling additions to the hospital's campus, a new Cancer Institute and a Heart Lung Vascular Institute. The new UT Medical Center Heart Hospital received its first patient on April 27, 2010.<ref>University of Tennessee Medical Center http://www.utmedicalcenter.org/news/First+Heart+Hospital+patient+and+family+thankful+for+new+facility/2209.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702183439/http://www.utmedicalcenter.org/news/First+Heart+Hospital+patient+and+family+thankful+for+new+facility/2209.html |date=July 2, 2010 }}</ref>

==Academics==

===Profile===

{| style="text-align:center; float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:2em; margin:auto;" class="wikitable"
|+ ''Demographics of the Student Body - Fall 2019''<ref name="enrollment" />
! Racial/ethnic group !!
|-
! [[African American|Black or African American]]
|{{#expr:170500/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! [[Asian American|Asian]] or Pacific Islander
|{{#expr:110500/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! [[White people|White]]
|{{#expr:2257500/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] or Alaska Native
|{{#expr:5500/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! Two or more races
|{{#expr:104300/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! [[International student|International]]
|{{#expr:111600/29460 round 1}}%
|-
! Unknown
|{{#expr:53000/29460 round 1}}%
|}

In Fall 2019, the university enrolled 23,290 undergraduate and 6,170 graduate and professional students; 51.8% of students are female, 48.2% are male.<ref name="quickfacts" /> UT hosts students from all 50 U.S. states and 90 foreign countries. More than 22,000 students come from Tennessee, and the next three most popular U.S. states are [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Virginia]]. The top three home countries of international students are [[China]], [[India]], and [[South Korea]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 10 Enrollment Feeders |url=https://oira.utk.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/66/2019/10/Top-10-Enrollment-Feeders-By-Tennessee-County_State_and-Country.pdf |access-date=23 August 2020 }}</ref>

===Rankings===
{{Infobox US university ranking
| ARWU_W = 201-300
| ARWU_N = 66-94
| USNWR_NU = 112
| THE_WSJ = 270
| USNWR_W = 217
| THES_W = 301-350
| Wamo_NU = 138
| Forbes = 224
| QS_W = 541-550
}}

The University of Tennessee is ranked tied for 52nd among public universities and tied for 112th among all United States national universities by ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' in its 2021 rankings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/university-of-tennessee-3530/overall-rankings |title=University of Tennessee Rankings |series=Best Colleges |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |date=2020 |access-date=September 27, 2020}}</ref>

===Admissions===
{| style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin:10px" "text-align:center; margin:auto;" class="wikitable floatright"
|+''Fall Freshman Statistics''<ref name=Applied>{{cite web |url=https://oira.utk.edu/factbook/admissions |title=10 Year Trend of First-Time Freshmen Applied, Admitted, and Enrolled: Fall 2007-2016 |publisher=University of Tennessee, Knowxville - The Office of Institutional Research & Assessment |access-date=December 15, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225130230/https://oira.utk.edu/factbook/admissions |archive-date=December 25, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Stats>{{cite web |url=https://oira.utk.edu/factbook/admissions |title=20 Year Trend of Average Test Score, High School GPA, and Class Ranking - First Time Freshmen: Fall 1997-2016 |publisher=University of Tennessee, Knowxville - The Office of Institutional Research & Assessment |access-date=December 15, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225130230/https://oira.utk.edu/factbook/admissions |archive-date=December 25, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

|-
! !! 2016 !! 2015 !! 2014 !! 2013 !! 2012
|-align="center"
! Applicants
| 17,583 || 17,081 || 15,422 || 14,396 || 14,398
|-align="center"
! Admits
| 13,578 || 13,032 || 11,555 || 10,435 || 9,693
|-align="center"
! % Admitted
| 77.2 || 76.3 || 74.9 || 72.5 || 67.3
|-align="center"
! Enrolled
| 4,851 || 4,719 || 4,701 || 4,276 || 4,207
|-align="center"
! Average GPA
| 3.89 || 3.89 || 3.79 || 3.85 || 3.89
|-align="center"
! Average [[SAT]] *
| 1142 || 1159 || 1159 || 1165 || 1172
|-align="center"
! Average [[ACT (test)|ACT]]
| 27.1 || 27.0 || 26.8 || 26.9 || 26.8
|-align="center"
! * out of 1600
|}

Admission to UT Knoxville is rated as "more selective" by ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/university-of-tennessee-3530 |title=U.S. News Best Colleges Rankings: University of Tennessee |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |year=2017 |access-date=December 15, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024221550/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/university-of-tennessee-3530 |archive-date=October 24, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

For Fall 2016, UTK received 17,583 freshmen applications; 13,578 were admitted (77.2%) and 4,851 enrolled.<ref name=Applied/> The average high school grade point average ([[GPA]]) of the enrolled freshmen was 3.89, while average [[SAT]] scores (out of 1600) were 1142, with the average [[ACT (test)|ACT]] Composite score 27.1.<ref name=Stats/>

===Research===
The total research endowment of the UT Knoxville campus was $127,983,213 for FY 2006. UT Knoxville boasts several faculty who are among the leading contributors to their fields, including Harry McSween, generally recognized as one of the world's leading experts in the study of [[meteorites]] and a member of the science team for [[Mars Pathfinder]] and later a co-investigator for the [[Mars Odyssey]] and [[Mars Exploration Rovers]] projects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.eps.utk.edu/~faculty/mcsween/mcsween.html |title=UTK.edu |publisher=Web.eps.utk.edu |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217061309/http://web.eps.utk.edu/~faculty/mcsween/mcsween.html |archive-date=February 17, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The university also hosts Barry T. Rouse, an international award-winning Distinguished Professor of Microbiology who has conducted multiple [[NIH]]-funded studies on the herpes simplex virus (HSV) and who is a leading researcher in his field.<ref>[http://web.bio.utk.edu/micro/faculty/rouse/RouseWebCV2004.pdf UTK.edu] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720104713/http://web.bio.utk.edu/micro/faculty/rouse/RouseWebCV2004.pdf |date=July 20, 2011 }}</ref> UT's agricultural research programs are considered to be among the most accomplished in the nation, and the School of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is home to the East Tennessee Clean Fuels Initiative, recognized by the [[United States Department of Energy]] as the "best local clean fuels program in America.".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utk.edu/news/article.php?id=3793 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120806004753/http://www.utk.edu/news/article.php?id=3793 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 6, 2012 |title=UTK.edu |publisher=UTK.edu |date=September 11, 2006 |access-date=May 11, 2012}}</ref>

====Oak Ridge National Laboratory====
The major hub of research at the University of Tennessee is [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] (ORNL), one of the largest government laboratories in the United States. ORNL is a major center of civilian and governmental research<ref name="ornlreview1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v37_2_04/v37_no2_04review.pdf |title=Leadership-class Computing for Science |journal=ORNL Review |volume=37 |issue=2 |issn=0048-1262 |year=2004 |access-date=November 23, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130023022/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v37_2_04/v37_no2_04review.pdf |archive-date=November 30, 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and features two of the world's most powerful supercomputers.

[[File:UT-mall.jpg|thumb|275px|Looking west along the Pedestrian Walkway]]

====SECU: the SEC Academic Initiative====
The University of Tennessee is a member of the SEC Academic Consortium. Now renamed the [[Southeastern Conference#Formation of SECU and SEC academic network|SECU]], the initiative was a collaborative endeavor designed to promote research, scholarship and achievement amongst the member universities in the [[Southeastern Conference]]. Along with the [[University of Georgia]], [[University of Florida]], [[Vanderbilt University]], and other SEC institutions, SECU formed its mission to serve as a means to bolster collaborative academic endeavors of [[Southeastern Conference#Member universities|Southeastern Conference universities]]. Its goals include highlighting the endeavors and achievements of SEC [[Faculty (academic staff)|faculty]], students and its universities and advancing the academic reputation of SEC universities.<ref>{{cite web |title=SECU |url=http://www.secsymposium.com/secu.php |publisher=SEC |access-date=February 13, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124074319/http://www.secsymposium.com/secu.php |archive-date=January 24, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SECU: The Academic Initiative of the SEC |url=http://www.secdigitalnetwork.com/AcademicConsortium |publisher=SEC Digital Network |access-date=February 13, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721055557/http://www.secdigitalnetwork.com/AcademicConsortium |archive-date=July 21, 2012}}</ref>

====Howard H. Baker Jr. Center for Public Policy====
The [https://bakercenter.utk.edu/ Howard H. Baker, Jr. Center for Public Policy] regularly holds events relative to the Center's three major areas of focus which are Energy & Environment, Global Security, and Leadership & Government. According to the Center's website, its missions is "to provide policy makers, citizens, scholars and students with the information and skills necessary to work effectively within our political system and to educate our local, state, national and global communities".
The Center is housed in a 51,000 sq.ft., three-story domed building, which also serves as a gateway to the University of Tennessee campus and houses the Modern Political Archives (MPA), Chancellor's Honors Program and the Masters of Public Policy and Administration. The building also includes classrooms on the 2nd floor, MPA Research Room, Howard Baker Reading Room and Toyota Auditorium.
Howard H. Baker Jr. Center for Public Policy host The Institute for Nuclear Security, which brings the complete capabilities of the University community to bear on one of the most challenging issues of our time—nuclear security. Starting from 2015 the Institute has been publishing the [https://trace.tennessee.edu/ijns/ International Journal of Nuclear Security] that aims to share and promote research and best practices in all areas of nuclear security. It provides an open-access, multi-disciplinary forum for scholarship and discussion. The journal encourages diversity in theoretical foundations, research methods, and approaches, asking contributors to analyze and include implications for policy and practice.<ref>{{cite web |title=About This Journal {{!}} International Journal of Nuclear Security - Every link must hold. {{!}} University of Tennessee, Knoxville |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/ijns/about.html |website=trace.tennessee.edu |access-date=April 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330160247/https://trace.tennessee.edu/ijns/about.html |archive-date=March 30, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Other Activities====
In 2013, the University of Tennessee participated in the SEC Symposium in [[Atlanta]] which was organized and led by the [[University of Georgia]] and the [[University of Georgia#Bioenergy Systems Research Institute|UGA Bioenergy Systems Research Institute]]. The topic of the Symposium was titled, the "Impact of the Southeast in the World's Renewable Energy Future."<ref>{{cite web |title=SEC Symposium to address role of Southeast in renewable energy |url=http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/sec-symposium-to-address-role-of-southeast-in-renewable-energy/ |publisher=University of Georgia |access-date=February 13, 2013 |date=February 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212211032/http://news.uga.edu/releases/article/sec-symposium-to-address-role-of-southeast-in-renewable-energy/ |archive-date=February 12, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Agricultural Campus===
Through 21 departments, the Ag campus offers 11 undergraduate majors, 13 undergrad minors, 14 graduate programs, and veterinary medicine majors. The ag campus supports academics, research and community outreach.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://utia.tennessee.edu/|title=Institute of Agriculture {{!}} UTIA|last=bwilli33|date=2019-03-20|website=utia.tennessee.edu|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> The [[University of Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility]], nicknamed the "[[Body Farm]]", is located near the [[University of Tennessee Medical Center]] on [[Tennessee State Route 115|Alcoa Highway]] ([[U.S. Route 129|US 129]]). Founded by Dr. [[William M. Bass]] in 1972, the Body Farm endeavors to increase anthropological and forensic knowledge specifically related to the decomposition of the human body and is one of the leading centers for such research in the United States.<ref name="bassinterview">{{cite web |url=http://www.harpercollins.com/author/AuthorExtra.aspx?displayType=interview&authorID=28652 |title=Author Interview with Jefferson Bass |work=HarperCollins.com |access-date=March 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080129143755/http://www.harpercollins.com/author/authorExtra.aspx?authorID=28652&displayType=interview |archive-date=January 29, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Cherokee Research Campus===
On March 16, 2009, the university broke ground on a {{convert|188|acre|ha|adj=on}} campus in downtown Knoxville that will be devoted to [[nanotechnology]], neutron science, [[materials science]], energy, climate studies, [[environmental science]], and [[biomedical science]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tennessee.edu/system/cherokee/factsheet/index.shtml |title=Tennessee.edu |publisher=Tennessee.edu |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512052112/http://www.tennessee.edu/system/cherokee/factsheet/index.shtml |archive-date=May 12, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Campus master plan===
[[File:College-exterior.jpg|thumb|300px|[[University of Tennessee College of Law|UT College of Law]]]]

The university has implemented a 25-year (2001–2026) campus master plan that will facilitate a sweeping overhaul of campus design.<ref name="masterplan">{{cite web |url=http://www.pp.utk.edu/masterplan.htm |title=Facilities Master Plan |publisher=University of Tennessee |access-date=April 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514002912/http://www.pp.utk.edu/masterplan.htm |archive-date=May 14, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The plan is designed to make the campus more pedestrian-friendly by establishing large areas of open green space and relegating parking facilities to the periphery of the campus, and to increase the aesthetic appeal of the school by establishing uniform building design codes and by physically remodeling, restoring, and expanding existing academic, athletic, and housing facilities. Centrally located, iconic [[Ayres Hall]] underwent a massive upgrade as part of Phase I of the project, with work completed in 2011. The new Student Union has seen Phase 1 completion and is currently undergoing Phase 2, along with substantial new facilities for science, the performing arts, and athletics. An expected 3,000 new parking spaces will be developed along with improved mass transit and walking spaces. The plan calls for the removal of many of the roads that bisect the campus, along with the development of two new quads, one each on the main and agricultural campuses. Restoration and renovations of existing campus buildings are expected to be conducted in concert with historical preservationists when appropriate, according to the 2001 Master Plan document.<ref name="masterplan"/>
[[File:UT-McClungPlaza.jpg|thumb|275px|View of [[Europa (mythology)|Europa and the Bull]] at McClung Plaza]]

===Space Institute===
The [[University of Tennessee Space Institute]], located in [[Tullahoma, TN]], is an extension of the Knoxville campus supporting research and graduate studies in aerospace engineering and related fields. The Space Institute is home to various supersonic wind tunnels used by the Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering. This includes Mach 2, Mach 2.3, and Mach 4 facilities. A Mach 7 wind tunnel is also being constructed to support [[hypersonic]] flight research at the University of Tennessee. The Space Institute is also home to the Center of [[Laser]] Applications (CLA), a state center of excellence.

==Student life==

===Activities===
;International House : The International House is a popular gathering place for visiting international students and delegations and University of Tennessee students who have previously or are currently interested in studying abroad through the Programs Abroad Office. A full kitchen, meeting rooms, and a library provide support for frequent cultural events ranging from salsa dance lessons and nation-themed culture nights to Peace Corps interest meetings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.utk.edu/~ihouse/about/ |title=International House |publisher=University of Tennessee - Knoxville |access-date=March 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204063350/http://web.utk.edu/~ihouse/about/ |archive-date=December 4, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

;Black Cultural Center : The Black Cultural Center, or BCC, houses the Office of Minority Student Affairs and offers a student computer lab, free Spanish tutoring, and a textbook loan service for economically disadvantaged students. There is a small but well-stocked library featuring numerous works examining religious and minority issues, and the facility offers free use of its meeting rooms to campus organizations and their affiliates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://multicultural.utk.edu/msl_bcc.php |title=Black Cultural Center |publisher=University of Tennessee - Knoxville |access-date=March 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301040125/http://multicultural.utk.edu/msl_bcc.php |archive-date=March 1, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

;Campus Events Board : The Campus Events Board (CEB) is a student organization with nearly two hundred members that runs the majority of campus events, activities, and programs for the student body. CEB hosts around a hundred events per year and is consistently ranked as one of the best collegiate programming organizations in the nation. Examples include homecoming, lectures, concerts, raves, movies, art exhibitions, and dance performances. CEB runs both traditional events like the comedic skit competition "Carnicus" which is over a hundred years old and single-time events like musical performances or Culture Week.

===Organizations===
The University of Tennessee has over 450 registered [[student organizations]]. These groups cater to a variety of interests and provide options for those interested in service, sports, arts, social activities, government, politics, cultural issues, and Greek societies.<ref name="UTKSORP">{{cite web |url=http://go.utk.edu |title=Student Organizations Resource Page |work=UTK.edu |access-date=September 21, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921001504/http://go.utk.edu/ |archive-date=September 21, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The university operates two radio stations: student-run The Rock (formerly the Torch)<ref name="WUTK">{{cite web |url=http://www.wutkradio.com/index.php |title=90.3 The Rock |work=WUTKradio.com |access-date=November 23, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214003520/http://www.wutkradio.com/index.php |archive-date=December 14, 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ([[WUTK-FM]] 90.3 [[Megahertz|MHz]]) and [[National Public Radio]] [[Network affiliate|affiliate]] [[WUOT-FM]] 91.9 MHz. The university's first radio station was on the AM frequency 850 kHz, a donation from Knoxville radio station [[WIVK-FM|WIVK-AM/FM]]. ''[[The Phoenix (literary art magazine)|The Phoenix]]'', a literary art magazine, is published in the fall and spring [[academic term|semesters]] and showcases student artistic creativity.

;The Volunteer Channel
The Volunteer Channel (TVC) is the university's student run television station. TVC reaches nearly 7,000 UT students in residence halls and 100,000 residents in surrounding counties on Comcast Digital Channel 194.<ref>[http://www.volchannel.com TVC - The Volunteer Channel | School of Journalism & Electronic Media] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020620/http://www.volchannel.com/ |date=November 29, 2014 }}</ref>

;[[The Daily Beacon]]
''The Daily Beacon'' is the editorially independent student newspaper of UT's campus. It prints 10,000 daily copies weekly and produces daily online content, about the campus and the surrounding downtown areas. It began in 1906 as ''The Orange & White'', and has been a staple on the campus landscape ever since. It is also one of the few daily collegiate newspapers in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utdailybeacon.com/ |title=utdailybeacon.com - The editorially independent student newspaper at the University of Tennessee, since 1906. |first=The Daily |last=Beacon |website=The Daily Beacon |access-date=October 5, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507123019/http://utdailybeacon.com/ |archive-date=May 7, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Greek institutions===
The University of Tennessee hosts 22 sororities and 29 fraternities. Approximately 20% of undergraduate men and 30% of undergraduate women are active in UT's Greek system.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/university-of-tennessee-3530/student-life</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;Fraternities
*[[Alpha Epsilon Pi]]
*[[Alpha Kappa Psi]]
*[[Alpha Gamma Rho]]
*[[Alpha Phi Alpha]]
*[[Alpha Tau Omega]]
*[[Beta Chi Theta]]
*[[Beta Theta Pi]]
*[[Beta Upsilon Chi]]
*[[Chi Phi]]
*[[Delta Kappa Epsilon]]
*[[Delta Tau Delta]]
*[[FarmHouse]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Order]]
*[[Kappa Alpha Psi]]
*[[Kappa Sigma]]
*[[Omega Psi Phi]]
*[[Phi Beta Sigma]]
*[[Phi Delta Theta]]
*[[Phi Gamma Delta]]
*[[Phi Kappa Psi]]
*[[Phi Kappa Tau]]
*[[Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia]]
*[[Phi Sigma Kappa]]
*[[Pi Kappa Alpha]]
*[[Pi Kappa Phi]]
*[[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]]
*[[Sigma Beta Rho]]
*[[Sigma Chi]]
*[[Sigma Nu]]
*[[Sigma Phi Epsilon]]
*[[Iota Phi Theta]]
{{col-break}}
;Sororities
*[[Alpha Chi Omega]]
*[[Alpha Delta Pi]]
*[[Alpha Kappa Alpha]]
*[[Alpha Omicron Pi]]
*[[Chi Omega]]
*[[Delta Delta Delta]]
*[[Delta Gamma]]
*[[Delta Sigma Theta]]
*[[Delta Phi Omega]]
*[[Delta Zeta]]
*[[Gamma Sigma Sigma]]
*[[Kappa Delta]]
*[[Kappa Kappa Gamma]]
*[[Lambda Theta Alpha]]
*[[Phi Mu]]
*[[Pi Beta Phi]]
*[[Sigma Alpha]]
*[[Sigma Kappa]]
*[[Sigma Phi Lambda]]
*Sigma Sigma Rho
*[[Zeta Phi Beta]]
*[[Zeta Tau Alpha]]
{{col-end}}

==Athletics==
{{Main|Tennessee Volunteers}}
[[File:Neyland Stadium 2010.JPG|thumb|[[Neyland Stadium]]]]
[[File:UT Volunteers logo.svg|100px|thumb|left|UT athletics logo]]

Tennessee competes in the [[Southeastern Conference]]'s (SEC) Eastern Division, along with [[Florida Gators|Florida]], [[Georgia Bulldogs|Georgia]], [[Kentucky Wildcats|Kentucky]], [[Missouri Tigers|Missouri]], [[South Carolina Gamecocks|South Carolina]], and [[Vanderbilt Commodores|Vanderbilt]]. The only UT team that does not compete in the SEC is the women's [[College rowing (United States)|rowing]] program, which competes as a single-sport member of the [[Big 12 Conference]].

The [[Tennessee Lady Volunteers basketball]] team has won eight NCAA Division I titles (1987, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2008); only [[Connecticut Huskies women's basketball|Connecticut]], with nine titles, has more championships. They are currently led by [[Kellie Harper]]. She succeeded [[Holly Warlick]], who succeeded [[Pat Summitt]], the all-time winningest basketball coach in NCAA history. Summitt's 1,000th victory occurred on February 5, 2009, and she boasts a 100 percent graduation rate for all players who finish their career at UT. Women's basketball rivals for Tennessee within the conference include [[Georgia Lady Bulldogs basketball|Georgia]], [[Vanderbilt Commodores women's basketball|Vanderbilt]], and [[LSU Lady Tigers basketball|LSU]].

UT's best-known athletic facility by far is [[Neyland Stadium]], home to the football team, which seats 102,455 people and is one of the country's largest facilities of its type.

In August 2014, University of Tennessee students were given the opportunity to vote for a name for the Neyland Stadium student section. The name "Rocky Top Rowdies" was selected over "General's Quarters", "Smokey's Howl", "Vol Army", and "Big Orange Crew."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wbir.com/story/news/home/2014/09/01/student-section-named-rocky-top-rowdies/14920361/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140918183443/http://www.wbir.com/story/news/home/2014/09/01/student-section-named-rocky-top-rowdies/14920361/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 18, 2014 |title=Student section named 'Rocky Top Rowdies' |publisher=WBIR.com |access-date=September 16, 2014}}</ref>

On November 10, 2014, as part of a university-wide branding overhaul, the UT athletic department announced that starting with the 2015–16 school year, all UT women's teams except for basketball would drop "Lady" from their nickname and become simply "Volunteers". The rebranding will coincide with UT's switch from [[Adidas]] to [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] as its uniform supplier.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.utsports.com/genrel/111014aab.html |title=One Tennessee: Branding Restructure |publisher=University of Tennessee Athletics |date=November 10, 2014 |access-date=November 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112004644/http://www.utsports.com/genrel/111014aab.html |archive-date=November 12, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Club sports===
The university also offers a number of recreational sports, many offering intercollegiate play. Sports include rugby, soccer, [[collegiate wrestling|wrestling]], hockey, running, crew, golf and paintball.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://recsports.utk.edu/Programs/Sport%20Clubs/Clubs/index.php |title=UT Knoxville | RecSports |publisher=Recsports.utk.edu |access-date=May 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620153228/http://recsports.utk.edu/Programs/Sport%20Clubs/Clubs/index.php |archive-date=June 20, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Teams often join intercollegiate conferences, such as the [[South Eastern Collegiate Hockey Conference]], or play [[Southeastern Conference]] and in other rivals on a regular basis.

===Colors===
Charles Moore, president of the university's athletic association, chose orange and white for the school colors on April 12, 1889. His inspiration is said to have come from orange and white [[Asteraceae|daisies]] which grew on the Hill. To this day there are still orange and white flowers grown outside the University Center. Although students confirmed the colors at a special meeting in 1892, dissatisfaction caused the colors to be dropped. No other acceptable colors could be agreed on, however, and the original colors were reinstated a day later. The University of Tennessee's official colors are [[Shades of orange#UT Orange|UT Orange]] (Pantone 151), White, and Smokey Gray (Pantone 426).<ref name="officialcolors">{{cite web |url=http://communications.utk.edu/branding/palette.php |title=Our Primary Color |work=UTK.edu |publisher=UTK Office of Communications & Marketing |access-date=September 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912174502/http://communications.utk.edu/branding/palette.php |archive-date=September 12, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Pride of the Southland Band===
{{Main|Pride of the Southland Band}}
[[File:UCLA@UTopen.ogv|thumb|5 min video of the open of a football game]]
The Pride of the Southland Band (or simply The Pride) is UT's marching band. As one of the oldest institutions at the university, the band partakes in many of the gameday traditions. At every home game, the Pride performs the "March to the Stadium" which includes a parade sequence and climaxes when the band stops at the bottom of The Hill and performs the "Salute to the Hill", an homage to the history and legacy of the university. The band is known for its pregame show at the beginning of every home game, which ends with the football team running onto the field through the "Opening of the T".

===Mascot===
{{Main|Smokey (mascot)}}

===Nickname===
Tennessee is known as the "Volunteer State" for the large number of Tennesseans who volunteered for duty in the [[War of 1812]], the [[Mexican–American War]], and the [[American Civil War]]. A UT athletic team was dubbed the Volunteers for the first time in 1902 by the ''[[Atlanta Constitution]]'' following a football game against the [[Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets]], although the ''[[Knoxville Journal and Tribune]]'' did not use the name until 1905. By the fall of 1905 both the ''Journal'' and the then-''[[Knoxville News Sentinel|Sentinel]]'' were using the nickname.<ref name="trad-volunteer">{{cite web |url=http://www.utk.edu/news/traditions.shtml#volunteer |title=University of Tennessee Traditions: Volunteer Nickname |work=UTK.edu |access-date=August 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906002114/http://www.utk.edu/news/traditions.shtml#volunteer |archive-date=September 6, 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===The Rock===
Unearthed in the 1960s, the Rock probably soon thereafter became a "canvas" for student messages. For years the university sandblasted away the messages but eventually deferred to students' artistic endeavors. ''The Daily Beacon'' has editorialized: "Originally a smaller rock, The Rock has grown in prestige and size while thousands of coats of paint have been thrown on its jagged face. Really, its function is as an open forum for students."<ref name="trad-rock">{{cite web |url=http://www.utk.edu/news/traditions.shtml#rock |title=University of Tennessee Traditions: The Rock |work=UTK.edu |access-date=June 13, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716064236/http://www.utk.edu/news/traditions.shtml#rock |archive-date=July 16, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{Main list|List of University of Tennessee people}}

==See also==
{{Commons category|University of Tennessee at Knoxville}}
*[[East Tennessee Female Institute]]
*[[East Tennessee Historical Society]]
*''[[University of Tennessee Press]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{NIE Poster|Tennessee, University of|University of Tennessee}}
*{{Official website}}
*[http://www.utsports.com/ University of Tennessee Athletics website]
*{{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Tennessee, University of|short=x}}
*{{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Tennessee, University of|short=x}}

{{University of Tennessee, Knoxville}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Tennessee, University Of}}
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Sony

2021-08-20T07:21:20Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation}} {{Redirect|Sony Corporation|the U.S. subsidiary|Sony Corporation of America|other uses|Sony (disambiguati..."

{{short description|Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation}}
{{Redirect|Sony Corporation|the U.S. subsidiary|Sony Corporation of America|other uses|Sony (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020|cs1-dates=y}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Sony Group Corporation
| logo = Sony logo.svg
| image = Sony headquarters (crop).jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = Sony's Headquarters Complex at Sony City in [[Minato, Tokyo]]
| native_name = ソニーグループ株式会社
| native_name_lang = ja
| romanized_name = Sonī Gurūpu kabushiki kaisha
| former_name = {{plainlist|
* Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, Ltd. {{small|(1946–1957)}}
* Sony Corporation {{small|(1958–2021)}}{{efn|Since April 2021, the "Sony Corporation" legal name is used for Sony Group's electronics business that was previously known as "Sony Electronics Corporation".}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/ServiceArea/210401E/|title=Change of the Sony entity for License Agreements, etc.|date=1 April 2021|accessdate=7 May 2021|website=www.sony.net|publisher=Sony Group Corporation}}</ref>
}}
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{plainlist|
* {{Tyo|6758}}
* {{nyse|SONY}}
* [[Nikkei 225]] component (6758)
* [[TOPIX]] Core30 component (6758)
}}
| industry = [[Conglomerate (company)|Conglomerate]]
| foundation = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1946|5|7}} [[Nihonbashi]], [[Chūō, Tokyo]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Corporate History |url=https://www.sony.com/en/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/company/ |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=www.sony.com |language=en}}</ref>
| founders = {{plainlist|
* [[Masaru Ibuka]]
* [[Akio Morita]]
}}
| hq_location = Sony City
| hq_location_city = [[Minato, Tokyo]]
| hq_location_country = [[Japan]]
| num_locations_year = 2016
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = {{ubl|Shuzo Sumi|(Chairman of the board)|Kazuo Matsunaga|(Vice Chairman of the board)|Kenichiro Yoshida|(Chairman, President & CEO)|Shigeki Ishizuka|(Vice Chairman)}}
| products = {{hlist | [[Consumer electronics]] | [[Semiconductor]]s | [[Video games]] | Films | TV shows | Music | Computer hardware | [[Telecommunications equipment]] | [[Robot]]s }}
| services = {{hlist |[[Financial services]] |Insurance |Banking |[[Credit (finance)|Credit finance]] |[[Advertising agency]] |[[Network service]]s}}
| revenue = {{Increase}} {{JPY|8.999 trillion}} (US$81.38 billion) (2021)
<ref name=":Financial">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sony.com/en/SonyInfo/IR/library/presen/er/pdf/20q4_sony.pdf|title=Financial Statements and Consolidated Financial Results|publisher=SONY Corporation|website=sony.com|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>
| operating_income = {{Increase}} {{JPY|971.965 billion}} (US$8.78 billion) (2021)<ref name=":Financial" />
| net_income = {{Increase}} {{JPY|1.191 trillion}}
(US$10.77 billion) (2021)<ref name=":Financial" />
| assets = {{Increase}} {{JPY|26.354 trillion}} (US$238.31 billion) (2021)<ref name=":Financial" />
| equity = {{Increase}} {{JPY|5.621 trillion}} (US$50.83 billion) (2021)<ref name=":Financial" />
| num_employees = 111,700 (2021)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony |url=https://fortune.com/global500/2019/sony |website=Fortune}}</ref>
| divisions = {{Plain list|
*Game & Network Services
*Music
*Pictures
*Electronics Products & Solutions
*Imaging & Sensing Solutions
*Financial Services
*Others<ref name="sony_organization">{{Cite web |date=1 August 2019 |title=Organization Data, Corporate Info |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/Data/organization.html |access-date=5 June 2020 |publisher=Sony Corporation}}</ref>}}
| subsid = See [[List of assets owned by Sony|list of subsidiaries]]
| homepage = {{URL|www.sony.com}}
| footnotes = <ref name="sony.net">{{Cite web |date=31 March 2019 |title=Corporate Data |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/library/presen/er/pdf/18q4_sony.pdf |access-date=3 April 2019 |publisher=Sony Corporation}}</ref>
}}

{{Nihongo|'''Sony Group Corporation'''|ソニーグループ株式会社|Sonī Gurūpu [[kabushiki gaisha]]|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|oʊ|n|i}} {{respell|SOH|nee}}, commonly known as '''Sony''' and stylized as '''SONY'''}} is a Japanese [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] corporation headquartered in Kōnan, [[Minato, Tokyo]].<ref>"[https://www.sony.com/en/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/Data/Map/ Access & Map]." Sony Global. Retrieved 2 April 2021. "1–7–1 Konan Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0075, Japan" – [https://web.archive.org/web/20120227050438/http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/Data/Map/map_head_office.pdf Map] – [http://www.sony.jp/CorporateCruise/SMOJ-info/Profile.html Address in Japanese]: "〒108-0075 東京都港区港南1–7–1"</ref> As a major [[technology company]], it operates as one of the world's largest manufacturers of consumer and professional [[Consumer electronics|electronic products]], the largest [[video game console]] company and the largest [[video game publisher]]. Through [[Sony Entertainment|Sony Entertainment Inc]], it is one of the largest [[Music industry|music companies]] (largest [[music publisher]] & second largest [[record label]]) and the third largest [[Major film studios|film studio]], making it one of the most [[Media conglomerate|comprehensive media companies]], being the largest Japanese media conglomerate by size overtaking the privately held, [[family business|family-owned]] [[Yomiuri Shimbun|Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings]], the largest Japanese media conglomerate by revenue.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aswad|first=Jem|date=2019-07-17|title=Sony Unites Recorded Music and Publishing Under One Company|url=https://variety.com/2019/biz/news/sony-unites-recorded-music-and-publishing-under-one-company-1203269951/|access-date=2021-05-21|website=Variety|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 May 2020 |title=Sony embraces its inner conglomerate |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sony-outlook-sony-financial-breakingv-idUSKBN22W0DI |access-date=3 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony in US$2.3 billion deal, becomes the world's biggest music publisher the third largest movie studio |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/business/sony-in-us-2-3-billion-deal-for-emi--becomes-world-s-biggest-music-publisher-10257758}}</ref>

Sony, with its 55 percent market share in the [[image sensor]] market, is the largest manufacturer of image sensors, the second largest camera manufacturer, and is among the semiconductor sales leaders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 20 semiconductor sales leaders for Q1 2016 |url=https://www.electronicspecifier.com/news/analysis/top-20-semiconductor-sales-leaders-for-q1-2016 |access-date=1 June 2020 |website=www.electronicspecifier.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony's key image sensor business hit by smartphone market decline |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Companies/Sony-s-key-image-sensor-business-hit-by-smartphone-market-decline |website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2019 Market Share Data Shows Canon and Sony Growing, Nikon Shrinking {{!}} PetaPixel|url=https://petapixel.com/2020/08/14/2019-market-share-data-shows-canon-and-sony-growing-nikon-shrinking/|access-date=2021-05-21|website=petapixel.com}}</ref> It is the world's largest player in the premium TV market for a television of at least {{convert|55|in|cm|sp=us|abbr=off}} with a price higher than $2,500 as well as second largest TV brand by market share and, as of 2020, the [[Television#Market share|third largest television manufacturer]] in the world by annual sales figures.<ref name="market-share2">{{Cite web |title=Global LCD TV manufacturer market share from 2008 to 2017. |url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/267095/global-market-share-of-lcd-tv-manufacturers/ |url-access=limited |access-date=26 February 2017 |publisher=Statista}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Samsung tops global TV market for 15th consecutive year|url=https://www.flatpanelshd.com/news.php?subaction=showfull&id=1614155663|access-date=2021-05-21|website=FlatpanelsHD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Alekseenko|first=Artem|date=2021-03-04|title=LG and Sony Led OLED TV Gains in Advanced TV Market in Q4|url=https://www.displaydaily.com/article/press-releases/lg-and-sony-led-oled-tv-gains-in-advanced-tv-market-in-q4|access-date=2021-05-21|website=DisplayDaily|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 May 2018 |title=How Samsung fell behind Sony and LG in the premium TV market |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-samsung-elec-tv-idUSKBN1I24K2 |access-date=1 June 2020}}</ref>

Sony Group Corporation is the [[holding company]] of the {{Nihongo|Sony Group|ソニー・グループ|Sonī Gurūpu}}, which comprises Sony Corporation, [[Sony Semiconductor Solutions]], [[Sony Entertainment]] ([[Sony Pictures]], [[Sony Music]]), [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]], [[Sony Financial Holdings]], and [[List of Sony subsidiaries|others]].

The company's slogan is ''Be Moved''. Their former slogans were ''The One and Only'' (1979–1982), ''It's a Sony'' (1981–2005), ''like.no.other'' (2005–2009)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony like.no.other Global Brand Development |url=http://www.blind.com/work/project/sony-like-no-other-global-brand-development/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117063131/http://www.blind.com/work/project/sony-like-no-other-global-brand-development/ |archive-date=17 November 2016 |access-date=16 November 2016 |publisher=Blind}}</ref> and ''[[make.believe]]'' (2009–2013).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christopher MacManus |date=2 September 2009 |title=Sony Insider. 2010-10-27. Retrieved 2016-08-07 |url=http://www.sonyinsider.com/2009/09/02/sony-rebrands-itself-drops-like-no-other-and-adopts-make-believe/ |access-date=21 April 2017 |publisher=Sonyinsider.com}}</ref>

Sony has a weak tie to the [[Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group]] (SMFG) [[corporate group]], the successor to the [[Mitsui]] ''[[keiretsu]]''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=A Frog in a Well Knows Nothing of the Ocean: A History of Corporate Ownership in Japan |encyclopedia=A History of Corporate Governance around the World: Family Business Groups to Professional Managers |publisher=University of Chicago Press |url=https://www.nber.org/chapters/c10274.pdf |date=2005 |editor-last=Morck |editor-first=Randall K. |pages=367–466 |isbn=0-226-53680-7 |author=Morck, R. K. |author2=Nakamura, M.}}</ref> Sony is listed on the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] (in which it is a constituent of the [[Nikkei 225]] and [[TOPIX]] Core30 indexes) with an additional listing in the form of [[American depositary receipts]] listed in the [[New York Stock Exchange]] (traded since 1970, making it the oldest Japanese company to be listed in an American exchange), and was ranked 122nd on the 2020 [[Fortune Global 500|''Fortune'' Global 500]] list.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony 2020 Global 500 – Fortune |url=https://fortune.com/company/sony/global500/ |magazine=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]}}</ref>

==History==
{{Further|History of Sony}}

===Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo===
Sony began in the wake of World War II. In 1946, [[Masaru Ibuka]] started an electronics shop in Shirokiya,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sundberg |first=Stephen |date=18 September 2016 |title=Shirokiya Department Store, c. 1910–1940. | Old Tokyo |url=http://www.oldtokyo.com/shirokiya-department-store/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918035310/http://www.oldtokyo.com/shirokiya-dept-store.php |archive-date=18 September 2012 |access-date=5 November 2020 |website=Old Tokyo |language=en-us}}</ref> a department store building in the [[Nihonbashi]] area of [[Tokyo]]. The company started with a capital of ¥190,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – History |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/ |access-date=7 July 2017 |website=www.sony.net |language=en}}</ref> and a total of eight employees.<ref name="Nobuo">{{Cite news |last=Nobuo Abiko |date=26 March 1966 |title=Pioneering firm upsets Japan hiring: Pattern broken |page=14 |work=The Christian Science Monitor |via=ProQuest}}</ref> On 7 May 1946, Ibuka was joined by [[Akio Morita]] to establish a company called {{nihongo|Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo|東京通信工業|Tōkyō Tsūshin Kōgyō}} (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation).<ref name="History">{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – Sony History |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/1-01.html |access-date=16 February 2007}}</ref> The company built Japan's first [[tape recorder]], called the Type-G.<ref name=History/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Neate |first=Rupert |date=1 December 2014 |title=A history of Sony's successes and failures |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/13/sony-successes-failures-inventions-walkman-music |access-date=22 April 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 1958, the company changed its name to "Sony".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Sea-Jin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blWb6tslZb8C&q=In+1958+sony&pg=PT19 |title=Sony vs Samsung: The Inside Story of the Electronics Giants' Battle For Global Supremacy |date=25 February 2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470830444 |language=en}}</ref>

===Name===
When ''Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo'' was looking for a romanized name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials, TTK. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company [[Tokyu Corporation|Tokyo Kyuko]] was known as TTK.<ref name=History/> The company occasionally used the acronym "Totsuko" in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was "Tokyo Teletech" until [[Akio Morita]] discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name.<ref>''[[Made in Japan (biography)|Made in Japan]]'' – Akio Morita and Sony (pg. 76) by Akio Morita with [müzik indir] [http://www.indiristan.net/ müzik indir] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117181638/http://www.indiristan.net/ |date=2021-01-17 }} Edwin M. Rheingold and Mitsuko Shimomura, Signet Books, 1986</ref>

The name "Sony" was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words: one was the [[Latin]] word "''[[wikt:sonus|sonus]]''", which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was "''[[wikt:sonny|sonny]]''", a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a young boy.<ref name="SonyHistory">[http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/ Sony Corporate History (Japanese)]. Sony.co.jp. Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> In 1950s Japan, "sonny boys" was a [[loan word]] in Japanese, which connoted smart and presentable young men, which Sony founders [[Akio Morita]] and [[Masaru Ibuka]] considered themselves to be.<ref name="SonyHistory" />

The first Sony-branded product, the [[TR-55]] [[transistor radio]], appeared in 1955 but the company name did not change to Sony until January 1958.<ref>[http://www.sony.co.uk/article/id/1060176719725 Sony.co.uk. About Sony. ''The History of the Sony Corporation''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128040732/http://www.sony.co.uk/article/id/1060176719725 |date=28 November 2013 }}. Sony.co.uk. Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref>

At the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use [[Romanization of Japanese|Roman letters]] to spell its name instead of writing it in [[kanji]]. The move was not without opposition: TTK's principal bank at the time, [[Mitsui]], had strong feelings about the name. They pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company name tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Bank's chairman gave their approval.<ref name=History/>

===Globalization===
[[File:Vintage Sony Model TR-730 Transistor Radio, Broadcast Band Only (MW), 7 Transistors, Made In Japan, Circa 1960 (15836828772).jpg|left|upright|thumb|
Sony TR-730 transistor radio made in Japan, circa 1960]]
According to Schiffer, Sony's TR-63 radio "cracked open the U.S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Focusing on the design of pocket transistor radios manufactured during the 1950s & 1960s! |url=https://www.jamesbutters.com/ |access-date=16 January 2020 |website=Focusing on the design of pocket transistor radios manufactured during the 1950s & 1960s!}}</ref> By the mid-1950s, American teens had begun buying portable transistor radios in huge numbers, helping to propel the fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units in 1955 to 5 million units by the end of 1968.{{citation needed |date=November 2014}}

Sony co-founder Akio Morita founded Sony Corporation of America in 1960.<ref name="Nobuo" /> In the process, he was struck by the mobility of employees between American companies, which was unheard of in Japan at that time.<ref name="Nobuo" /> When he returned to Japan, he encouraged experienced, middle-aged employees of other companies to reevaluate their careers and consider joining Sony.<ref name="Nobuo" /> The company filled many positions in this manner, and inspired other Japanese companies to do the same.<ref name="Nobuo" /> Moreover, Sony played a major role in the development of Japan as a powerful exporter during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Christian">Christian, Caryl, and With Hideko Takayama and Kay Itoi in Tokyo, George Wehrfritz in Hong Kong, John Sparks and Michael Hastings in, New York. "Sony is Not Japan; the Appointment of a Foreign CEO is a Sign of how Far the Iconic Company has Fallen in the Japanese Corporate Elite." Newsweek 21 March 2005: 30-. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 26 May 2012.</ref> It also helped to significantly improve American perceptions of "made in Japan" products.<ref name="Lohr">Lohr, Steve. "Hard-Hit Sony Girds for a Fight in the American Electronics Market." New York Times: A.8. New York Times. 14 August 1983. Web. 26 May 2012.</ref> Known for its production quality, Sony was able to charge above-market prices for its consumer electronics and resisted lowering prices.<ref name="Lohr" />

In 1971, Masaru Ibuka handed the position of president over to his co-founder Akio Morita. Sony began [[Sony Life|a life insurance company]] in 1979, one of its many peripheral businesses. Amid a global recession in the early 1980s, electronics sales dropped and the company was forced to cut prices.<ref name="Lohr" /> Sony's profits fell sharply. "It's over for Sony", one analyst concluded. "The company's best days are behind it."<ref name="Lohr" /> Around that time, [[Norio Ohga]] took up the role of president. He encouraged the development of the Compact Disc in the 1970s and 1980s, and of the [[PlayStation]] in the early 1990s. Ohga went on to purchase [[Columbia Records|CBS Records]] in 1988 and [[Columbia Pictures]] in 1989, greatly expanding Sony's media presence. Ohga would succeed Morita as chief executive officer in 1989.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Digication e-Portfolio :: Navaldeep Singh :: Investigate and Analyze the company's History and Growth |url=https://stonybrook.digication.com/navaldeep_singh/Investigate_and_Analyze_the_company_s_History_and_ |access-date=4 June 2017 |website=stonybrook.digication.com |language=en}}</ref>{{citation needed |date=November 2014}}
Under the vision of co-founder Akio Morita<ref name="Fackler">Fackler, Martin. "Cutting Sony, a Corporate Octopus, Back to a Rational Size." New York Times: C.1. New York Times. 29 May 2006. Web. 27 May 2012.</ref> and his successors, the company had aggressively expanded into new businesses.<ref name="Christian" /> Part of its motivation for doing so was the pursuit of "convergence", linking film, music and digital electronics via the Internet.<ref name="Christian" /> This expansion proved unrewarding and unprofitable,<ref name="Christian" /> threatening Sony's ability to charge a premium on its products<ref name="Fackler" /> as well as its brand name.<ref name="Fackler" /> In 2005, [[Howard Stringer]] replaced [[Nobuyuki Idei]] as chief executive officer, marking the first time that a foreigner had run a major Japanese electronics firm. Stringer helped to reinvigorate the company's struggling media businesses, encouraging blockbusters such as ''[[Spider-Man (2002 film)|Spider-Man]]'' while cutting 9,000 jobs.<ref name="Christian" /> He hoped to sell off peripheral business and focus the company again on electronics.<ref name="Fackler" /> Furthermore, he aimed to increase cooperation between business units,<ref name="Fackler" /> which he described as "silos" operating in isolation from one another.<ref name="Nakamoto" /> In a bid to provide a unified brand for its global operations, Sony introduced a slogan known as "make.believe" in 2009.<ref name=":0" />{{citation needed |date=November 2014}}

[[File:MarkvilleSonyStore.JPG|thumb|Sony Store in [[Markville Shopping Centre]], Canada]]
Despite some successes, the company faced continued struggles in the mid- to late-2000s.<ref name="Christian" /> In 2012, [[Kazuo Hirai]] was promoted to president and CEO, replacing Stringer. Shortly thereafter, Hirai outlined his company-wide initiative, named "One Sony" to revive Sony from years of financial losses and bureaucratic management structure, which proved difficult for former CEO Stringer to accomplish, partly due to differences in business culture and native languages between Stringer and some of Sony's Japanese divisions and subsidiaries. Hirai outlined three major areas of focus for Sony's electronics business, which include imaging technology, gaming and mobile technology, as well as a focus on reducing the major losses from the television business.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeff Blagdon |date=27 March 2012 |title=Sony reorganizes into 'One Sony', prioritizes digital imaging, gaming and mobile |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/3/27/2905412/sony-management-structure-change-announcement |access-date=10 July 2013 |website=The Verge}}</ref>

[[File:SONY Store , ソニーストア名古屋 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Sony Store in [[Nagoya]], Japan]]
In February 2014, Sony announced the sale of its [[Vaio]] PC division to a new corporation owned by investment fund Japan Industrial Partners and spinning its TV division into its own corporation as to make it more nimble to turn the unit around from past losses totaling $7.8 billion over a decade.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Knight |first1=Sophie |last2=Reiji Murai |date=6 February 2014 |title=As losses mount, Sony's Hirai seeks cure for TV business in spinoff |work=Reuters |location=Tokyo |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sony-results-idUSBREA150AK20140206 |access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref> Later that month, they announced that they would be closing 20 stores.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 February 2014 |title=Sony to shutter two-thirds of its US stores |work=Engadget |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/02/26/sony-stores-closing/ |access-date=27 February 2014}}</ref> In April, the company announced that they would be selling 9.5 million shares in [[Square Enix]] (roughly 8.2 percent of the game company's total shares) in a deal worth approximately $48 million.<ref name="SQEXsale">{{Cite web |last=Makuch, Eddie |date=16 April 2014 |title=PS4 company Sony to sell its entire stake in Square Enix, valued at around $47 million |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/ps4-company-sony-to-sell-its-entire-stake-in-square-enix-valued-at-around-47-million/1100-6419024/ |access-date=16 April 2014 |website=[[GameSpot]]}}</ref> In May 2014 the company announced it was forming two joint ventures with [[Shanghai Oriental Pearl Group]] to manufacture and market Sony's [[PlayStation]] games consoles and associated software in China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 May 2014 |title=Sony, Shanghai Oriental Pearl to set up China PlayStation JVs |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sony-shanghaiorientalpearl-playstatio-idUSBREA4P01320140526 |website=Reuters}}</ref>

In 2015, Sony purchased Toshiba's image sensor business.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2015 |title=Toshiba sells sensor business to Sony, overhauls chip unit |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/10/28/toshiba-sells-sensor-business-to-sony-overhauls-chip-unit.html |website=CNBC}}</ref>

It was reported in December 2016 by multiple news outlets that Sony was considering restructuring its U.S. operations by merging its TV & film business, Sony Pictures Entertainment, with its gaming business, Sony Interactive Entertainment. According to the reports, such a restructuring would have placed Sony Pictures under Sony Interactive's CEO, Andrew House, though House wouldn't have taken over day-to-day operations of the film studio.<ref name="tvfilmgaming">{{Cite news |last=Aldrich |first=Rachel |date=12 December 2016 |title=Why would Sony merge its gaming and film units? |language=en |work=TheStreet |url=https://www.thestreet.com/story/13922321/1/why-would-sony-merge-its-gaming-and-film-units.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Atkinson |first=Claire |date=12 December 2016 |title=Sony considers merging gaming and film divisions |language=en |work=New York Post |url=https://nypost.com/2016/12/11/sony-considers-merging-gaming-and-film-divisions/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Cooke |first=Chris |title=Revamp of Sony's entertainment business could more closely align Sony Music with Sony/ATV {{!}} Complete Music Update |url=http://www.completemusicupdate.com/article/revamp-of-sonys-entertainment-business-could-more-closely-align-sony-music-with-sonyatv/}}</ref> According to one report, Sony was set to make a final decision on the possibility of the merger of the TV, film, & gaming businesses by the end of its fiscal year in March of the following year (2017).<ref name="tvfilmgaming" />

In 2017, Sony sold its [[lithium-ion battery]] business to [[Murata Manufacturing]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Murata to pour $450m into Sony battery ops after purchase |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Murata-to-pour-450m-into-Sony-battery-ops-after-purchase |website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Murata Manufacturing and Sony Sign Definitive Agreement for the Transfer of Battery Business | Murata Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |url=https://corporate.murata.com/en-us/about/newsroom/news/company/general/2016/1031 |website=corporate.murata.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2017 |title=Sony to complete sale of battery business to Murata in September |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/07/19/business/corporate-business/sony-complete-sale-battery-business-murata-september/ |via=Japan Times Online}}</ref>

In 2019, Sony merged its Mobile, TV and Camera businesses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2019 |title=[Update: Mass job cuts expected] Sony to merge all consumer electronics divisions after mobile loses nearly a billion dollars in a year |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/03/29/sony-to-merge-all-consumer-electronics-divisions-as-if-we-wont-notice-mobile-losing-nearly-a-billion-dollars/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Merges Electronics Divisions, Hiding Staggering Mobile Losses – ExtremeTech |url=https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/288598-sony-merges-electronics-divisions-hiding-staggering-mobile-losses |website=www.extremetech.com}}</ref>

On 1 April 2020, Sony Electronics Corporation was established as an intermediate holding company to own and oversee its electronics and IT solutions businesses.

On 19 May 2020, the company announced that it will rename Sony Group Corporation as of 1 April 2021. Subsequently, Sony Electronics Corporation will be renamed to Sony Corporation.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Announcement of New Sony Group Organizational Structure |date=1 May 2020 |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/202005/20-039E/ |access-date=19 May 2020 |agency=Sony Corporation}}</ref> On the same day the company announced that it will turn [[Sony Financial Holdings]], of which Sony already owns 65.06% of shares, to a wholly owned subsidiary through a takeover bid.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Announcement Regarding Commencement of Tender Offer for Shares Etc, of Sony Financial Holdings Inc. (Securities Code: 8729) |date=1 May 2020 |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/news/20200519_02E.pdf |access-date=21 May 2020 |agency=Sony Corporation}}</ref>

On 1 April 2021, Sony Corporation renamed Sony Group Corporation. On the same day, Sony Mobile Communications Inc. absorbed Sony Electronics Corporation, Sony Imaging Products & Solutions Inc., and Sony Home Entertainment & Sound Products Inc. and changed its trade name to Sony Corporation.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Announcement of Decision Regarding Company Split (Small-scale Company Split) of Electronics Products & Solutions Business|date=2020-11-17 |url=https://www.sony.com/en/SonyInfo/IR/news/20201117_01E.pdf |access-date=2021-07-13 |agency=Sony Corporation}}</ref>

==Formats and technologies==
{{Further|List of Sony trademarks}}
Sony has historically been notable for creating its own in-house standards for new recording and storage technologies, instead of adopting those of other manufacturers and standards bodies. Sony (either alone or with partners) has introduced several of the most popular recording formats, including the 3.5-inch [[floppy disk]], [[Compact Disc]] and [[Blu-ray Disc]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ma'arif |first=Nelly Nailaite |title=The Power of Marketing |publisher=Penerbit Salemba |year=2008 |chapter=15}}</ref>

===Video recording===
[[File:Sony SL-MV1 and RMT-117 20051001.jpg|thumb|A rare Japanese market Betamax TV/VCR combo, the Model SL-MV1]]
Sony introduced [[U-matic]], the world's first [[videocassette]] format, in 1971, but the standard was unpopular for domestic use due to the high price.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-20 |title=U-matic (1971 – 1990s) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/u-matic/ |access-date=2020-08-05 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref> The company subsequently launched the [[Betamax]] format in 1975.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Curtis |first=Sophie |date=10 November 2015 |title=Sony is finally killing off Betamax video tapes |language=en-GB |work=Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/sony/11986020/Sony-is-finally-killing-off-Betamax-video-tapes.html |access-date=4 January 2019 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> Sony was involved in the [[videotape format war]] of the early 1980s, when they were marketing the [[Betamax]] system for video cassette recorders against the [[VHS]] format developed by [[JVC]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The History of Format Wars and How Sony Finally Won... For Now |url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2016/07/how-sony-finally-won-the-format-wars.html |access-date=4 January 2019 |website=pastemagazine.com |language=en}}</ref> In the end, VHS gained critical mass in the marketbase and became the worldwide standard for consumer VCRs.<ref name=":2" />

Betamax is, for all practical purposes, an obsolete format. Sony's professional-oriented [[component video]] format called [[Betacam]], which was derived from Betamax, was used until 2016 when Sony announced it was stopping production of all remaining 1/2-inch video tape recorders and players, including the Digital Betacam format.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2014 |title=Digital Betacam (1993–2016) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/digital-betacam/ |access-date=7 January 2019 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 1985, Sony launched their Handycam products and the [[8 mm video format|Video8 format]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 May 2014 |title=Video8 (1985 – 2000s) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/video8/ |access-date=4 January 2019 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref> Video8 and the follow-on hi-band [[8 mm video format|Hi8]] format became popular in the consumer camcorder market. In 1987 Sony launched the 4 mm DAT or [[Digital Audio Tape]] as a new digital audio tape standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2014 |title=What's DAT Sound? |url=https://blogs.library.duke.edu/bitstreams/2014/10/10/dat-sound/ |access-date=4 January 2019 |website=Bitstreams: The Digital Collections Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Visual display ===
Sony held a patent for its proprietary [[Trinitron]] until 1996.

Sony introduced the Triluminos Display, the company's proprietary color reproduction enhancing technology, in 2004, featured in the world's first [[LED-backlit LCD]] televisions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony introduces first televisions to feature LED backlights |url=https://www.ledsmagazine.com/specialty-ssl/backlighting-signs-displays/article/16701260/sony-introduces-first-televisions-to-feature-led-backlights |access-date=2020-08-06 |website=www.ledsmagazine.com}}</ref> It was widely used in other Sony's products as well, including computer monitors, laptops, and smartphones.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-25 |title=The Xperia Z Ultra's Triluminos and X-Reality Engine technologies explained |url=https://www.androidauthority.com/xperia-z-ultra-triluminos-x-reality-234908/ |access-date=2020-08-06 |website=Android Authority |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2013, Sony released a new line of televisions with an improved version of the technology, which incorporated [[quantum dot]]s in the backlight system. It was the first commercial use of quantum dots.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Quantum Dots Get Commercial Debut in More Colorful Sony TVs |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/01/11/180532/quantum-dots-get-commercial-debut-in-more-colorful-sony-tvs/ |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Blagdon |first=Jeff |date=2013-01-16 |title=Sony's new Triluminos TVs pursue vibrant hues with quantum dots |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/1/16/3881546/sonys-new-triluminous-tvs-pursue-vibrant-hues-with-quantum-dots |access-date=2020-08-06 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref>

In 2012, the company revealed a prototype of an ultrafine RGB [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] display, which it calls the [[Crystal LED]] Display.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony fights the OLED future with new 'Crystal LED' prototype (Update: Hands-on!) |url=https://www.engadget.com/2012-01-09-sony-fights-the-oled-future-with-new-crystal-led-prototype.html |access-date=2020-08-06 |website=Engadget |language=en}}</ref>

===Audio recording===
[[File:First Walkman 1979 (31011124386).jpg|thumb|First Sony Walkman TPS-L2 from 1979 (Expo in Sony Building at Ginza, Chuo-Ku, Tokyo)]]
Sony used the [[Cassette tape#Cassette tape|Compact Cassette]] format in many of its tape recorders and players, including the [[Walkman]], the world's first portable music player.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Haire |first=Meaghan |date=1 July 2009 |title=The Walkman |language=en-US |work=Time |url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1907884,00.html |access-date=17 January 2019 |issn=0040-781X}}</ref> Sony introduced the [[MiniDisc]] format in 1992 as an alternative to [[Philips]] DCC or [[Digital Compact Cassette]] and as a successor to the Compact Cassette.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 2013 |title=MiniDisc (1992–2013) |url=https://obsoletemedia.org/minidisc/ |access-date=17 January 2019 |website=Museum of Obsolete Media |language=en-GB}}</ref> Since the introduction of MiniDisc, Sony has attempted to promote its own audio compression technologies under the [[Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding|ATRAC]] brand, against the more widely used MP3. Until late 2004, Sony's [[Walkman#Network Walkman|Network Walkman]] line of digital portable music players did not support the MP3 standard natively.

In 2004, Sony built upon the [[MiniDisc]] format by releasing [[HiMD|Hi-MD]]. Hi-MD allows the playback and recording of audio on newly introduced 1 GB Hi-MD discs in addition to playback and recording on regular MiniDiscs. In addition to saving audio on the discs, Hi-MD allows the storage of computer files such as documents, videos and photos.

===Audio encoding===
In 1993, Sony challenged the industry standard [[Dolby Digital]] 5.1 surround sound format with a newer and more advanced proprietary motion picture digital audio format called [[Sony Dynamic Digital Sound|SDDS]] (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound).<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Sony Digital Dynamic Sound |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~clamen/misc/movies/sdds-post.html |access-date=1 February 2019 |website=www.cs.cmu.edu}}</ref> This format employed eight channels (7.1) of audio opposed to just six used in Dolby Digital 5.1 at the time.<ref name=":3" /> Ultimately, SDDS has been vastly overshadowed by the preferred DTS ([[DTS (sound system)|Digital Theatre System]]) and Dolby Digital standards in the motion picture industry. SDDS was solely developed for use in the theatre circuit; Sony never intended to develop a home theatre version of SDDS.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Nailatie. |first=Ma'arif, Nelly |title=The power of marketing : practitioner perspectives in Asia |date=2008 |publisher=Penerbit Salemba Empat |isbn=9789796914456 |oclc=968144111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why isn't SDDS in the consumer market? |url=https://www.hometheaterforum.com/community/threads/why-isnt-sdds-in-the-consumer-market.183176/ |access-date=1 February 2019 |website=Blu-ray Movie Discussion, Expert Reviews & News |language=en-US}}</ref>

Sony and [[Philips]] jointly developed the Sony-Philips digital interface format ([[S/PDIF]]) and the high-fidelity audio system [[Super Audio CD|SACD]]. The latter became entrenched in a format war with [[DVD-Audio]]. Still, neither gained a major foothold with the general public. CDs had been preferred by consumers because of the ubiquitous presence of CD drives in consumer devices until the early 2000s when the iPod and streaming services became available.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Waniata |first=Ryan |date=7 February 2018 |title=The Life and Times of the Late, Great CD |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/features/the-history-of-the-cds-rise-and-fall/ |access-date=1 February 2019 |website=digitaltrends.com}}</ref>

In 2015, Sony introduced [[LDAC (codec)|LDAC]], a [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] [[Audio codec|audio coding]] technology which allows streaming [[high-resolution audio]] over [[Bluetooth]] connections at up to 990 kbps at 32 bit/96 kHz. Sony also contributed it as part of the [[Android Open Source Project]] starting from [[Android 8.0]] "[[Android version history#Android 8.0 Oreo (API 26)|Oreo]]", enabling every OEM to integrate this standard into their own Android devices freely. However the ''decoder'' library is [[Proprietary software|proprietary]], so receiving devices require licenses. On 17 September 2019, the Japan Audio Society (JAS) certified LDAC with their Hi-Res Audio Wireless certification. Currently the only codecs with the Hi-Res Audio Wireless certification are LDAC and [[LHDC (codec)|LHDC]], another competing standard.

===Optical storage===
[[File:Sony BD-RE 200GB front side 20080119.jpg|thumb|Front side of a Sony 200GB Blu-ray disc]]
Sony demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in 1977 and soon joined hands with Philips, another major contender for the storage technology, to establish a worldwide standard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The history of the CD – The beginning – Research |url=https://www.philips.com/a-w/research/technologies/cd/beginning.html |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Philips |language=en}}</ref> In 1983, the two company jointly announced the [[compact disc|Compact Disc]] (CD). In 1984, Sony launched the [[Discman]] series, an expansion of the Walkman brand to portable CD players. Sony began to improve performance and capacity of the novel format. It launched write-once [[optical disc]]s (WO) and [[Magneto-optical drive|magneto-optical discs]] which were around 125MB size for the specific use of archival data storage, in 1986 and 1988 respectively.<ref>A</ref>

In the early 1990s, two high-density optical storage standards were being developed: one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by Philips and Sony, and the other was the Super Density Disc (SD), supported by [[Toshiba]] and many others. Philips and Sony abandoned their MMCD format and agreed upon Toshiba's SD format with only one modification. The unified disc format was called [[DVD]] and was introduced in 1997.

Sony was one of the leading developers of the [[Blu-ray]] optical disc format, the newest standard for disc-based content delivery. The first Blu-ray players became commercially available in 2006. The format emerged as the standard for HD media over the competing format, Toshiba's [[HD DVD]], after a two-year-long [[high-definition optical disc format war]].

Sony's [[Laser communication in space|laser communication]] devices for [[small satellite]]s rely on the technologies developed for the company's optical disc products.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony to launch space business |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Companies/Sony-to-launch-space-business |access-date=21 April 2018 |website=Nikkei Asian Review}}</ref>

===Disk storage===
In 1983, Sony introduced 90 mm micro diskettes, better known as {{convert|3.5|in|mm|adj=on}} [[floppy disk]]s, which it had developed at a time when there were 4" floppy disks, and many variations from different companies, to replace the then on-going 5.25" floppy disks. Sony had great success and the format became dominant. 3.5" floppy disks gradually became obsolete as they were replaced by current media formats. Sony held more than a 70 percent share of the market when it decided to pull the plug on the format in 2010.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ma'arif |first=Nelly Nailatie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oc_0AkhysO0C&q=Sony+had+great+success+and+the+format+became+dominant.+3.5%22+floppy+disks+gradually+became+obsolete+as+they+were+replaced+by+current+media+formats&pg=PT194 |title=Power of Marketing |date=2008 |publisher=Penerbit Salemba |isbn=9789796914456 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Floppy disk history: The evolution of personal computing |url=https://www.hpe.com/us/en/insights/articles/floppy-disk-history-the-evolution-of-personal-computing-1804.html }}</ref>

===Flash memory===
In 1998, Sony launched the [[Memory Stick]] format, the [[flash memory]] cards for use in Sony lines of digital cameras and portable music players. It has seen little support outside of Sony's own products, with [[Secure Digital card]]s (SD) commanding considerably greater popularity. Sony has made updates to the Memory Stick format with [[Memory Stick#Memory Stick Duo and PRO Duo|Memory Stick Duo]] and [[Memory Stick Micro]].

=== Communication ===
Sony introduced [[FeliCa]], a contactless IC card technology primarily used in [[contactless payment]], as a result of the company's joint development and commercialization of [[near-field communication|Near-Field Communication]] (NFC) with Philips. The standard is largely offered in two forms, either chips embedded in smartphones or plastic cards with chips embedded in them. Sony plans to implement this technology in train systems across Asia.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Alpeyev |first1=Pavel |last2=Huang |first2=Grace |date=15 October 2015 |title=Sony's Answer to Apple Pay Is Laying Tracks for Asian Expansion |publisher=Bloomberg Business |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-16/sony-s-answer-to-apple-pay-is-laying-tracks-for-asian-expansion |access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref>

In 2019, Sony launched the ELTRES, the company's proprietary low-power wide-area wireless communication ([[LPWAN]]) standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-30 |title=Sony unveils LPWA IoT communication module |url=https://www.eenewsautomotive.com/news/sony-unveils-lpwa-iot-communication-module |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=eeNews Automotive |language=en}}</ref>

==Business units==
{{Further|List of assets owned by Sony}}
Best known for its electronic products, Sony offers a wide variety of product lines in many areas. At its peak, it was dubbed as a "corporate octopus", for its sprawling ventures from private insurance to chemicals to cosmetics to home shopping to Tokyo-based French food joint, let alone its core businesses such as electronics and entertainment.<ref name="Fackler" /> Even after it has unwound many business units including [[Sony Chemicals]] and [[Vaio]] PC, Sony still runs diverse businesses.

As of 2020, Sony is organized into the following business segments: Game & Network Services (G&NS), Music, Pictures, Electronics Products & Solutions (EP&S), Imaging & Sensing Solutions (I&SS), Financial Services, and Others.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – Organization Data |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/Data/organization.html |access-date=3 July 2020 |website=www.sony.net}}</ref> Usually, each business segment has a handful of corresponding intermediate holding companies under which all the related businesses are folded into, such as [[Columbia Records]] being part of [[Sony Music]] Group, a subsidiary and, at the same time, a holding company for Sony's music businesses, along with [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan|SMEJ]].

===Electronics Products & Solutions ===
[[File:Sony store Westfield Riccarton 2013.jpg|thumb|Sony at [[Westfield Riccarton]] shopping centre in [[Christchurch]], New Zealand]]
Sony Corporation (Sony Electronics Corporation until 1 April 2021<ref>Officially, Sony Mobile Communications Inc. absorbed Sony Electronics Corporation, Sony Imaging Products & Solutions Inc., and Sony Home Entertainment & Sound Products Inc. and changed its trade name to Sony Corporation.</ref>) is the electronics business unit of the Sony Group. It primarily conducts research and development (R&D), planning, designing, manufacturing and marketing for electronics products. Sony Global Manufacturing & Operations Corporation (SGMO) is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Sony Corporation and responsible for managing manufacturing operations both in Japan and overseas, through its own factories as well as [[electronics manufacturing services|third party contract manufacturers]].

====Audio====
Sony released the world's first portable music player, the [[Walkman]], in 1979, bundled with the MDL-3L2 [[headphones]]. This line fostered a fundamental change in music listening habits by allowing people to carry music with them and listen to music through lightweight headphones.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wells |first=Georgia |date=2016-09-07 |title=The History of Headphones |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-history-of-headphones-1473274924 |access-date=2020-08-04 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> Originally used to refer portable audio [[compact cassette|cassette]] players, the Walkman brand has been widely adopted by the company to encompass its portable digital audio and video players as well as a line of former [[Sony Mobile Communications|Sony Ericsson]] mobile phones. In the case of optical disc players, the [[Discman]] brand was used until the late 1990s. In 1999 Sony's first portable digital audio players were introduced; one was a player using [[Memory Stick]] flash storage created by the Walkman division, and the other was a smaller pen-sized player with embedded flash storage created by the [[Vaio]] division; both accompanied with Sony's OpenMG copyright protection technology and PC software for music transfer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MP3 for Christmas? Maybe |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9911/24/mp3.xmas.idg/index.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft and Sony Enable High-Quality Music Files To Be Downloaded on PCs and Portable Devices |url=https://news.microsoft.com/1999/11/15/microsoft-and-sony-enable-high-quality-music-files-to-be-downloaded-on-pcs-and-portable-devices/}}</ref>

Sony is a major audio products manufacturer and one of the [[active noise control]] technology leaders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple? Bose? What your headphones say about you |url=https://www.ft.com/content/858f09bc-4116-11ea-bdb5-169ba7be433d |access-date=2020-08-05 |website=www.ft.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-16 |title=Five of the best noise-cancelling headphones |url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/mar/16/five-of-the-best-noise-cancelling-headphones |access-date=2020-08-05 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

====Video====
[[File:Sony Bravia logo.svg|thumb|left|Logo of [[Bravia (brand)|Bravia]] television. Its backronym is "'''B'''est '''R'''esolution '''A'''udio '''V'''isual '''I'''ntegrated '''A'''rchitecture".]]
Sony produced the [[TV8-301]], the world's first all-[[transistor]] television, in 1959.<ref>{{Cite web |title=TV8-301 Portable Television, 1959 |url=https://collection.cooperhewitt.org/objects/18796291/ |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum |language=en-us}}</ref> In 1968, the company introduced the [[Trinitron]] brand name for its lines of [[aperture grille]] [[cathode ray tube]] televisions and afterwards [[Visual display unit|computer monitors]]. Sony stopped production of Trinitron for most markets, but continued producing sets for markets such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and China. Sony discontinued its series of Trinitron computer monitors in 2005. The company discontinued the last Trinitron-based television set in the US in early 2007. The end of Trinitron marked the end of Sony's analog television sets and monitors.

Sony used the LCD [[WEGA]] name for its [[Liquid-crystal display|LCD]] TVs until summer 2005. The company then introduced the [[Bravia (brand)|BRAVIA]] name. BRAVIA is an in-house brand owned by Sony which produces high-definition LCD televisions, projection TVs and front projectors, home cinemas and the BRAVIA home theatre range. All Sony high-definition flat-panel LCD televisions in North America have carried the logo for BRAVIA since 2005. In 2006, Sony lost its decades-long No.1 market share in the global television market. In November 2007, the [[Sony XEL-1]], the first [[OLED]] television, was released and manufactured for two years. Later in 2013, Sony demonstrated the first 4K OLED television.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-01-07 |title=Sony brings OLED TV to U.S. |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-show-sony-idUSN0633798320080107 |access-date=2020-08-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony announces the world's first 4K OLED TV at CES: 3,840 x 2,160 resolution, no price or release in sight |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013-01-07-sony-world-first-oled-4k-hdtv-launch-ces-2013.html |access-date=2020-08-06 |website=Engadget}}</ref> As of 2012, Sony was the third-largest maker of televisions in the world and the business unit had been unprofitable for eight consecutive years.<ref name="Discounts">{{Cite news |last1=Yang |first1=Jun |last2=Yasu |first2=Mariko |date=23 May 2012 |title=Sony, Samsung Ask U.S. Retailers to Curb Discounts on TV Sets |agency=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-05-23/sony-samsung-ask-u-s-retailers-to-curb-discounts-on-tv-sets.html}}</ref>

From 2011, Sony started restructuring of its loss-making television business, mainly by downsizing business units and outsourcing the manufacturing of display panels to the companies like [[Sharp Corporation]], [[LG Display]], and [[Samsung Electronics]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony to restructure TV business, in talks with LG to supply OLED panels? {{!}} OLED-Info |url=https://www.oled-info.com/sony-restructure-tv-business-talks-lg-supply-oled-panels |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=www.oled-info.com}}</ref> In December 2011, Sony agreed to sell all stake in an LCD joint venture with Samsung Electronics ([[S-LCD]]) for about $940 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony sells $940m LCD stake to Samsung to slash TV losses. |url=http://gulfnews.com/business/technology/sony-sells-940m-lcd-stake-to-samsung-to-slash-tv-losses-1.957299 |access-date=27 December 2011}}</ref> On 28 March 2012, Sony and Sharp announced that they have agreed to further amend the joint venture agreement originally executed by the parties in July 2009, as amended in April 2011, for the establishment and operation of Sharp Display Products Corporation ("SDP"), a joint venture to produce and sell large-sized LCD panels and modules.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony and Sharp in LCD panel joint venture |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/201203/12-0328E/ |access-date=12 May 2014 |publisher=Sony.net}}</ref> The agreement was eventually terminated as Sony parted ways.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welch |first=Chris |date=2 May 2012 |title=Sony and Sharp officially terminate LCD partnership |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/5/24/3040682/sony-sharp-terminate-lcd-display-joint-venture |access-date=12 July 2020 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> Sony's [[Sony Mobile Display|small-sized LCD business subsidiary]] and medium-to-large-sized OLED display business unit were spun off and became part of [[Japan Display]] and [[JOLED]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Budget brand TCL teams with Sony-Panasonic venture for large TVs |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Business-deals/Budget-brand-TCL-teams-with-Sony-Panasonic-venture-for-large-TVs |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Nikkei Asian Review |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2017, Sony launched OLED televisions under the BRAVIA brand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony 2017 TV line-up – full overview with prices |url=https://www.flatpanelshd.com/article.php?subaction=showfull&id=1487919714 |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=FlatpanelsHD}}</ref>

Also, Sony has sold a range of tapes, discs, recorders and players for [[Videotape|videocassette]], [[DVD player|DVD]], and [[Blu-ray]] formats for decades.

====Photography and videography====
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| caption1 = A Sony [[Cyber-shot]] digital camera.
| image2 = Sony A77.jpg
| caption2 = A Sony α77 DSLR camera.
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Sony offers a wide range of digital cameras. Its point-and-shoot models adopt the [[Cyber-shot]] name, while [[digital single-lens reflex]] models are branded using [[Sony Alpha|Alpha]]. It also produces [[action camera]]s and [[camcorder]]s, with the company's [[Digital movie camera|cinema-grade]] products being sold under the [[CineAlta]] name.

Sony demonstrated a prototype of the [[Sony Mavica]] in 1981 and released it for the consumer market in 1988. The first Cyber-shot was introduced in 1996. Sony's market share of the digital camera market fell from a high of 20% to 9% by 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – Product & Technology Milestones-Digital Camera |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/sonyhistory-g.html |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=www.sony.net}}</ref><ref name="Nakamoto">Nakamoto, Michiyo. "Screen Test: Stringers Strategy Will Signal to what Extent Sony can Stay in the Game CONSUMER ELECTRONICS: The Japanese Company that Once Brought the World Market-Defining Products is being Trounced by More Agile Competitors and must Decide which Activities no Longer Form Part of its Future, Writes Michiyo Nakamoto." Financial Times: 17. ABI/INFORM Global. 21 September 2005. Web. 27 May 2012.</ref>

Sony entered the market for [[digital single-lens reflex camera]]s in 2006 when it acquired the camera business of [[Konica Minolta]]. Sony rebranded the company's line of cameras as its [[Sony Alpha|Alpha]] line. Sony is the world's third largest manufacturer of the cameras, behind [[Canon (company)|Canon]] and [[Nikon]] respectively.

In 2010, Sony introduced their first [[mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera]]s, which were the [[NEX-3]] and the [[Sony NEX-5|NEX-5]]. They also started a new lens mount system, which was the [[Sony E-mount|E-mount.]] There were quite a few NEX models out there, when Sony decided to melt the NEX series into the Alpha series. The first Alpha MILC was the [[Sony α3000|α3000]], which was introduced in August 2013. It was followed by the Full-Frame [[Sony α7|α7]] and [[α7R]] in October, then the successors of the [[Sony NEX-5|NEX-5]], the [[Sony NEX-6|NEX-6]] and [[Sony NEX-7|NEX-7]], the [[Sony α5000|α5000]] and the [[Sony α6000|α6000]] in 2014. The α6000 became the most popular [[Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera|MILC]] ever and Sony became the largest MILC manufacturer.

====Computing====
[[File:SONY VAIO VPCZ119FJ-S 02.jpg|thumb|Notebook [[Sony Vaio]]. Sony has axed its loss-making PC business in 2014.]]
Sony produced computers ([[MSX]] [[home computer]]s and [[Sony NEWS|NEWS]] [[workstation]]s) during the 1980s. The company withdrew from the computer business around 1990. Sony entered again into the global computer market under the new [[VAIO]] brand, began in 1996. Short for "Video Audio Integrated Operation", the line was the first computer brand to highlight visual-audio features.<ref name="Nakamoto" />

Sony faced considerable controversy when some of its laptop batteries exploded and caught fire in 2006, resulting in the largest computer-related recall to that point in history.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 August 2006 |title=Dell Details on Notebook Battery Recall |publisher=Direct2Dell |url=http://www.direct2dell.com/one2one/archive/2006/08/14/1803.aspx |access-date=21 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820160832/http://www.direct2dell.com/one2one/archive/2006/08/14/1803.aspx |archive-date=20 August 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 August 2006 |title=Dell announces recall of 4.1 million laptop batteries |publisher=CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/dell-announces-recall-of-4-1-million-laptop-batteries-1.622108 |access-date=28 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 August 2006 |title=Sony, Dell battery issue heats up |publisher=CBC News |url=http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2006/08/24/tech-battery.html |access-date=24 August 2006}}</ref>

In a bid to join the [[tablet computer]] market, the company launched its [[Sony Tablet]] line of [[Android (operating system)|Android]] tablets in 2011. Since 2012, Sony's Android products have been marketed under the [[Xperia]] brand used for its smartphones.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 July 2009 |title=Tablet & Smartphones | Xperia™ Tablet & Smartphones |url=http://www.sony.co.uk/hub/sony-tablet-smartphones |access-date=10 July 2013 |publisher=Sony}}</ref>

On 4 February 2014, Sony announced that it would sell its VAIO PC business due to poor sales<ref name="Sony VAIO divestment">{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Mat |date=6 February 2014 |title=Sony sells its VAIO PC business, makes TV arm its own subsidiary |work=Engadget |url=https://www.engadget.com/2014/02/06/sony-sells-vaio/ |access-date=6 February 2014}}</ref> and Japanese company Japan Industrial Partners (JIP) will purchase the VAIO brand, with the deal finalized by the end of March 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Catherine Shu |date=6 February 2014 |title=Sony To Exit PC Business By Selling VAIO |url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/02/06/sony-vaio-sale/?ncid=tcdaily |access-date=7 February 2014 |website=TechCrunch |publisher=AOL, Inc}}</ref> As of 2018, Sony maintained a 5% stake in the new, independent company.

====Healthcare and biotechnology====
Sony has targeted medical, healthcare and biotechnology business as a growth sector in the future. The company acquired iCyt Mission Technology, Inc. (renamed Sony Biotechnology Inc. in 2012), a manufacturer of flow cytometers, in 2010 and Micronics, Inc., a developer of microfluidics-based diagnostic tools, in 2011.

In 2012, Sony announced that it would acquire all shares of [[So-net]] Entertainment Corporation, the largest shareholder of M3, Inc., an operator of portal sites (m3.com, MR-kun, MDLinx and MEDI:GATE) for healthcare professionals.

On 28 September 2012, [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and Sony announced that the two companies will establish a joint venture to develop new surgical endoscopes with [[4K resolution]] (or higher) and 3D capability.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Announcement of Agreements Between Olympus and Sony to Form Business and Capital Alliance |url=http://www.olympus-global.com/en/corc/ir/tes/pdf/nr120928_3.pdf |access-date=12 May 2014 |publisher=Olympus-global.com}}</ref> Sony Olympus Medical Solutions Inc. (Sony 51%, Olympus 49%) was established on 16 April 2013.<ref name="sony-olympus-medical">{{Cite press release |title=Establishment of Sony Olympus Medical Solutions Inc. |date=16 April 2013 |publisher=Sony Olympus Medical Solutions |url=http://www.sony-olympus-medical.com/somed/ja/news/20130416-001.html |access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref>

On 28 February 2014, Sony, M3 and [[Illumina (company)|Illumina]] established a joint venture called P5, Inc. to provide a genome analysis service for research institutions and enterprises in Japan.<ref name="P5">{{Cite press release |title=Establishment of a New Company to start genome information platform business |date=23 January 2014 |publisher=Sony Corporation |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/201401/14-011E/index.html |access-date=16 May 2014}}</ref>

====Mobility====
[[File:Xperia Logo.svg|thumb|[[Sony Xperia|Xperia]], the product device name for a range of smartphones from Sony.]]
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = A historical Sony CMD-CD5 mobile phone.
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| caption2 = [[Sony Xperia Z]], introduced and released in 2013. The first [[smartphone]] with a [[1080p|Full HD]] display.
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In 2000, Sony was a marginal player in the mobile phone market with a share of less than 1 percent. In 2001, Sony entered into a joint venture with Swedish telecommunications company [[Ericsson]], forming Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications.<ref name="Sony Ericsson press release">{{Cite press release |title=Sony and Ericsson complete joint venture agreement |date=28 August 2001 |publisher=Sony |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press_Archive/200108/01-0828/ |access-date=26 May 2012}}</ref> Initial sales were rocky, and the company posted losses in 2001 and 2002. However, Sony Ericsson reached a profit in 2003. The company distinguished itself with multimedia-capable mobile phones, which included features such as cameras. These were unusual at the time. Despite their innovations, Sony Ericsson faced intense competition from [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[iPhone]], which was released in 2007. From 2008 to 2010, amid a global recession, Sony Ericsson slashed its workforce by several thousand. In 2009, Sony Ericsson was the fourth-largest mobile phone manufacturer in the world (after [[Nokia]], [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]] and [[LG Electronics|LG]]).<ref>[http://www.telecomskorea.com/market-8211.html nonmember]. Telecoms Korea. Retrieved on 11 July 2011.</ref> By 2010, its market share had fallen to sixth place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2011 |title=Gartner Says Worldwide Mobile Device Sales to End Users Reached 1.6 billion Units in 2010; Smartphone Sales Grew 72 Percent in 2010: Apple and RIM Displaced Sony Ericsson and Motorola in Mobile Device Manufacturers Ranking |url=http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1543014 |publisher=gartner.com}}</ref> Sony acquired Ericsson's share of the venture in 2012 for over US$1 billion.<ref name="Sony Ericsson press release" /> [[Sony Mobile]] focuses exclusively on the smartphone market under the [[Sony Xperia|Xperia]] brand.

In 2013, Sony contributed to around two percent of the mobile phone market with 37 million mobile phones sold.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Topic: Sony |url=http://www.statista.com/topics/1917/sony/ |access-date=23 March 2016 |website=www.statista.com}}</ref> Sony Mobile's sales reached a peak in 2014 with 40 million handsets, the volume has since decreased. Sony shipped 13.5 million phones in 2017, 6.5 million in 2018, and 3.2 million handsets in FY 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Annual Report FY 2019, Form 20-F |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/library/FY2019_20F_PDF.pdf |access-date=12 July 2020 |publisher=Sony Corporation |pages=37}}</ref>

====Robotics====
Since the late 1990s, Sony has released numerous consumer robots, including dog-shaped robots called [[AIBO]], a music playing robot called [[Sony Rolly|Rolly]], and a [[humanoid]] robot called [[QRIO]]. Despite being a pioneer in the field, Sony had ceased robotics-related operations for 10 years due to financial difficulties, until it decided to revive them in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-29 |title=UPDATE 2-Sony upbeat on games and robots but cuts outlook for image sensors |language=de |work=Reuters |url=https://de.reuters.com/article/sony-outlook-idUKL4N19L0TF |access-date=2020-08-03}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

In 2015, Sony partnered with an autonomous driving startup [[ZMP INC.]] to establish an aerial surveillance and reconnaissance [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] manufacturer named Aerosense.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gibbs |first=Samuel |title=Sony is launching a new company to make camera drones |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/sony-and-zmp-are-launching-a-new-company-to-make-camera-drones-2015-7 |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Business Insider}}</ref> At the CES 2021, Sony unveiled a [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] with the brand Airpeak, the smallest of its kind that can incorporate a [[Sony α|Sony Alpha]] camera according to the company, entering the drone business on its own for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gartenberg|first=Chaim|date=2021-01-11|title=This is Sony's Airpeak drone|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/1/11/22225758/sony-airpeak-drone-alpha-photography-cameras-ces-2021-announcement|access-date=2021-01-12|website=The Verge|language=en}}</ref>

===Imaging & Sensing Solutions===
Sony traces its roots in the semiconductor business back to 1954, when it became the first Japanese company to commercialize the [[transistor]], invented and licensed by [[Bell Labs]], whilst some of the biggest and well-established names in Japan at the time like [[Toshiba]] and [[Mitsubishi Electric]] initially stuck with [[vacuum tube]]s they had been thriving on; despite being an expert on the vacuum tube himself, Ibuka saw potential of the novel technology and had Morita negotiate the terms for licensing, making Sony into one of the earliest and the youngest licensees of the transistor, together with [[Texas Instruments]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Group｜Corporate Information｜Sony Semiconductor Solutions Group |url=https://www.sony-semicon.co.jp/e/company/group/ |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Sony Semiconductor Solutions Group |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sony Global – Sony History Chapter4 Ibuka's First Visit to the United States|url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/1-04.html|access-date=2021-03-09|website=www.sony.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1952: Bell Labs Licenses Transistor Technology {{!}} The Silicon Engine {{!}} Computer History Museum |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/bell-labs-licenses-transistor-technology/ |access-date=2020-09-28 |website=www.computerhistory.org}}</ref> In 1957, Sony employee [[Leo Esaki]] and his colleagues invented a [[tunnel diode]] (usually referred to as Esaki diode) by which they discovered the [[Quantum tunnelling|quantum tunneling]] effect in solids, for which Esaki received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel prize in Physics]] in 1973.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1973 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1973/esaki/biographical/ |access-date=2020-10-06 |website=NobelPrize.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Sony has commanded a dominant share in the [[charge-coupled device]] market.<ref>{{Cite web|author=s|title=CCD market shares: Sony – 41%, Matsushita – 14.6%, Sharp – 13.8%|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/ccd-market-shares-sony-41-matsushita-14-6-sharp-13-8/|access-date=2021-01-16|website=ZDNet|language=en}}</ref>

As of 2020, Sony is the world's largest manufacturer of [[CMOS image sensor]]s as its chips are widely used in digital cameras, tablet computers, smartphones, drones and more recently, self-driving systems in automobiles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CMOS IMAGE SENSOR (CIS) INDUSTRY – OVERVIEW|url=http://www.yole.fr/CMOS_Image_Sensors_Industry_Overview.aspx|access-date=2021-01-16|website=www.yole.fr}}</ref>

As of 2020, the company, through its chip business arm Sony Semiconductor Solutions, designs, manufactures, and sells a wide range of [[semiconductor]]s and electronic components, including image sensors ([[HAD CCD]], [[Exmor]]), image processors ([[BIONZ]]), [[laser diode]]s, system LSIs, mixed-signal LSIs, emerging [[Storage (memory)|memory storage]], emerging displays ([[microLED]], microOLED, and [[holographic display]]), multi-functional [[microcomputer]] (''SPRESENSE''), etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Products(Products List)｜Sony Semiconductor Solutions Group |url=https://www.sony-semicon.co.jp/e/products/ |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Sony Semiconductor Solutions Group |language=en}}</ref>

In 2020, Sony has launched the first [[intelligent vision sensor]]s with [[AI]] [[edge computing]] capabilies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lorbeer/pi |first1=Klaus |title=Sony launcht weltweit erste Intelligent-Vision-Sensoren mit KI-Verarbeitung |url=https://computerwelt.at/news/sony-launcht-weltweit-ersten-intelligent-vision-sensoren-mit-ki-verarbeitung/ |access-date=15 May 2021 |work=computerwelt.at |date=14 May 2020 |language=de-DE}}</ref>

===Game & Network Services===
{{main|Sony Interactive Entertainment}}
[[File:Sony_Interactive_Entertainment_San_Mateo.jpg|thumb|left|Sony Interactive Entertainment headquarters in [[San Mateo, California]] ]]

Sony Interactive Entertainment (formerly Sony Computer Entertainment) is best known for producing the popular line of PlayStation consoles. The line grew out of a failed partnership with [[Nintendo]]. Originally, Nintendo requested Sony to develop an add-on for [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|its SNES]] that would play Compact Discs. In 1991 Sony announced [[SNES-CD|the add-on]], as well as a dedicated console known as the "Play Station". However, a disagreement over software licensing for the console caused the partnership to fall through. Sony then continued the project independently.

Launched in 1994, the first [[PlayStation (console)|PlayStation]] gained 61% of global console sales and broke Nintendo's long-standing lead in the market.<ref name="Quest">"The PlayStation Quest." Macleans 6 November 2000: 81-. ABI/INFORM Global; ProQuest Research Library. Web. 27 May 2012.</ref> Sony followed up with the [[PlayStation 2]] in 2000, which was even more successful. The console has become the most successful of all time, selling over 150 million units {{as of|2011|lc=on}}. Sony released the [[PlayStation 3]], a high-definition console, in 2006. It was the first console to use the [[Blu-ray]] format, and was considerably more expensive than the competitors [[Xbox 360]] and [[Wii]] due to the [[Cell (microprocessor)|Cell processor]].<ref name="Nakamoto" /> Early on, poor sales performance resulted in significant losses for the company, pushing it to sell the console at a [[loss leader|loss]].<ref name="Pilling">Pilling, David. "Camera Sales Raise Sonys Game." Financial Times: 23. ABI/INFORM Global. 27 July 2007. Web. 27 May 2012.</ref> The PlayStation 3 sold generally more poorly than its competitors in the early years of its release but managed to overtake the Xbox 360 in global sales later on.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Makuch |first=Eddie |title=PS3 overtakes Xbox 360 in worldwide shipments – Report |url=http://uk.gamespot.com/news/ps3-overtakes-xbox-360-in-worldwide-shipments-report-6402214 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321124342/http://uk.gamespot.com/news/ps3-overtakes-xbox-360-in-worldwide-shipments-report-6402214 |archive-date=21 March 2013 |website=GameSpot}}</ref> It later introduced the [[PlayStation Move]], an accessory that allows players to control video games using motion gestures.

[[File:PlayStation 2 comparison.png|thumb|upright|The [[PlayStation 2]] is the best-selling video game console of all time ]]
Sony extended the brand to the portable games market in 2004 with the [[PlayStation Portable]] (PSP). The console has sold reasonably, but has taken a second place to a rival handheld, the [[Nintendo DS]]. Sony developed the [[Universal Media Disc]] (UMD) optical disc medium for use on the PlayStation Portable. Early on, the format was used for movies, but it has since lost major studio support. Sony released a disc-less version of its PlayStation Portable, the [[PlayStation Portable#PSP Go (N1000)|PSP Go]], in 2009. The company went on to release its second portable video game system, [[PlayStation Vita]], in 2011 and 2012. Sony launched its fourth console, the [[PlayStation 4]], on 15 November 2013, which as of 31 December 2017 has sold 73.6 million units globally.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=PLAYSTATION 4 SELLS 5.9 MILLION UNITS WORLDWIDE DURING THE 2017 HOLIDAY SEASON |date=8 January 2018 |publisher=Sony Interactive Entertainment Inc. |location=San Mateo |url=http://www.sie.com/en/corporate/release/2018/180109.html |access-date=16 April 2018 |via=sie.com}}</ref>

On 18 March 2014, at [[Game Developers Conference|GDC]], president of [[SCE Worldwide Studios]] [[Shuhei Yoshida]] announced their new virtual reality technology dubbed Project Morpheus, and later named [[PlayStation VR]], for PlayStation 4. The headset brought VR gaming and non-gaming software to the company's console. According to a report released by Houston-based patent consulting firm [[LexInnova Technologies|LexInnova]] in May 2015, Sony is leading the virtual reality patent race. According to the firm's analysis of nearly 12,000 patents or patent applications, Sony has 366 virtual reality patents or patent applications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony leads virtual reality patent race |url=http://www.hypergridbusiness.com/2015/05/sony-leads-virtual-reality-patent-race/ |website=hypergridbusiness.com}}</ref> PlayStation VR was released worldwide on 13 October 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Layden |first=Shawn |date=13 October 2016 |title=PlayStation VR Launches Today Across the United States and Canada |url=http://blog.us.playstation.com/2016/10/13/playstation-vr-launches-today-across-the-united-states-and-canada/}}</ref>

On March 31, 2019, the successor to the PlayStation 4 was announced and on November 12, 2020, the [[PlayStation 5]] was released in North America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, and Singapore. PlayStation has confirmed that the console will launch in Indonesia on January 22, 2021. Upon completion of the fiscal quarter, Sony sold 4.5 million [[PlayStation 5]] consoles, keeping pace with the best selling console of all time, the PlayStation 2.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.laptopmag.com/news/ps5-sales-figures-revealed-and-they-are-staggering |title=PS5 sales figures revealed — and they are staggering |work=Laptop Magazine |last=Murphy |first=Darragh |date=February 3, 2021 |access-date=August 17, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Pictures and Music===
{{see|Sony Entertainment}}

[[Sony Entertainment]] has two divisions: [[Sony Pictures|Sony Pictures Entertainment]], Sony Music Group ([[Sony Music|Sony Music Entertainment]], [[Sony Music Publishing]]). [[Sony Corporation of America|Sony USA]] previously owned and operated Sony Trans Com: a technology business that provided in-flight entertainment programming as well as video and audio playback equipment for the airline industry. Sony had purchased the business from Sundstrand Corp. in 1989 and subsequently sold it to [[Rockwell Collins]] in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 1991 |title=Sundstrand Selling Trans Com Systems To Sony |url=https://www.apnews.com/0b3960e064a66f9a5c0057fd4525a89a |access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2000 |title=Rockwell Collins Acquires Sony Trans Com |url=http://aviationweek.com/awin/rockwell-collins-acquires-sony-trans-com-0 |access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref>

In 2012, Sony rolled most of its consumer content services (including video, music and gaming) into the [[Sony Entertainment Network]], the predecessor of [[PlayStation Network]].

====Sony Pictures Entertainment====
{{main|Sony Pictures|Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan|Sony Pictures Networks India}}
[[File:Sonypicturesentertainmentoffices.jpg|thumb|Sony Pictures Plaza, next to the main studio lot of [[Sony Pictures]] in [[Culver City, California]]]]

Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc. (SPE) is the television and film production/distribution unit of Sony. With 12.5% box office market share in 2011, the company was ranked third among movie studios .<ref name="BOM">{{Cite web |date=31 December 2011 |title=2011 Market Share and Box Office Results by Movie Studio |url=https://boxofficemojo.com/studio/?view=company&view2=yearly&yr=2011&p=.htm |access-date=9 November 2012 |website=[[Box Office Mojo]]}}</ref> Its group sales in 2010 were US$7.2 billion.<ref name="Annual Report 2010">[http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/financial/ar/8ido18000003dkyy-att/8ido18000003dl0u.pdf Business Overview, Annual Report 2010]. (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref><ref name="Profile">[http://www.sonypictures.com/corp/corporatefact.html Sony Pictures – Corporate Factsheet], sonypictures.com {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104051441/http://www.sonypictures.com/corp/corporatefact.html |date=4 November 2005 }}</ref> The company has produced many notable movie franchises, including ''[[Spider-Man in film|Spider-Man]]'', ''[[The Karate Kid, Part III|The Karate Kid]]'' and ''[[Men in Black (film series)|Men in Black]]''. It has also produced the popular television game shows ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' and ''[[Wheel of Fortune (U.S. game show)|Wheel of Fortune]]''.

Sony entered the television and film production market when it acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment in 1989 for $3.4 billion. Columbia lives on in the [[Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group]], a division of SPE which in turn owns [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[TriStar Pictures]] among other film production and distribution companies such as [[Screen Gems]], [[Sony Pictures Classics]], [[Sony Pictures Home Entertainment]]. SPE's television division is known as [[Sony Pictures Television]].

[[File:Sony Pictures Entertainment entrance 1.jpg|thumb|left|The main entrance to the [[Sony Pictures Entertainment]] studio lot in Culver City]]
For the first several years of its existence, Sony Pictures Entertainment performed poorly, leading many to suspect the company would sell off the division.<ref name="Bates">{{Cite news |last1=Bates |first1=James |last2=Claudia Eller |date=20 November 1996 |title=Sony President Puts Best Face on Studio Woes |page=D1 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> In 2006 Sony started using [[ARccOS Protection]] on some of their film DVDs, but later issued a recall.<ref>[https://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20070418-sony-to-replace-incompatible-dvds.html "Sony admits, fixes problem with DVD DRM"]. [[Ars Technica]].</ref>

In late 2014, Sony Pictures [[Sony hack|became the target of a hack attack]] from a clandestine group called Guardians of Peace, weeks before releasing the anti-North Korean [[comedy film]] ''[[The Interview]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hack at Sony Pictures shuts computer system |work=LA Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-fi-sony-hack-20141125-story.html}}</ref>

====Sony Music Group and SMEJ====
{{main|Sony Music|Sony Music Publishing|Sony Music Entertainment Japan}}
[[File:Met Life North Building from West 25th Street.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sony Music Entertainment]] headquarters in [[New York City, United States]]]]

Sony Music Entertainment (also known as SME or Sony Music) is the largest global [[music industry|recorded music company]] of the [[Music industry#Consolidation|"big three" record companies]] and is controlled by [[Sony Corporation of America]], the United States subsidiary of Japan's ''Sony''.

In one of its largest-ever acquisitions, Sony purchased [[Columbia Records|CBS Record Group]] in 1988 for US$2 billion.<ref name="UPI Archives">[https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/01/05/Sony-completes-2-billion-purchase-of-CBS-Records/2527568357200/ Sony completes $2 billion purchase of CBS Records] upi.com 5 January 1988, Retrieved on 3 December 2017</ref> In the process, Sony partnered and gained the rights to the ATV catalogue of Michael Jackson, considered by the ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' to be the most successful entertainer of all time. The acquisition of CBS Records provided the foundation for the formation of Sony Music Entertainment, which Sony established in 1991.

In 1968, Sony and CBS Records had formed a 50:50 joint-venture CBS/Sony Records, later renamed CBS/Sony Group, in Japan. When CBS Records was acquired, a 50% stake in CBS/Sony Group owned by CBS was also transferred to Sony. In March 1988, four wholly owned subsidiaries were folded into CBS/Sony Group and the company was renamed as [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan]] (SMEJ). It operates independently of Sony Music as it is directly owned by Japanese Sony.

In 2004, Sony entered into a joint venture with [[Bertelsmann AG]], merging Sony Music Entertainment with [[Bertelsmann Music Group]] to create [[Sony BMG]]. In 2005, Sony BMG faced a [[Sony BMG CD copy protection scandal|copy protection scandal]], because its music CDs had installed [[rootkit|malware]] on users' computers that was posing a security risk to affected customers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Bob |date=1 November 2010 |title=Sony BMG rootkit scandal: 5 years later |work=Network World |url=http://www.networkworld.com/article/2194292/network-security/sony-bmg-rootkit-scandal--5-years-later.html |access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> In 2007, the company acquired [[Famous Music]] for US$370 million, gaining the rights to the catalogues of [[Eminem]] and [[Akon]], among others. Sony bought out Bertelsmann's share in Sony BMG and formed a new Sony Music Entertainment in 2008. Since then, the company has undergone management changes.

Sony purchased digital music recognition company [[Gracenote]] for US$260 million in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 April 2008 |title=Sony to Buy Gracenote Music Data Company |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/PCWorld/story?id=4706733 |access-date=11 February 2015 |website=abcnews.go.com}}</ref> [[Tribune Media Company]] acquired Gracenote from Sony in 2014 for $170 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribune To Acquire Sony Audio Recognition Unit Gracenote For $170 Million |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2013/12/23/sony-spins-out-gracenote/}}</ref>

Besides its record label, Sony operates other music businesses. In 1995, Sony merged its publisher with [[Michael Jackson]]'s [[ATV Music Publishing]], forming Sony/ATV Music Publishing. At the time, the publishing company was the second largest of its kind in the world. The company owns the publishing rights to over 4 million compositions, including [[The Beatles]]' [[Lennon-McCartney]] catalogue, [[Bob Dylan]], [[Eminem]], [[Lady Gaga]], [[Sam Smith (singer)|Sam Smith]], [[Ed Sheeran]], and [[Taylor Swift]].

In 2012, Sony/ATV acquired a majority stake in [[EMI Music Publishing]], becoming the world's largest music publishing company. In 2018, Sony bought the rest of the shares in the publisher, making it a wholly owned subsidiary.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Halperin |first=Shirley |date=30 June 2012 |title=Sold! EMI Music Publishing to Consortium Led by Sony/ATV, Michael Jackson Estate for $2.2 Billion |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/emi-music-publishing-sold-sony-atv-estate-michael-jackson-343848}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 May 2018 |title=Sony in $2.3 billion deal for EMI, becomes world's biggest music publisher |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sony-outlook-emi-idUSKCN1IN01F |access-date=12 July 2020}}</ref> Since 2016, Sony owns all of Sony/ATV.<ref name="Sony Finalizes Acquisition of Michael Jackson Estate">{{Cite web |last=Christman |first=Ed |date=30 September 2012 |title=Sony Finalizes Acquisition of Michael Jackson Estate's Stake in Sony/ATV Publishing |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7526542/sony-atv-michael-jackson-publishing-acquisition-completed |access-date=1 October 2016 |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]}}</ref>

==== Anime ====
{{Main|Aniplex|Funimation}}
Sony's entering into the Japanese animation, or [[anime]], business happened in 1995 when a group company [[Sony Music Entertainment Japan]] (SMEJ) established [[Aniplex]] as its subsidiary managing creative productions, which founded [[A-1 Pictures]], the first anime studio of Sony, ten years later. Since then, through group-wide and international ventures,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moore|first=D. M.|date=2020-12-09|title=Sony's Funimation acquires anime streaming service Crunchyroll for $1.175 billion|url=https://www.polygon.com/2020/12/9/21547657/sonys-funimation-acquires-crunchyroll-deal-price-watching-anime|access-date=2021-01-12|website=Polygon|language=en}}</ref> Sony has solidified its position in the industry, elevating the business to what is called the "fourth pillar of its entertainment portfolio" according to ''[[The Nikkei]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sony sets out to conquer entertainment world with anime|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Media-Entertainment/Sony-sets-out-to-conquer-entertainment-world-with-anime|access-date=2021-01-12|website=Nikkei Asia|language=en-GB}}</ref>

The anime business operations of Sony are scattered around the group, mainly in its Pictures and Music units, as follows: SMEJ's notable related businesses include Aniplex and its subsidiaries [[CloverWorks]] and A-1 Pictures while [[Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan]] (SPEJ) operates anime-oriented TV channels like [[Animax]], [[Kids Station]]; Aniplex and U.S.-headquartered [[Sony Pictures Television]] (SPT) co-own online anime distributing company [[Funimation]] Global Group acquired in 2017 of which worldwide subsidiaries now include [[Wakanim]] and [[Madman Entertainment]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Spangler|first1=Todd|date=2019-09-24|title=Sony Merges Anime Streaming Businesses Under Funimation-Led Joint Venture (EXCLUSIVE)|url=https://variety.com/2019/digital/news/sony-anime-funimation-aniplex-joint-venture-1203346579/|access-date=2021-01-12|website=Variety|language=en-US}}</ref>

In December 2020, SPT announced that it will buy [[AT&T]]'s animation business [[Crunchyroll]] for $1.175 billion, which will help the company to compete more globally with entertainment giants such as Netflix.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hu|first=Makiko Yamazaki, Krystal|date=2020-12-10|title=Sony to buy AT&T's anime business for $1.18 billion to expand global footprint|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-at-t-divestiture-idUSKBN28J3B7|access-date=2020-12-10}}</ref> This acquisition was completed in August 2021.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Mateo|first=Alex|date=2021-08-09|title=Sony's Funimation Global Group Completes Acquisition of Crunchyroll from AT&T|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2021-08-09/sony-funimation-global-group-completes-acquisition-of-crunchyroll-from-at-t/.176073|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-09|website=Anime News Network|language=en}}</ref>

===Financial Services===
{{Main|Sony Financial Holdings}}
[[File:大手町フィナンシャルシティグランキューブ.jpg|thumb|upright|Headquarters of Sony Financial Holdings in Tokyo, Japan]]
[[Sony Financial Holdings]] is a holding company for Sony's financial services business which includes [[Sony Life]] (in Japan and the Philippines), Sony Assurance, [[Sony Bank]], etc. The unit proved to be the most profitable of Sony's businesses in FY 2005, earning $1.7 billion in profit.<ref name="Fackler" /> Sony Financial's low fees have aided the unit's popularity while threatening Sony's premium brand name.<ref name="Fackler" />

=== Others ===

====Electric vehicles and batteries====
{{Further|Sony Energy Devices Corporation|Sony Vision-S}}
A company behind the commercialization of [[lithium-ion battery]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rathi |first=Akshat |title=Winners of the 2019 Nobel Prize in chemistry developed lithium-ion batteries |url=https://qz.com/1724449/nobel-prize-in-chemistry-winners-developed-lithium-ion-batteries/ |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref> Sony had been exploring the possibility to manufacture the batteries for [[electric vehicle]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joseph Volpe |title=Sony eyes electric car future, wants to soon sell you Li-ion batteries |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/07/13/sony-eyes-electric-car-future-wants-to-soon-sell-you-li-ion-bat/ |website=Engadget |publisher=AOL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony CEO says will explore tie-ups in EV batteries – Electric Vehicle News |url=http://www.electric-vehiclenews.com/2012/04/sony-ceo-says-will-explore-tie-ups-in.html |website=electric-vehiclenews.com}}</ref><ref>[http://www.siliconrepublic.com/clean-tech/item/22648-sony-to-make-batteries-for Sony to make batteries for electric cars]. Silicon Republic.</ref> In 2014, Sony participated within [[NRG Energy]] [[eVgo]] [[Ready for Electric Vehicle]] (REV) program, for [[EV charging]] parking lots.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NRG eVgo Completes Largest Corporate Installation of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in Southern California – EV News Report |url=http://evnewsreport.com/nrg-evgo-completes-largest-corporate-installation-electric-vehicle-charging-stations-southern-california/17948/ |website=EV News Report}}</ref> However, the company then decided to sell its lithium-ion battery business to [[Murata Manufacturing]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Signing of Memorandum of Understanding for the Transfer of Battery Business |date=28 July 2016 |publisher=[[Murata Manufacturing]] Co., Ltd. & Sony Corporation |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press/201607/16-0728E/index.html |access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref>

In 2015, Sony invested $842 thousand in [[ZMP INC.]], drawing speculations that it is contemplating developing [[self-driving car]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sony tests the waters for self-driving cars with a small investment|url=https://www.engadget.com/2015-02-16-sony-invests-in-self-driving-cars.html|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Engadget|language=en}}</ref> In January 2020, Sony unveiled a concept electric car at the [[Consumer Electronics Show]], named [[Sony Vision-S|Vision-S]], designed in collaboration with components manufacturer [[Magna International]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=O'Kane |first=Sean |date=7 January 2020 |title=Sony surprises with an electric concept car called the Vision-S |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/1/6/21054270/sony-vision-s-electric-concept-car-ev-announcement-ces-2020 }}</ref> At the occasion, Sony also stated its goal of developing technology for the automotive sector, especially concerning autonomous driving, sensors, and [[in-car entertainment]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2020 |title=Sony Highlights its Evolution as a "Creative Entertainment Company with a Solid Foundation of Technology" at CES 2020 |url=https://presscentre.sony.eu/pressreleases/sony-highlights-its-evolution-as-a-creative-entertainment-company-with-a-solid-foundation-of-technology-at-ces-2020-2957905 |website=Sony Press Centre}}</ref>

==Corporate information==

===Institutional ownership===
Sony is a ''[[kabushiki gaisha]]'' registered to the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] in Japan and the [[New York Stock Exchange]] for overseas trading. {{As of|2020|March|31}}, the largest shareholders of Sony are as follows:<ref name="Principal shareholders">{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – Stock Information |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/stock/information.html |access-date=1 October 2020 |publisher=www.sony.net}}</ref>

* [[Citibank]] (as depositary bank for [[American depositary receipt]] holders) (9.4%)
* [[The Master Trust Bank of Japan]]–nominated [[investment trust]]s (main account) (8.2%)
* [[Japan Trustee Services Bank]]–nominated investment trusts
** Main trust account (6.1%)
** Trust account 7 (2.4%)
** Trust account 5 (2.1%)
* [[Chase Bank|JPMorgan Chase Bank 385632]] (3.2%)

===Finances===
As of July 2020, Sony, one of the largest Japanese companies by market capitalization and operating profit, was valued at over $90 billion. At the same period, it was also recognized as the most cash-rich Japanese company, with its [[Net cash flow|net cash reserves]] of ¥1.8 trillion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2020 |title=コロナに負けない｢金持ち企業｣トップ500社 {{!}} 企業ランキング |url=https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/359062 |access-date=11 July 2020 |website=東洋経済オンライン |language=ja}}</ref>

The company was immensely profitable throughout the 1990s and early 2000s in part because of the success of its new [[PlayStation]] line. The company encountered financial difficulty in the mid- to late-2000s due to a number of factors: the [[global financial crisis]], increased competition for PlayStation, and the devastating [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|Japanese earthquake of 2011]]. The company faced three consecutive years of losses leading up to 2011.<ref name="FT">"Sony: Too Much make-Believe." FT.com (2011): n/a. ABI/INFORM Global; ProQuest Research Library. Web. 26 May 2012.</ref> While noting the negative effects of intervening circumstances such as natural disasters and fluctuating currency exchange rates, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' criticized the company for its "lack of resilience" and "inability to gauge the economy," voicing skepticism about Sony's revitalization efforts, given a lack of tangible results.<ref name="FT" />

In September 2000 Sony had a market capitalization of $100 billion; but by December 2011 it had plunged to $18 billion, reflecting falling prospects for Sony but also reflecting grossly inflated share prices of the '[[dot-com bubble]]' years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fujimura |first=Naoko |date=12 December 2011 |title=Sony's Shopping Spree Is 'Wrong Direction' in Apple Battle: Tech |agency=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-12-13/stringer-s-shopping-spree-wrong-direction-for-sony-in-apple-battle-tech.html |access-date=18 December 2011}}</ref> Net worth, as measured by stockholder equity, has steadily grown from $17.9 billion in March 2002 to $35.6 billion through December 2011.<ref>[http://www.gurufocus.com/financials.php?symbol=sne 10 Year Financials of sne – Sony Corp Adr]. Gurufocus.com. Retrieved on 25 April 2012.</ref> Earnings yield (inverse of the price to earnings ratio) has never been more than 5% and usually much less; thus Sony has always traded in over-priced ranges with the exception of the 2009 market bottom.

On 9 December 2008, Sony announced that it would be cutting 8,000 jobs, dropping 8,000 contractors and reducing its global manufacturing sites by 10% to save $1.1 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McCurry |first=Justin |date=9 December 2008 |title=Sony to cut 8,000 jobs worldwide |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/dec/09/sony-job-cuts |access-date=23 May 2010}}</ref>

In April 2012, Sony announced that it would reduce its workforce by 10,000 (6% of its employee base) as part of CEO [[Kaz Hirai]]'s effort to get the company back into the black. This came after a loss of 520 billion yen (roughly US$6.36 billion) for fiscal 2012, the worst since the company was founded. Accumulation loss for the past four years was 919.32 billion-yen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony expected to slash 10,000 jobs |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57411107-93/sony-expected-to-slash-10000-jobs/?tag=cnetRiver |access-date=9 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Yasu |first1=Mariko |last2=Ozasa |first2=Shunichi |date=11 April 2012 |title=Sony, Sharp Losing $11 Billion Leaves Investors Let Down |agency=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-10/sony-widens-net-loss-estimate-to-520-billion-yen.html}}</ref> Sony planned to increase its marketing expenses by 30% in 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 June 2012 |title=Sony ups ad spend to Rs.450 cr |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/business/companies/article3497657.ece}}</ref> 1,000 of the jobs cut come from the company's mobile phone unit's workforce. 700 jobs will be cut in the 2012–2013 fiscal year and the remaining 300 in the following fiscal year.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ewing |first1=Adam |last2=Yasu |first2=Mariko |date=23 August 2012 |title=Sony to Cut 1,000 Jobs to Reduce Costs at Mobile Unit |agency=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-22/sony-may-cut-1-000-jobs-at-swedish-mobile-unit-sydsvenskan-says.html}}</ref> Sony had revenues of ¥6.493 trillion in 2012 and maintained large reserves of cash, with ¥895 billion on hand as of 2012. In May 2012, Sony's market capitalization was valued at about $15 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 May 2012 |title=Sony sees return to profit, aims to halve TV losses |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sony-results-idUSBRE8490A120120510}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Sony's 2009 sales and distribution by geographical region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interwiki map/discontinued – Meta |url=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Interwiki_map/discontinued#Wikinveststock/Sony%20(SNE)/Sales%20Distribution#FilingDocumentSection3523749 |access-date=4 July 2019 |website=meta.wikimedia.org}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | Geographic region
! scope="col" | Total sales (in millions of ¥)
|-
| '''Japan'''|| 1,873,219
|-
| '''United States'''|| 2,512,345
|-
| '''Europe'''|| 2,307,658
|-
| '''Other areas'''|| 2,041,270
|}

In January 2013, Sony announced it was selling its US headquarters building for $1.1 billion to a consortium led by real estate developer The Chetrit Group.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 January 2013 |title=Sony to sell its U.S. headquarters building for $1.1 billion |work=Reuters |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-sony-building-idUKBRE90H03Q20130118}}</ref>

On 28 January 2014, [[Moody's Investors Service]]s dropped Sony's credit rating to Ba1—"judged to have speculative elements and a significant credit risk"—saying that the company's "profitability is likely to remain weak and volatile."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chilson |first=Morgan |title=Labels Sony Credit Rating 'Junk' Amid Lower Demand |url=http://www.moneynews.com/TheWire/sony-moodys-junk-credit/2014/01/28/id/549536 |access-date=28 January 2014 |website=Moneynews |archive-date=2014-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023141458/http://www.moneynews.com/TheWire/sony-moodys-junk-credit/2014/01/28/id/549536/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 6 February 2014, Sony announced it would trim as many as 5,000 jobs as it attempts to sell its PC business and focus on mobile and tablets.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sony to cut as many as 5,000 jobs, unload Vaio |work=USA Today |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2014/02/06/sony-selling-vaio-pc-business/5248885/ |access-date=6 February 2014}}</ref>

In 2014,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Greenway |first=David |date=2 October 2014 |title=Sony to close South African TV, HiFi and camera division |url=https://www.htxt.co.za/2014/10/29/sony-to-close-south-african-tv-hifi-and-camera-division/ |access-date=4 July 2019 |website=htxt.africa |language=en-GB}}</ref> Sony South Africa closed its TV, Hi-Fi and camera divisions<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony rethinks SA strategy amid huge loss |url=https://businesstech.co.za/news/hardware/72138/sony-rethinks-sa-strategy-amid-huge-loss/ |access-date=4 July 2019 |website=businesstech.co.za |language=en-US}}</ref> with the purpose of reconsidering its local distribution model and, in 2017, it returned<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2017 |title=Sony launches first SA store |url=https://www.fin24.com/Tech/Gadgets/sony-launches-first-sa-store-20170406 |access-date=4 July 2019 |website=Fin24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony photo gear back in South Africa – With Black Friday 2017 vouchers |url=https://mybroadband.co.za/news/gadgets/239278-sony-photo-gear-back-in-south-africa-with-black-friday-2017-vouchers.html |access-date=4 July 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref> facilitated by Premium Brand Distributors (Pty) Ltd.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Sony's Revenue by different [[market segments]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Global – FY2018 Earnings Announcement |url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/IR/library/presen/er/index.html |access-date=2 June 2019 |website=www.sony.net}}</ref>
!Segment
!Revenue Financial Year 2017 (in millions of ¥)
!Financial Year 2018 (in millions of ¥)
!Change
!Percentage of Sales
!Percentage Change ([[Financial Year|FY]] 2017 to [[Fiscal year|FY]] 2018)
|-
|Game & Network Services
|1'943'812
|2'310'872
|367'060
|22.8
|18.9
|-
|Music
|799'995
|807'489
|7'494
|9.4
|0.9
|-
|Pictures
|1'011'067
|986'873
| −24'194
|11.8
| −2.4
|-
|Home Entertainment & Sound
|1'222'733
|1'155'411
| −67'322
|14.3
| −5.5
|-
|Imaging Products and Solutions
|655'892
|670'450
|14'558
|7.7
|2.2
|-
|Mobile Communications
|723'742
|498'000
| −225'742
|8.5
| −31.2
|-
|Semiconductors
|726'892
|770'622
|43'730
|8.5
|6.0
|-
|Financial Services
|1'228'377
|1'282'539
|54'162
|14.4
|4.4
|-
|All Other
|407'174
|345'737
|61'437
|1.3
| −31.0
|-
|Total
|8'719'684
|8'827'993
|108'309
|
|
|}
In November 2018, Sony posted its earning report for the second quarter showing it has lost about US$480 million in the mobile phone division,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-01|title=Sony mobile is losing more than gaming division is gaining (which is a lot of money)|url=https://www.androidauthority.com/sony-mobile-earnings-q2-2018-921061/|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Android Authority|language=en-US}}</ref> prompting another round of downsizing in the unit, including the closure of a manufacturing plant and halving of its workforce.<ref>{{Cite web|last=March 2019|first=Steve McCaskill 29|title=Sony shuts China smartphone plant|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/sony-shuts-china-smartphone-plant|access-date=2021-01-16|website=TechRadar|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Vasile|first=Cosmin|title=Report: Sony to lay off half of its mobile division staff by 2020 (2,000 people)|url=https://www.phonearena.com/news/Sony-cuts-half-smartphone-division-2020-report_id114940|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Phone Arena|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Environmental record===
In November 2011, Sony was ranked 9th (jointly with Panasonic) in [[Greenpeace]]'s Guide to Greener Electronics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2011 |title=Guide to Greener Electronics 17th Edition |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/campaigns/detox/electronics/Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/Previous-editions/How-the-companies-line-up-17/ |access-date=20 August 2018 |website=Greenpeace International}}</ref> This chart grades major electronics companies on their environmental work. The company scored 3.6/10, incurring a penalty point for comments it has made in opposition to energy efficiency standards in California. It also risks a further penalty point in future editions for being a member of trade associations that have commented against energy efficiency standards.<ref name="Guide to Greener Electronics">{{Cite web |title=Guide to Greener Electronics |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/climate-change/cool-it/Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/ |access-date=16 November 2011 |website=Greenpeace International |publisher=Greenpeace International}}</ref> Together with [[Philips]], Sony receives the highest score for energy policy advocacy after calling on the EU to adopt an unconditional 30% reduction target for greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Meanwhile, it receives full marks for the efficiency of its products.<ref name="Guide to Greener Electronics" /> In June 2007, Sony ranked 14th on the [[Greenpeace]] guide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2007 |title=Greener electronics Sony ranking: Fourth Edition |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/publications/reports/greener-electronics-so-4/ |access-date=20 August 2018 |website=Greenpeace International}}</ref> Sony fell from its earlier 11th-place ranking due to Greenpeace's claims that Sony had double standards in their waste policies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Samson |first=Ted |date=9 July 2007 |title=Sony hits bottom of Greenpeace eco rankings |work=InfoWorld |url=http://www.infoworld.com/d/green-it/sony-hits-bottom-greenpeace-eco-rankings-649 |access-date=5 October 2010}}</ref>

{{As of|2018|05}} Greenpeace's 2017 Guide to Greener Electronics rated Sony approximately in the middle among electronics manufacturers with a grade of D+.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Guide to Greener Electronics (2017) |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/archive-international/en/campaigns/climate-change/cool-it/Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/ |access-date=17 May 2018 |website=Greenpeace International |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Since 1976, Sony has had an Environmental Conference.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Environmental Activities at Sony |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/Environment/activities/history/index.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208124950/http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/Environment/activities/history/index.html |archive-date=8 February 2008 |access-date=1 November 2007}}. Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Sony's policies address their effects on global warming, the environment, and resources. They are taking steps to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that they put out as well as regulating the products they get from their suppliers in a process that they call "green procurement".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony Group Environmental: Vision |url=http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/Environment/activities/vision/index.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127044020/http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/Environment/activities/vision/index.html |archive-date=27 November 2007 |access-date=1 November 2007}}. Web.archive.org. (27 November 2007). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Sony has said that they have signed on to have about 75 percent of their [[Sony Building (New York)|Sony Building]] running on [[geothermal power]]. The "Sony Take Back Recycling Program" allow consumers to recycle the electronics products that they buy from Sony by taking them to [[eCycle (Recycling)]] drop-off points around the U.S. The company has also developed a biobattery that runs on sugars and carbohydrates that works similarly to the way living creatures work. This is the most powerful small [[biobattery]] to date.<ref>[http://www.techgadgets.in/misc-gadgets/2007/24/sony-develops-worlds-most-powerful-sugar-based-bio-battery-prototype/ Sony develops World's Most Powerful Sugar-based Bio Battery Prototype]. Techgadgets.in (24 August 2007). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref>

In 2000, Sony faced criticism for a document entitled "NGO Strategy" that was leaked to the press. The document involved the company's surveillance of environmental activists in an attempt to plan how to counter their movements. It specifically mentioned environmental groups that were trying to pass laws that held electronics-producing companies responsible for the cleanup of the toxic chemicals contained in their merchandise.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Knight |first=Danielle |date=22 September 2000 |title=Sony's PR War on Activists |work=Mother Jones |url=http://motherjones.com/environment/2000/09/sonys-pr-war-activists |access-date=5 October 2010}}</ref>

===Community engagement===

* '''EYE SEE project''' Sony Corporation is actively involved in the EYE SEE project conducted by [[UNICEF]]. EYE SEE digital photography workshops have been run for children in Argentina, Tunisia, Mali, South Africa, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Rwanda, Liberia and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNICEF and Sony photo workshop promotes rights with Darwin's indigenous youth |url=http://www.unicef.org.au/Media/Media-Releases/April-2013/UNICEF-and-Sony-photo-workshop-promotes-rights-wit.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516162216/http://www.unicef.org.au/Media/Media-Releases/April-2013/UNICEF-and-Sony-photo-workshop-promotes-rights-wit.aspx |archive-date=16 May 2013 |website=unicef.org.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2011 |title=Seeing Mali: a digital project for children – in pictures |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2011/jun/16/mali-digital-camera-project-in-pictures |website=TheGuardian.com}}</ref>
* '''South Africa Mobile Library Project''' Sony assists The South Africa Primary Education Support Initiative (SAPESI) through financial donations and children book donations to the South Africa Mobile Library Project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sony helps S African mobile library project |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/business/view/sony-helps-s-african-mobile-library-project |access-date=11 February 2015 |website=japantoday.com}}</ref>
* '''The Sony Canada Charitable Foundation''' The Sony Canada Charitable Foundation (SCCF) is a non-profit organization which supports three key charities; the Make-A-Wish Canada, the United Way of Canada and the EarthDay and ECOKIDS program.
* '''Sony Foundation and You Can''' After the [[2010–11 Queensland floods|2011 Queensland floods]] and [[Black Saturday bushfires|Victorian bushfires]], Sony Music released benefit albums with money raised going to the Sony Foundation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cashmere |first=Paul |date=5 October 2012 |title=Sony Foundation Funds Salvos Sound Point Centre In Goodna |work=noise11.com |url=http://www.noise11.com/news/sony-foundation-funds-salvos-sound-point-centre-in-goodna-20121005 |access-date=11 February 2015}}</ref> You Can is the youth cancer program of Sony Foundation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2014 |title=Sony Foundation raises over $880k with Wharf4Ward |url=http://www.mcvpacific.com/news/read/the-sony-foundation-raises-over-880k-with-wharf4ward/0140322 |website=mcvpacific.com |access-date=2015-02-12 |archive-date=2017-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919052400/http://www.mcvpacific.com/news/read/the-sony-foundation-raises-over-880k-with-wharf4ward/0140322 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* '''Open Planet Ideas Crowdsourcing Project''' Sony launched its Open Planet Ideas Crowdsourcing Project, in partnership with the [[World Wildlife Fund]] and the design group, [[IDEO]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Beavis |first=Simon |date=26 May 2011 |title=Sony – engaging untapped audience through crowdsourcing |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sony-untapped-audience-crowdsourcing-project}}</ref>
* '''Street Football Stadium Project''' On the occasion of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, Sony partnered with {{Proper name|streetfootballworld}} and launched the Street Football Stadium Project to support football-based educational programmes in local communities across Latin America and Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2014 |title=Stadiums to go: streetfootballworld partners with Sony to support Brazilian and Latin American communities – |url=http://www.streetfootballworld.org/latest/blog/stadiums-go-streetfootballworld-partners-sony-support-local-communities#sthash.y2p34iqv.dpuf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211234600/http://www.streetfootballworld.org/latest/blog/stadiums-go-streetfootballworld-partners-sony-support-local-communities |archive-date=11 February 2015 |website=streetfootballworld}}</ref> More than 25 Street Stadiums were developed since the project's inception.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2014 |title=Sony Street Stadiums – |url=http://www.streetfootballworld.org/project/sony-street-stadiums |website=streetfootballworld |access-date=2016-04-10 |archive-date=2018-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106202512/https://www.streetfootballworld.org/project/sony-street-stadiums |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* '''The Sony Global Relief Fund for COVID-19''' During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Sony launched a relief fund in line with other media and tech companies to aid individuals working in the medical, education, and entertainment sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tartaglione |first=Nancy |date=2020-04-02 |title=Sony Establishes $100M COVID-19 Global Relief Fund |url=https://deadline.com/2020/04/sony-launches-100-million-global-relief-fund-coronavirus-covid-19-1202898470/ |access-date=2020-09-16 |website=Deadline |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of acquisitions by Sony]]
* [[List of companies of Japan]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''[[Made in Japan (biography)|Made in Japan]]'' by Akio Morita and Sony, [[HarperCollins]] (1994){{ISBN missing |date=October 2017}}
* ''Sony: The Private Life'' by [[John Nathan]], [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] (1999){{ISBN missing |date=October 2017}}
* ''The Japan Project: Made in Japan'' – a documentary about Sony's early history in the U.S. by [[Terry Sanders]].{{ISBN missing |date=October 2017}}
* ''The Portable Radio in American Life'' by Michael Brian Schiffer (The University of Arizona Press, 1991).
* ''Sony Radio, Sony Transistor Radio 35th Anniversary 1955–1990'' – information booklet (1990){{ISBN missing |date=October 2017}}

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Sony}}
* {{Official website|www.sony.com}}
* {{Finance links
| symbol = SNE
| sec_cik = SNE
| google = NYSE:SNE
| yahoo = SNE
| bloomberg = SNE:US
| reuters = SNE
| nasdaq = SNE
}}

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Ghana

2021-08-20T07:18:46Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{about|the modern country of Ghana||Ghana (disambiguation)|and|Gana (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Coord|7|49|N|1|03|..."

{{short description|Country in West Africa}}
{{about|the modern country of Ghana||Ghana (disambiguation)|and|Gana (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Coord|7|49|N|1|03|W|display=title}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Ghana
| common_name = Ghana
| image_flag = Flag of Ghana.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Ghana.svg
| national_motto = "Freedom and Justice"
| national_anthem = "[[God Bless Our Homeland Ghana]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Ghana.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = Ghana (orthographic projection).svg
| capital = [[Accra]]
| largest_city = Accra
| coordinates = {{Coord|5|33|N|0|12|W|type:city}}
| official_languages = [[English language|English]]<ref name="The Ghanaian Government states that English is the official language">{{cite web|quote=English is the official language of Ghana and is universally used in schools in addition to nine other local languages. The most widely spoken local languages are Dagbanli, Ewe, Ga and Twi.|url=http://www.ghanaembassy.org/index.php?page=language-and-religion|title=Language and Religion|publisher=Ghana Embassy|access-date=8 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301155437/https://www.ghanaembassy.org/index.php?page=language-and-religion|archive-date=1 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census">{{cite web|url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf|title=Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census|work=Government of Ghana|year=2010|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925192147/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf|archive-date=25 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| national_languages = {{plainlist|class=nowrap|item_style=padding-left:0.5em|

*[[Dagaare language|Dagaare]]
*[[Dagbani language|Dagbanli]]
*[[Dangme language|Dangme]]
*[[Ewe language|Ewe]]
*[[Frafra language|Frafra]]
*[[Ga language|Ga]]
*[[Gonja language|Gonja]]
*[[Nzema language|Nzema]]
*[[Twi]]
*[[Ghanaian Sign Language]]}}
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|71.2% [[Christianity]]
|—46.7% [[Protestantism]]
|—13.1% [[Catholic Church in Ghana|Catholicism]]
|—11.4% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
|17.6% [[Islam in Ghana|Islam]]
|6.2% [[African traditional religion|Traditional faiths]]
|4.1% [[Irreligion|No religion]]
|0.9% [[Religion in Ghana|Other]]<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ghana/ The World Factbook]</ref>}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
|47.5% [[Akan people|Akans]]
|16.6% [[Mole-Dagbon people|Mole-Dagbon]]
|13.9% [[Ewe people|Ewe]]
|7.4% [[Ga-Adangbe people|Ga-Adangbe]]
|5.9% [[Bassare]]
|5.7% [[Konkomba people|Konkomba]]
|3.7% [[Guang people|Guan]]
|2.5% [[Gurunsi peoples|Gurunsi]]
|2.2% [[Kusasi people|Kusasi]]
|1.1% [[Bissa people|Bissa]]
|1.4% [[Demographics of Ghana|Other]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2010<ref name="Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/People/Ethnic-groups|title=People > Ethnic groups: Countries Compared|publisher=NationMaster|access-date=22 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714100154/http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/People/Ethnic-groups|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
| demonym = Ghanaian
| government_type = {{unbulleted list|style=whitespace:nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]]|[[Republic|constitutional republic]]}}
| leader_title1 = [[President of Ghana|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Nana Akufo-Addo]]
| leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Ghana|Vice-President]]
| leader_name2 = [[Mahamudu Bawumia]]
| leader_title3 =
[[Speaker of the Parliament of Ghana|Speaker of Parliament]]
| leader_name3 =
[[Alban Sumana Kingsford Bagbin]]
| leader_title4 =
[[Chief Justice of Ghana|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name4 =
[[Kwasi Anin-Yeboah]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Ghana|Parliament]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Ghana|Independence]] {{nobold|from the [[United Kingdom]]}}
| established_event1 = [[Dominion of Ghana|Dominion]]
| established_date1 = 6 March 1957
| established_event2 = Republic
| established_date2 = 1 July 1960
| established_event3 = [[Constitution of Ghana|Current constitution]]
| established_date3 = 28 April 1992
| area_km2 = 239,567
| area_rank = 80th
| area_sq_mi = 92,099 
| percent_water = 4.61 (11,000 km; 4,247 mi{{smallsup|2}})
| population_estimate = 31,072,940<ref name=popest>{{cite web |title=2020 Population Projection by Sex, 2010–2020|publisher=Ghana Statistical Service |url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/pop_stats.html |access-date=2 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424110616/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/pop_stats.html |archive-date=24 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_census = 24,200,000<ref name=unpop>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4712:2010-provisional-census-results-out&catid=88:daily-news-summary&Itemid=236 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615141322/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4712%3A2010-provisional-census-results-out&catid=88%3Adaily-news-summary&Itemid=236 |archive-date=15 June 2011 |title=2010 Provisional Census Results Out |version=4 February 2011 |publisher=Population Division, Ghana Government |year=2010 |access-date=7 February 2011 |first=Antoinette I. |last=Mintah |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| population_estimate_rank = 47th
| population_census_year = 2010
| population_density_km2 = 101.5
| population_density_sq_mi = 258.8 
| population_density_rank = 103rd
| GDP_PPP = $226 billion<ref name=IMF>{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2019&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=82&pr1.y=0&c=652&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |website=[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] |access-date=29 February 2020 }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2020
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,343<ref name=IMF/>
| GDP_nominal = $73.594  billion<ref name=IMF/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2020
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,374<ref name=IMF/>
| Gini = 43.5
| Gini_year = 2016
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref =<ref name="worldbank">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=GH|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate)|publisher=[[World Bank]]|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125020447/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=GH|archive-date=25 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.611
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref =<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=December 15, 2020|access-date=December 15, 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 138th
| currency = [[Ghanaian cedi|Cedi]]
| currency_code = GHS
| utc_offset = {{sp}}
| time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy mm/dd/yyyy
| drives_on = [[Left- and right-hand traffic|right]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Ghana|+233]]
| iso3166code = GH
| cctld = [[.gh]]
| today =
}}
'''Ghana''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Ghana.ogg|ˈ|ɡ|ɑː|n|ə}}), officially the '''Republic of Ghana''', is a country in [[West Africa]]. It spans the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south, sharing borders with the [[Ivory Coast]] in [[Ghana–Ivory Coast border|the west]], [[Burkina Faso]] in [[Burkina Faso–Ghana border|the north]], and [[Togo]] in [[Ghana–Togo border|the east]].<ref name="warriorking">Jackson, John G. (2001) ''Introduction to African Civilizations'', Citadel Press, p. 201, {{ISBN|0-8065-2189-9}}.</ref> Ghana covers an area of {{convert|238535|km2|abbr=on}}, spanning a diverse [[geography]] and [[ecology]] that ranges from coastal savannahs to [[Tropical rainforest|tropical rain forests]]. With over 31 million people, Ghana is the [[List of African countries by population|second-most populous country]] in West Africa, after [[Nigeria]]. The capital and [[List of cities in Ghana|largest city]] is [[Accra]]; other major cities include Kumasi, Tamale, and Sekondi-Takoradi.

The first permanent state in present-day Ghana was the [[Bono state]] of the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meyerowitz|first=Eva L. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3lyAAAAMAAJ|title=The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana|date=1975|publisher=Red Candle Press|isbn=9780608390352|language=en}}</ref> Numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful were the [[Kingdom of Dagbon]] in the north<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danver |first1=Steven L |title=Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues |date=10 March 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46400-6 |pages=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ&q=Kingdom+of+Dagbon&pg=PA25}}</ref> and the [[Ashanti Empire]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web|title=Asante Kingdom|url=http://www.ascleiden.nl/content/webdossiers/asante-kingdom|publisher=[[Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden]]|access-date=8 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712214333/http://www.ascleiden.nl/content/webdossiers/asante-kingdom|archive-date=12 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning in the 15th century, the [[Portuguese Empire]], followed by numerous other European powers, contested the area for trading rights, until the [[British Empire|British]] ultimately established control of the coast by the late 19th century. Following over a century of native resistance, Ghana's current borders took shape, encompassing four separate British colonial territories: [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], [[Ashanti (Crown Colony)|Ashanti]], the [[Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)|Northern Territories]] and [[British Togoland]]. These were unified as an independent [[dominion]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on 6 March 1957, becoming the first colony in sub-Saharan Africa to achieve sovereignty.<ref name="Universal Newsreel">{{cite video|year=1957|title=Video: A New Nation: Gold Coast becomes Ghana In Ceremony, 1957/03/07 (1957)|url=https://archive.org/details/1957-03-07_A_New_Nation|publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]]|access-date=20 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128113959/http://archive.org/details/1957-03-07_A_New_Nation|archive-date=28 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="First For Sub-Saharan Africa">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/14chapter3.shtml|title=First For Sub-Saharan Africa|publisher=BBC|access-date=29 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101135716/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/14chapter3.shtml|archive-date=1 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Exploring Africa – Decolinization">{{cite web|url=http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/decolinization.jpg |title=Exploring Africa – Decolonization |publisher=exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu |access-date=29 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602212136/http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/decolinization.jpg |archive-date=2 June 2013 }}</ref> Ghana subsequently became influential in [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonisation efforts]] and the [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African movement]].<ref name="Ateku">{{Cite web|last=Ateku|first=Abdul-Jalilu|title=Ghana is 60: An African success story with tough challenges ahead|url=http://theconversation.com/ghana-is-60-an-african-success-story-with-tough-challenges-ahead-74049|access-date=2021-06-27|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref>

Ghana is a [[multinational state]], home to a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups;<ref name=popest/> while the [[Akan people|Akan]] are the largest ethnic group, they constitute only a plurality. The vast majority of [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaians]] are [[Christians|Christian]] (71.2%), with close to a fifth being [[Muslims|Muslim]] and a tenth practising traditional faiths or reporting no religion.<ref name="Census2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/National_Analytical_Report.pdf|title=2010 Population & Housing Census: National Analytical Report|publisher=Ghana Statistical Service|page=63|year=2013|access-date=23 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712212518/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/National_Analytical_Report.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ghana is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Liberal democracy|constitutional democracy]] led by a president who is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]].<ref name="Ghana: CIA World FactBook">{{cite web|last1=CIA World FactBook|title=Ghana|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ghana/|website=CIA World FactBook|publisher=CIA World FactBook|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> Since 1993, it has maintained one of the freest and most stable governments on the continent, and performs relatively well in metrics of healthcare, economic growth, and human development.<ref name="Ateku"/> Ghana consequently enjoys significant influence in West Africa,<ref name="South America and West Africa"/> and is highly integrated in international affairs, being a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), the [[Group of 24]] (G24) and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.state.gov/md2860.htm|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|title=Ghana-US relations|date=13 February 2013|access-date=1 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405184830/http://m.state.gov/md2860.htm|archive-date=5 April 2013}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The [[etymology]] of the name ''Ghana'' means "[[warriors|Strong Warrior]] King" and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval [[Ghana Empire]] in [[West Africa]], not to be confused with today's Ghana, as the empire was further north in modern-day [[Republic of Mali]], [[Senegal]], southern [[Mauritania]], as well as in [[Guinea (region)|the region of Guinea]].<ref name="etymology">{{cite web|title=Etymology of Ghana|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Ghana|publisher=Douglas Harper|access-date=12 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104100547/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Ghana|archive-date=4 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Ghana was known for its large Gold usage, and hence was named the ''Land of Gold''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ghana: Land of Gold|url=https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/african-kingdom/topic/ghana-land-of-gold|access-date=2020-10-03|website=Kids Discover Online}}</ref> by the [[Arabs]] during the [[Trans-Saharan trade]]<nowiki/>s.

==History==
[[File:Akan face.jpg|thumb|left|upright|16th-century [[Akan people|Akan]] Terracotta, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
[[File:Guinea from Milner's Atlas.jpg|thumb|An 1850 map showing the [[Akan people|Akan]] [[Kingdom of Ashanti]] within the [[Guinea (region)|Guinea region]] and surrounding regions in West Africa]]
[[File:Lidded Vessel (Kuduo) MET DP108293.jpg|thumb|18th-century Ashanti brass ''kuduo''. Gold dust and nuggets were kept in ''kuduo'', as were other items of personal value and significance. As receptacles for their owners' ''kra'', or life force, ''kuduo'' were prominent features of ceremonies designed to honour and protect that individual.]]
{{Main|History of Ghana}}

===Medieval kingdoms===
{{Main|Ashanti Empire|Kingdom of Dagbon}}

Most of what is now Ghana was inhabited in the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Age of Discovery]] by local tribes.

The earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the [[Oti–Volta languages|Mole-Dagbani]] states.<ref name=col/> The Mole-Dagomba came on horseback from present-day [[Burkina Faso]] under a single leader, [[Na Gbewa|Naa Gbewaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.ghananation.com/articles/ghana-history/3017-invasion-of-the-peoples-of-the-north.html|title=Invasion of the Peoples of the North|publisher=GhanaNation|date=15 November 2011|access-date=22 June 2014|first=Jessica|last=W|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708222407/http://articles.ghananation.com/articles/ghana-history/3017-invasion-of-the-peoples-of-the-north.html|archive-date=8 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> With their advanced weapons and based on a central authority, they easily invaded and occupied the lands of the local people ruled by the ''Tendamba'' (land god priests), established themselves as the rulers over the locals, and made [[Gambaga]] their capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.ghananation.com/feed/articles/ghana-articles/3093-dagomba.txt|title=Ghana Articles: Dagomba|publisher=GhanaNation.com|date=19 November 2011|access-date=22 August 2014|author=Curtis M.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019101858/http://articles.ghananation.com/feed/articles/ghana-articles/3093-dagomba.txt|archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including [[Dagomba people|Dagbon]], [[Mamprusi people|Mamprugu]], [[Mossi Kingdoms|Mossi]], [[Nanumba people|Nanumba]] and [[Wala people|Wala]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bristoldrumming.com/ghanagoods/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=42&Itemid=67|title=Dagomba: Background|publisher=BristolDrumming|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714121340/http://www.bristoldrumming.com/ghanagoods/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=42&Itemid=67|archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sim.org/index.php/content/mamprusi|title=Mamprusi|publisher=Sim.org|access-date=22 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714184651/http://www.sim.org/index.php/content/mamprusi|archive-date=14 July 2014}}</ref>

Although the area of present-day Ghana in [[West Africa]] has experienced many population movements, the [[Akan people|Akan]] speaking peoples began to move into it toward the end of the 15th Century.<ref name="col">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/pre-colonial.php|title=Pre-Colonial Period|publisher=Ghanaweb.com|access-date=13 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123235900/http://ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/pre-colonial.php|archive-date=23 November 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pdmhs.com/PDFs/ScannedBulletinArticles/Bulletin%2013-4%20-%20Pre-European%20Gold%20Mining%20at%20Ashanti,%20Ghana.pdf|title=Pre-European Mining at Ashanti, Ghana|type=PDF|publisher=Pdmhs.com|date=October 1996|access-date=24 January 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122214748/http://www.pdmhs.com/PDFs/ScannedBulletinArticles/Bulletin%2013-4%20-%20Pre-European%20Gold%20Mining%20at%20Ashanti,%20Ghana.pdf|archive-date=22 November 2014}}</ref> By the early sixteenth century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called [[Bonoman]], for which the [[Brong-Ahafo Region]] is named.<ref name=col/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Tvedten, Ige|author2=Hersoug, Bjørn|title=Fishing for Development: Small Scale Fisheries in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Itt1hIbsbQsC&pg=PA60|year=1992|publisher=Nordic Africa Institute|isbn=978-91-7106-327-4|pages=60–|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912143828/https://books.google.com/books?id=Itt1hIbsbQsC&pg=PA60|archive-date=12 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states, mainly based on gold trading.<ref>The Techiman-Bono of Ghana: an ethnography of an Akan society Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co., 1975</ref> These states included Bonoman ([[Brong-Ahafo Region]]), Ashanti ([[Ashanti Region]]), [[Denkyira]] ([[Central Region, Ghana|Western North region]]), [[Mankessim Kingdom]] ([[Western Region, Ghana|Central region]]), and [[Akwamu]] [[Eastern Region, Ghana|(Eastern region)]].<ref name=col/> By the 19th century, the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the [[Ashanti Empire|Kingdom of Ashanti]], one of the influential states in sub-saharan Africa prior to the onset of colonialism.<ref name=col/>

The government of the Ashanti Empire operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralised kingdom with an advanced, highly specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of [[Kumasi]].<ref name=col/> Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and [[gold bar]] [[Commodity|commodities]] then traded with the states of Africa.<ref name=col/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/surveys/african/ashanti/history.html|title=A Short History of Ashanti Gold Weights|publisher=Rubens.anu.edu.au|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902030803/http://rubens.anu.edu.au/htdocs/surveys/african/ashanti/history.html|archive-date=2 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

===European contact (15th century)===
{{Main|Gold Coast (region)|Portuguese Gold Coast|Dutch Gold Coast|Dutch Slave Coast|Swedish Gold Coast|Danish Gold Coast|Brandenburger Gold Coast|Gold Coast (British colony)}}
[[File:Elmina_slave_castle.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] established the [[Portuguese Gold Coast]] with the construction of [[Elmina Castle]] (''Castelo da Mina'') by [[Diogo de Azambuja]] in 1482, making it the oldest [[Portuguese colonial architecture|European building]] in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].]]
Akan trade with European states began after contact with the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modernghana.com/GhanaHome/ashanti/ashanti.asp?menu_id=6&sub_menu_id=67&gender=&s=a|title=History of the Ashanti People|publisher=Modern Ghana|access-date=9 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731222849/http://www.modernghana.com/GhanaHome/ashanti/ashanti.asp?menu_id=6&sub_menu_id=67&gender=&s=a|archive-date=31 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Early European contact by the [[Portuguese people]], who came to the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast region]] in the 15th century to trade and then established the [[Portuguese Gold Coast]] (Costa do Ouro), focused on the extensive availability of gold.<ref name="History"/> The Portuguese built a trading lodge at a coastal settlement called Anomansah (the perpetual drink) which they renamed [[Elmina|São Jorge da Mina]].<ref name="History">{{cite web|url=http://www.tonyxworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=38|title=History of Ghana|publisher=TonyX|access-date=20 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501201014/http://www.tonyxworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=38|archive-date=1 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1481, King [[John II of Portugal]] commissioned [[Diogo de Azambuja]] to build the [[Elmina Castle]], which was completed in three years.<ref name="History"/> By 1598, the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] had joined the Portuguese in the gold trade, establishing the [[Dutch Gold Coast]] (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) and building forts at [[Fort Komenda]] and Kormantsi.<ref name="Ghana book">{{cite book|last=Levy|first=Patricia|author2=Wong, Winnie|title=Ghana|url=https://archive.org/details/ghana0000levy|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/ghana0000levy/page/24 24]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7614-4847-1}}</ref> In 1617, the Dutch captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and [[Axim]] in 1642 ([[Fort Saint Anthony|Fort St Anthony]]).<ref name="Ghana book"/>

Other European traders had joined in gold trading by the mid-17th century, most notably the [[Swedes]], establishing the [[Swedish Gold Coast]] (Svenska Guldkusten), and [[Denmark-Norway]], establishing the [[Danish Gold Coast]] (Danske Guldkyst ''or'' Dansk Guinea).<ref name="History of Ghana"/> [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it ''Costa do Ouro'' or ''Gold Coast''.<ref name="History of Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/|title=History of Ghana|publisher=ghanaweb.com|access-date=10 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215170543/http://ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/|archive-date=15 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also beginning in the 17th century – in addition to the gold trade – Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French traders also participated in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in this area.<ref name="Emmer">{{cite book|last=Emmer|first=Pieter C.|edition=1st|series=Variorum Collected Studies (Book 614)|title=The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880: Trade, Slavery, and Emancipation (Variorum Collected Studies)|page=17|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|year=2018|isbn=978-0-86078-697-9}}</ref>

[[File:British_Ransack_Fomena_Palace.png|thumb|During [[Anglo-Ashanti Wars]] British troops ransacking a [[Fomena]] chief's palace en route to Kumasi in 1874]]
More than thirty forts and castles were built by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], Swedish, [[Denmark–Norway|Dano-Norwegians]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and German merchants; the latter [[Germans]] establishing the [[Brandenburger Gold Coast|German Gold Coast]] (Brandenburger Gold Coast ''or'' Groß Friedrichsburg).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2008/09/20080915145840dmslahrellek0.5556452.html|title=Bush Praises Strong Leadership of Ghanaian President Kufuor|work=iipdigital.usembassy.gov|date=15 September 2008|access-date=26 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512220141/http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2008/09/20080915145840dmslahrellek0.5556452.html|archive-date=12 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1874 Great Britain established control over some parts of the country, assigning these areas the status of [[British Gold Coast]].<ref name="colestablish">MacLean, Iain (2001) ''Rational Choice and British Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation from Peel to Blair'', p. 76, {{ISBN|0-19-829529-4}}.</ref> Many [[Engagement (military)|military engagements]] occurred between the British colonial powers and the various Akan nation-states. The Akan [[Kingdom of Ashanti]] defeated the British a few times in the 100-year-long [[Anglo-Ashanti wars]] but eventually lost with the [[War of the Golden Stool]] in the early 1900s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Puri, Jyoti|title=Encountering Nationalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tEL4ToU8JSQC&pg=PA76|year=2008|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-77672-8|pages=76–|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915131854/https://books.google.com/books?id=tEL4ToU8JSQC&pg=PA76|archive-date=15 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Chronology of world history">Chronology of world history:
a calendar of principal events from 3000 BC to AD 1973, Part 1973, Rowman & Littlefield, 1975, {{ISBN|0-87471-765-5}}.</ref><ref>[https://www.webcitation.org/5kwpwoVQ8?url=http://ca.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580620_3/Ashanti_Kingdom.html Ashanti Kingdom], Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009, Archived 31 October 2009.</ref>

===Transition to independence===
[[File:Kwame Nkrumah (JFKWHP-AR6409-A).jpg|alt=Kwame Nkrumah|thumb|upright|[[Kwame Nkrumah]], first President of Ghana]]
{{See also|Dominion of Ghana|Ghana Independence Act 1957}}
{{Multiple images
|image1=Ghana Independence overprint on Gold Coast 1s stamp 1957.jpg
|caption1=A postage stamp of Gold Coast overprinted for Ghanaian independence in 1957
|image2=Ghana (1957-03-07 A New Nation).ogg|thumbtime=0:55
|caption2=Celebrations marking Ghana's independence on 6 March 1957
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In 1947, the newly formed [[United Gold Coast Convention]] (UGCC) led by [[The Big Six (Ghana)|"The Big Six"]] called for "self-government within the shortest possible time" following the [[Gold Coast legislative election, 1946]].<ref name="History of Ghana"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Gocking, Roger|title=The History of Ghana|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofghana00gock|url-access=registration|year=2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-31894-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofghana00gock/page/92 92]–|access-date=27 June 2015}}</ref> [[Kwame Nkrumah]], a Ghanaian nationalist who led Ghana from 1957 to 1966 as the country's first [[Prime Minister of Ghana|Prime Minister]] and [[President of Ghana|President]], formed the [[Convention People's Party]] (CPP) in 1949 with the motto "self-government now".<ref name="History of Ghana"/> The party initiated a "positive action" campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment during this time. In the Gold Coast's [[Gold Coast legislative election, 1951|February 1951 general election]], he was elected to Parliament and released from prison to become leader of government business.<ref name="History of Ghana"/> He became Prime Minister of the Gold Coast in 1952. He improved the infrastructure of the country and his Africanisation policies created better career opportunities for Ghanaians.

On 6 March 1957 at 12 midnight, the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]], [[Ashanti (Crown Colony)|Ashanti]], the [[Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)|Northern Territories]] and [[British Togoland]] were unified as one single independent dominion within the [[British Commonwealth]] under the name Ghana. This was done under the [[Ghana Independence Act 1957]]. The current [[flag of Ghana]], consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and a black star, dates back to this unification.<ref name="Ghana flag and description"/> It was designed by [[Theodosia Salome Okoh]]; the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the [[industrial mineral]]s wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich [[grassland]]s of Ghana, and the black star is the symbol of the Ghanaian people and African emancipation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/republic/flag.php|title=Ghana Flag|publisher=Ghanaweb.com|access-date=26 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922181215/http://ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/republic/flag.php|archive-date=22 September 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 1 July 1960, following the [[Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1960|Ghanaian constitutional referendum]] and [[Ghanaian presidential election, 1960|Ghanaian presidential election]], Nkrumah declared Ghana as a republic and assumed the presidency.<ref name="Universal Newsreel"/><ref name="First For Sub-Saharan Africa"/><ref name="Exploring Africa – Decolinization"/><ref name="History of Ghana"/> 6 March is the nation's [[Independence Day (Ghana)|Independence Day]] and 1 July is now celebrated as [[Republic Day]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.africa.com/5-things-know-ghana-independence-day/|title=5 Things To Know About Ghana's Independence Day|website=Africa.com|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710225301/https://www.africa.com/5-things-know-ghana-independence-day/|archive-date=10 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/What-is-Republic-Day-in-Ghana-615882 |title=What is Republic Day in Ghana? |last=Oquaye |first=Mike |date=10 January 2018 |website=GhanaWeb |language=en |access-date=29 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629211559/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/What-is-Republic-Day-in-Ghana-615882 |archive-date=29 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

At the time of independence Nkrumah declared, "My first objective is to abolish from Ghana poverty, ignorance, and disease. We shall measure our progress by the improvement in the health of our people; by the number of children in school, and by the quality of their education; by the availability of water and electricity in our towns and villages; and by the happiness which our people take in being able to manage their own affairs. The welfare of our people is our chief pride, and it is by this that the 5 will ask to be judged.".<ref>{{cite web |title=Ghana: Problems and Progress |url=https://leonardkenworthy.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/1959-ghana-problems-and-progress.pdf |access-date=27 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428094412/https://leonardkenworthy.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/1959-ghana-problems-and-progress.pdf |archive-date=28 April 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nkrumah was the first African head of state to promote the concept of [[Pan-Africanism]], which he had been introduced to during his studies at [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]], Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when [[Marcus Garvey]] was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement".<ref name="History of Ghana"/> Nkrumah merged the teachings of Garvey, [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and the naturalised [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian]] scholar [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] into the formation of 1960s Ghana.<ref name="History of Ghana"/>

Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and in establishing the [[Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute]] to teach his ideologies of [[communism]] and [[socialism]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Of Nkrumah's Political Ideologies: Communism, Socialism, Nkrumaism|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=110817|publisher=Ghana Web|date=20 September 2006|access-date=9 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725015602/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=110817|archive-date=25 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> His life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a [[Public holidays in Ghana|public holiday in Ghana]] ([[Founder's Day (Ghana)|Founder's Day]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=When it was made a Holiday|url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/419363/1/founders-day-to-be-placed-on-ghanas-holiday-calend.html|publisher=Modern Ghana|date=22 September 2012|access-date=9 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925093111/http://www.modernghana.com/news/419363/1/founders-day-to-be-placed-on-ghanas-holiday-calend.html|archive-date=25 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
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===Operation Cold Chop and aftermath===
{{Main|History of Ghana (1966–79)}}
The government of Nkrumah was subsequently overthrown by a coup by the [[Ghana Armed Forces]] codenamed "Operation Cold Chop". This occurred while Nkrumah was abroad with [[Zhou Enlai]] in the People's Republic of China, on a fruitless mission to [[Hanoi]] in Vietnam to help end the [[Vietnam War]]. The coup took place on 24 February 1966, led by Col. [[Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka]]. The [[National Liberation Council]] (NLC) was formed, chaired by Lt. General [[Joseph A. Ankrah]].<ref name="political & social thought of Kwame Nkrumah">{{cite web|url=http://libyadiary.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/pdf-2011-the-political-and-social-thought-of-kwame-nkrumah.pdf|title=The political and social thought of Kwame Nkrumah|year=2011|access-date=28 April 2014|work=Libyadiary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052034/http://libyadiary.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/pdf-2011-the-political-and-social-thought-of-kwame-nkrumah.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

A series of alternating military and civilian governments, often affected by economic instabilities,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Country Study: Ghana|last=David|first=Owusu-Ansah|publisher=La Verle Berry|year=1994}}</ref> ruled Ghana from 1966 to 1981, ending with the ascension to power of [[Flight Lieutenant]] [[Jerry Rawlings|Jerry John Rawlings]] of the [[Provisional National Defence Council]] (PNDC) in 1981.<ref name="Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings (J.J Rawlings)">{{cite news|url=http://www.africa-confidential.com/whos-who-profile/id/424/|title=Ghana: Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings (J.J Rawlings)|work=[[Africa Confidential]]|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191244/http://www.africa-confidential.com/whos-who-profile/id/424/|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> These changes resulted in the suspension of the [[Constitution of Ghana]] in 1981, and the banning of [[political parties in Ghana]].<ref name="Rawlings: The legacy">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1050310.stm|title=Rawlings: The legacy|work=BBC News|date=1 December 2000|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828010357/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1050310.stm|archive-date=28 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The economy soon declined, so Rawlings negotiated a structural adjustment plan changing many old economic policies, and economic growth soon recovered during the mid-1980s.<ref name="Rawlings: The legacy"/> A new [[Constitution of Ghana]] restoring [[multi-party system]] politics was promulgated in [[Ghanaian presidential election, 1992]]; Rawlings was elected as president of Ghana then, and again in [[Ghanaian general election, 1996]].<ref name="Elections in Ghana"/>
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===21st century===
[[File:Kpetoee.jpg|thumb|Traditional [[Chieftaincy|chiefs]] in Ghana in 2015]]
Winning the [[Ghanaian general election, 2000|2000 Ghanaian elections]], [[John Kufuor|John Agyekum Kufuor]] of the [[New Patriotic Party]] (NPP) was sworn into office as president of Ghana on 7 January 2001, and attained the presidency again in the [[Ghanaian general election, 2004|2004 Ghanaian elections]], thus also serving two [[term of office|terms]] (the [[term limit]]) as president of Ghana and thus marking the first time under the fourth republic that power was transferred from one legitimately elected [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] to another.<ref name="Elections in Ghana"/>

Nana Akufo-Addo, the ruling party candidate, was defeated in a very close election by [[John Atta Mills]] of the [[National Democratic Congress (Ghana)|National Democratic Congress]] (NDC) following the [[Ghanaian presidential election, 2008]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Kokutse|first=Francis|title=Opposition leader wins presidency in Ghana|agency=Associated Press|date=3 January 2009|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-01-03-ghana-election_N.htm|work=USA Today|access-date=9 May 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209072058/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-01-03-ghana-election_N.htm|archive-date=9 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Emmanuel Gyimah-Boadi, "The 2008 Freedom House Survey: Another Step Forward for Ghana." ''Journal of Democracy'' 20.2 (2009): 138–152 [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/262756/summary excerpt].</ref> Mills died of natural causes and was succeeded by vice-president [[John Dramani Mahama]] on 24 July 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Atta Mills dies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/25/world/africa/john-atta-mills-ghanas-president-dies-68.html|work=The New York Times|date=25 July 2012|access-date=9 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709161829/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/25/world/africa/john-atta-mills-ghanas-president-dies-68.html|archive-date=9 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following the [[Ghanaian presidential election, 2012]], [[John Mahama|John Dramani Mahama]] became President-elect and was inaugurated on 7 January 2013.<ref name="Ghanaian President John Dramani Mahama sworn in">{{cite news|url=http://english.sina.com/world/p/2013/0107/545991.html|title=Ghanaian President John Dramani Mahama sworn in|publisher=[[Sina Corp]]|date=7 January 2013|access-date=30 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005011622/http://english.sina.com/world/p/2013/0107/545991.html|archive-date=5 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Ghana was a stable democracy.<ref name="Elections in Ghana">{{cite web|title=Elections in Ghana|url=http://africanelections.tripod.com/gh.html|work=Africanelections.tripod.com|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530060759/http://africanelections.tripod.com/gh.html|archive-date=30 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a result of the [[Ghanaian presidential election, 2016]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yen.com.gh/85240-what-world-media-ghanas-2016-elections.html#85240|title=What the world media is saying about Ghana's 2016 elections – YEN.COM.GH|date=7 December 2016|work=yen.com.gh|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208122522/https://yen.com.gh/85240-what-world-media-ghanas-2016-elections.html#85240|archive-date=8 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nana Akufo-Addo]] became President-elect and was inaugurated as the fifth President of the Fourth Republic of Ghana and eighth President of Ghana on 7 January 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=2016 Presidential Results|url=http://www.thumbsapp.com.gh/|website=Ghana Electoral Commission|publisher=Ghana Electoral Commission|access-date=18 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519211542/http://www.thumbsapp.com.gh/|archive-date=19 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In December 2020, President Nana Akufo-Addo was re-elected after a tightly contested [[2020 Ghanaian general election|election]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55236356 |title=Ghana election: Nana Akufo-Addo re-elected as president |work=BBC News |date=9 December 2020 |access-date=21 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Geography and geology==
{{Main|Geography of Ghana|Geology of Ghana}}
{{ multiple images
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|image1=Ghana Topography.png
|caption1 =Ghana-Togo [[topography]]−[[topographic map]]
|image2=Ghana sat.png
|caption2=Ghana [[Satellite imagery|satellite image]] from [[outer space]]
|total_width=330
}}

Ghana is located on the [[Gulf of Guinea]], only a few degrees north of the [[Equator]], therefore giving it a warm climate.<ref name="Geography Physical"/> Ghana spans an area of {{convert|238535|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches {{convert|560|km|mi|abbr=off}} on the Gulf of Guinea in Atlantic Ocean to its south.<ref name="Geography Physical">{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_physical_setting.html|title=Ghana: Geography Physical|publisher=photius.com|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060123/http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_physical_setting.html|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}, {{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_location_and_size.html|title=Ghana: Location and Size|publisher=photius.com|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060248/http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_location_and_size.html|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> It lies between latitudes 4°45'N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15'E and 3°15'W. The [[Prime Meridian]] passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial [[port town]] of [[Tema]].<ref name="Geography Physical"/>
Ghana is geographically closer to the "centre" of the Earth geographical coordinates than any other country; even though the notional centre, (0°, 0°) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately {{convert|614|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} off the south-east coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea.

[[Grassland]]s mixed with south coastal [[shrubland]]s and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the south-west coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean {{convert|320|km|mi|abbr=off}} and eastward for a maximum of about {{convert|270|km|mi|abbr=off}} with the [[Kingdom of Ashanti]] or the southern part of Ghana being a primary location for mining of [[industrial mineral]]s and timber.<ref name="Geography Physical"/> Ghana is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: [[Eastern Guinean forests]], [[Guinean forest-savanna mosaic]], [[West Sudanian savanna]], [[Central African mangroves]], and [[Guinean mangroves]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> It had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.53/10, ranking it 112nd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Ghana encompasses [[plain]]s, [[waterfall]]s, low hills, rivers, [[Dodi Island]] and [[Bobowasi Island]] on the south Atlantic Ocean coast, and [[Lake Volta]], the world's largest artificial lake.<ref name="Ghana low plains">{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_the_low_plains.html|title=Ghana low plains|publisher=photius.com|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060245/http://www.photius.com/countries/ghana/geography/ghana_geography_the_low_plains.html|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is [[Cape Three Points]].<ref name="Geography Physical"/>{{clear}}

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Ghana}}
The [[climate]] of Ghana is [[tropical climate|tropical]], and there are two main seasons: the [[wet season]] and the [[dry season]].<ref name="UNDP Climate">{{cite web|url=http://ncsp.undp.org/document/undp-climate-change-country-profile-11|title=UNDP Climate Change Country Profile: Ghana|work=ncsp.undp.org|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055503/http://ncsp.undp.org/document/undp-climate-change-country-profile-11|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Excerpt|Climate change in Ghana|file=no|hat=no}}

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Ghana}}
{{Further|Politics of Ghana}}
[[File:Ghana Parliament House – Ghana Supreme Court – Osu Castle.JPG|thumb| [[Parliament House of Ghana]], the Supreme Court of Ghana and [[Judiciary of Ghana]] buildings and [[Jubilee House]] is the [[presidential palace]].]]
[[File:Presidents of Ghana and of the 4th Republic of Ghana.JPG|thumb| First President of the Republic of Ghana [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]] and the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th presidents of the 4th Republic of Ghana [[Jerry Rawlings|Rawlings]]; [[John Kufuor|Kufuor]]; [[John Evans Atta Mills|Mills]] and [[John Dramani Mahama|Mahama]].]]
Ghana is a [[Unitary executive theory|unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional democracy]] with a parliamentary [[multi-party system]] that is dominated by two parties – the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). Ghana alternated between civilian and military governments until January 1993, when the military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after [[Ghanaian presidential election, 1992|presidential]] and [[Ghanaian parliamentary election, 1992|parliamentary elections]] in late 1992. The 1992 [[constitution of Ghana]] divides powers among a [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Ghana Armed Forces]] ([[President of Ghana]]), parliament ([[Parliament of Ghana]]), cabinet ([[Cabinet of Ghana]]), council of state ([[Council of State (Ghana)|Ghanaian Council of State]]), and an independent judiciary ([[Judiciary of Ghana]]). The [[Government of Ghana]] is elected by [[universal suffrage]] after every four years.<ref name="cs">"Government and Politics". ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html A Country Study: Ghana] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120713070609/lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html |date=13 July 2012 }}'' (La Verle Berry, editor). [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]]. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html Lcweb2.loc.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120710004153/lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html |date=10 July 2012 }}.</ref>

[[Nana Akufo-Addo]] won the Presidency in the [[Ghanaian general election, 2016|Ghanaian general election]] held on 7 December 2016, defeating incumbent [[John Mahama]]. He was sworn in on 7 January 2017. He also won the 2020 election and was subsequently sworn in on 7 January 2021.
Presidents are limited to two four-year terms in office. The president can serve a second term only upon re-election. Ghana has never had a female president.

The 2012 [[Fragile States Index]] indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th least fragile state in the world and the 5th least fragile state in Africa after [[Mauritius]], 2nd [[Seychelles]], 3rd [[Botswana]], and 4th South Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/failed_states_index_2012_interactive|title=Foreignpolicy.com – Failed States List 2012|year=2012|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528161748/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/failed_states_index_2012_interactive|archive-date=28 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Ghana ranked as the 64th least [[Corruption|corrupt]] and [[Political corruption|politically corrupt]] country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and Ghana ranked as the 5th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 [[Corruption Perceptions Index|Transparency International Corruption Perception Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2012|publisher=[[Corruption Perceptions Index|Transparency International Corruption Perception Index]]|year=2012|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528032608/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results|archive-date=28 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cddghana.org/documents/Curbing%20Corruption%20and%20Improving%20Economic%20Governance.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510115831/http://www.cddghana.org/documents/Curbing%20Corruption%20and%20Improving%20Economic%20Governance.pdf|archive-date=10 May 2008|title=Curbing Corruption and Improving Economic Governance: The Case of Ghana|publisher=Ghana Center for Democratic Development|access-date=1 June 2013|page=5|author=Agyeman-Duah, Baffour}}</ref> Ghana was ranked 7th in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 [[Ibrahim Index of African Governance]]. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/interact/ |title=Mo Ibrahim Foundation – 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) |publisher=Moibrahimfoundation.org |year=2012 |access-date=1 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530015728/http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/interact/ |archive-date=30 May 2013 }}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Ghana}}
[[File:Kofi Annan at OYW.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kofi Annan]], Ghanaian diplomat and United Nations Secretary-General 1997–2006]]

Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.<ref name="H. E. Mr. Ken Kanda">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.int/ghana/|title=Official page of Nations Permanent Mission of Ghana to the United Nations|access-date=20 May 2012|date=20 September 2011|publisher=United Nations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501042954/http://www.un.int/ghana/|archive-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ghana has a strong relationship with the United States. Three recent US presidents--[[Bill Clinton]], [[George W. Bush]], and [[Barack Obama]]—made diplomatic trips to Ghana. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations, including Ghanaian diplomat and former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] [[Kofi Annan]], International Criminal Court Judge [[Akua Kuenyehia]], and former President [[Jerry Rawlings|Jerry John Rawlings]] and former President [[John Kufuor|John Agyekum Kufuor]], who both served as diplomats of the United Nations.<ref name=cs/>

In September 2010, Ghana's former President [[John Atta Mills]] visited China on an official visit. Mills and China's former President [[Hu Jintao]], marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the [[Great Hall of the People]] on 20 September 2010.<ref name="Hu Jintao-John Atta Mills">{{cite web|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/fzs/gjlb/2999/3001/t755583.htm|title=Hu Jintao Holds Talks with President of Ghana Mills|access-date=4 January 2012|date=20 September 2010|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627115536/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/fzs/gjlb/2999/3001/t755583.htm|archive-date=27 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> China reciprocated with an official visit in November 2011, by the Vice-Chairman of the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China]], [[Zhou Tienong]] who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's President [[John Dramani Mahama]].<ref name="Xinhua2011">{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-11/12/c_122269189.htm|title=Visiting senior Chinese official lauds Ghana for political stability, national unity|agency=Xinhua News Agency|date=12 November 2011|access-date=13 November 2011|author=Deng, Shasha|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909155705/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-11/12/c_122269189.htm|archive-date=9 September 2013}}</ref>

The [[Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]] and the [[List of Presidents of Iran|6th]] [[President of Iran]], [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] met with the [[List of heads of state of Ghana|12th]] [[President of Ghana]], [[John Dramani Mahama]] on 16 April 2013 to hold discussions with President John Dramani Mahama on strengthening the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian [[presidential palace]] [[The Flagstaff House|Flagstaff House]].<ref name="Ahmadinejad">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22733605|title=Ahmadinejad: Iran's populist and pariah leaves the stage|access-date=10 May 2014|date=4 June 2013|publisher=BBCNews|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414120427/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22733605|archive-date=14 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ahmadinejad2">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22193136|title=Iranian leader Ahmadinejad's West Africa tour defended|access-date=10 May 2014|date=17 April 2013|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922183829/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22193136|archive-date=22 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CPP welcomes President Ahmadinejad visit to Ghana">{{cite news|url=http://ghananewsagency.org/politics/cpp-welcomes-president-ahmadinejad-visit-to-ghana--59069|title=CPP welcomes President Ahmadinejad visit to Ghana|access-date=10 May 2014|date=18 April 2013|agency=[[Ghana News Agency]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512215634/http://ghananewsagency.org/politics/cpp-welcomes-president-ahmadinejad-visit-to-ghana--59069|archive-date=12 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ghana welcomed Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">{{cite web|url=https://www.iafrica.tv/ghana-welcomed-irans-president-mahmoud-ahmadinejad/ |title=Ghana welcomed Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad |access-date=10 May 2014 |date=17 April 2013 |publisher=iafrica.tv |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512213620/https://www.iafrica.tv/ghana-welcomed-irans-president-mahmoud-ahmadinejad/ |archive-date=12 May 2014 }}</ref><ref name="President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/information/press-release/637-president-mahmoud-ahmadinejad-to-visit-ghana|title=President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad To Visit Ghana|access-date=10 May 2014|year=2013|publisher=Government of Ghana|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929200634/http://ghana.gov.gh/index.php/information/press-release/637-president-mahmoud-ahmadinejad-to-visit-ghana|archive-date=29 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Sustainable Development Goals and Ghana|Sustainable Development Goals in Ghana]] were integrated into Ghana's development agenda and the budget. The SDGs were said to have been implemented through the decentralized planning system. This allows stakeholders participations such as UN Agencies, traditional leaders, civil society organizations, academia, and others.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ghana .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/ghana|access-date=2020-09-21|website=sustainabledevelopment.un.org}}</ref> The [[Sustainable Development Goals|SDGs]] are a global call to action to end poverty among others. The goals are 17 in number and the [[United Nations|UN]] and its partners in the country are working towards achieving them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable Development Goals {{!}} United Nations in Ghana|url=https://ghana.un.org/en/sdgs|access-date=2020-09-21|website=ghana.un.org|language=en}}</ref>{{clear}} According to the president [[Nana Akufo-Addo]] of Ghana, Ghana was "the first [[sub-Saharan African]] country to achieve the goal of halving poverty, as contained in Goal 1 of the [[Millennium Development Goals]]"<ref>{{Cite news|title=SDGs implementation: Ghana will be a shinning example' – Akufo-Addo|language=en-gb|work=Graphic Online|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/sdgs-implementation-ghana-will-be-a-shinning-example-akufo-addo.html|access-date=2020-09-22}}</ref>
There are a number of [[United Nations|UN]] Entities in the country such as the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Global Compact for Migration|IOM]], [[UN-HABITAT]], [[UNAIDS]], [[United Nations Capital Development Fund|UNCDF]], [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]], [[UNESCO]], [[United Nations Population Fund|UNFPA]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], [[United Nations Information Centres|UNIC]], [[UNICEF]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|UNODC]], [[United Nations Office for Project Services|UNOPS]], [[World Food Programme|WFP]] and [[World Health Organization|WHO]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Contact Details {{!}} United Nations in Ghana|url=https://ghana.un.org/en/about/un-entities-in-country|access-date=2020-09-21|website=ghana.un.org|language=en}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Ghana Armed Forces}}

[[File:Ghana Airforce Reccep Tayyip Erdogan Honor Guard at Flagstaff House.jpg|thumb|[[Turkish President]] [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] inspects [[Guard of honour|Honour Guards]] mounted by the [[Ghana Air Force]] at the [[Jubilee House]] the Presidential Palace of Ghana in [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]] on 1 March 2016.]]
In 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured vehicles.<ref name="Canada's Military Assistance">Kilford, Christopher R. (2010), [http://qspace.library.queensu.ca/bitstream/1974/1876/1/Kilford_Chris_R_200905_PhD.pdf ''The Other Cold War: Canada's Military Assistance to the Developing World 1945–75''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020150101/http://qspace.library.queensu.ca/bitstream/1974/1876/1/Kilford_Chris_R_200905_PhD.pdf |date=20 October 2013 }}, [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]], Ontario: Canadian Defence Academy Press, p. 138, {{ISBN|1-100-14338-6}}.</ref> Ghanaian Prime Minister and President Kwame Nkrumah aimed at rapidly expanding the GAF to support the [[United States of Africa]] ambitions. Thus in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a [[Paratrooper|parachute]] [[Airborne forces|airborne unit]] originally raised in 1963.<ref>Baynham, Simon (1988), ''The Military and Politics in Nkumrah's Ghana'', Westview, Chapter 4, {{ISBN|0-8133-7063-9}}.</ref>

Today, Ghana is a [[regional power]] and [[regional hegemony|regional hegemon]].<ref name="South America and West Africa">{{cite book| first=Arie M. |last=Kacowicz |year=1998 |title=Zones of Peace in the Third World: South America and West Africa |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3957-9 |pages=144}}</ref> In his book ''[[Shake Hands with the Devil (book)|Shake Hands with the Devil]]'', [[Canadian Forces]] commander [[Roméo Dallaire]] highly rated the GAF soldiers and [[military personnel]].<ref name="Canada's Military Assistance"/>

The [[military operation]]s and [[military doctrine]] of the GAF are conceptualised on the [[Constitution of Ghana]], Ghana's Law on [[Armed Force]] [[Military Strategy]], and [[Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre]] (KAIPTC) agreements to which GAF is attestator.<ref name="Defence">{{cite news|url=http://www.mofep.gov.gh/?q=divisions/pbb/defence|title=Defence|work=[[Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (Ghana)|Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning]]|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201752/http://www.mofep.gov.gh/?q=divisions%2Fpbb%2Fdefence|archive-date=26 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ghana's Regional Security Policy">{{cite web |url=http://www.kaiptc.org/Publications/Occasional-Papers/Documents/no_20.aspx |title=Ghana's Regional Security Policy: Costs, Benefits and Consistency |page=33 |format=PDF |access-date=10 May 2014 |publisher=[[Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508150900/http://www.kaiptc.org/Publications/Occasional-Papers/Documents/no_20.aspx |archive-date=8 May 2014 }}</ref><ref name="KAIPTC">{{cite news |url=http://www.kaiptc.org/about-us/History.aspx |title=KAIPTC |work=[[Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre]] |access-date=10 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512214613/http://www.kaiptc.org/about-us/History.aspx |archive-date=12 May 2014 }}</ref> GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the [[Ministry of Defence (Ghana)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD) [[Minister for Defence (Ghana)|Minister for Defence]].<ref name="Defence"/><ref name="Vision & Mission">{{cite web|url=http://www.gaf.mil.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=67&Itemid=101|title=Vision and Mission of the Ministry of Defence (MoD)|access-date=10 May 2014|work=gaf.mil.gh|publisher=Ghana Armed Forces|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721032203/http://www.gaf.mil.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=67&Itemid=101|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref>

Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often considered to be one of the least violent countries in the region, Ghana has experienced political violence in the past and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend in incidents motivated by political grievances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acleddata.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ACLED_Conflict-Trends-Report_No.58-May-2017_pdf.pdf |title=Real-time Analysis of African Political Violence |date=May 2017 |publisher=Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613204214/http://www.acleddata.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ACLED_Conflict-Trends-Report_No.58-May-2017_pdf.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, Ghana signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |archive-date=6 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Law enforcement and police===
{{Further|Law enforcement in Ghana}}
[[File:Ghana Police Service Motorbikes.jpg|thumb| [[Militarized police]] Unit of the [[Ghana Police Service]] ]]

The [[Ghana Police Service]] (GPS) and the [[Criminal Investigation Department]] (CID) are the main law enforcement agencies of the Republic of Ghana, and are responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security.<ref name="MINT">{{cite web|title=The Ghana Police Service|url=http://www.mint.gov.gh/police.htm|publisher=mint.gov.gh|access-date=1 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512222320/http://www.mint.gov.gh/police.htm|archive-date=12 May 2014}}</ref> The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units including a [[Militarized police]] [[Rapid deployment force]] (RDF) and [[Ghana Police Service#Marine Police Unit|Marine Police]] Unit (MPU).<ref name="UNIT">{{cite web|title=Ghana Police Service sets up Marine Police Unit|url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/323575/1/ghana-police-service-sets-up-marine-police-unit.html|publisher=modernghana.com|access-date=1 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193158/http://www.modernghana.com/news/323575/1/ghana-police-service-sets-up-marine-police-unit.html|archive-date=2 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=POLICE/> The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the ten regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of [[Tema]], and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division.<ref name="POLICE">{{cite web|title=Police Administration|url=http://www.ghanapolice.info/regional.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130218115805/http://www.ghanapolice.info/regional.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 February 2013|publisher=ghanapolice.info|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref> The Ghana Police Service's [[Maritime police|Marine Police]] Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore [[oil and gas industry]].<ref name=POLICE/>

The [[Ghana Prisons Service]] and the sub-division [[Borstal Institute for Juveniles]] administers [[incarceration]] in Ghana.<ref name="Ghana Prisons Service General Information">{{cite web|title=Ghana Prisons Service General Information|url=http://www.ghanaprisons.gov.gh/page-content?page=43393a37-a28e-4f1c-8540-e8eaf28825e8&menu=29899081-5de7-4bd0-8656-6473ac6f2c3e|publisher=ghanaprisons.gov.gh|access-date=31 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024072237/http://www.ghanaprisons.gov.gh/page-content?page=43393a37-a28e-4f1c-8540-e8eaf28825e8&menu=29899081-5de7-4bd0-8656-6473ac6f2c3e|archive-date=24 October 2013}}</ref> Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide.<ref name="Ghana – Death Penalty">{{cite web|title=Ghana – Death Penalty|url=http://www.handsoffcain.info/bancadati/schedastato.php?idstato=17000446&idcontinente=25|publisher=handsoffcain.info|access-date=31 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020214250/http://www.handsoffcain.info/bancadati/schedastato.php?idstato=17000446&idcontinente=25|archive-date=20 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Criminal Code and Courts">{{cite web|title=Ghana Criminal Code and Courts|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5351.html|publisher=country-data.com|access-date=31 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515034443/http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5351.html|archive-date=15 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> 27 convicts (all men) were sentenced to death in Ghana in 2012 and the Ghana Prisons Service statistics of the total number of convicts sentenced to death in Ghana {{as of|2012|December|lc=y}} was 162 men and 4 women,<ref name="Ghana – Death Penalty"/> with a total prison inmate population of 13,983 convicts {{as of|2013|July|22|lc=y}}.<ref name="Ghana Prisons Service Inmate Statistics">{{cite web|title=Ghana Prisons Service Inmate Statistics|url=http://www.ghanaprisons.gov.gh/page-content?page=99e0e92e-7e71-4c20-a125-d69f052c7a47&menu=29899081-5de7-4bd0-8656-6473ac6f2c3e|publisher=ghanaprisons.gov.gh|access-date=31 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024072238/http://www.ghanaprisons.gov.gh/page-content?page=99e0e92e-7e71-4c20-a125-d69f052c7a47&menu=29899081-5de7-4bd0-8656-6473ac6f2c3e|archive-date=24 October 2013}}</ref> "The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels."<ref name="DIPNote: Promoting Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions in the Great Lakes">{{cite web|last1=Perriello|title=Promoting Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions in the Great Lakes|url=https://blogs.state.gov/stories/2015/10/01/promoting-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions-great-lakes|website=DIPNote|publisher=US Department of state|access-date=20 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520085847/https://blogs.state.gov/stories/2015/10/01/promoting-peace-justice-and-strong-institutions-great-lakes|archive-date=20 May 2016}}</ref>

{{clear}}

====Ghanaian drug war and the Narcotics Control Board====
[[File:Drugtrade.png|thumb|Ghana is among the sovereign states of West Africa used by [[drug cartel]]s and drug traffickers (shown in orange).]]

Ghana is used as a key [[narcotic]]s industry [[transshipment]] point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade"/> In 2013, the UN chief of the Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) stated that "West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from [[Colombia]] and [[Latin America]] have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe."<ref name="DW Made for minds: Illegal drug use on the rise in Africa">{{cite web|last1=Gerra|title=Illegal drug use on the rise in Africa|url=http://www.dw.com/en/illegal-drug-use-on-the-rise-in-africa/a-16614023|website=DW Made for minds|publisher=Deutsche Welle|access-date=20 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314035220/http://www.dw.com/en/illegal-drug-use-on-the-rise-in-africa/a-16614023|archive-date=14 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

There is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana itself, due to the industry's operations and involvement in the [[black market|underground economy]]. The social context within which [[narcotic trafficking]], storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the [[Gulf of Guinea]] within the Atlantic Ocean{{spaced ndash}}only a few degrees north of the [[Equator]]{{spaced ndash}}makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade">{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/news/world/other-world/ghana-hit-by-illegal-drug-trade-1.1236396 |title=Ghana hit by illegal drug trade |work=[[Gulf News]] |date=28 September 2013 |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212171614/http://gulfnews.com/news/world/other-world/ghana-hit-by-illegal-drug-trade-1.1236396 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ghana could be taken over by drug barons if">{{cite web|url=http://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2013/November-20th/ghana-could-be-taken-over-by-drug-barons-ifkwesi-aning.php|title=Ghana could be taken over by drug barons if|publisher=myjoyonline.com|date=20 November 2013|access-date=4 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210062520/http://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2013/November-20th/ghana-could-be-taken-over-by-drug-barons-ifkwesi-aning.php|archive-date=10 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Narcotics Control Board (Ghana)|Narcotics Control Board]] (NACOB) has impounded [[container ship]]s at the Sekondi Naval Base in the [[Takoradi Harbour]]. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of [[Ghana cedi]]s. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade"/><ref name="Ghana could be taken over by drug barons if"/>

[[Drug cartel]]s are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics [[exportation]], to avoid Ghanaian security agencies.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade"/><ref name="Ghana could be taken over by drug barons if"/> Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established [[smuggling]] organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade"/><ref name="Ghana could be taken over by drug barons if"/> [[John Atta Mills]], president between 2009 and 2012, initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.<ref name="Ghana hit by illegal drug trade"/>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Ghana}}

Ghana is divided into 16 [[Administrative division|administrative]] regions, sub-divided into 275 districts:<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ghanadistricts.gov.gh/news/?read=46975 | title=SOCIAL:EC has done no wrong – Dr Afari-Gyan | publisher=Ghana News Agengy | access-date=13 March 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223809/http://ghanadistricts.gov.gh/news/?read=46975 | archive-date=12 May 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2013/october-29th/mps-demand-247-police-security-for-275-members.php |title=MPs demand 24/7 police security for 275 members |publisher=myjoyonline.com |access-date=13 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512214239/http://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2013/october-29th/mps-demand-247-police-security-for-275-members.php |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/ |title=All Districts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031082356/http://ghanadistricts.com/districts/ |archive-date=31 October 2013 |website=GhanaDistricts.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/Ghana-Cities.html |title=Ghana: Regions, Major Cities & Urban Localities – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts |website=City Population|access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref>
<div style="overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable"
|-
![[Regions of Ghana]]
!Area (km2)
!Regional capitals
!
|-
|[[Ahafo Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|5,193
|[[Goaso]]
| rowspan="16" | [[File:Ghana, administrative divisions 2018 - de - colored.svg|frameless|Regions of Ghana from February 2019]]
|-
|[[Ashanti Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|24,389
|[[Kumasi]]
|-
|[[Brong-Ahafo Region|Bono Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|11,107
|[[Sunyani]]
|-
|[[Bono East Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|23,257
|[[Techiman]]
|-
|[[Central Region (Ghana)|Central Region]]
|style="text-align:right;|9,826
|[[Cape Coast]]
|-
|[[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|19,323
|[[Koforidua]]
|-
|[[Greater Accra Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|3,245
|[[Accra]]
|-
|[[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|25,448
|[[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]
|-
|[[North East Region, Ghana|North East Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|9,074
|[[Nalerigu]]
|-
|[[Oti Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|11,066
|[[Dambai]]
|-
|[[Savannah Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|35,862
|[[Damongo]]
|-
|[[Upper East Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|8,842
|[[Bolgatanga]]
|-
|[[Upper West Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|18,476
|[[Wa, Ghana|Wa]]
|-
|[[Volta Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|9,504
|[[Ho, Ghana|Ho]]
|-
|[[Western Region, Ghana|Western Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|13,847
|[[Sekondi-Takoradi]]
|-
|[[Western North Region]]
|style="text-align:right;"|10,074
|[[Wiawso]]
|}
</div>

===Human rights===
{{See also|Human rights in Ghana|LGBT rights in Ghana}}
[[Homosexuality|Homosexual acts]] are prohibited by law in Ghana.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death |work=The Washington Post |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=19 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |archive-date=11 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to 2013 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]], 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.<ref name="pewglobal.org">[http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ "The Global Divide on Homosexuality."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103034522/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ |date=3 November 2013 }} ''[[Pew Research Center]]''. 4 June 2013.</ref> Sometimes old [[women in Ghana]] are accused of [[witchcraft]], particularly in rural Ghana. Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families. In some parts of northern Ghana, there exists what are called [[witch camp]]s. This is said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft.<ref name="Camps"/> The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps.<ref name="Camps">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19437130 | title=Ghana witch camps: Widows' lives in exile | publisher=BBC | date=1 September 2012 | access-date=21 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020122329/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19437130 | archive-date=20 October 2018 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

While [[women in Ghana]] are given equal rights under the constitution of Ghana, disparities in education, employment, and healthcare for women remain prevalent.

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Ghana|New media in Ghana|Manufacturing in Ghana#Automobile manufacturing|l3=Automobile manufacturing in Ghana}}

===Key sectors===
[[File:Ghana Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Ghana exports, 2019]]
[[File:Ghana Export Trends.jpg|thumb|right|Ghana petroleum and [[Commodity|commodities]]; exports in [[percentage]].]]

Ghana is an average [[natural resource]] enriched country possessing [[industrial mineral]]s, [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[precious metal]]s. It is an emerging designated [[digital economy]] with [[mixed economy]] hybridisation and an [[emerging markets|emerging market]]. It has an [[economic plan]] target known as the "Ghana Vision 2020". This plan envisions Ghana as the first African country to become a [[developed country]] between 2020 and 2029 and a [[newly industrialised country]] between 2030 and 2039.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ghana|url=https://www.vizocom.com/internet/ghana/|website=Vizocom – Satellite Internet and VSAT Solutions|language=en|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> This excludes fellow [[Group of 24]] member and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n country South Africa, which is a [[newly industrialised country]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/mobile/?articleID=2000065384&story_title= |title=Is Ghana the next African economic tiger? |publisher=standardmedia.co.ke |date=4 September 2012 |access-date=5 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403174443/http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/mobile/?articleID=2000065384&story_title= |archive-date=3 April 2015}}</ref> Ghana's economy also has ties to the [[Renminbi|Chinese yuan renminbi]] along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, the [[Bank of Ghana]] began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as [[hard currency]] along with the national [[Ghana cedi]] for second national trade currency.<ref name="BoG introduce Chinese Yuan onto the FX market">{{cite web|url=http://www.radioxyzonline.com/edition/pages/business/09172013-1152/14785.stm |title=BoG introduce Chinese Yuan onto the FX market |publisher=[[Bank of Ghana]] |year=2013 |access-date=22 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926191724/http://www.radioxyzonline.com/edition/pages/business/09172013-1152/14785.stm |archive-date=26 September 2013}}</ref>
Between 2012 and 2013, 37.9 percent of rural dwellers were experiencing poverty whereas only 10.6 percent of urban dwellers were.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2014/08/15/ghanas-request-for-imf-assistance/|title=Ghana's Request for IMF Assistance|first=Temesgen Deressa and Amadou|last=Sy|access-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613160601/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2014/08/15/ghanas-request-for-imf-assistance/|archive-date=13 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Urban areas hold greater opportunity for employment, particularly in informal trade, while nearly all (94 percent) of rural poor households participate in the agricultural sector.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.oecd.org/agriculture/agricultural-policies/46341169.pdf |title=Economic Importance of Agriculture for Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction: Findings from a Case Study of Ghana |first=Xinshen |last=Diao |conference=Global Forum on Agriculture 29–30 November 2010 – Policies for Agricultural Development, Poverty Reduction and Food Security |location=Paris |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618215948/http://www.oecd.org/agriculture/agricultural-policies/46341169.pdf |archive-date=18 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The state-owned [[Volta River Authority]] and [[Ghana National Petroleum Corporation]] are the two major electricity producers.<ref name="Ghana – Gross Domestic Product"/> The [[Akosombo Dam]], built on the Volta River in 1965, along with [[Bui Dam]], [[Kpong Dam]], and several other [[hydroelectric dam]]s provide hydropower.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/rr171.pdf|title=A new era of transformation in Ghana|publisher=ifpri.org|access-date=16 February 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120409195949/http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/rr171.pdf|archive-date=9 April 2012}}{{rp|12}}</ref><ref name="New fuel for faster development">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldfolio.co.uk/region/africa/ghana/president-john-atta-mills-n145|title=New fuel for faster development|publisher=worldfolio.co.uk|access-date=31 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624100025/http://www.worldfolio.co.uk/region/africa/ghana/president-john-atta-mills-n145|archive-date=24 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition, the Government of Ghana has sought to [[nuclear energy in Ghana|build the second nuclear power plant in Africa]].

The [[Ghana Stock Exchange]] is the 5th largest on continental Africa and 3rd largest in sub-saharan Africa with a [[market capitalisation]] of [[Ghana Cedi|GH¢]] 57.2 billion or [[Renminbi|CN¥]] 180.4 billion in 2012 with the South Africa [[JSE Limited]] as first.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icbuk.com/images/uploads/ICBUKGhanaReportSeptember2011.pdf |title=Ghana Market Update |publisher=[[Intercontinental Bank]] |access-date=26 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704014602/http://www.icbuk.com/images/uploads/ICBUKGhanaReportSeptember2011.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2012 }}{{rp|13}}</ref> The [[Ghana Stock Exchange]] (GSE) was the 2nd best performing [[stock exchange]] in sub-saharan Africa in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africastrictlybusiness.com/lists/top-performing-african-stock-markets-2013|title=Top-Performing African Stock Markets in 2013|publisher=africastrictlybusiness.com|year=2013|access-date=20 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321014630/http://www.africastrictlybusiness.com/lists/top-performing-african-stock-markets-2013|archive-date=21 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Ghana also produces high-quality [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]].<ref name="Ghana Entering A Sweet, Golden Era">{{cite web|url=http://africanbusinessmagazine.com/special-reports/country-reports/ghana-celebrates/is-ghana-entering-a-sweet-golden-era|title=Is Ghana Entering A Sweet, Golden Era?|work=[[African Business]]|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718204528/http://africanbusinessmagazine.com/special-reports/country-reports/ghana-celebrates/is-ghana-entering-a-sweet-golden-era|archive-date=18 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> It is the 2nd largest producer of cocoa globally,<ref name="Ghana Entering A Sweet, Golden Era"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jedwab|first1=Rémi|last2=Moradi|first2=Alexander|year=2012|title=Revolutionizing Transport: Modern Infrastructure, Agriculture and Development in Ghana|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/42263/|publisher=[[London School of Economics]]|access-date=15 June 2013|quote=Two railway lines were built between 1901 and 1923 to connect the coast to mining areas and the large hinterland city of Kumasi. This unintendedly opened vast expanses of tropical forest to cocoa cultivation, allowing Ghana to become the world's largest producer.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510114118/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/42263/|archive-date=10 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> and was projected to become the world's largest producer of cocoa in 2015.<ref name="Ghana will reclaim top spot in cocoa production">{{cite web|url=https://graphic.com.gh/archive/General-News/ghana-will-reclaim-top-spot-in-cocoa-production-prez-mahama.html |title=Ghana will reclaim top spot in cocoa production -Prez Mahama |work=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]] |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=16 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302131433/http://graphic.com.gh/archive/General-News/ghana-will-reclaim-top-spot-in-cocoa-production-prez-mahama.html |archive-date= 2 March 2014 }}</ref>

Ghana is classified as a middle income country.<ref name=IMF/><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.icbuk.com/images/uploads/ICBUKGhanaReportSeptember2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704014602/http://www.icbuk.com/images/uploads/ICBUKGhanaReportSeptember2011.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2012|title=Ghana Market Update|author= Forrest, Paul|work=icbuk.com|publisher=[[Intercontinental Bank]]|date=September 2011|access-date=26 March 2012|page=13}}</ref> [[Tertiary sector of industry|Services]] account for 50% of GDP, followed by [[secondary sector of industry|manufacturing]] (24.1%), [[primary sector of industry|extractive industries]] (5%), and taxes (20.9%).<ref name="Ghana – Gross Domestic Product"/>

Ghana announced plans to issue government debt by way of social and green bonds in Autumn 2021, making it the first African country to do so.{{citation needed|date=July 2021|reason=these are not direct links to the Bloomberg articles}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-25/ghana-to-sell-sustainable-bonds-for-up-to-1-billion-by-july-kp3rq0p1|access-date=2021-07-05|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-05/ghana-mulls-africa-s-first-social-bonds-with-2-billion-sale|access-date=2021-07-05|website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> The country, which is planning to borrow up to $5 billion on international markets this year, would use the proceeds from these sustainable bonds to refinance debt used for social and environmental projects and pay for educational or health. Only a few other nations have sold them so far, including [[Chile]] and [[Ecuador]]. The country will use the proceeds to forge ahead with a free secondary-school initiative started in 2017 among other programs, despite having recorded its lowest economic growth rate in 37 years in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ghana plans to issue Africa's first social bonds with $2B sale|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/7/5/ghana-plans-to-issue-africas-first-social-bonds-with-2b-sale|access-date=2021-07-06|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

===Manufacturing===
The Ghana economy is an emerging digital-based mixed economy hybrid with an increasing primary manufacturing and export of digital technology goods along with assembling and exporting automobiles and ships, diverse resource rich exportation of [[industrial mineral]]s, agricultural products primarily cocoa, petroleum and natural gas,<ref name="Ghana's Jubilee oil field nears output plateau -operator">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0DA59S20130423?irpc=932|work=[[Reuters]]|title=Ghana's Jubilee oil field nears output plateau -operator|access-date=31 May 2013}}</ref> and [[Private industry|industries]] such as [[information and communications technology]] primarily via Ghana's state digital technology corporation [[Rlg Communications]] which manufactures [[tablet computer]]s with [[smartphone]]s and various [[consumer electronics]].<ref name="Ghana – Gross Domestic Product">{{cite web|title=Ghana – Gross Domestic Product|url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/GDP/revised_gdp_2011_april-2012.pdf|publisher=statsghana.gov.gh|access-date=13 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417045744/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/GDP/revised_gdp_2011_april-2012.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="The Top 5 Countries for ICT in Africa">{{cite web|url=http://www.ictworks.org/2012/03/26/top-5-countries-ict4d-africa-are-kenya-ghana-nigeria-tanzania-and/|title=The Top 5 Countries for ICT4D in Africa|publisher=ictworks.org|access-date=3 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614035416/http://www.ictworks.org/2012/03/26/top-5-countries-ict4d-africa-are-kenya-ghana-nigeria-tanzania-and/|archive-date=14 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Urban car|Urban]] [[electric car]]s have been manufactured in Ghana since 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ghana's model vehicle unveiled by Suame Magazine artisans |author=Kofi Adu Domfeh |url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/458333/1/ghanas-model-vehicle-unveiled-by-suame-magazine-ar.html |publisher=Modernghana.com |date=13 April 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ghana's model car attracts Dutch government support |url=http://business.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201307/109474.php |publisher=Myjoyonline.gh |date=15 July 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923084526/http://business.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201307/109474.php |archive-date=23 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Petroleum and natural gas production===
[[File:Jubilee Oil Field of the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) and National Petroleum Authority.png|thumb|right|[[Jubilee oil field]] of the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) and [[National Petroleum Authority]] located off the coast of the [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western Region]] in Ghana in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].]]

Ghana produces and exports an abundance of [[hydrocarbon]]s such as [[sweet crude oil]] and [[natural gas]].<ref name="Five Countries to Watch">{{cite web|url=http://www.individual.troweprice.com/public/Retail/Planning-&-Research/Connections/Africa/Global-Economy-African-Countries-Growth |title=Five Countries to Watch |work=individual.troweprice.com |access-date=27 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412023853/http://individual.troweprice.com/public/Retail/Planning-%26-Research/Connections/Africa/Global-Economy-African-Countries-Growth |archive-date=12 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aluworks.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63&Itemid=60&734e1554a786d82e908c7c85044123c2=746b376516a36724613692ecab763f6f |title=Africa |publisher=Aluworks.com |access-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903210059/http://www.aluworks.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=63&Itemid=60&734e1554a786d82e908c7c85044123c2=746b376516a36724613692ecab763f6f |archive-date=3 September 2011 }}</ref> The 100% state-owned [[filling station]] company of Ghana, [[Ghana Oil Company]] (GOIL) is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station of Ghana and the 100% state-owned state oil company [[Ghana National Petroleum Corporation]] (GNPC) oversees [[hydrocarbon exploration]] and production of Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves. Ghana aims to further increase output of oil to {{convert|2.2|e6oilbbl}} per day and gas to {{convert|1.2|e9cuft|m3|order=flip}} per day.<ref name="cs2">Clark, Nancy L. "Petroleum Exploration". ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html A Country Study: Ghana] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120713070609/lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html |date=13 July 2012 }}'' (La Verle Berry, editor). [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (November 1994). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].'' [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html Lcweb2.loc.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120710004153/lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html |date=10 July 2012 }}.</ref>

Ghana's [[Jubilee oil field|Jubilee Oilfield]] which contains up to {{convert|3|Goilbbl|m3}} of [[sweet crude oil]] was discovered in 2007, among the many other offshore and inland oilfields in Ghana.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20071222/ap_on_re_af/ghana_oil_discovery_3|title=Ghana leader: Oil reserves at 3B barrels|work=Yahoo News|date=22 December 2007|access-date=21 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226200944/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20071222/ap_on_re_af/ghana_oil_discovery_3|archive-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Ghana is believed to have up to {{convert|5|Goilbbl|m3}} to {{convert|7|Goilbbl|m3}} of petroleum in reserves,<ref>McLure, Jason. [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-01/ghana-oil-reserves-to-be-5-billion-barrels-in-5-years-as-fields-develop.html Ghana Oil Reserves to Be {{convert|5|Goilbbl|m3}} in 5 years as fields develop] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191618/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-01/ghana-oil-reserves-to-be-5-billion-barrels-in-5-years-as-fields-develop.html |date=29 October 2013 }}. [[Bloomberg Television]], 1 December 2010.</ref> which is the fifth largest in Africa and the 21st to 25th [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|largest proven reserves]] in the world. It also has up to {{convert|6|e12cuft|m3|order=flip}} of natural gas in reserves,<ref name="Atuabo gas project to propel more growth">{{cite web |url=https://graphic.com.gh/archive/Business-News/atuabo-gas-project-to-propel-more-growth.html |title=Atuabo gas project to propel more growth |first= Moses Dotsey|last= Aklorbortu|work=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]] |date=13 May 2013 |access-date=27 October 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140503021413/http://graphic.com.gh/archive/Business-News/atuabo-gas-project-to-propel-more-growth.html |archive-date=3 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which is the sixth largest in Africa and the 49th [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|largest natural gas proven reserves]] in the world. [[Oil and gas exploration]] off Ghana's eastern coast on the Gulf of Guinea is ongoing, and the amount of both crude oil and natural gas continues to increase. The [[Government of Ghana]] has drawn up plans to [[Nationalization|nationalise]] Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201304291808.html/?maneref=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fm%3Fq%3DGhana%2520privatise%2520mining%26client%3Dms-opera-mobile%26channel%3Dnew|title=Ghana: Why Privatise Ghana Oil?|publisher=allafrica.com|access-date=22 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929015429/http://allafrica.com/stories/201304291808.html/?maneref=http%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252Fm%253Fq%253DGhana%252520privatise%252520mining%2526client%253Dms-opera-mobile%2526channel%253Dnew|archive-date=29 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Confusing|date=October 2020}}

===Industrial minerals mining===
{{main|Mining industry of Ghana}}
Known for its [[industrial mineral]]s, Ghana is the world's 7th largest producer of gold, producing 130 [[metric ton]]s in 2019,<ref name="CEIC">{{cite web|title=Ghana Gold Production |website=CEIC Data |url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/ghana/gold-production|access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref> and is now the largest producer in [[Africa]] ahead of South Africa.<ref name=CEIC/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/18245/ghana-now-africas-largest-gold-producer-but-reforms-await/|title=Ghana now Africa's largest gold producer, but reforms await|author=Whitehouse, David|date=8 October 2019|work=The Africa Report|access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref> Ghana has the 9th largest reserves and the 9th largest production rate of diamonds in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ghana|url=https://eiti.org/ghana|access-date=2021-07-06|website=Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative}}</ref> [[Industrial mineral]]s and exports from South Ghana include gold, silver, timber, diamonds, [[bauxite]], and [[manganese]]. South Ghana also has mineral deposits of [[barite]], [[basalt]], [[Clay minerals|clay]], [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]], [[feldspar]], [[granite]], [[gravel]], [[gypsum]], iron ore, [[kaolin]], [[laterite]], [[limestone]], [[magnesite]], [[marble]], [[mica]], [[phosphate]]s, [[phosphorus]], [[Rock (geology)|rocks]], salts, [[sand]], [[sandstone]], silver, [[slate]], [[talc]], and [[uranium]] that are yet to be fully [[Exploitation of natural resources|exploited]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U49Q8BgiarkC&q=Ghana%20minerals%20granite&pg=PA70|title=Ghana Mineral and Mining Sector Investment and Business Guide|work=Ibpus.com|access-date=16 May 2014|isbn=978-1-4330-1775-9|last1=Publications|first1=U.S.A. International Business|date=7 February 2007}}</ref> The Government of Ghana has drawn up plans to [[Nationalization|nationalize]] Ghana's entire mining industry to increase government revenues.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U49Q8BgiarkC&pg=PA70|title=Ghana Mineral and Mining Sector Investment and Business Guide|work=Ibpus.com|publisher=International Business Publications|access-date=24 June 2013|isbn=978-1-4330-1775-9|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanalegal.com/?id=3&law=535&t=ghana-laws|title=Ghana Minerals and Mining Act|publisher=ghanalegal.com|access-date=16 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021012648/http://www.ghanalegal.com/?id=3&law=535&t=ghana-laws|archive-date=21 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Ghana}}
[[File:Surfers Surfing at Busua Beach in Western region, Ghana.jpg|thumb|[[Surfer]]s [[surfing]] and [[big wave surfing]] at [[Busua Beach]] in [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western region]]<ref name="11 of the world's most unusual surf spots"/>]]

In 2011, 1,087,000 tourists visited Ghana.<ref name="WAO">{{cite web|work=Ministry of Tourism Ghana|publisher=ghana.gov.gh|url=http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/5885-we-are-serious-about-overcoming-the-challenges-confronting-tourism-development|title=We Are Serious About Overcoming The Challenges Confronting Tourism Development|access-date=14 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718223300/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/5885-we-are-serious-about-overcoming-the-challenges-confronting-tourism-development|archive-date=18 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Tourist arrivals to Ghana include South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans.<ref name="Trade Expo International Ghana"/> The attractions and major tourist destinations of Ghana include a warm, tropical climate year-round, diverse wildlife, waterfalls such as [[Kintampo waterfalls]] and the largest waterfall in west Africa, [[Wli waterfalls]], Ghana's coastal palm-lined sandy beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes such as [[Lake Bosumtwi]] and the largest man-made lake in the world by surface area, [[Lake Volta]], dozens of [[List of castles in Ghana|forts and castles]], [[World Heritage Site]]s, nature reserves and national parks.<ref name="Trade Expo International Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://www.uniquetrustex.com/node/162/177/?ex=trade-expo-international-ghana&nid=162 |title=Trade Expo International Ghana |publisher=uniquetrustex.com |access-date=14 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501221713/http://www.uniquetrustex.com/node/162/177/?ex=trade-expo-international-ghana&nid=162 |archive-date=1 May 2013}}</ref> In addition to the beautiful natural reserves which serve as tourist sites, there are some [[castle]]s in Ghana that serve as tourist sites and attract many [[Tourism|tourists]] from all over the world. Some of the notable castles are [[Cape Coast Castle Museum|Cape Coast Castle]] and the [[Elmina Castle]] all in the Central region of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Ghana {{!}} Forts and Castles in Ghana|url=https://visitghana.com/attractions/all-forts-and-castles/|access-date=2020-09-12|website=Visit Ghana|language=en-US}}</ref> Not only are the castles important for tourism, they also mark where blood was shed in the slave trade and preserve and promote the African heritage stolen and destroyed through the slave trade.<ref name="Centre">{{Cite web|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|title=Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/34/|access-date=2020-09-12|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> As a result of this, the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO named Ghana's castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments.<ref name="Centre"/>

The [[World Economic Forum]] statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favorite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries.<ref name="RANK">{{cite web|title=Forbes: Ghana is eleventh friendliest nation|url=http://vibeghana.com/2011/03/20/forbes-ghana-is-eleventh-friendliest-nation/|publisher=vibeghana.com|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728071955/http://vibeghana.com/2011/03/20/forbes-ghana-is-eleventh-friendliest-nation/|archive-date=28 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011, ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine, published that Ghana was ranked the eleventh most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest.<ref name=RANK/> Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country.<ref name=RANK/> In 2017, Ghana ranks as the [[Global Peace Index|43rd–most peaceful country]] in the world.<ref name="About the Global Peace Index">{{cite web|url=http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Peace%20Index%20Report%202015_0.pdf |title=About the Global Peace Index |publisher=Vision of Humanity |year=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006145259/http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Peace%20Index%20Report%202015_0.pdf |archive-date= 6 October 2015 }}</ref>

A growing tourist attraction in Ghana is [[surfing]]. Up and down the coastline, several spots have been identified and cultivated by locals and internationals alike. Renowned surfers have made trips to the country to sample the waves. Suitable for beginners and seasoned surfers alike, there is a quality and consistency to the waves to suit all levels of skill. It is not unusual now to see surfers carrying their boards amid traditional Ghanaian [[Traditional fishing boat|fishing vessels]]. [[Busua]], [[Kokrobite]], and Muuston boast some of the country's best surf in warm, tropical waters.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Saxena|first=Kanika|date=2018-12-21|title=Wish To Experience The Thrill Of Surfing in Ghana? Here's Where You Should Go!|url=https://traveltriangle.com/blog/surfing-in-ghana/|access-date=2021-05-21|language=en-us}}</ref>

To enter Ghana, it is necessary to have a visa authorized by the [[Government of Ghana]]. Travellers must apply for this visa at a Ghanaian embassy; this process can take approximately two weeks. By law, visitors entering Ghana must be able to produce a yellow fever vaccination certificate.<ref name="travel">{{cite web|title=Travel Advice|url=http://www.africa.com/ghana/travel/getting-around/|publisher=Africa.com|access-date=16 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109144415/http://www.africa.com/ghana/travel/getting-around/|archive-date=9 January 2015}}</ref>

According to Destination Pride<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/life/travel/tools-to-help-the-lgbtq-community-travel-more-safely-1.4539293|title=Tools to help the LGBTQ community travel more safely|date=16 February 2018|first=Ryan E. |last=Thompson |work=CBC Life |language=en|access-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718062412/https://www.cbc.ca/life/travel/tools-to-help-the-lgbtq-community-travel-more-safely-1.4539293|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> – a data-driven search platform used to visualize the world's LGBTQ+ laws, rights and social sentiment – Ghana's Pride score is 22 (out of 100).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://destinationpride.org/destination/ghana|title=I'm sharing Ghana's Destination Pride Flag. What does your country score?|website=Destination Pride|language=en|access-date=14 March 2019}}</ref>

===Real estate===
[[File:Luxury Villa House (South Ghana).jpg|thumb|A [[villa]] in [[East Ridge, Accra|East Ridge]]]]

The real estate and [[housing market]] of Ghana has become an important and strategic [[economic sector]], particularly in the [[urban centre]]s of south Ghana such as Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema.<ref name="Economic Update"/><ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://orelghana.com/realestateinghana/|title=Real Estate Market in Ghana|publisher=orelghana.com|date=23 July 2012|access-date=25 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702190939/http://orelghana.com/realestateinghana/|archive-date=2 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Property market faces brighter growth prospects">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanabizmedia.com/ghanabizmedia/june-2011-real-estate/325-property-market-faces-brighter-growth-prospects.html|title=Property market faces brighter growth prospects|publisher=ghanabizmedia.com|access-date=25 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713072140/http://www.ghanabizmedia.com/ghanabizmedia/june-2011-real-estate/325-property-market-faces-brighter-growth-prospects.html|archive-date=13 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, many of its citizens particularly those in Accra cannot afford the housing prices which is a trait of most major cities globally particularly in the West. Kumasi is growing at a faster rate than Accra, and there is less competition in its real estate market.<ref name="Economic Update"/> The gross rental [[income tax]] of Ghana is withheld at 10%, [[capital gain]]s are taxed at 15% with a 5% [[gift tax]] imposed on the transfer of properties and Ghana's [[real estate market]] is divided into 3 areas: public sector real estate development, emerging private sector real estate development, and private individuals.<ref name="Economic Update"/><ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana"/> The activities of these 3 groups are facilitated by the Ghanaian banks and the primary mortgage market which has demonstrated enormous growth potential.<ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana"/> Recent developments in the Ghanaian economy has given birth to a boom in the construction sector, including the housing and public housing sector generating and injecting billions of dollars annually into the Ghanaian economy.<ref name="Economic Update"/><ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana"/> The real estate market investment perspective and attraction comes from Ghana's tropical location and robust political stability.<ref name="Economic Update"/><ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana"/> An increasing number of the Ghanaian populace are investing in properties and the Ghana government is empowering the [[private sector]] in
the real estate direction.<ref name="Economic Update">{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/ghana-private-opportunities-real-estate|title=Economic Update – Ghana: Private opportunities in real estate|publisher=oxfordbusinessgroup.com|date=12 April 2012|access-date=25 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522164834/http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/ghana-private-opportunities-real-estate|archive-date=22 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Real Estate Market in Ghana"/>

===Trade and exports===
[[File:Ghana economy treemap.png|thumb|Ghana Export Treemap by Product (2017) from Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/83/export-basket|title=Ghana Export Basket in ⁨2017 – The Atlas of Economic Complexity|website=atlas.cid.harvard.edu|access-date=28 September 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928215548/http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/countries/83/export-basket|archive-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>]]

In July 2013, [[International Enterprise Singapore]] opened its 38th global office in Accra, to develop trade and investment on logistics, [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]], [[aviation]], [[transport]]ation and consumer sectors.<ref name="IE Singapore opens office in Ghana"/> Singapore and Ghana also signed four bilateral agreements to promote [[public sector]] and [[private sector]] collaboration, as Ghana aims to predominantly shift its economic trade partnership to East Asia and Southeast Asia.<ref name="IE Singapore opens office in Ghana"/> The economic centre is [[International Enterprise Singapore|IE Singapore]]'s second office in Africa, coming six months after opening in Johannesburg, South Africa in January 2013.<ref name="IE Singapore opens office in Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://business.asiaone.com/news/ie-spore-opens-second-africa-office-ghana|title=IE S'pore opens second Africa office in Ghana|work=business.asiaone.com|publisher=[[AsiaOne]]|date=27 July 2013|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512215209/http://business.asiaone.com/news/ie-spore-opens-second-africa-office-ghana|archive-date=12 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ghana's labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million Ghanaian citizens.<ref name="afdb">{{cite web |url=https://africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/akl/sites/africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/files/report/Annexes%20for%20Ghana%20Education.pdf |title=Annex 1: Political and Administrative System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501234849/https://africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/akl/sites/africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/files/report/Annexes%20for%20Ghana%20Education.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2012 |publisher=World Bank |access-date=29 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/GHANA%20CSP%20DRAFT%20FOR%20COMMENTS.pdf|title=Republic of Ghana Country Strategy Paper 2012–2016|publisher=afdb.org|access-date=31 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228085814/http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/GHANA%20CSP%20DRAFT%20FOR%20COMMENTS.pdf|archive-date=28 February 2013|url-status=live}}{{rp|12–40}}</ref> [[Tema Harbour]] is Africa's largest {{linktext|manmade}} harbour and [[Takoradi Harbour]] along with Tema harbour in Ghana handles goods and exports for Ghana. They are also traffic junctions where goods are transhipped; the Tema harbour handles the majority of the nation's export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Takoradi harbour.<ref name="GPHA-Sekond-Takoradi"/><ref name="GPHA-Tema"/> The Takoradi harbour and Tema harbour are operated by the state-owned [[Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority]].<ref name="GPHA-Sekond-Takoradi">{{cite web |url=http://ghanaports.gov.gh/tr/default |website=Ghana Ports & Harbours Authority |title=Port of Takoradi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228112618/http://ghanaports.gov.gh/tr/default |archive-date=28 February 2014 |access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="GPHA-Tema">{{cite web |url=http://ghanaports.gov.gh/tm/default |website=Ghana Ports & Harbours Authority |title=Port of Tema |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228113034/http://ghanaports.gov.gh/tm/default |archive-date=28 February 2014 |access-date=1 January 2012}}</ref>

===Electricity generation sector===
{{Main|Electricity sector in Ghana}}

Severe shortages of electricity in 2015 & 2016 led to [[dumsor]] (persistent, irregular and unpredictable electric power outages),<ref name="germany">{{cite web|url=http://graphic.com.gh/news/politics/37330-i-ve-been-named-mr-dumsor-in-ghana-prez-mahama-tells-ghanaians-in-germany.html|title=I've been named 'Mr Dumsor' in Ghana – Prez Mahama tells Ghanaians in Germany – See more at|date=21 January 2015|website=Graphic Online|publisher=Graphic Communications Group Ltd (GCGL)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424025905/http://www.graphic.com.gh/news/politics/37330-i-ve-been-named-mr-dumsor-in-ghana-prez-mahama-tells-ghanaians-in-germany.html|archive-date=24 April 2015|access-date=2 March 2015}}</ref> increasing the interest in renewables.<ref name="graphic1">{{cite web|url=http://graphic.com.gh/features/features/21105-ghana-s-power-crisis-what-about-renewable-energy.html|title=Ghana's power crisis: What about renewable energy?|publisher=graphic.com.gh|date=10 April 2014|access-date=8 February 2015|author=Agbenyega, E.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701211205/http://graphic.com.gh/features/features/21105-ghana-s-power-crisis-what-about-renewable-energy.html|archive-date=1 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2019, there is now a surplus of electricity which now presents a new set of financial challenges.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/lessons-to-be-learnt-from-ghanas-excess-electricity-shambles-121257|title=Lessons to be learnt from Ghana's excess electricity shambles|last=Sarkodie|first=Samuel Asumadu|website=The Conversation|language=en|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref>

===Economic transparency===
According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2018, out of 180 countries, Ghana was ranked 78th, with a score of 41 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.<ref>{{cite web |title=OUR WORK IN Ghana |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/ghana |website=Transparency.org |publisher=Transparency International |language=en}}</ref>

In 2013, out of 177 countries, Ghana was ranked 63rd with [[Cuba]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] with a score of 46.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2013|url=https://issuu.com/transparencyinternational/docs/cpi2013_brochure_single_pages?e=2496456/5813913|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202175813/http://issuu.com/transparencyinternational/docs/cpi2013_brochure_single_pages?e=2496456%2F5813913|archive-date=2 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Previously in 2012, the country ranked 64 and scored 45. Thus, Ghana's public sector scored lower in 2013 than in 2012, according to CPI's scores.

Local reports have claimed that Ghana loses US$4.5 billion annually from [[Nominal GDP|nominal gross domestic product]] (Nominal GDP) growth as a result of economic corruption and economic crime by the incumbent [[National Democratic Congress (Ghana)|National Democratic Congress]] (NDC) [[government of Ghana]] led by [[John Dramani Mahama]].<ref name="Ghana Loses $4b Annually To Corruption">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessguideghana.com/?p=4781|title=Ghana Loses $4b Annually To Corruption|publisher=businessguideghana.com|access-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131204022555/http://www.businessguideghana.com/?p=4781|archive-date=4 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also said Ghana has lost an additional US$2.5 billion from [[Nominal GDP|nominal gross domestic product]] (Nominal GDP) growth between the months of January 2013 to October 2013 through economic corrupt practices under the [[List of Mahama government ministers|Mahama administration]].<ref name="Impeach Mahama">{{cite web|url=http://www.vibeghana.com/2013/10/30/impeach-mahama-over-gyeeda-subah-scandals-group/|title=Impeach Mahama over GYEEDA, SUBAH scandals – Group|publisher=vibeghana.com|date=30 October 2013|access-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212051105/http://vibeghana.com/2013/10/30/impeach-mahama-over-gyeeda-subah-scandals-group/|archive-date=12 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

The incumbent president is however seen to be fighting corruption by some government members,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mahama more committed to fighting corruption than any past president – Apaak|url=http://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2013/December-11th/mahama-more-committed-to-fighting-corruption-than-any-past-president-apaak.php|publisher=My Joy Online|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119025958/http://www.myjoyonline.com/politics/2013/December-11th/mahama-more-committed-to-fighting-corruption-than-any-past-president-apaak.php|archive-date=19 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and a fellow politician of an opposition party,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mahama committed to fighting corruption – Mornah|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=298265|publisher=GhanaWeb|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201212013/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=298265|archive-date=1 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> after ordering investigations into scandals. Nonetheless others believe his actions are not sufficient in some cases.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mahama Fighting Corruption? NO ACTION ON ¢8BN MAPUTO SCANDAL-Over Three Years After Damning Report of malfeasance|url=http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/index.php/politics/963-mahama-fighting-corruption-no-action-on-8bn-maputo-scandal-over-three-years-after-damning-report-of-malfeasance|work=New Statesman|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126040756/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/index.php/politics/963-mahama-fighting-corruption-no-action-on-8bn-maputo-scandal-over-three-years-after-damning-report-of-malfeasance|archive-date=26 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[John Addo Kufuor]], son of former President [[John Agyekum Kufuor]] and [[Kojo Annan]], son of former Secretary-General of the United Nations [[Kofi Annan]], have been named in association with the [[Panama Papers]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://qz.com/653937/africa-loses-more-money-to-illicit-financial-flows-than-it-receives-in-foreign-aid/|title=Africa loses more money to illicit financial flows than it receives in foreign aid|first=Lily|last=Kuo|date=4 April 2016|access-date=24 April 2016|work=Quartz|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417060158/http://qz.com/653937/africa-loses-more-money-to-illicit-financial-flows-than-it-receives-in-foreign-aid/|archive-date=17 April 2016}}</ref>

===Science and technology===
Ghana was the first Southern-Saharan African country to launch a cellular mobile network (1992). It was one of the first countries in Africa to be connected to the internet and to introduce ADSL broadband services.<ref name="Ghanaweb">{{cite web|title=Science & Technology|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/technology/|publisher=Ghanaweb|date=24 June 2015|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623022534/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/technology/|archive-date=23 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Space and satellite programmes===
The [[Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre]] (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversee the [[space exploration]] and [[space program]]mes of Ghana. GSSTC and GhsA worked to have a [[national security]] [[Earth observation satellite|observational satellite]] launched into orbit in 2015.<ref name="BBCSpace">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18739694|title=Africa's journey to space begins on the ground|year=2012|work=BBC News|location=United Kingdom|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613213302/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18739694|archive-date=13 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/a/1686704.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130628032244/http://www.voanews.com/a/1686704.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 June 2013|title=Ghana's Home-Grown Space Program Takes Off|year=2013|publisher=[[Voice of America]]|location=United States|access-date=24 June 2013}}</ref> The first practical step in its endeavor was a [[CanSat]] launched on 15 May 2013, a space programme spearheaded by the All Nations University College (ANUC) in Koforidua. The CanSat was deployed {{convert|200|m|abbr=off}} high from a helium-filled balloon and took some aerial images as well as temperature readings. As its next step in advancing space science and satellite technology in the sub-region, an amateur ground station has been designed and built by the university. It has successfully tracked and communicated with several (amateur) radio satellites in orbit including the [[International Space Station]], receiving [[slow-scan TV]] images on 18 and 20 December 2014. The miniaturized earth observational satellite is to be launched into orbit in 2017.<ref name="VOASpace">{{Citation|url=http://www.voanews.com/a/1686704.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130628032244/http://www.voanews.com/a/1686704.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 June 2013|title=Ghana's Home-Grown Space Program Takes Off|year=2013|publisher=Voice of America|access-date=24 June 2013}}</ref>

Ghana's annual space exploration expenditure has been 1% of its gross domestic product (GDP), to support research in science and technology. In 2012, Ghana was elected to chair the [[Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South]] (Comsats); Ghana has a joint effort in [[space exploration]] with South Africa's [[South African National Space Agency]] (SANSA).<ref name=BBCSpace/>

===Cybernetics and cyberwarfare===
{{See also|Sakawa}}
[[File:Wikimedia Outreach in Ghana 6.jpeg|thumb|[[Education in Ghana|Ghana education system's]] implementation of [[information and communications technology]] at the [[University of Ghana]]]]

The use of computer technology for teaching and learning began to receive [[government of Ghana]]'s attention from the late 1990s.<ref name="Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Ghana Report"/> The [[information and communications technology]] in education policy of Ghana requires the use of information and communications technology for teaching and learning at all levels of the [[Education in Ghana|education of Ghana]] system.<ref name="Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Ghana Report"/> The [[Ministry of Education (Ghana)|Ministry of Education]] (MOE) supports institutions in teaching of information and communications technology literacy.<ref name="Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Ghana Report"/> The majority of secondary, and some basic [[List of schools in Ghana|schools of Ghana]] have computer laboratories.<ref name="Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Ghana Report">K. D. MEREKU, I. Yidana, W. H. K. HORDZI, I. Tete-Mensah; Williams, J. B. (2009). Pedagogical Integration of ICT: Ghana Report. [http://www.ernwaca.org/panaf/pdf/phase-1/Ghana-PanAf_Report.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808202336/http://www.ernwaca.org/panaf/pdf/phase-1/Ghana-PanAf_Report.pdf |date=8 August 2014 }}</ref>

Ghana's intention to become the information technology hub of West Africa has led the government of Ghana to enact cyber crime legislation and enhance [[cyber security]] practices.<ref name="The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities"/> Acting on that goal, in 2008 Ghana passed the ''Electronic Communications Act'' and the ''Electronic Transactions Act'', which established the legal framework for governing information technology.<ref name="The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities"/> In November 2011, the Deputy [[Minister for Communications (Ghana)|Minister for Communications]] and Technology announced the development of a national cyber security strategy, aimed at combating [[cyber crime]] and securing critical infrastructure.<ref name="The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities"/>

In June 2012, the [[National Information Technology Agency]] (NITA) announced a national [[computer emergency response team]] "strategy" designed to co-ordinate government response to cyber-attacks, both internal and external.<ref name="The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities"/> The agency also established [[computer emergency response team]]s for each [[Districts of Ghana|municipal, metropolitan, and district assembly]] to improve co-ordination and information-sharing on [[Threat (computer)|cyberspace threats]].<ref name="The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities">{{cite web|url=http://www.unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/cyber-index-2013-en-463.pdf|title=The Cyber Index – International Security Trends and Realities|publisher=unidir.org|pages=63–64|year=2013|access-date=22 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610215601/http://www.unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/cyber-index-2013-en-463.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Ghana is ranked 2nd in Africa and 7th globally in [[cyber warfare]], [[cyberterrorism|cyber-terrorism]], [[cyber crime]], and [[internet crime]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Cyber-crime-Ghana-2nd-in-Africa-7th-in-the-world-281095 |title=Cyber crime:Ghana 2nd in Africa, 7th in the world |author= |date=1 August 2013 |website=GhanaWeb |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131200639/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Cyber-crime-Ghana-2nd-in-Africa-7th-in-the-world-281095 |archive-date=31 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, the National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) was founded. It is the national agency responsible for cybersecurity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Cyber Security Center {{!}} Securing Ghana's Digital Journey|url=https://cybersecurity.gov.gh/about|access-date=2021-06-22|website=cybersecurity.gov.gh}}</ref> In November 2020, Parliament passed the Cybersecurity Act 2020. The Minister for Communications, Ursula Owusu-Ekuful, indicated that, "a successful economy is hinged on a secured, safe and resilient national digital ecosystem. Cyber-security is, therefore, very critical to the economic development of the country and essential to the protection of the rights of individuals within the national digital ecosystem".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cybersecurity Act Passed to Promote & Regulate Cybersecurity Activities {{!}} Ministry of Communications|url=https://www.moc.gov.gh/cybersecurity-act-passed-promote-regulate-cybersecurity-activities|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.moc.gov.gh}}</ref>

===Health and biotechnology===
The [[Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine]] is an agency of the [[Ministry of Health (Ghana)|Ministry of Health]] that was set up in the 1970s for both [[Research and development|R&D]] and as a practical resource (product production & distribution/provision) primarily in areas of [[biotechnology]] related to [[medicinal plants]]. This includes both [[Herbalism|herbal medicine]] and work on more advanced applications. It also has a secondary role as an educational resource for foreign students in health, biotechnology and related fields.

==Education==
{{Main|Education in Ghana}}

===Overview===

Ghanaian education system is divided in three parts: Basic Education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education. "Basic Education" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15).<ref name="GEScurr"/> It is divided into [[Kindergarten]] (2 years), Primary School (2 modules of 3 years) and Junior High (3 years). Junior High School (JHS) ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination ([[BECE]]).<ref name="GEScurr">{{cite web|url=http://www.ges.gov.gh/?q=content/basic-education-curriculum-1|title=Basic Education Curriculum|publisher=Ghana Education Service|access-date=6 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525195225/http://www.ges.gov.gh/?q=content%2Fbasic-education-curriculum-1|archive-date=25 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="GEScurr2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ges.gov.gh/?q=content/basic-education-curriculum|title=Basic curriculum Education: The junior High Education|publisher=Ghana Education Service|access-date=6 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605133413/http://ges.gov.gh/?q=content%2Fbasic-education-curriculum|archive-date=5 June 2014}}</ref> Once the BECE is achieved, the pupil can proceed to the secondary cycle.<ref name="BECE">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanawaec.org/EXAMS/BECE.aspx|title=BECE|access-date=6 June 2014|author=West African Examinations Council(corporate site: Ghana)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519130523/http://www.ghanawaec.org/EXAMS/BECE.aspx|archive-date=19 May 2014}}</ref> Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (offered by the Senior High School) and vocational education (offered by the technical Senior High School or the Technical and Vocational Institutes). Senior High School lasts three years and leads to the West African Secondary School Certificate Examination ([[WASSCE]]), which is a prerequisite for enrollment in a university bachelor's degree programme.{{sfn|NUFFIC|2013|page=7}} Polytechnics are open to vocational students, from SHS or TVI.<ref name="UNEVOC">{{cite web|url=http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=GHA|title=Vocational Education in Ghana|publisher=UNESCO-UNEVOC|date=July 2012|access-date=23 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523230631/http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=GHA|archive-date=23 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

A Bachelor's degree usually requires four years of study. It can be followed by a one- or two-year master's degree programme, which can be followed by a PhD programme of at least three years.{{sfn|NUFFIC|2013|page=9}} A polytechnic programme lasts two or three years.<ref name="UNEVOC"/> Ghana also possesses numerous colleges of education.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/3/3/2158244013497725 | title=A Descriptive Assessment of Higher Education Access, Participation, Equity, and Disparity in Ghana | publisher=SageOpen | date=23 July 2013 | access-date=23 May 2014 | author=Atuahene, Ansah | page=2 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516125627/http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/3/3/2158244013497725 | archive-date=16 May 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> Some of the notable universities in Ghana are The University of Ghana, Legon, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, and University of Cape Coast, just to mention a few.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-27|title=Top 10 Best Universities in Ghana|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/news/local/top-10-best-universities-in-ghana/6pncyms|access-date=2020-09-12|website=Pulse Gh|language=en-US}}</ref> The Ghanaian education system from kindergarten up to an undergraduate degree level generally takes 20 years.<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>

The academic year usually goes from August to May inclusive.{{sfn|NUFFIC|2013|pages=4–5}} The school year in primary education lasts 40 weeks in Primary School and SHS and 45 weeks in JHS.{{sfn|NUFFIC|2013|pages=5}}

===Writing System===

Modern Ghanaians use Adinkra Nkyea, a writing system based on the <ref name="Adinkra Nkyea">{{cite web |last1=Nkyea |first1=Adinkra |title=Adinkra Syllabary |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/adinkra.htm |publisher=Biswajit Mandal}}</ref> Adinkra Symbols. The Akan Language and it's dialects uses the Adinkra Nkyea writing system. Majority of Adinkra Nkyea is deprived from the original Adinkra Symbols. Adinkra Nkyea contains some 39 characters, 10 numerals, and 3 punctuation marks.[[File:Adinkra Characters.png|thumb|Adinkra Characters.]]<ref>[[File:Adinkra Characters.png|thumb|Adinkra Characters.]]</ref>

===Enrollment===
{{multiple image
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With over 95% of its children in school, Ghana currently has one of the highest school enrollment rates in all of Africa.<ref name="UNICEF – Basic Education and Gender Equality">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/wcaro_GHA_MTSP2.pdf|title=UNICEF – Basic Education and Gender Equality|publisher=unicef.org|access-date=1 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803061043/http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/wcaro_GHA_MTSP2.pdf|archive-date=3 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/a-fragile-island-of-stabilityin-a-sea-of-turbulence/article1214628/|title=Africa|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=26 June 2010|location=Toronto|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107054024/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/a-fragile-island-of-stabilityin-a-sea-of-turbulence/article1214628/|archive-date=7 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The ratio of females to males in the total education system was 0.98, in 2014.<ref name="news.myjoyonline.com">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.PRSC.FM.ZS|title=Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education|publisher=World Bank|access-date=21 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730232121/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.PRSC.FM.ZS|archive-date=30 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Foreign students===
Ghana's education system annually attracts a large number of [[foreign student]]s particularly in the university sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/500636/1/plight-of-foreign-students-in-ghana.html|title=Plight of Foreign Students in Ghana|publisher=modernghana.com|date=2 November 2013|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813101531/http://www.modernghana.com/news/500636/1/plight-of-foreign-students-in-ghana.html|archive-date=13 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Nyarota, Geoffrey; Against the Grain; pp. 101–102.</ref>

===Funding of education===
The government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools were subsidised by the government until September 2017/2018 academic year that senior high education became free.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media-center/news/3870-free-shs-begins-in-september|title=Free SHS Begins in September – Government of Ghana|website=www.ghana.gov.gh|access-date=16 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216210954/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media-center/news/3870-free-shs-begins-in-september|archive-date=16 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges.

As part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies like exercise books. Senior high schools are also provided with all their textbook requirement by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers.<ref name="KoinzerNikolai2017">{{cite book|first1=Thomas|last1=Koinzer|first2=Rita|last2=Nikolai|first3=Florian|last3=Waldow|title=Private Schools and School Choice in Compulsory Education: Global Change and National Challenge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=seAqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143|year=2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-658-17104-9|page=143}}</ref>

===Kindergarten and education structure===
[[File:Ghana Education Structure.gif|thumb|{{center|Education structure of Ghana}}]]

The female and male ages 15–24 years literacy rate in Ghana was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.MA.ZS/countries|title=Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15–24)|publisher=World Bank|access-date=29 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813172150/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.MA.ZS/countries|archive-date=13 August 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> and females at 80%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS|title=Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15–24)|publisher=World Bank|access-date=29 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902192409/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS|archive-date=2 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ghanaian children begin their education at the age of three or four starting from [[kindergarten]] (nursery school and [[preschool]]), then to elementary school (primary school), high school ([[junior high school]] and [[senior high school]]) and finally university. The average age at which a Ghanaian child enters primary school is 6 years.<ref name="UNICEF – Basic Education and Gender Equality"/>

Ghana has a [[free education]] 6-year primary school education system beginning at age six,<ref name="Ghana Lauded for Free Primary School Program">{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/ghana-lauded-for-free-primary-school-program-139525918/159622.html|title=Ghana Lauded for Free Primary School Program|publisher=Voice of America|date=16 February 2012|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606211948/http://www.voanews.com/content/ghana-lauded-for-free-primary-school-program-139525918/159622.html|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1988 and reformed in 2007, they pass on to a 3-year junior high school system. At the end of the third year of junior high, there is a mandatory "[[Basic Education Certificate Examination]]". Those continuing must complete the 4-year senior high school programme (which has been changed to three years) and take an admission exam to enter any university or tertiary programme. The Ghanaian [[education system]] from nursery school up to an [[undergraduate degree]] level takes 20 years.<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>

In 2005, Ghana had 12,130 primary schools, 5,450 junior secondary schools, 503 senior secondary schools, 21 public training colleges, 18 technical institutions, two diploma-awarding institutions and 6 universities.<ref name="Education in Ghana">[http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/education/ Education in Ghana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228110108/http://ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/education/ |date=28 February 2014 }}. ghanaweb.com</ref><ref name="nab.gov.gh">{{cite web |url=http://www.nuffic.nl/international-organizations/docs/diploma-recognition/country-modules/country-module-ghana.pdf |title=Country module Ghana |access-date=18 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605171810/http://www.nuffic.nl/international-organizations/docs/diploma-recognition/country-modules/country-module-ghana.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2012 |ref={{harvid|NUFFIC|2013}} }}. nuffic.nl. [http://www.nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=182 What to know about the National Accreditation Board (NAB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002205327/http://www.nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=182 |date=2 October 2013 }}. National Accreditation Board – Ghana. Retrieved 27 April 2010.</ref>

In 2010, there were relatively more females (53.0%) than males (40.5%) with primary school and JSS (junior secondary school) / JHS ([[junior high school]]) as their highest level of education.<ref name="Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census"/>

===Elementary===
The [[Ministry of Education (Ghana)|Ghanaian Ministry of Education]] and the [[National Accreditation Board (Ghana)|Ghanaian National Accreditation Board]] provide [[free education]] at the elementary school (primary school) level, and most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to high school education ([[junior high school]] and [[senior high school]]).<ref name="Ghana Lauded for Free Primary School Program"/> These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Ghana's spending on education has varied between 28 and 40% of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, mostly by qualified Ghanaian educators.<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>

The courses taught at the primary or basic school level include English, Ghanaian language and culture, mathematics, environmental studies, social studies, [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] and French as an [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|OIF]] associated-member,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/Fcs_enjeu_21esiecle.pdf|title=Le français, enjeu du XXI siècle (French)|publisher=francophonie.org|access-date=17 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110171236/http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/Fcs_enjeu_21esiecle.pdf|archive-date=10 January 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> integrated or [[general science]], pre-[[Vocational education|vocational]] skills and pre-[[Technical education|technical]] skills, religious and moral education, and physical activities such as Ghanaian music and dance, and [[physical education]].<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>{{clear}}

===High school===
{{Further|List of senior secondary schools in Ghana}}

The senior high level school curriculum has core subjects and elective subjects of which students must take four the core subjects of English language, mathematics, integrated science (including science, agriculture and environmental studies) and [[social studies]] (economics, geography, history and government).<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>

High school students also choose four elective subjects from five available programmes: agriculture programme, general programme (arts or science option), [[business program]]me, [[Vocational education|vocational]] programme and [[Technical education|technical]] programme.<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System">{{cite web|url=http://www.tobeworldwide.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809071841/http://www.tobeworldwide.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=4 |archive-date=9 August 2011 |title=A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System|publisher=TobeWorldwide.org}}</ref> Apart from most primary and secondary schools which choose the Ghanaian system of schooling, there are also international schools such as the [[Takoradi International School]], Tema International School, [[Galaxy International School, Accra|Galaxy International School]], The Roman Ridge School, [[Lincoln Community School]], Faith Montessori School, American International School, [[Alpha Beta Christian College]], Ghana Christian International High School, Association International School, New Nation School, SOS Hermann Gmeiner International College, Vilac International School, [[Akosombo International School]] (which offers Cambridge O level certificate), North Legon Little Campus and International Community School, which offer the [[International Baccalaureat]], [[Advanced Level General Certificate of Education]] and the [[International General Certificate of Secondary Education]] (IGCSE).<ref name="Education in Ghana"/>

===University===
{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = University of Education, Winneba (UEW) North Campus.jpg
| caption1 = Front view of the [[University of Education, Winneba]] (UEW) North Campus in Winneba
| image2 = Balme Library of University of Ghana.jpg
| caption2= Main entrance to the [[University of Ghana]]'s Balme Library in Accra
}}
{{Further|List of universities in Ghana}}

There are nine national public universities in Ghana: the [[University of Ghana]], [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]], [[University of Cape Coast]], [[University of Education, Winneba|University of Education]], [[University for Development Studies]], [[University of Mines and Technology]], [[University of Professional Studies, Accra]], [[University of Energy and Natural Resources]], and [[University of Health and Allied Sciences]].<ref>[http://www.nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=56&Itemid=184 Ghana public universities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530043115/http://nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=56&Itemid=184 |date=30 May 2014 }}. National Accreditation Board – Ghana. Retrieved 2 January 2011.</ref>

Ghana has a growing number of accredited private universities including [[Lancaster University, Ghana]], [[Ghana Technology University College]], [[Ashesi University College]], [[Methodist University College Ghana]], [[Central University College]], [[Accra Institute of Technology]], [[Regent University College of Science and Technology]], [[Valley View University]], [[Catholic University College of Ghana|Catholic University College]], [[Presbyterian University College]] and [[Zenith University College]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=60&Itemid=185&limitstart=30 |title=Ghana private tertiary institutions offering degree program |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002212350/http://www.nab.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=60&Itemid=185&limitstart=30 |archive-date=2 October 2013 |publisher=National Accreditation Board – Ghana |access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>

The oldest university in Ghana, the [[University of Ghana]], was founded in 1948. It had 29,754 students in 2008. It offers programmes in the arts, [[humanities]], business, and the [[social science]]s, as well as medicine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/university-ghana|title=University of Ghana|website=times higher education|access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> Many universities—including [[Harvard University]], [[Cornell University]], and [[Oxford University]]—have special study-abroad programmes with Ghanaian schools and provide their students the opportunity to study abroad at Ghanaian universities. [[New York University]] has a campus in Accra.<ref>{{cite web|title=NYU Accra|url=http://alumni.nyu.edu/s/1068/2col.aspx?sid=1068&gid=1&pgid=3397|work=NYU|access-date=2 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101022908/http://alumni.nyu.edu/s/1068/2col.aspx?sid=1068&gid=1&pgid=3397|archive-date=1 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The University of Ghana has seen a shift of its traditionally best students to the [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]].<ref name="University of Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://www.ug.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=243&sublinkid=72 |title=University of Ghana |publisher=Ug.edu.gh |access-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729000402/http://www.ug.edu.gh/index1.php?linkid=243&sublinkid=72 |archive-date=29 July 2012 }}</ref> Since Ghana's independence, the country has been one of the most educational in sub-Saharan Africa. Former UN Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] has been chancellor of the University of Ghana since 2008.<ref name="University of Ghana"/>

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, the second university to be established in the country, is the premier university of science and technology in Ghana and West Africa.<ref name="A Brief History of the Ghanaian Educational System"/>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Ghana}}
{{Further|Ghanaian people}}
{{Historical populations|1950|5,036,000|1960|6,635,000|1970|8,735,000|1980|11,056,000|align=right|footnote=source:{{UN_Population|ref}}|1990|14,773,000|2000|19,279,000|2010|24,780,000|2019|30,418,000}}
[[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Ghana 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid 2016]]
Ghana is a [[Multiethnic society|multiethnic country]].<ref name="Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census"/> The largest [[ethnic group]] is the [[Ashanti people]]. Ghana's territorial area within West Africa was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans until the 10th century BC.<ref name="A Historical Geography of Ghana">{{cite book|author=Dickson, Kwamina B.|title=A Historical Geography of Ghana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23|year=1969|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-07102-4|pages=23–|access-date=27 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915160724/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23|archive-date=15 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> By the 10th century AD, the [[Guang people|Guans]] were the first settlers in Ghana long before the other tribes came. [[Akan people|Akans]] had established [[Bonoman]] ([[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong Ahafo]] region) and were joined by the current settlers and inhabitants by the 16th century.

In 2010, the population of Ghana was 72.2% Christian (24.3% [[Pentecostal]], 18.4% [[Protestant]], 13.1% [[Catholic]] and 11.4% other). Approximately 18.6% of the population of Ghana are [[Muslim]],<ref name="Ghana: CIA World FactBook"/> (51% [[Sunni]], 16% [[Ahmadiyya]], and 8% [[Shia]]).<ref name="religion2010"/><ref name="pew">{{cite web | url=http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf | title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity | access-date=2 June 2014 | date=9 August 2012 | publisher=Pew Forum on Religious & Public life | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024125551/http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf | archive-date=24 October 2012 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Just over 10,000 Ghanaians practise Hinduism, with most of them being indigenous converts. Hinduism in Ghana was popularized by Swami Ghana Nanda ji, who opened several temples in the nation. The temple of Lord Shiva in Accra is one of the largest where there are celebrations to Ganesh Chaturthi, Rath Yatra, and other Hindu observations.

The Bahá’í religious community, established in Ghana in 1951, today includes more than 100 communities and over 50 local Bahá’í administrative councils, called Local Spiritual Assemblies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bahai.org/national-communities/ghana |url-status=dead |title=The Bahá'í Community of Ghana |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229144119/https://www.bahai.org/national-communities/ghana |archive-date=29 December 2019 |website=Bahai.org |access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref>

{{as of|2014}}, there are 375,000 registered legal [[skilled worker]]s (permanent residents) or [[foreign worker]]s/students (i.e. [[Ghana Card]] holders) inhabitants with an annually 1.5 million transited airport [[layover]]s. In its first post-colonial census in 1960, Ghana had a population of 6.7 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/ghana/33.htm |title=Ghana – population |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511100012/http://countrystudies.us/ghana/33.htm |archivedate=11 May 2011 |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}</ref> The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons. The Government of Ghana states that the [[official language]] of Ghana is English,<ref name="The Ghanaian Government states that English is the official language" /> and is spoken by 67.1% of the inhabiting population of Ghana.<ref name="Ghana – 2010 Population and Housing Census"/>

===Population===
{{Main|Ghana Immigration Service|Ghanaian nationality law}}
[[File:Ghana Card biometric.jpg|thumb|[[Ghana Card]] (Ghanaian electronic ID Card) – obverse with [[Biometric passport|chip]] ]]

{{as of|2019|6|22}}, Ghana has a population of 30,083,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ghana-population |title=Ghana Population (LIVE) |website=Worldometers |access-date=22 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705175928/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ghana-population/ |archive-date=5 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 29 percent of the population is under the age of 15, while persons aged 15–64 make up 57.8 percent of the population.<ref name="databank.worldbank.org">{{cite web |url=http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=health-nutrition-and-population-statistics |title=Health Nutrition and Population Statistics – DataBank |website=databank.worldbank.org |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225150240/http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=health-nutrition-and-population-statistics |archive-date=25 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ashanti Region had the most, ([[Akan people|Akan]]) ([[Ashanti people|Ashanti]]) (4.7 million in [[Ashanti Region|Ashanti]], 2.3 million in [[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong-Ahafo]], 2.2 million in [[Central Region (Ghana)|Central]], 2.6 million in [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern]], 2.3 million in [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western]], and 4 million in the [[seat of government]] in [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]] geographically and legally part of [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern]] then administered separately on 23 July 1982).<ref name="religion2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/africa/ghana/islam_in_ghana_report.htm |title=Islam in Ghana – Report |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019024808/http://www.islamicpopulation.com/africa/ghana/islam_in_ghana_report.htm |archive-date=19 October 2013 |url-status=live }}, {{cite web |url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf |title=2010 Population and Housing Census |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925192147/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{As of|2010}}, 4.1 million persons reside in the Northern territories (2.4 million in [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern]], 1 million in [[Upper East Region|Upper East]], and 0.7 million in [[Upper West Region|Upper West]]).<ref name="religion2010"/>

{{As of|2010}}, 2.1 million persons reside in [[Ewe people|Ewe]] territory [[Volta Region|Volta]].<ref name="religion2010"/>
{{bar box
|title=Ethnic Groups in Ghana
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Ethnic Groups
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Akan|darkgreen|47.5}}
{{bar percent|Mole-Dagbani|purple|16.6}}
{{bar percent|Ewe|red|13.9}}
{{bar percent|Ga-Dangme|black|7.4}}
{{bar percent|Gurma|orange|5.7}}
{{bar percent|Guan|darkblue|3.7}}{{bar percent|Grusi|white|2.5}}
{{bar percent|Mande|maroon|1.1}}
{{bar percent|Other|darkgray|1.4}}
}}

===Immigration===
{{Main|Immigration to Ghana|Illegal immigration in Ghana}}
Due to the recent legal immigration of [[skilled worker]]s who possess [[Ghana Card]]s, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals.

In 2010, the [[Ghana Immigration Service]] reported a large number of [[economic migrant]]s and [[Illegal immigrant]]s inhabiting Ghana: 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (predominantly [[Nigerians]], Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" (GACO) [[enactment of a bill|enacted]] by the [[Prime Minister of Ghana]] [[Kofi Abrefa Busia]];<ref name="Ghana Owes no Apology to Anybody for Aliens Compliance Order">{{cite web|url=http://vibeghana.com/2013/04/14/ghana-owes-no-apology-to-anybody-for-aliens-compliance-order/|title=Ghana Owes no Apology to Anybody for Aliens Compliance Order|publisher=vibeghana.com|date=14 April 2013|access-date=31 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927075540/http://vibeghana.com/2013/04/14/ghana-owes-no-apology-to-anybody-for-aliens-compliance-order/|archive-date=27 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Government of Ghana with BGU ([[Border Guard Unit]]) [[Deportation|deported]] over 3,000,000 [[Alien (law)|aliens]] and [[illegal immigrant]]s in three months as they made up 20% of the population at the time.<ref name="Ghana Owes no Apology to Anybody for Aliens Compliance Order"/><ref name="The History of Ghana's 1969 Aliens Compliance Order">{{cite web|url=http://sites.davidson.edu/cis485/?p=3349 |title=The History of Ghana's 1969 Aliens Compliance Order |work=davidson.edu |date=29 March 2012 |access-date=31 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917165858/http://sites.davidson.edu/cis485/?p=3349 |archive-date=17 September 2013 }}</ref> In 2013, there was a mass deportation of illegal miners, more than 4,000 of them Chinese nationals.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2013-07-16-ghana-cracks-down-on-illegal-chinese-miners
|title=Ghana deports thousands of illegal Chinese miners
|work=[[Mail & Guardian]]
|date=16 July 2013
|access-date=9 May 2014
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512231106/http://mg.co.za/article/2013-07-16-ghana-cracks-down-on-illegal-chinese-miners
|archive-date=12 May 2014
|url-status=live
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/15/ghana-deports-chinese-goldminers|title=Ghana deports thousands in crackdown on illegal Chinese goldminers|work=The Guardian|date=15 July 2013|access-date=9 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512214119/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/15/ghana-deports-chinese-goldminers|archive-date=12 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Ghana}}

English is the [[official language]].<ref name="USA">{{cite web|title=The Bureau of Ghana Languages-BGL|url=http://www.ghanaembassy.org/index.php?page=language-and-religion|publisher=Ghana Embassy Washington DC, USA|year=2013|access-date=11 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022204947/http://www.ghanaembassy.org/index.php?page=language-and-religion|archive-date=22 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A handbook of varieties of English. 1. Phonology, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mtd3a-56ysUC&pg=PA847 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=Bernd Kortmann Walter de Gruyter, 2004|year=2004|access-date=11 November 2013|isbn=978-3-11-017532-5 }}</ref>

Additionally, there are eleven languages that have the status of government-sponsored languages:
* [[Akan language]]s ([[Asante dialect|Asante Twi]], [[Akuapem Twi]], [[Fante dialect|Fante]] and [[Nzema language|Nzema]])
* [[Adangme language|Dangme]]
* [[Ewe language|Ewe]]
* [[Ga language|Ga]]
* [[Guan language|Guan]]
*[[Kasem language|Kasem]]
* [[Oti-Volta languages|Mole-Dagbani]] languages ([[Dagaare]] and [[Dagomba language|Dagbanli]])<ref name="NCA">{{cite web|title=The Bureau of Ghana Languages-BGL|url=http://www.ghanaculture.gov.gh/index1.php?linkid=331&page=2&sectionid=602|publisher=National Commission on Culture|year=2006|access-date=11 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112001558/http://www.ghanaculture.gov.gh/index1.php?linkid=331&page=2&sectionid=602|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Study of Ghanaian Languages|url=http://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/Study_16156.html|publisher=africa.upenn.edu|access-date=6 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112001739/http://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/Study_16156.html|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Of these, [[Asante dialect|Asante Twi]] is the most widely spoken.<ref name="Introduction To The Verbal and Multi-Verbalsystem of Akan">{{cite web|title=Introduction to the Verbal and Multi-Verbalsystem of Akan|url=http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/tross/osam.pdf|work=ling.hf.ntnu.no|year=2013|access-date=16 November 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407085659/http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/tross/osam.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2014}}</ref>

Due to Ghana being surrounded by [[French-speaking countries]], French is widely taught in schools and universities, as well as a language used for commercial and international economic exchanges and is spoken in some regions. Since 2006, Ghana has been an associate member of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jeux.francophonie.org/etats-invites/ghana|title=Ghana – Jeux de la francophonie|website=www.jeux.francophonie.org|access-date=10 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211131331/https://www.jeux.francophonie.org/etats-invites/ghana|archive-date=11 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> the global organisation that unites French-speaking countries (84 nations on 6 continents). In 2005, over 350 000 Ghanaian children studied French in schools. Since then, its status has progressively been updated to a mandatory language in every high school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lalettrediplomatique.fr/contribution_detail.php?id=20&idrub=67&idrubprod=262|title=La Lettre Diplomatique – La revue des Relations internationales et diplomatiques depuis 1988 – La Francophonie et le Ghana|website=www.lalettrediplomatique.fr|access-date=10 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211072205/http://www.lalettrediplomatique.fr/contribution_detail.php?id=20&idrub=67&idrubprod=262|archive-date=11 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is in the process of becoming an official language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/1588566/ghanas-president-wants-french-as-a-second-language/|title=Ghana's president wants to make French a formal language, but it's not a popular plan |work=QZ.com |date=7 April 2019 |last=Asiedu |first=Kwasi Gyamfi |access-date=21 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/bi/strategy/ghana-adopts-french-as-its-second-official-language/eg77s29|title=Ghana adopts French as its second official language |website=pulse.com |date=21 March 2019|access-date=21 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Ghanaian Pidgin English]] (GhPE), also known as Kru English (or, in [[Akan language|Akan]], ''kroo brofo''), is a variety of [[West African Pidgin English]] spoken mainly in Accra and in the southern towns.<ref name="Huber 1999 p139">Magnus Huber, ''Ghanaian Pidgin English in its West African Context'' (1999), page 139</ref> GhPE can be divided into two varieties, referred to as "uneducated" or "non-institutionalized" pidgin and "educated" or "institutionalized" pidgin, the former associated with uneducated or illiterate people and the latter acquired and used in institutions such as universities.<ref name="Huber 1999 p138-153">Huber (1999), pp. 138–153</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Ghana}}

{| class="wikitable floatleft"
|+ style="font-size:110%;" | Religious affiliation in Ghana
|-
! Affiliation !! 2000 Census<ref name="Census2010"/>!! 2010 Census<ref name="Census2010"/><ref name="Library publications">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ghana/|title=Ghana|work=The World Factbook|access-date=15 May 2007}}</ref>!! 2014 DHS Survey<ref name="DHS 2014">{{cite web|url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR307/FR307.pdf|title=Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey, 2014|publisher=Ghana Statistical Service & Ghana Health Service|page=32|access-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428035012/https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR307/FR307.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group="note" name="DHS2014">The DHS survey surveyed only those between the ages of 15 and 59</ref>
|-
| Christian || 68.8% || 71.2% || 76.9%
|-
| style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Pentecostal]]/[[Charismatic Christianity|Charismatic]] || 24.1% || 28.3% || 36.3%
|-
| style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Protestant]] || 18.6% || 18.4% || 13.5%<ref group="note" name="DHS2014 Protestant">The DHS survey used Anglican/Methodist/Presbyterian in place of "Protestant"</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| [[Catholic]] || 15.1% || 13.1% || 10.4%
|-
| style="text-align:left; text-indent:30px;"| Other Christian || 11.0% || 11.4% || 16.7%
|-
| [[Muslim]] || 15.9% ||17.6% || 16.4%
|-
| Traditional || 8.5% || 5.2% || 2.6%<ref group="note" name="DHS2014 Other">The DHS survey combined "Traditional" with "Spiritualist"</ref>
|-
| [[Irreligion|None]] || 6.1% || 5.3% || 4.3%
|-
| Other || 0.7% || 0.8% || 0.0%
|-
| colspan="4"| '''Notes'''
<references group="note"/>
|}
{{clear}}

Ghana is a largely Christian country, although a sizable Muslim minority exists. Traditional (indigenous) beliefs are also practised.

The fertility rate of Ghana declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region.<ref name="statsghana.gov.gh"/> The United Nations reports a fertility decline from 6.95 (1970) to 4.82 (2000) to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman), Ghana, 1960 – present |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=GH |website=World Bank |access-date=22 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622190721/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN%3Flocations%3DGH |archive-date=22 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Mortality===
Life expectancy at birth in 2020 was 71 for a female and 65 for a male.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/countries/ghana/pdf/Ghana_Factsheet.pdf |title=CDC in Ghana |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=August 2019 |access-date=21 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The top ten causes of death in Ghana in 2018 were:<ref name="CDC" />
# Malaria
# Lower respiratory infections
# Neonatal disorders
# Ischemic heart disease
# Stroke
# HIV/AIDS
# Tuberculosis
# Diarrheal diseases
# Road injuries
# Diabetes

=== Crime ===
{{Main|Crime in Ghana}}

Crime in Ghana is investigated by the [[Ghana Police Service]]. Ghana had [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|a murder rate]] of 1.68 per 100,000 population in 2011.<ref name="UNODCnew">{{Cite web|url=https://dataunodc.un.org/crime/intentional-homicide-victims|title=Intentional homicide victims {{!}} Statistics and Data|website=dataunodc.un.org|access-date=7 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726024322/https://dataunodc.un.org/crime/intentional-homicide-victims|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Universal health care and life expectancy===
{{Main|National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana)|l1=NHIS|Health in Ghana}}
{{Further|Eye care in Ghana|Optometry in Ghana}}

Ghana has a [[universal health care]] system strictly designated for [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian nationals]], National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhis.gov.gh/|title=National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)|publisher=nhis.gov.gh|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516205524/http://nhis.gov.gh/|archive-date=16 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Health care is very variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the [[National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana)]] (NHIS).<ref name="Ghana: National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)">{{cite web |url=http://jointlearningnetwork.org/content/national-health-insurance-scheme-nhis |title=Ghana: National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) |publisher=jointlearningnetwork.org |access-date=10 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512213346/http://jointlearningnetwork.org/content/national-health-insurance-scheme-nhis |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Urban centres are well served, and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies in Ghana. There are over 200 hospitals in Ghana and Ghana is a destination for [[medical tourism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eturbonews.com/10800/medical-tourism-emerging-market-ghana|title=Medical tourism is emerging market for Ghana|publisher=eturbonews.com|date=5 August 2009|access-date=10 May 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512224254/http://www.eturbonews.com/10800/medical-tourism-emerging-market-ghana|archive-date=12 May 2014}}</ref> In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and {{as of|2011|lc=y}}, 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people.<ref name="databank.worldbank.org"/>

The 2014 estimate of [[life expectancy]] at birth had increased to an average of 65.75 years with males at 63.4 years and females at 68.2 years,<ref name="CIAlife2013">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2102.html |title=Field Listing – Life expectancy at birth |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528191952/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2102.html |archive-date=28 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in 2013 [[infant mortality]] decreased to 39 per 1,000 live births.<ref name="Listing: Infant mortality rate">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2091.html |title=Field Listing – Infant mortality rate |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119041333/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2091.html |archive-date=19 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sources vary on life expectancy at birth; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/countries/gha/en/ |title=Ghana Statistics |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2019 |access-date=9 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927001635/https://www.who.int/countries/gha/en/ |archive-date=27 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

There was an estimation of 15 physicians and 93 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2010.<ref name="afro.who.int">{{cite web |url=http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/ghana.pdf |title=Afro.who.int |publisher=Afro.who.int |access-date=4 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111084659/http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/ghana.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2010 }}</ref> 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health in 2010,<ref name="Field Listing: Health expenditures">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2225.html Field Listing :: Health expenditures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326095442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2225.html|date=26 March 2014}}. Retrieved 24 June 2013.</ref> and all [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian]] [[Citizenship|citizens]] have the right to access [[primary health care]].<ref name="Bill Gates Ghana">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/bill-gates-africa-visit-847307-Mar2013/|title=These are the countries where I'm the least known" – Bill Gates visits Ghana|publisher=thejournal.ie|access-date=10 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306142836/http://www.thejournal.ie/bill-gates-africa-visit-847307-Mar2013/|archive-date=6 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2020, the [[WHO]] announced Ghana became the second country in the WHO African Region to attain regulatory system "maturity level 3", the second-highest in the four-tiered WHO classification of [[National medicines regulatory systems]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/ghana-bolsters-medicines-regulatory-system-guarantees-product-quality.html|title=Ghana bolsters medicines regulatory system, guarantees product quality|publisher=World Health Organization|date=13 May 2020|access-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520001950/https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/ghana-bolsters-medicines-regulatory-system-guarantees-product-quality|archive-date=20 May 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2012}}, the [[HIV/AIDS]] prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2155rank.html|title=Library publications|access-date=13 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221190412/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2155rank.html|archive-date=21 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
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==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Ghana}}
[[File:FB 20151104 19 47 22 Saved Picture(1).jpg|thumb|[[Hogbetsotso festival]] in the [[Volta region]]]]
Ghanaian culture is a diverse mixture of the practices and beliefs of many different [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian]] ethnic groups. The 2010 census reported that the largest ethnic groups are the Akan (47.3 percent), the Mole-Dagbani (16.6 percent), the Ewe (13.9 percent), the Ga-Dangme (7.4 percent), the Gurma (5.7) and the Guan (3.7 percent).<ref name="statsghana.gov.gh">{{cite web |title=2010 Population & Housing Census: National Analytical Report |publisher=Ghana Statistical Service |date=May 2013 |url=http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/National_Analytical_Report.pdf |access-date=23 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712212518/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/National_Analytical_Report.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Akan make up a majority of the population in the Central (81.7 percent), Western (78.2 percent), Ashanti (74.2 percent), Brong Ahafo (58.9 percent) and Eastern (51.1 percent) regions.<ref name="statsghana.gov.gh"/>

===Food and drink===
{{Main|Ghanaian cuisine}}

[[Ghanaian cuisine]] and [[gastronomy]] is diverse, and includes an assortment of [[soup]]s and [[stew]]s with varied seafoods and most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish.<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup"/> Fish is important in the Ghanaian [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]] with [[tilapia]], roasted and fried [[whitebait]], [[smoked fish]] and [[crayfish]] all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup"/>

[[Banku]] ([[akple]]) is a common Ghanaian [[starch]]y food made from ground corn (maize),<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup"/> and cornmeal based staples, kɔmi ([[kenkey]]) and banku (akple) are usually accompanied by some form of [[fried fish]] (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green [[Chili pepper|chillies]], onions and tomatoes ([[pepper sauce]]).<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup"/> Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most Ghanaian restaurants.<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup">{{cite web|url=http://www.kadirecipes.com/2011/10/22/banku-and-okra-soup/|title=Ghanaian cuisine, dokonu, banku, okra and soup|publisher=kadirecipes.com|first=Oumoupoo|last=Bah|date=22 October 2011|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121174204/http://www.kadirecipes.com/2011/10/22/banku-and-okra-soup/|archive-date=21 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Fufu]] is the most common exported Ghanaian dish, in that it is a delicacy across the [[African diaspora]].<ref name="Ghanaian cuisine, banku, okra and soup"/>

===Literature===
The Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publication ''[[Voices of Ghana]]'' was one of the earliest on the African continent. The most prominent Ghanaian authors are novelists; [[J. E. Casely Hayford]], [[Ayi Kwei Armah]] and [[Nii Ayikwei Parkes]], who gained international acclaim with the books, ''[[Ethiopia Unbound]]'' (1911), ''[[The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born]]'' (1968) and ''Tail of the Blue Bird'' (2009), respectively.<ref name="LIT">{{cite web |work= Amadeus |url= http://www.amadeus.net/home/destinations/es/guides/gh/cul.htm |title= Ghana |language= es |access-date= 1 August 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150223225901/https://www.amadeus.net/home/destinations/es/guides/gh/cul.htm |archive-date= 23 February 2015 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all }}</ref> In addition to novels, other literature arts such as Ghanaian theatre and poetry have also had a very good development and support at the national level with prominent Ghanaian playwrights and poets [[Joe de Graft]] and [[Efua Sutherland]].<ref name="LIT"/>
Much of the 2016 novel ''[[Homegoing (Gyasi novel)|Homegoing]]'' by Ghanaian-born American writer [[Yaa Gyasi]] takes place in Ghana.

===Adinkra===
{{Main|Adinkra symbols}}
[[File:Adinkra motifs Rattray 1927.jpg|thumb|[[Adinkra symbols]] by [[Robert Sutherland Rattray]]]]

During the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of ''[[Adinkra symbols|adinkra]]'' printing. Hand-printed and hand-[[Embroidery|embroidered]] adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by the then Ghanaian royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]] that make up the [[Text corpus|corpus]] of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, [[ethology]], [[plant life-form]], or [[shape]]s of [[inanimate]] and man-made objects. These are graphically rendered in stylised geometric shapes. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into [[aesthetics]], ethics, [[Interpersonal relationship|human relations]], and concepts.<ref name="LIT"/>

The Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life or the environment. There are many different symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with [[proverb]]s. In the words of [[Anthony Appiah]], they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for "supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief".<ref>{{cite book|last=Appiah|first=Kwame Anthony|title=In my father's house : Africa in the philosophy of culture|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-506852-8|edition=1.paperbackedition 1993.|author-link=Anthony Appiah}}</ref>

===Traditional clothing===
{{Main|Kente cloth}}
[[File:Kent wove.jpg|thumb|upright|Kente cloth, the traditional or national cloth of Ghana, is worn by most southern Ghanaian ethnic groups including the [[Akan people|Akan]], the [[Ga-Adangbe people|Ga]], and the [[Ewe people|Ewe]].]]
Along with the ''Adinkra cloth'' Ghanaians use many different cloth fabrics for their traditional attire.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is the [[Kente]] cloth.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> Kente is a very important Ghanaian [[national costume]] and clothing and these cloths are used to make traditional and modern Ghanaian Kente [[attire]].<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth">{{cite web |url=http://www.kentecloth.net/ghanaian-kente-cloth/ |title=Ghanaian Kente Cloth |publisher=kentecloth.net |access-date=6 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607002652/http://www.kentecloth.net/ghanaian-kente-cloth/ |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Different symbols and different colours mean different things.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> [[Kente cloth|Kente]] is the most famous of all the Ghanaian cloths.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal [[Loom|treadle loom]] and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/>

In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth and it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> The term kente has its roots in the Akan word ''kɛntɛn'' which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as ''kenten ntoma''; meaning basket cloth.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/> The original Akan name of the cloth was ''nsaduaso'' or ''nwontoma'', meaning "a cloth hand-woven on a loom"; however, "kente" is the most frequently used term today.<ref name="Ghanaian Kente Cloth"/>
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===Modern clothing===
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Contemporary Ghanaian fashion includes traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known as [[African waxprints|African print fabric]] was created out of Dutch wax textiles. It is believed that in the late 1800s, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian Batik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa – mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles – the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colours and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thewrendesign.com/the-story-behind-african-wax-print-cloth/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925182125/http://thewrendesign.com/the-story-behind-african-wax-print-cloth/|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 September 2010|title=The Story Behind African Wax Print Cloth|publisher=Thewrendesign.com|date=10 July 2008|access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref>
Today outside of Africa it is called "Ankara" and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is very popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans; celebrities such as [[Solange Knowles]] and her sister [[Beyoncé]] have been seen wearing African print attire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fashionmagazine.com/scene/red-carpet-society/2013/04/05/beyonce-vs-solange-prints//|first=Erin|last=Wilson|title=Beyonce vs. Solange: Which Sister Wears Bold Prints Best|work=Fashionmagazine.com|date=5 April 2013|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216230934/http://www.fashionmagazine.com/scene/red-carpet-society/2013/04/05/beyonce-vs-solange-prints/|archive-date=16 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Many designers from countries in North America and Europe are now using African prints and it has gained a global interest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://munaluchibridal.com/african-inspired-spring-2012-collections-takes-over-lfw-nyfw/|title=African-Inspired Spring 2012 Collections Takes Over LFW & NYFW|author=ChiomaChinweoke|publisher=munaluchibridal.com|date=21 September 2011|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216214432/http://munaluchibridal.com/african-inspired-spring-2012-collections-takes-over-lfw-nyfw/|archive-date=16 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> British luxury fashion house [[Burberry]] created a collection around Ghanaian styles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/african-style-finds-global-following-but-little-support-from-african-leaders/|title=African Style Goes Global, Despite Little Tangible Support From African Leaders|first=Frankie|last=Edozien|work=The New York Times|date=26 May 2012|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910140503/http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/26/african-style-finds-global-following-but-little-support-from-african-leaders/|archive-date=10 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> American musician [[Gwen Stefani]] has repeatedly incorporated African prints into her clothing line and can often be seen wearing it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.okayafrica.com/news/design-gwen-stefanis-l-a-m-b-spring-2011-collection/ |title=Design: Gwen Stefani's L.A.M.B Spring 2011 Collection |publisher=Okayafrica.com |date=3 August 2011 |access-date=24 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216220100/http://www.okayafrica.com/news/design-gwen-stefanis-l-a-m-b-spring-2011-collection/ |archive-date=16 December 2014 }}</ref> Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer [[Ozwald Boateng]] introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africanprintinfashion.com/2012/09/african-icons-show-at-nyfw-ozwald.html|title=African Icons Show at NYFW: Ozwald Boateng|publisher=Africanprintinfashion.com|date=10 September 2012|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216215105/http://www.africanprintinfashion.com/2012/09/african-icons-show-at-nyfw-ozwald.html|archive-date=16 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of Ghana|Azonto|Kpanlogo}}
[[File:Traditional Adowa dance form and music performance.ogv|thumb|Traditional [[Adowa dance]] form and music performance.]]

The [[music of Ghana]] is diverse and varies between different ethnic groups and regions. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, [[Akan Drum]], [[goje]] fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan [[Seperewa]], the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log [[xylophone]]s used in asonko music.<ref name="Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife"/> The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are African jazz, which was created by Ghanaian artist [[Guy Warren|Kofi Ghanaba]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200902120888.html|title=Ghana: Kofi Ghanaba – Influential Drummer Who Emphasised the African Origins of Jazz|date=12 February 2009|publisher=Ghanaian Chronicle|access-date=30 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008182524/http://allafrica.com/stories/200902120888.html|archive-date=8 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> and its earliest form of secular music, called [[highlife]].<ref name="Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmusic.net/guide/ghana-from-highlife-to-hiplife/|title=Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife|publisher=worldmusic.net|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607004721/http://www.worldmusic.net/guide/ghana-from-highlife-to-hiplife/|archive-date=7 June 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Highlife originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century and spread throughout West Africa.<ref name="Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife"/> In the 1990s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, [[dancehall]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]].<ref name="Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife"/> This hybrid was called [[hiplife]].<ref name="Ghana: From Highlife to Hiplife"/> Ghanaian artists such as "Afro Roots" singer, activist and songwriter [[Rocky Dawuni]], R&B and soul singer [[Rhian Benson]] and [[Sarkodie (rapper)|Sarkodie]] have had international success.<ref name="Rhian Benson's global soul sound">{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/01/ghana.rhian.benson/|title=Rhian Benson's global soul sound|publisher=CNN|date=1 March 2011|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606204320/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/01/ghana.rhian.benson/|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sarkodie">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanacelebrities.com/sarkodie/|title=Sarkodie|publisher=ghanacelebrities.com|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520121459/http://www.ghanacelebrities.com/sarkodie/|archive-date=20 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2015, Rocky Dawuni became the first Ghanaian musician to be nominated for a Grammy award in the [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album]] category for his 6th studio album titled ''Branches of The Same Tree''<ref>{{cite web|title=Branches of the Same Tree album|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/branches-of-the-same-tree/id963525098|publisher=iTunes|access-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307063130/https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/branches-of-the-same-tree/id963525098|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> released 31 March 2015.

Ghanaian dance is as diverse as its music, and there are traditional dances and different dances for different occasions.<ref name="Dance, Ghana">{{cite web|work=Temple|url=http://www.temple.edu/studyabroad/students/fulbright/documents/mfa_dance_ghana.pdf|title=Dance, Ghana|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226065738/http://www.temple.edu/studyabroad/students/fulbright/documents/mfa_dance_ghana.pdf|archive-date=26 December 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The most known Ghanaian dances are those for celebrations. These dances include the [[Adowa dance|Adowa]], [[Kpanlogo]], [[Azonto]], [[Klama]], [[Agbadza]], [[Borborbor]] and [[Bamaya]].<ref name="Dance, Ghana"/>

The Nana Otafrija Pallbearing Services, also known as the [[Dancing Pallbearers]], come from the coastal town of [[Prampram]] in the Greater Accra Region of southern Ghana. The group of pallbearers were featured in a BBC feature story in 2017, and footage from the story became part of an Internet meme in the wake of the [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19 world pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 April 2020|title=How Prampram pallbearers became an international sensation – and a meme|url=https://www.theghanareport.com/how-prampram-pallbearers-became-an-international-sensation-and-a-meme/|access-date=11 June 2020|website=The Ghana Report|language=en}}</ref>

===Film===
{{Main| Cinema of Ghana}}

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Ghana has a budding and thriving film industry. Ghana's film industry dates as far back as 1948 when the Gold Coast Film Unit was set up in the Information Services Department.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gold Coast Film Unit|url=http://www.colonialfilm.org.uk/production-company/gold-coast-film-unit|publisher=Colonialfilm.org.uk|access-date=2 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117123221/http://colonialfilm.org.uk/production-company/gold-coast-film-unit|archive-date=17 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Some internationally recognised films have come from Ghana. In 1970, ''I Told You So'' was one of the first Ghanaian films to receive international acknowledgement and received great reviews from ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref>{{IMDb title|65873|I Told You So}}</ref> It was followed by the 1973 Ghanaian and Italian production ''The African Deal'' also known as "''Contratto carnale''" featuring [[Bahamian American]] actor [[Calvin Lockhart]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The African Deal (1973)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069917/|website=[[Internet Movie Database]]|access-date=2 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226173418/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069917/|archive-date=26 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> 1983's ''Kukurantumi: the Road to Accra'', a Ghanaian and German production directed by King Ampaw, was written about by famous American film critic [[Vincent Canby]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Kukurantumi The Road To Accra (1983)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9804EFDE1F39F932A35757C0A962948260|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1 April 1984|access-date=2 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410144701/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9804EFDE1F39F932A35757C0A962948260|archive-date=10 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1987, ''[[Cobra Verde]]'', another Ghanaian and German production directed by [[Werner Herzog]], received international acclamation and in 1988, ''Heritage Africa'' won more than 12 film awards.

In recent times there have been collaborations between Ghanaian and Nigerian crew and cast and a number of productions turned out. Many Ghanaian films are co-produced with [[Cinema of Nigeria|Nollywood]], the Nigerian film industry, and some are distributed by Nigerian marketers. Also, Nigerian filmmakers often feature Ghanaian actors and actresses in their movies and Ghanaian filmmakers feature Nigerian actors and actresses in theirs. [[Nadia Buari]], [[Yvonne Nelson]], [[Lydia Forson]] and [[Jackie Appiah]] all popular Ghanaian actresses and [[Van Vicker]] and [[Majid Michel]] both popular Ghanaian actors, have starred in many Nigerian movies. As a result of these collaborations, Western viewers often confuse Ghanaian movies with Nollywood and count their sales as one; however, they are two independent industries that sometimes share ''Nollywood''. In 2009, [[Unesco]] described Nollywood as the second-biggest film industry in the world after [[Bollywood]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article7086248.ece |title=Nollywood success puts Nigeria's film industry in regional spotlight |work=The Times|first=Jonathan|last=Clayton|date=3 April 2010|access-date=3 April 2010}}</ref>

Though The Ghana Film Industry had a downtrend for almost a decade mainly because of low input in production this scenario has drastically change. New and emerging young film makers are adding spice to the already rich Ghana movie scene. Bliz Bazawule,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Burial of Kojo(2018)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7497366/}}</ref> Peter Sedufia,<ref>{{cite web|title=Aloe Vera(2020)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt12027832/?ref_=fn_al_tt_4}}</ref> Joseph Clef<ref>{{cite web|title=Till Sunset(2019) |url=https://filmfreeway.com/JosephClefAboah}}</ref> and many others have shown the world the new age of filming in Ghana.

===Media===
{{Main|Media of Ghana}}
[[File:Ghana Trustworthiness of Media.jpg|thumb|Ghana mass media, news and information provided by television.]]

The [[media of Ghana]] are amongst the most free in Africa. Chapter 12 of the 1992 [[Constitution of Ghana]] guarantees [[freedom of the press]] and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.<ref name="gov">{{cite web|url=http://ghana.gov.gh/ghana/constitution_republic_ghana.jsp |title=Constitution of Ghana |access-date=18 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324233340/http://ghana.gov.gh/ghana/constitution_republic_ghana.jsp |archive-date=24 March 2008 }}, ''Government of Ghana''.</ref> Post-independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, with private outlets closed during the military governments and strict media laws that prevented criticism of government.<ref name="Anokwa">Anokwa, K. (1997). In ''Press Freedom and Communication in Africa.'' Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.) Africa World Press. {{ISBN|978-0-86543-551-3}}.</ref>

Press freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of [[John Kufuor|John Agyekum Kufuor]] the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor supported press freedom and repealed a [[Defamation|libel]] law, but maintained that the media had to act responsibly.<ref name="pr">[http://www.pressreference.com/Fa-Gu/Ghana.html Basic Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116031932/http://www.pressreference.com/Fa-Gu/Ghana.html |date=16 January 2009 }}. pressreference.com</ref> The Ghanaian media has been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa, operating with little restriction. The private press often carries criticism of government policy.<ref name="bbc">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm#media BBC Country Profile: Ghana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615131247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm#media |date=15 June 2006 }}, [[BBC News]].</ref>

===Sports===
{{Main|Sports in Ghana}}
{{See also|Ghana at the 2010 Winter Olympics|l1=Ghana at the Winter Olympics|Ghana at the Olympics}}
[[File:20150331 Mali vs Ghana 042.jpg|thumb|left|Black Stars, the [[Ghana national football team]].]]

[[Association football]] is the top spectator [[Sports in Ghana|sport in Ghana]] and the [[Ghana national football team|national men's football team]] is known as the Black Stars, with the [[Ghana national under-20 football team|under-20 team]] known as the [[Black Satellites]].<ref name="Ghana thrilled by historic title"/> Ghana has won the [[African Cup of Nations]] four times, the [[FIFA U-20 World Cup]] once, and has participated in three consecutive [[FIFA World Cup]]s in 2006, 2010, and 2014.<ref name="Ghana thrilled by historic title">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/africa/8311948.stm |title=Ghana thrilled by historic title |publisher=BBC |date=17 October 2009 |access-date=6 June 2014}}</ref> In the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], Ghana became the third African country to reach the quarter-final stage of the World Cup after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/matches/match_50 |title=USA 1–2 Ghana (aet) |publisher=BBC |date=26 June 2009 |access-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617074443/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/matches/match_50 |archive-date=17 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ghana national U-20 football team, known as the ''Black Satellites'', is considered to be the feeder team for the [[Ghana national football team]]. Ghana is the first and only country on the [[African continent|Africa continent]] to be crowned [[2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup|FIFA U-20 World Cup Champions]],<ref name="Ghana thrilled by historic title"/> and two-time runners up in [[1993 FIFA World Youth Championship|1993]] and [[2001 FIFA World Youth Championship|2001]]. The Ghana national U-17 football team known as the Black Starlets are two-time [[FIFA U-17 World Cup]] champions in [[1991 FIFA U-17 World Championship|1991]] and [[1995 FIFA U-17 World Championship|1995]], two-time runners up in [[1993 FIFA U-17 World Championship|1993]] and [[1997 FIFA World Youth Championship|1997]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wyc16hist.html |title=World Championship for U-16/U-17 Teams |website=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation |access-date=6 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050826132748/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wyc16hist.html |archive-date=26 August 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Black Stars Goal Celebration (Ghana national football team).jpg|thumb|Black Stars [[goal celebration]].]]

Ghanaian [[football team]]s [[Asante Kotoko S.C.|Asante Kotoko SC]] and [[Accra Hearts of Oak S.C.|Accra Hearts of Oak SC]] are the 5th and 9th best [[football team]]s on the [[African continent|Africa continent]] and have won a total of five Africa continental association football and [[Confederation of African Football]] trophies; Ghanaian football club [[Asante Kotoko SC]] has been crowned two-time [[CAF Champions League]] winners in [[1970 African Cup of Champions Clubs|1970]], [[1983 African Cup of Champions Clubs|1983]] and five-time CAF Champions League runners up, and Ghanaian football club [[Accra Hearts of Oak SC]] has been crowned [[2000 CAF Champions League]] winner and two-time CAF Champions League runners up, 2001 [[CAF Super Cup]] champions and [[2004 CAF Confederation Cup]] champions.<ref name="Africa's club of the Century"/> The [[International Federation of Football History and Statistics]] crowned Asante Kotoko SC as the [[International Federation of Football History & Statistics#Continental Clubs of the 20th century|African club of the 20th century]].<ref name="Africa's club of the Century">{{cite web|url=http://www.iffhs.de/?c813f0e03790c443e0f40390b41be8b01f05fdcdc3bfcdc0aec70aeedb883dcfc5ff0b|title=Africa's club of the Century|work=IFFHS official website|access-date=21 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921110231/http://www.iffhs.de/?c813f0e03790c443e0f40390b41be8b01f05fdcdc3bfcdc0aec70aeedb883dcfc5ff0b|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> There are several club football teams in Ghana that play in the [[Ghana Premier League]] and [[Ghana Football Leagues|Division One League]], both administered by the [[Ghana Football Association]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ghanafa.org/pages/premierleague/|title=Premier League|publisher=ghanafa.org|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531130339/http://www.ghanafa.org/pages/premierleague/|archive-date=31 May 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:2010 Opening Ceremony - Ghana entering.jpg|thumb|left|Ghanaian [[winter sport]]s Olympic team at the [[opening ceremony]] of the 2010 [[Winter Olympics]]]]
Ghana competed in the Winter Olympics in 2010 for the first time. Ghana qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics, scoring 137.5 [[International Ski Federation]] points, within the qualifying range of 120–140 points.<ref name="0-21">{{cite web|url=http://www.0-21.co.uk/index.php/200903133581/News/Rider/Base-Camp-Sponsored-Ghanaian-skier-Kwame-NkrumahAcheampong-has-qualified-for-2010-Olympics.html|title=Base Camp Sponsored Ghanaian skier Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong has qualified for 2010 Olympics|publisher=0–21 Snowboarding|date=13 March 2009|access-date=26 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002102230/http://www.0-21.co.uk/index.php/200903133581/News/Rider/Base-Camp-Sponsored-Ghanaian-skier-Kwame-NkrumahAcheampong-has-qualified-for-2010-Olympics.html|archive-date=2 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Ghanaian [[Skiing|skier]], [[Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong]], nicknamed "The [[snow leopard]]", became the first [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian]] to take part in the [[Winter Olympics]], at the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] held in [[Vancouver]], British Columbia, Canada,<ref name="Independent">{{cite news|last=Dutta|first=Kunal|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/olympics/forget-eric-the-eel-meet-the-snow-leopard-1806888.html|title=Forget Eric the Eel... meet the Snow Leopard|work=[[The Independent]]|date=22 October 2009|access-date=26 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104181112/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/olympics/forget-eric-the-eel-meet-the-snow-leopard-1806888.html|archive-date=4 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> taking part in the [[slalom skiing]].<ref name="Vancouver 2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/athletes/kwame-nkrumah-acheampong_ath1076551ZG.html |title=Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong, Alpine Skiing |publisher=Vancouver, 2010 |access-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219204633/http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/athletes/kwame-nkrumah-acheampong_ath1076551ZG.html |archive-date=19 February 2010 }}</ref> Ghana finished 47th out of 102 participating nations, of whom 54 finished in the [[Alpine skiing at the 2010 Winter Olympics – Men's slalom|Alpine skiing slalom]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/schedule-and-results/mens-slalom-2nd-run_asm020102kP.html |title=Men's Slalom – Run 2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408202557/http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/schedule-and-results/mens-slalom-2nd-run_asm020102kP.html |archive-date=8 April 2010 |website=Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games official website |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Results">{{cite web|url=http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/schedule-and-results/mens-slalom-1st-run_asm020101Je.html |title=Men's Slalom |publisher=Vancouver, 2010 |access-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408234256/http://www.vancouver2010.com/olympic-alpine-skiing/schedule-and-results/mens-slalom-1st-run_asm020101Je.html |archive-date=8 April 2010 }}</ref> [[Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong]] broke on the international [[skiing]] circuit, being the second [[Black people|black African]] skier to do so.<ref name="Ghana's first winter Olympian">{{cite web|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/ghanas-first-winter-olympian-gears-199086|title=Ghana's first winter Olympian gears up for Vancouver Games|first=Chris|last=Wilson|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|date=3 February 2010|access-date=26 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525193326/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/ghanas-first-winter-olympian-gears-199086|archive-date=25 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ghana's last medal at the [[Summer Olympics]] dates back to 1992.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Liam |last1=Morgan |title=Ghana Olympic Committee President claims country will not win a medal at Tokyo 2020|url=https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1097466/no-chance-of-ghana-winning-medal-tokyo |access-date=6 November 2020 |work=[[Inside the Games]] |date=19 August 2020}}</ref> Ghanaian athletes have won a total of four Olympics medals in thirteen appearances at the [[Summer Olympics]], three in [[boxing]], and a [[bronze medal]] in association football, and thus became the first country on the [[African continent|Africa continent]] to win a medal at association football.<ref name="Ghana Olympic">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/africa/9451954.stm|title=Ghana clinging to Olympic dream|work=BBC News|date=8 April 2011|access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

Ghana competes in the [[Commonwealth Games]], sending athletes in every edition since [[1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1954]] (except for the [[1986 Commonwealth Games|1986 games]]). Ghana has won fifty-seven medals at the Commonwealth Games, including fifteen gold, with all but one of their medals coming in athletics and boxing.

The country has also produced a number of world class boxers, including [[Azumah Nelson]] a three-time world champion and considered as Africa's greatest [[boxer]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/07/sport/azumah-nelson-boxing-ghana/|title=Is Azumah Nelson Africa's greatest boxer?|first=Errol|last=Barnett|author-link=Errol Barnett|publisher=CNN|date=10 August 2012|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606213758/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/07/sport/azumah-nelson-boxing-ghana/|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Top 5 Ghanaian Boxers"/> [[Nana Konadu|Nana Yaw Konadu]] also a three-time world champion,<ref name="Top 5 Ghanaian Boxers"/> [[Ike Quartey]],<ref name="Top 5 Ghanaian Boxers"/> and [[Joshua Clottey]].<ref name="Top 5 Ghanaian Boxers">{{cite news|url=http://www.proboxing-fans.com/boxing-101/best-of-a-nation/top-5-ghanaian-boxers/|title=Top 5 Ghanaian Boxers|publisher=proboxing-fans.com|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606222940/http://www.proboxing-fans.com/boxing-101/best-of-a-nation/top-5-ghanaian-boxers/|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ghana's women's football team won bronze at the [[Africa Women Cup of Nations]] 2016 edition in Yaoundé, Cameroon. The team beat South Africa 1–0.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/sport/soccer/2016/12/02/Banyana-go-down-to-Ghana-in-womens-Afcon-bronze-medal-match|title=Banyana go down to Ghana in women's Afcon bronze-medal match|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205151234/http://www.timeslive.co.za/sport/soccer/2016/12/02/Banyana-go-down-to-Ghana-in-womens-Afcon-bronze-medal-match|archive-date=5 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ghana featured a men's national team in [[beach volleyball]] that competed at the [[2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |accessdate=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref>

Ghana will host the [[2023 African Games]] in [[Accra]].{{clear}}

===Cultural heritage and architecture===
{{See also|Ghana's material cultural heritage|List of museums in Ghana|l2=Ghanaian museums}}
[[File:A drone footage of Accra central, Ghana.jpg|thumb|Modern [[skyscraper]]s in [[Accra]], the capital.]]
There are two types of Ghanaian traditional construction: the series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common are common and the traditional round huts with grass roof.<ref name="ARC">{{cite web |work = Countriesquest |url = http://www.countriesquest.com/africa/ghana/culture/art_and_architecture.htm |title = Culture, Art and Architecture: Ghana |access-date = 10 May 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150304203925/http://www.countriesquest.com/africa/ghana/culture/art_and_architecture.htm |archive-date = 4 March 2015 |url-status=live |df = dmy-all }}</ref> The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions of Ghana ([[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern]], [[Upper East Region|Upper East]] and [[Upper West Region|Upper West]] regions), while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions of Ghana ([[Ashanti Region|Ashanti]], [[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong-Ahafo]], [[Central Region (Ghana)|Central]], [[Eastern Region (Ghana)|Eastern]], [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]] and [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western]] regions).<ref name="ARC"/>

Ghanaian [[postmodern architecture]] and [[high-tech architecture]] buildings are predominant in the Ghanaian southern regions, while the Ghanaian [[heritage site]]s are most evident by the more than thirty [[fort]]s and castles built in Ghana. Some of these forts are [[Fort William (fort)|Fort William]] and [[Fort Amsterdam (Ghana)|Fort Amsterdam]]. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort.<ref name="Museums and Monuments Board"/> The [[Armed Forces Museum (Ghana)|Military Museum]] and the [[National Museum of Ghana|National Museum]] organise temporary exhibitions.<ref name="Museums and Monuments Board">{{cite web |url=http://www.ghanamuseums.org/index.php |title=Ghana Museums and Monuments Board |access-date=10 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130235605/http://www.ghanamuseums.org/index.php |archive-date=30 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ghana has museums that show a in-depth look at specific [[Regions of Ghana|Ghanaian regions]], there are a number of museums that provide insight into the traditions and history of their own geographical area in Ghana.<ref name="Museums and Monuments Board"/> The [[Cape Coast Castle]] Museum and St. Georges Castle ([[Elmina Castle]]) Museum offer [[guided tour]]s. The [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology|Museum of Science and Technology]] provides its visitors with a look into the domain of Ghanaian [[Science|scientific]] development, through exhibits of objects of scientific and [[Technology|technological]] interest.<ref name="Museums and Monuments Board"/>

===National symbols===
[[File:Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapax) 1.jpg|thumb|{{center|The [[tawny eagle]] appears on the [[coat of arms of Ghana]].}}]]
The [[Coat of arms of Ghana|coat of arms]] depicts two animals: the [[tawny eagle]] (''[[Aquila rapax]]'', a very large [[Bird of prey|bird]] that lives in the savannas and deserts;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/tawny-eagle/aquila-rapax/|title=Tawny eagle videos, photos and facts – Aquila rapax|website=Arkive|language=en-GB|access-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201195143/http://www.arkive.org/tawny-eagle/aquila-rapax/|archive-date=1 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 35% of Ghana's [[Land mass|landmass]] is [[desert]], 35% is forest, 30% is [[savanna]]) and the lion (''[[Panthera leo]]'', a [[big cat]]); a [[ceremonial sword]], a [[heraldic]] castle on a heraldic sea, a [[cocoa tree]] and a [[mine shaft]] representing the [[industrial mineral]] wealth of Ghana, and a five-pointed black star rimmed with gold representing the mineral gold wealth of Ghana and the lodestar of the [[Ghanaian people]].<ref name="Ghana National Emblems"/> It also has the legend ''Freedom and Justice''.<ref name="Ghana National Emblems">{{cite web|url=http://www.ghanaembassy.be/about-ghana/national-emblems.html|title=Ghana National Emblems|publisher=ghanaembassy.be|access-date=24 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627030326/http://www.ghanaembassy.be/about-ghana/national-emblems.html|archive-date=27 June 2013}}</ref>

The [[flag of Ghana]] consists of three horizontal bands (strips) of red (top), gold (middle) and green (bottom); the three bands are the same height and width; the middle band bears a five-pointed black [[star]] in the centre of the gold band, the colour red band stands for the blood spilled to achieve the nation's independence: gold stands for Ghana's [[industrial mineral]] wealth, and the colour green symbolises the rich [[tropical rainforest]]s and natural resources of Ghana.<ref name="Ghana flag and description">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/flags/countrys/africa/ghana.htm|title=Ghana flag and description|publisher=worldatlas.com|access-date=24 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224131743/http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/flags/countrys/africa/ghana.htm|archive-date=24 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ghana National Emblems"/>{{clear}}

{{wide image|Panorama view of Kakum Nationalpark.jpg|600px|align-cap=center| Panorama view of [[Kakum National Park]], located in the coastal environs of the [[Central Region (Ghana)|Central region]] on the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and Atlantic Ocean, covers an area of {{convert|375|km2}}. Established in 1931 as a [[game reserve]] and [[nature reserve]], it was [[gazetted]] as a national park only in 1992 after an initial survey of [[Bird|avifauna]] was conducted. The national park is covered with tropical rainforest.<ref name=Parks>{{cite web|url=http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf|title=Parks and reserves of Ghana: Management Effectiveness Assessment of Protected Areas|access-date=14 July 2014|publisher=IUCN Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107201234/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf|archive-date=7 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Unesco>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396/|title=Kakum National Park (Assin Attandanso Reserve) (#)|access-date=14 July 2014|publisher=UNESCO Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802203931/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396/|archive-date=2 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NGO>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm|title=Kakum National Park|access-date=14 July 2014|publisher=Microsfere Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107214241/http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm|archive-date=7 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Kakum National Park]] is the only national park in Africa with a [[canopy walkway]], which is {{convert|350|m}} long and connects seven [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]] tree [[Crown (botany)|tops]] which provides access to the [[rainforest]]s.<ref name=Unesco/><ref name=Life>{{cite web|url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324|title=Kakum National Park – Assin Attandaso Resource Reserve|access-date=14 July 2014|publisher=Bird Life organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101020828/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324|archive-date=1 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> }}
{{clear}}

===National landmarks===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="3"| Tourism Landmarks, National Border, Region and Terrestrial plain of the 4th Republic of Ghana
|-
|colspan="2"|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="background:#71b37b;width:5px" |
|[[Geography of Ghana#Low Plains|Coastal Plain]]
| [[Accra]], [[Apam]], [[Cape Coast]], [[Elmina]], [[Kakum National Park]], [[Kokrobite]], [[Nzulezo]], [[Sekondi-Takoradi]], [[Ada Foah]]
| The [[Gulf of Guinea]] [[coastal plain]] with the [[seat of government]] and capital city, several castles and forts and the best preserved [[rainforest]] in Ghana

|-
| style="background:#64a0c7;width:5px" |
|[[Geography of Ghana#Ashanti Uplands|Ashanti-Kwahu]]
| [[Koforidua]], [[Kumasi]], [[Obuasi]], [[Sunyani]]
| Forested hills and the ancient [[Kingdom of Ashanti]]

|-
| style="background:#bf88bf;width:5px" |
|[[Volta Basin]]
| [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]
| massive and world's largest [[Lake Volta]], the river system that feeds it and Ghana eastern [[border crossing]]

|-
| style="background:#b2be9b;width:5px" |
|[[Geography of Ghana#High plains|Northern Plains]]
| [[Wa, Ghana|Wa]], [[Bolgatanga]], [[Mole National Park]]
| [[Savanna]] plains and north Ghana [[trade route]] and [[border crossing]]
|}
|rowspan="12"|[[File:Ghana Regions map.png|upright=1.35|thumb|center|{{center|Map of Ghana with [[national border]], [[geographical region]]s and [[Plain|terrestrial plains]] colour-coded}}]]
|- style="background:#eee;"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|'''Settlements'''
|-
|border = "1"|[[Accra]]
|style="text-align:center;"| [[Seat of Government]] and Capital city.
|-
|border = "1"|[[Bolgatanga]]
|style="text-align:center;"| [[Paga Crocodile Pond]] location.
|-
|border = "1"|[[Cape Coast]]
|style="text-align:center;"|[[Cape Coast Castle]] is a [[UNESCO World Heritage site]].
|-
|border = "1"|[[Elmina]]
|style="text-align:center;"| Coastal town with [[Elmina Castle]].
|-
|border = "1"|[[Koforidua]]
|style="text-align:center;"|[[Aburi Botanical Gardens]] location.
|-
|border = "1"|[[Kumasi]]
|style="text-align:center;"|Traditional centre of the [[Kingdom of Ashanti]].
|-
|border = "1"|[[Obuasi]]
|style="text-align:center;"|World's 9th largest [[gold mine]] location; and [[Mining town]].
|-
|border = "1"|[[Sekondi-Takoradi]]
|style="text-align:center;"|Renowned [[surfing]] beaches such as [[Busua Beach]],<ref name="11 of the world's most unusual surf spots">{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/13/travel/unusual-surf-spots/|title=11 of the world's most unusual surf spots|work=edition.cnn.com|publisher=CNN|first=Tamara|last=Hinson|date=28 August 2014|access-date=28 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411081223/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/13/travel/unusual-surf-spots/|archive-date=11 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[UNESCO World Heritage site]]s.
|-
|border = "1"|[[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]
|style="text-align:center;"|Largest settlement in the [[Kingdom of Dagbon]] and gateway to [[Mole National Park]].
|-
|border = "1"|[[Yendi, Ghana|Yendi]]
|style="text-align:center;"|Traditional Capital of the [[Kingdom of Dagbon]] and seat of [[Yaa Naa]].
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Africa}}
* [[Index of Ghana-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Ghana]]

{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Arhin, Kwame, ''The Life and Work of Kwame Nkrumah'' (Africa Research & Publications, 1995)
* Babatope, Ebenezer, ''The Ghana Revolution: From Nkrumah to Jerry Rawlings'' (Fourth Dimension Publishing, 1982)
* Birmingham, David, ''Kwame Nkrumah: Father Of African Nationalism'' ([[Ohio University Press]], 1998)
* Boafo-Arthur, Kwame, ''Ghana: One Decade of the Liberal State'' ([[Zed Books]], 2007)
* Briggs, Philip, ''Ghana (Bradt Travel Guide)'' (Bradt Travel Guides, 2010)
* Clark, Gracia, ''African Market Women: Seven Life Stories from Ghana'' ([[Indiana University Press]], 2010)
* [[Basil Davidson|Davidson, Basil]], ''Black Star: A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah'' ([[James Currey]], 2007)
* [[Toyin Falola|Falola, Toyin]], and Salm, Stephen J, ''Culture and Customs of Ghana'' (Greenwood, 2002)
* Grant, Richard, ''Globalizing City: The Urban and Economic Transformation of Accra, Ghana'' (Syracuse University Press, 2008)
* Hadjor, Kofi Buenor, ''Nkrumah and Ghana'' (Africa Research & Publications, 2003)
* Hasty, Jennifer, ''The Press and Political Culture in Ghana'' (Indiana University Press, 2005)
* [[C. L. R. James|James, C.L.R.]], ''Kwame Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution'' ([[Allison & Busby]], 1977)
* Kuada, John, and Chachah Yao, ''Ghana. Understanding the People and their Culture'' (Woeli Publishing Services, 1999)
* Miescher, Stephan F, ''Making Men in Ghana'' (Indiana University Press, 2005)
* Milne, June, ''Kwame Nkrumah, A Biography'' (Panaf Books, 2006)
* Nkrumah, Kwame, ''Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah'' (International Publishers, 1971)
* Utley, Ian, ''Ghana – Culture Smart!: the essential guide to customs & culture'' (Kuperard, 2009)
* Various, ''Ghana: An African Portrait Revisited'' (Peter E. Randall Publisher, 2007)
* Younge, Paschal Yao, ''Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana: History, Performance and Teaching'' (Mcfarland & Co Inc., 2011)
* {{cite book|first1=Laura|last1=Burke|author2=Armando García Schmidt|title=Ghana: Staying on Track in a Challenging Environment|publisher=Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh|year=2013|isbn=978-3-86793-491-6|pages=127–147}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|b=y|commons=Ghana|n=y|q=y|s=y|v=y |voy= y}}

===Government===
* [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/ Ghana] official website
* [http://www.parliament.gh/ The Parliament of Ghana] official site
* [http://www.ghanaculture.gov.gh/ National Commission on Culture] official site

===General information===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana Ghana] from ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084858/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/ghana.htm Ghana] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ghana/ Ghana]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141129112144/http://www.africa.com/ghana/ Ghana] profile from [[Africa.com]]
* {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Ghana}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Ghana}}
* [http://www.ghanayello.com/ Ghana Directory]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170202113229/http://www.haotags.com/ Ghana News]
* The [http://africanactivist.msu.edu/ African Activist Archive Project] website has photographs of the All Africa People's Conference held in Accra, Ghana, 5–13 December 1958 including [http://africanactivist.msu.edu/image.php?objectid=476 Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana], addressing the conference, the [http://africanactivist.msu.edu/image.php?objectid=85 American Committee on Africa delegation] meeting with Nkrumah, and of [http://africanactivist.msu.edu/image.php?objectid=470 Patrick Duncan and Alfred Hutchinson] of South Africa at the conference.
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=GH Key Development Forecasts for Ghana] from [[International Futures]]

===Trade===
* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/GHA/Year/2012/Summary Ghana 2012 Summary Trade Statistics]

{{Ghana topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Articles relating to Ghana
|list =
{{Years in Ghana}}
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{{ECOWAS}}
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}}
{{Navboxes
|title = [[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale
|list =
'''[[Geographic coordinate system|Lat. and Long.]] {{Coord|5|33|N|0|12|W|display=inline}} (Accra)''' '''[[Geographic coordinate system|Lat. and Long.]] {{Coord|6|40|N|1|37|W|display=inline}} (Kumasi)'''
{{Countries of Africa}}
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}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ghana| ]]
[[Category:Commonwealth republics]]
[[Category:Economic Community of West African States]]
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[[Category:Countries in Africa]]

Nigeria

2021-08-20T07:17:45Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{about|the country}} {{distinguish|text=the neighbouring country Niger}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Coord|8|N|10|E..."

{{short description|Country in West Africa}}
{{about|the country}}
{{distinguish|text=the neighbouring country [[Niger]]}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Coord|8|N|10|E|region:NI_type:country_source:dewiki|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Federal Republic of Nigeria
| common_name = Nigeria
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:78%; |{{native name|ha|Jamhuriyar Taraiyar ta Najeriya}}
| {{native name|yo|Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìniira Àpapọ̀ Nàìjíríà}} | {{native name|ig|Ọ̀hàńjíkọ̀ Ọ̀hànézè Naìjíríyà}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Nigeria.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Nigeria.svg
| national_motto = "Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress"
| national_anthem = "[[Arise, O Compatriots]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|}}</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Nigeria (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Nigeria AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}}
| map_caption =
| image_map2 =
| capital = [[Abuja]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|9|4|N|7|29|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = [[Lagos]]
| official_languages = [[English language|English]]
| languages_type = [[National languages]]
| languages = * [[Hausa language|Hausa]]
* [[Igbo language|Igbo]]
* [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]
| languages2_type = Other languages<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=ng |title=Languages of Nigeria |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref>
| languages2 = {{Collapsible list
|framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
|Bassa-Nge
|[[Berom language|Berom]]
|[[Boze language|Boze]]
|[[Bura language|Bura]]
|[[Ebira language|Ebira]]
|[[Edo language|Edo]]
|[[Efik language|Efik]]
|[[Eleme language|Eleme]]
|[[Esan language|Esan]]
|[[Afenmai language|Etsako]]
|[[Fula language|Fulfulde]]
|[[Gwari language|Gbagyi]]
|[[Gokana language|Gokana]]
|[[Humono language|Humono]] |[[Hyam language|Hyam]]
|[[Ibibio language|Ibibio]]
|[[Idoma language|Idoma]]
|[[Igala language|Igala]]
|[[Igede language|Igede]]
|[[Ijaw languages|Ijaw]]
|[[Ikwerre language|Ikwerre]]
|[[Itsekiri language|Itsekiri]]
|[[Ukwuani-Aboh-Ndoni language|Ukwuani]]
|[[Izere language|Izere]]
|[[Jju language|Jju]]
|[[Jukun Takum language|Jukun]]
|[[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]
|[[Karekare language|Karai-Karai]]
|[[Margi language|Margi]]
|[[Nigerian Pidgin]]
|[[Ngas language|Ngas]]
|[[Nupe language|Nupe]]
|[[Kupa language|Kupa]]
|[[Obolo language|Obolo]]
|[[Khana language|Ogoni]]
|[[Kalabari language|Okrika]]
|[[Ogba language|Ogba]]
|[[Oro language|Oron]]
|[[Tiv language|Tiv]]
|[[Tyap language|Tyap]]
|[[Urhobo-Isoko]]
|[[Fyer language|Fyer]]
}}
| religion_year =
| religion_ref =
| religion = 
| demonym = [[Nigerians|Nigerian]]
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Republic|constitutional republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Nigeria|President]]
| leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Muhammadu Buhari]]}}
| leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Nigeria|Vice President]]
| leader_name2 = [[Yemi Osinbajo]]
| leader_title3 = [[President of the Senate of Nigeria|Senate President]]
| leader_name3 = [[Ahmed Lawan]]
| leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of Nigeria|House Speaker]]
| leader_name4 = [[Femi Gbajabiamila]]
| leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Nigeria|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5 = [[Tanko Muhammad]]
| legislature = [[National Assembly (Nigeria)|National Assembly]]
| upper_house = [[Senate of Nigeria|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Nigeria|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from [[British Empire|United Kingdom]]
| established_event1 = [[Independence Day (Nigeria)|Declaration]]
| established_date1 = 1 October 1960
| established_event2 = [[Federation of Nigeria|Federation]]
| established_date2 = 1 October 1963
| established_event3 = [[Constitution of Nigeria|Current constitution]]
| established_date3 = 29 May 1999
| area_km2 = 923,769
| area_rank = 32nd
| area_sq_mi = 356,667 
| percent_water = 1.4
| population_estimate = 211,400,708<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/NGA/nigeria/population-growth-rate |title=Nigeria Population Growth Rate 1950-2021 |website=macrotrends |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref>
| population_census = 140,431,691
| population_estimate_year = 2021
| population_estimate_rank = 7th
| population_census_year = 2006
| population_density_km2 = 218
| population_density_sq_mi = 565 
| population_density_rank = 42nd
| GDP_PPP = $1.116 trillion<ref name=IMF2020>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/weo-report?c=694,199,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2018&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|access-date=15 October 2020 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2020 – Nigeria|work=International Monetary Fund}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2021
| GDP_PPP_rank = 25th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,280
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 129th
| GDP_nominal = $514.049 billion<ref name=IMF2020/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_rank = 27th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,432
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 137th
| Gini = 35.1 
| Gini_year = 2020
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Poverty and Inequality Index |url=https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/1092 |access-date=2020-06-08 |website=National Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.539 
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 161st
| currency = [[Nigerian naira|Naira]] (₦)
| currency_code = NGN
| time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]]
| utc_offset = +01:00
| utc_offset_DST =
| time_zone_DST =
| drives_on = right side of road<ref>{{Cite web |author=Akinbode, Ayomide |title=Why Nigeria changed from Right-Hand Drive to Left-Hand Drive in 1972 |url=https://www.thehistoryville.com/nigeria-left-hand-drive-right-hand-drive/ |website=www.thehistoryville.com |quote=The terms 'right- and left-hand drive' refer to the position of the driver in the vehicle and are the reverse of the terms 'right- and left-hand traffic'. |date=2 April 2019 |accessdate=9 July 2021}}</ref>
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Nigeria|+234]]
| cctld = [[.ng]]
| today =
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/|access-date=2020-06-21 |title=Africa: Nigeria}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year = 2018
| ethnic_groups = {{plainlist|
* 30% [[Hausa people|Hausa]]
* 15.5% [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]
* 15.2% [[Igbo people|Igbo]]
* 6% [[Fula people|Fulani]]
* 2.4% [[Tiv people|Tiv]]
* 2.4% [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]]
* 1.8% [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]]
* 1.8% [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]]
* 24.7% [[List of ethnic groups in Nigeria|Other]]
}}
}}
'''Nigeria''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Nigeria.ogg|n|aɪ|ˈ|dʒ|ɪəɹ|i|ə}}), officially the '''Federal Republic of Nigeria''', is a country in [[West Africa]]. It is the [[List of African countries by population|most populous country]] in [[Africa]], and one of the world's most ethnically and linguistically diverse nations; covering an area of 923,769 square kilometers, with a population of over 211 million. It borders [[Niger]] in [[Niger–Nigeria border|the north]], [[Chad]] in [[Chad–Nigeria border|the northeast]], [[Cameroon]] in [[Cameroon–Nigeria border|the east]], and [[Benin]] in [[Benin–Nigeria border|the west]]. Its southern coast is on the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Nigeria is a [[Federation|federal]] [[republic]] comprising [[States of Nigeria|36 states]] and the [[Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria|Federal Capital Territory]], where the capital, [[Abuja]], is located. [[Lagos]], one of the largest [[List of largest cities|metropolitan areas]] in the world, is the [[List of Nigerian cities by population|largest city in Nigeria]] and [[List of cities in Africa by population|second largest in Africa.]]

Nigeria has been home to several [[Nigerian traditional rulers|indigenous pre-colonial states]] and [[Sahelian kingdoms|kingdoms]] since the second millennium BC, with the [[Nok culture|Nok civilization]] in the 15th century BC marking the first internal unification in the country. The modern state originated with [[Colonial Nigeria|British colonialization]] in the 19th century, taking its present territorial shape with the merging of the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1914 by [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Lord Lugard]]. The British set up administrative and legal structures while practicing [[indirect rule]] through [[Nigerian Chieftaincy|traditional chiefdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achebe |first=Nwando |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/707092916|title=The female king of colonial Nigeria : Ahebi Ugbabe |isbn=978-0-253-00507-6|location=Bloomington|oclc=707092916}}</ref> Nigeria became a formally [[Federation of Nigeria|independent federation]] on October 1, 1960. It experienced a [[Nigerian Civil War|civil war from 1967 to 1970]], followed by a succession of democratically-elected civilian governments and [[Nigerian military juntas of 1966–79 and 1983–99|military dictatorships]], until achieving [[Fourth Nigerian Republic|a stable democracy]] in the [[1999 Nigerian presidential election|1999 presidential election]]; the [[2015 Nigerian general election|2015 election]] was the first time an incumbent president had lost re-election.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-03-31|title=Nigeria's Buhari wins historic election landslide|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeria-election-idUSKBN0MR0VN20150331|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref>

Nigeria is a [[multinational state]] inhabited by more than [[Demographics of Nigeria|250 ethnic groups]] speaking [[Languages of Nigeria|500 distinct languages]], all identifying with a wide variety of cultures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnicity in Nigeria|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa-jan-june07-ethnic_04-05/|date=5 April 2007|publisher=PBS|access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Nigeria|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NG|website=Ethnologue|language=en|access-date=4 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World|url=http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|date=16 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|archive-date=15 May 2012|access-date=4 July 2019|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya}}</ref> The three largest ethnic groups are the [[Hausa–Fulani]] in [[Northern Region, Nigeria|the north]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] in [[Yorubaland|the west]], and [[Igbo people|Igbo]] in [[Igboland|the east]], together comprising over 60% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/NI-summary.pdf|title=NIGERIA – CIA WORLD FACTBOOK 2019}}</ref> The [[official language]] is [[Nigerian English|English]], chosen to facilitate linguistic unity at the national level.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mann|first=Charles C.|date=1990|title=Choosing an Indigenous Official Language for Nigeria|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED397681.pdf}}</ref> [[Constitution of Nigeria|Nigeria's constitution]] ensures [[freedom of religion]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigerian Constitution|url=http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria|work=Nigeria Law|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref> and is home to some of the world's largest [[Islam by country|Muslim]] and [[Christianity by country|Christian]] populations, simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims, who live mostly in the north, and Christians, who live mostly in the south; [[Traditional African religions|indigenous religions]], such as those native to the [[Odinani|Igbo]] and [[Yoruba religion|Yoruba]] ethnicities, are in the minority.<ref name="USEN">{{cite web|title=Nigeria Fact Sheet|url=https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|publisher=United States Embassy in Nigeria|access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref>

Nigeria's [[Economy of Nigeria|economy]] is the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|largest in Africa]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|27th-largest in the world]] by nominal GDP, and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|25th-largest]] by [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]. Nigeria is often referred to as the "Giant of Africa", owing to its large population and economy<ref>{{cite journal|year=1959|title=Nigeria: The African giant|journal=[[The Round Table (journal)|The Round Table]]|volume=50|issue=197|pages=55–63|doi=10.1080/00358535908452221}}</ref> and is considered to be an [[emerging market]] by the [[World Bank]]. It is a [[regional power]] in Africa, a [[middle power]] in international affairs, and is an [[Emerging power|emerging global power]]. However, the country ranks very low in the [[Human Development Index]] and remains [[Corruption in Nigeria|one of the most corrupt nations]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/perceptions-corruption-nigeria-remain-high-according-ngo|title=Perceptions of Corruption in Nigeria Remain High, According to NGO|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|first=John |last=Campbell|date=29 January 2020|access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2020/1016/A-light-shines-on-Nigerian-corruption|title=A light shines on Nigerian corruption|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=16 October 2020|access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref> Nigeria is a founding member of the [[African Union]] and a member of many international organizations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Economic Community of West African States]], and [[OPEC]]. It is also a member of the informal [[MINT (economics)|MINT]] group of countries, and is one of the [[Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley#Next Eleven|Next Eleven]] economies.
{{TOC limit}}

== Etymology ==

The name ''[[Wikt:Nigeria|Nigeria]]'' was taken from the [[Niger River]] running through the country. This name was coined on January 8, 1897, by British journalist [[Flora Shaw, Lady Lugard|Flora Shaw]], who later married [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Lord Lugard]], a [[British Empire|British colonial]] administrator. The neighbouring Niger takes its name from the same river. The origin of the name ''Niger'', which originally applied to only the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] name ''egerew n-igerewen'' used by inhabitants along the middle reaches of the river around [[Timbuktu]] prior to 19th-century European colonialism.<ref>The Arabic name ''nahr al-anhur'' is a direct translation of the Tuareg.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Niger |title=''Online Etymological Dictionary'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=28 July 2014}}</ref>

== History ==

{{Main|History of Nigeria|Timeline of Nigerian history}}

=== Prehistory ===

{{Further|Early history of Nigeria}}
[[File:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|thumb|[[Nok]] sculpture, [[terracotta]]|285x285px]]

[[Kainji Dam]] excavations revealed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from [[Neolithic]] times to the [[Iron Age]] apparently was achieved without intermediate [[Bronze Age|bronze]] production. Others suggest the technology moved west from the [[Nile Valley]], although the Iron Age in the [[Niger River]]<nowiki/>valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years.

The [[Nok culture|Nok civilization]] of Nigeria flourished between 1,500 BC and AD 200. It produced life-sized [[terracotta]] figures that are some of the earliest known sculptures in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]<ref name="PB 2014">Breunig, Peter. 2014. Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context: p. 21.</ref><ref>Nicole Rupp, Peter Breunig & Stefanie Kahlheber, "[http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kahlheber/ Exploring the Nok Enigma]", ''Antiquity'' 82.316, June 2008.</ref><ref>B.E.B. Fagg, "The Nok Culture in Prehistory", ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1.4, December 1959.</ref><ref name="archaeology">{{Cite book|last=Kleiner|first= Fred S.|author2=Christin J. Mamiya |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|edition=13, revised|year=2009|page=194|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=Nok+terracotta+earliest|isbn=978-0-495-57367-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nok/hd_nok.htm |title=Nok Terracottas (500 B.C.–200 A.D.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref> and smelted iron by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.<ref>Tylecote 1975 (see below)</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=51–59|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|isbn=9783937248462|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=53–54|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&q=Nok+Breunig&pg=PA38}}</ref> Evidence of iron smelting has also been excavated at sites in the [[Nsukka]] region of southeast Nigeria: dating to 2000 BC at the site of [[Lejja]]<ref name="Eze-Uzomaka">{{cite journal|title=Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja|url=https://www.academia.edu/4103707|last1=Eze–Uzomaka|first1=Pamela|website=Academia.edu|publisher=University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria|access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref> and to 750 BC and at the site of [[Opi (archaeological site)|Opi]].

=== Early history ===
{{Further|History of Nigeria before 1500}}[[File:Intricate_bronze_ceremonial_pot,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu,_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|Ceremonial Igbo pot from 9th-century [[Igbo-Ukwu]]]]
The [[Kano Chronicle]] highlights an ancient history dating to around 999 AD of the [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] [[Sahelian kingdoms|Sahelian city-state]] of [[Kano (city)|Kano]], with other major Hausa cities (or [[Hausa Bakwai]]) of: [[Daura]], [[Hadejia|Hadeija]], [[Kano (city)|Kano]], [[Katsina]], [[Zazzau]], [[Rano]], and [[Gobir]] all having recorded histories dating back to the 10th century. With the spread of Islam from the 7th century AD, the area became known as ''[[Sudan (region)|Sudan]]'' or as ''Bilad Al Sudan'' (English: Land of the Blacks; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بلاد السودان). Since the populations were partially affiliated with the Arab Muslim culture of [[North Africa]], they began [[Trans-Saharan trade]] and were referred to by the Arabic speakers as ''Al-Sudan'' (meaning "The Blacks") as they were considered an extended part of the [[Muslim world]]. There are early historical references by medieval Arab and Muslim historians and geographers which refer to the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Kanem-Bornu Empire]] as the region's major centre for Islamic civilization.

The [[Kingdom of Nri]] of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911.<ref name="Juang3">{{cite book|last=Juang|first=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wFrAOqfhuGYC&pg=PA597|title=Africa and the Americas: culture, politics, and history: a multidisciplinary encyclopedia, Volume 2|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2008|isbn=978-1-85109-441-7|page=597}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hrbek|first=Ivan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDFcD0BuekQC&pg=PA254|title=Africa from the seventh to the eleventh Century|publisher=James Currey Publishers|year=1992|isbn=978-0-85255-093-9|page=254}}</ref> Nri was ruled by the [[List of rulers of Nri|Eze Nri]], and the city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture. Nri and [[Aguleri]], where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure [[Eri (king)|Eri]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Uzukwu|first=E. Elochukwu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hhmzVrYPHAC|title=Worship as Body Language|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8146-6151-2|page=93}}</ref> In West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the [[lost-wax process]] were from [[Igbo-Ukwu]], a city under Nri influence.<ref name="Juang3" /> The [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] kingdoms of [[Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]] in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in the 12th<ref name="Falola13">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XygZjbNRap0C&pg=PA23|title=A History of Nigeria|last2=Heaton|first2=Matthew M.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-68157-5|page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Laitin|first=David D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHbrDvGQEbUC&pg=PA111|title=Hegemony and culture: politics and religious change among the Yoruba|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1986|isbn=978-0-226-46790-0|page=111}}</ref> and 14th<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Fiona|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=joh5yHfcF-8C&pg=PA385|title=Peoples of Africa, Volume 1|last2=Paren|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Shillington|first3=Kevin|last4=Stacey|first4=Gillian|last5=Steele|first5=Philip|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7614-7158-5|page=385}}</ref> centuries, respectively. The oldest signs of [[human]] settlement at Ife's current site date back to the 9th century,<ref name="Falola13" /> and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures.[[File:Yoruba-bronze-head.jpg|thumb|[[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] copper mask of Obalufon from the city of [[Ife]] {{circa|1300}}]]

=== Pre-colonial era ===

{{Further|History of Nigeria (1500–1800)}}
[[File:Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg|upright|thumb|right|Royal [[Benin ivory mask]], one of Nigeria's most recognized artifacts. [[Benin Empire]], 16th century.]]

In the 16th century, [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorers]] were the first Europeans to begin significant, direct trade with peoples of southern Nigeria, at the port they named Lagos (formerly Eko) and in [[Calabar]] along the region [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]. Europeans traded goods with peoples at the coast; coastal trade with Europeans also marked the beginnings of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="diverse-slavery">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=April A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H26pO3vwmHoC&pg=PA54|title=Nigeria's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57607-682-8|pages=44–54|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> The port of Calabar on the historical [[Bight of Biafra]] (now commonly referred to as the Bight of Bonny) became one of the largest slave trading posts in West Africa in the era of the transatlantic slave trade. Other major slaving ports in Nigeria were located in [[Badagry]], Lagos on the [[Bight of Benin]] and on [[Bonny Island]] on the Bight of Biafra.<ref name="diverse-slavery" /><ref name="slave-trade">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo|title=Historical Dictionary of Nigeria|last2=Genova|first2=Ann|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8108-6316-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo/page/n373 328]|access-date=29 March 2015|url-access=registration}}</ref> The majority of those enslaved and taken to these ports were captured in raids and wars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANzFx1O95eAC&pg=PA78|title=Environment and Economics in Nigeria|last2=Paddock|first2=Adam|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-136-66247-8|page=78|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> Usually the captives were taken back to the conquerors' territory as [[forced labour]]; after time, they were sometimes acculturated and absorbed into the conquerors' society. Slave routes were established throughout Nigeria linking the hinterland areas with the major coastal ports. Some of the more prolific slave trading kingdoms who participated in the transatlantic slave trade were linked with the Edo's [[Kingdom of Benin|Benin Empire]] in the south, [[Oyo Empire]] in the southwest, and the [[Aro Confederacy]] in the southeast.<ref name="diverse-slavery" /><ref name="slave-trade" /> Benin's power lasted between the 15th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria: A Country Study – The Slave Trade|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/7.htm|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|year=1991|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref> Oyo, at its territorial zenith in the late 17th to early 18th centuries, extended its influence from western Nigeria to modern-day [[Togo]].

In the north, the incessant fighting amongst the Hausa city-states and the decline of the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]] gave rise to the Fulani people gaining headway into the region. Until this point, the Fulani a [[nomad]]ic ethnic group primarily traversed the semi-desert [[Sahel]]ian region, north of the Sudan, with cattle and avoided trade and intermingling with the Sudanic peoples. At the beginning of the 19th century, [[Usman dan Fodio]] led [[Fulani War|a successful jihad]] against the [[Hausa Kingdoms]] founding the centralised [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. The empire with Arabic as its official language grew rapidly under his rule and that of [[List of Sultans of Sokoto|his descendants]], who sent out [[Fula jihads|invading armies]] in every direction. The vast landlocked empire connected the east with the west Sudan region and made inroads down south conquering parts of the Oyo Empire (modern-day [[Kwara State|Kwara]]), and advanced towards the [[Yorubaland|Yoruba heartland]] of [[Ibadan]], with the goal of reaching the Atlantic Ocean. The territory controlled by the empire included much of modern-day northern and central Nigeria. The sultan sent out emirs to establish a [[suzerainty]] over the conquered territories and promote Islamic civilization, the emirs in turn became increasingly rich and powerful through trade and slavery. By the 1890s, the largest [[Slavery in Africa|slave population]] in the world, about two million, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate. The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture.<ref>Kevin Shillington, ''[[Encyclopedia of African History]]''. (U of Michigan Press, 2005) p. 1401.</ref> By the time of its break-up in 1903 into various European colonies, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest pre-colonial African states.<ref>Abba Idris Adam, "Re-inventing Islamic Civilization in the Sudanic Belt: The Role of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio." ''Journal of Modern Education Review'' 4.6 (2014): 457–465. [http://tweb.cjcu.edu.tw/journal_abstract/2014_10_02_12_32_45.99.pdf#page=63 online]</ref>

=== British colonization ===

{{Main|Colonial Nigeria}}
[[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|Emir of Kano with cavalry, 1911]][[File:King-duke.jpg|thumb|King Duke IX of [[Calabar]] in full dress (published 1895)|287x287px]]

A changing legal imperative (the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]] was outlawed by Britain in 1807) and economic imperative (a desire for political and social stability) led most European powers to support the widespread cultivation of agricultural products, such as the palm, for use in European industry. The Atlantic slave trade was engaged in by European companies until it was outlawed in 1807. After that illegal smugglers purchased slaves along the coast by native slavers. Britain's [[West Africa Squadron]] sought to intercept the smugglers at sea. The rescued slaves were taken to [[Freetown]], a colony in West Africa originally established for the resettlement of freed slaves from Britain.

====Lagos Colony====

{{Main|Lagos Colony}}
Britain intervened in the Lagos kingship power struggle by bombarding Lagos in 1851, deposing the slave-trade-friendly [[Kosoko|Oba Kosoko]], helping to install the amenable Oba [[Akitoye]] and signing the [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos]] on 1{{nbsp}}January 1852. [[United Kingdom|Britain]] annexed Lagos as a [[crown colony]] in August 1861 with the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]]. British missionaries expanded their operations and traveled further inland. In 1864, [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] became the first African [[Church of Nigeria|bishop of the Anglican Church]].<ref>Derek R. Peterson, ed., ''Abolitionism and imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic'' (Ohio UP, 2010).</ref>

====Royal Niger Company====

{{Main|Royal Niger Company|Niger Coast Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate}}
In 1885, British claims to a West African [[sphere of influence]] received recognition from other European nations at the [[Berlin Conference]]. The following year, it chartered the [[Royal Niger Company]] under the leadership of Sir [[George Taubman Goldie]]. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the company had vastly succeeded in subjugating the independent southern kingdoms along the [[Niger River]], the British conquered [[Benin Empire|Benin]] in 1897, and, in the [[Anglo-Aro War]] (1901–1902), defeated other opponents. The defeat of these states opened up the Niger area to British rule. In 1900, the company's territory came under the direct control of the British government and established the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] as a British protectorate and part of the [[British Empire]], the foremost world power at the time.

====Northern Nigeria====

{{Main|Northern Nigeria Protectorate}}
By 1902, the British had begun plans to move north into the Sokoto Caliphate. British General Lord [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Frederick Lugard]] was tasked by the [[Colonial Office]] to implement the agenda. Lugard used rivalries between many of the emirs in the southern reach of the caliphate and the central Sokoto administration to prevent any defense as he worked towards the capital. As the British approached the city of [[Sokoto]], Sultan [[Muhammadu Attahiru I]] organized a quick defense of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British force quickly won, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on a [[Mahdi]]st ''[[Hegira|hijra]]''. In the northeast, the decline of the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]] gave rise to the British-controlled [[Borno Emirate]] which established [[Abubakar Garbai of Borno]] as ruler.

In 1903, the British victory in the [[Battle of Kano (1903)|Battle of Kano]] gave them a logistical edge in [[Battle of Kwatarkwashi|pacifying the heartland of the Sokoto Caliphate]] and parts of the former Bornu Empire. On March 13, 1903, at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last [[Sokoto Grand Vizier|vizier of the caliphate]] officially conceded to British rule. The British appointed [[Muhammadu Attahiru II]] as the new caliph. Lugard abolished the caliphate but retained the title ''sultan'' as a symbolic position in the newly organized [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]]. This remnant became known as "[[Sokoto Sultanate Council]]". In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining forces of Attahiru{{nbsp}}I and killed him; by 1906 resistance to British rule had ended.

====Amalgamation====

[[File:LordLugard.jpg|left|thumb|228x228px|[[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard]] who as [[Governor-General of Nigeria]] led the amalgamation of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1914.]]On January 1, 1914, the British formally united the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate into the [[Colonial Nigeria|Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria]]. Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Protectorates and [[Lagos Colony]]. Inhabitants of the southern region sustained more interaction, economic and cultural, with the British and other Europeans owing to the coastal economy.<ref>Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp 85–109.</ref> Following [[World War II]], in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, a great [[Decolonisation of Africa|wave for independence]] was sweeping across Africa.
[[File:Stamp Cameroons 2d-600px.jpg|thumb|1953 postage stamp with portrait of Queen [[Elizabeth II|Elizabeth{{nbsp}}II]]]]

Christian missions established Western educational institutions in the protectorates. Under Britain's policy of indirect rule and validation of Islamic tradition, the Crown did not encourage the operation of Christian missions in the northern, Islamic part of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/slow-death-slavery-course-abolition-northern-nigeria-18971936,%20https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500|title=Slow death slavery course abolition northern Nigeria 18971936 {{!}} Regional history after 1500|website=Cambridge University Press|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Some children of the southern elite went to Great Britain to pursue higher education. By independence in 1960, regional differences in modern educational access were marked. The legacy, though less pronounced, continues to the present day. Imbalances between north and south were expressed in Nigeria's political life as well. For instance, northern Nigeria did not outlaw slavery until 1936 whilst in other parts of Nigeria slavery was abolished soon after colonialism.<ref>{{cite web|title=The end of slavery|work=The Story of Africa|publisher=BBC News|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="slave-trade" />

===== Federation and independence =====
{{Main|Federation of Nigeria|Independence Day (Nigeria)}}

Nigeria gained independence from the United Kingdom on October 1, 1960, as the [[Federation of Nigeria]] with [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] as its [[Prime Minister of Nigeria|prime minister]], while retaining the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], [[Elizabeth II]], as nominal head of state and [[Queen of Nigeria]]. Azikiwe replaced the colonial [[governor-general]] in November 1960. At independence, the cultural and political differences were sharp among Nigeria's dominant ethnic groups: the [[Hausa–Fulani]] in the north, Igbo in the east and Yoruba in the west.<ref name="JBS2">{{cite journal|author=Udofia, O.E.|year=1981|title=Nigerian Political Parties: Their Role in Modernizing the Political System, 1920–1966|journal=Journal of Black Studies|volume=11|issue=4|pages=435–447|doi=10.1177/002193478101100404|jstor=2784073|s2cid=143073983}}</ref>

The founding government was a coalition of conservative parties: the [[Northern People's Congress]] led by Sir [[Ahmadu Bello]], a party dominated by Muslim northerners, and the Igbo and Christian-dominated [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] led by [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. The opposition comprised the comparatively liberal [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]], which was largely dominated by the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. An imbalance was created in the polity by the result of the [[Southern Cameroons#Trust territory|1961 plebiscite]]. [[Southern Cameroons]] opted to join the [[Cameroon|Republic of Cameroon]] while [[British Cameroon|Northern Cameroons]] chose to join Nigeria. The northern part of the country became larger than the southern part.

=== Republican era ===
'''Fall of the First Republic and Civil War'''{{Main|First Nigerian Republic|Nigerian Civil War|Military dictatorship in Nigeria}}

In 1963, the nation established a [[federal republic]], with Azikiwe as its first [[President of Nigeria|president]]. The disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led to two [[Coup d'état|military coups]] in 1966. The [[1966 Nigerian coup d'état|first coup was in January 1966]] and was led mostly by Igbo soldiers under Majors [[Emmanuel Ifeajuna]] and [[Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu]]. The coup plotters succeeded in assassinating Sir [[Ahmadu Bello]] and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa alongside prominent leaders of the Northern Region and also Premier [[Ladoke Akintola|Samuel Akintola]] of the [[Western State (Nigeria)|Western Region]], but the coup plotters struggled to form a central government. Senate President [[Nwafor Orizu]] handed over government control to the [[Nigerian Army|Army]], under the command of another Igbo officer, General [[Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi]]. Later, the [[1966 Nigerian counter-coup|counter-coup of 1966]], supported primarily by northern military officers, facilitated the rise of [[Yakubu Gowon]] as military head of state. Tension rose between north and south; [[1966 anti-Igbo pogrom|Igbos in northern cities suffered persecution]] and many fled to the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]].<ref>Falola and Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp 158–59.</ref>[[File:Biafra independent state map-en.svg|thumb|The [[Biafra|Republic of Biafra]] in June 1967, when it declared its independence from the rest of Nigeria|left]]

In May 1967, Governor of the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]] Lt. Colonel [[C. Odumegwu Ojukwu|Emeka Ojukwu]] declared the region independent from the federation as a state called the [[Biafra|Republic of Biafra]], under his leadership.<ref>{{cite news|last=Murray|first=Senan|title=Reopening Nigeria's civil war wounds|work=BBC News|date=30 May 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6657259.stm|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Daly|first=Samuel Fury Childs|title=A History of the Republic of Biafra|date=2020-08-07|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108887748|isbn=978-1-108-88774-8}}</ref> This declaration precipitated the [[Nigerian Civil War]], which began as the official Nigerian government side attacked Biafra on July 6, 1967, at Garkem. The 30-month war, with a long siege of Biafra and its isolation from trade and supplies, ended in January 1970.<ref name="DDRS">''"Background Paper on Nigeria and Biafra, Declassified Documents Reference System''.</ref> Estimates of the [[List of wars by death toll|number of dead]] in the former Eastern Region during the 30-month civil war range from one to three million.<ref>{{cite web|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|title=Nigeria: A Country Study – Civil War|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|year=1991|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/23.htm|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref> France, Egypt, the Soviet Union, Britain, Israel, and others were deeply involved in the civil war behind the scenes. Britain and the Soviet Union were the main military backers of the Nigerian government, with Nigeria utilizing air support from Egyptian pilots provided by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]],<ref>{{cite web|title=''The Biafra War and the Age of Pestilence''|url=http://www.litencyc.com/theliterarymagazine/biafra.php|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=Litencyc.com}}</ref><ref>Michael I. Draper, ''Shadows: Airlift and Airwar in Biafra and Nigeria 1967–1970''.</ref> while France and Israel aided the Biafrans. The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] government, under President [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Joseph-Désiré Mobutu]], took an early stand on the Biafran secession, voicing strong support for the Nigerian federal government<ref>McDonald, Gordon C., ''Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo Kinshasa)'' (1971), p. 263</ref> and deploying thousands of troops to fight against the secessionists.<ref>Stearns, Jason K. ''Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa'' (2011), p. 115</ref><ref>Wrong, Michela. ''In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo'' (2000), p. 266</ref>

Following the war, Nigeria enjoyed an [[oil boom]] in the 1970s, during which the country joined [[OPEC]] and received huge oil revenues. Despite these revenues, the military government did little to improve the standard of living of the population, help small and medium businesses, or invest in infrastructure. As oil revenues fueled the rise of federal subsidies to states, the federal government became the centre of political struggle and the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns.<ref>Watts, Michael (1987) ''State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria'', Institute of International Studies, University of California, {{ISBN|0-87725-166-5}}.</ref> The [[1975 Nigerian coup d'état|coup in July 1975]], led by Generals [[Shehu Musa Yar'Adua]] and [[Joseph Nanven Garba|Joseph Garba]], ousted Gowon,{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1pp=42–43|2a1=Erfler|2y=2011|2p=81}} who fled to Britain.{{sfn|Erfler|2011|p=82}} The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with a triumvirate of three brigadier generals whose decisions could be vetoed by a [[Supreme Military Council of Nigeria (1966–1979)|Supreme Military Council]]. For this triumvirate, they convinced General [[Murtala Muhammed]] to become military head of state, with General [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] as his second-in-command, and General [[Theophilus Danjuma]] as the third.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1p=43|2a1=Erfler|2y=2011|2p=81}} Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from the civil service.{{sfn|Iliffe|2011|p=44}}

Colonel [[Buka Suka Dimka]] launched a [[1976 Nigerian coup d'état attempt|February 1976 coup attempt]], during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military, and his coup failed, forcing him to flee.{{sfn|Iliffe|2011|p=48}} After the coup attempt, General Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed military head of state.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1pp=48-49|2a1=Erfler|2y=2011|2p=85}} As head of state, Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1p=50|2a1=Erfler|2y=2011|2p=85}} Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as [[Vice President of Nigeria|Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters]] completing the military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General [[Theophilus Danjuma]] as [[Chief of Army Staff (Nigeria)|Chief of Army Staff]], the three went on to re-establish control over the [[Nigerian military juntas of 1966–79 and 1983–99|military regime]] and organized the military's transfer of power programme: [[States of Nigeria|states creation]] and [[Boundary delimitation|national delimitation]], [[Local government areas of Nigeria|local government reforms]] and the [[Constitution of Nigeria#1979 constitution (Second Republic)|constitutional drafting committee]] for a new republic.<ref>African Concord (1990). The New Helmsmen. Concord Press, Ikeja, Lagos. August 13, 1990</ref>

'''Second Republic (1979–1983)'''{{Main|Second Nigerian Republic}}
[[File:Shehu Shagari 1980-10-07.jpg|left|thumb|Shehu Shagari of the [[Second Nigerian Republic]] was the first democratically elected [[President of Nigeria]] from 1979 to 1983.]]
In 1977, a [[constituent assembly]] was elected to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. The military carefully planned the return to civilian rule putting in place measures to ensure that political parties had broader support than witnessed during the first republic. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji [[Shehu Shagari]] of the [[National Party of Nigeria]] (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. On October 1, 1979, Shehu Shagari was sworn in as the first [[President of Nigeria|President and Commander-in-Chief]] of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down.

The Shagari government became viewed as corrupt by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society. In 1983, the inspectors of the state-owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation began to notice "the slow poisoning of the waters of this country".<ref>David Williams, ''President and power in Nigeria: The life of Shehu Shagari'' (Routledge, 2018).</ref><ref name="igbo2">{{cite book|author=Nnamdi J.O. Ijeaku|title=The Igbo and their Niger Delta Neighbors: We Are No Second Fools|publisher=Xlibris|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4628-0861-8|page=193}}</ref> In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence, and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results. There were also uncertainties, such as in the first republic, that political leaders may be unable to govern properly.

'''Military and Third Republic (1983–1999)'''{{Main|Military dictatorship in Nigeria|Third Nigerian Republic}}
The [[1983 Nigerian coup d'état|1983 military coup d'état]] took place on New Year's Eve of that year. It was coordinated by key officers of the Nigerian military and led to the overthrow of the government and the installation of Major General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] as head of state. The military coup of Muhammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's re-election in 1984 was generally viewed as a positive development.<ref>"Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges", AP Press International, 3{{nbsp}}March 1984. Retrieved 22 February 2007.</ref> Buhari promised major reforms, but his government fared little better than its predecessor. General Buhari was overthrown in a [[1985 Nigerian coup d'état|1985 military coup d'état]] led by General [[Ibrahim Babangida]], who established the [[Armed Forces Ruling Council (Nigeria)|Armed Forces Ruling Council]] and became military president and commander in chief of the armed forces.<ref name="Globe22">"Nigeria stays calms as leader toppled in bloodless coup", ''The Globe and Mail'', 28 August 1985. Retrieved 22 February 2007.</ref> In 1986, he established the [[Nigerian Political Bureau of 1986|Nigerian Political Bureau]] which made recommendations for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. In 1989, Babangida started making plans for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. Babangida survived the [[1990 Nigerian coup d'état attempt]], then postponed a promised return to democracy to 1992.<ref>{{Citation|last=Siollun|first=Max|editor1-first=Carl|editor1-last=Levan|editor2-first=Patrick|editor2-last=Ukata|title=Civil Military Affairs and Military Culture in Post-Transition Nigeria|date=2018-10-25|work=The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics|pages=272–287|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804307.013.13|isbn=978-0-19-880430-7}}</ref>

He legalized the formation of political parties, and formed the two-party system with the [[Social Democratic Party (Nigeria)|Social Democratic Party]] and [[National Republican Convention]] ahead of the [[1992 Nigerian parliamentary election|1992 general elections]]. He urged all Nigerians to join either of the parties, which Chief [[Bola Ige]] referred to as "two leper hands." The two-party state had been a Political Bureau recommendation. After a census was conducted, the [[Independent National Electoral Commission|National Electoral Commission]] announced on January 24, 1992, that both [[1992 Nigerian parliamentary election|legislative elections]] to a bicameral [[National Assembly (Nigeria)|National Assembly]] and a presidential election would be held later that year. The adopted process advocated that any candidate needed to pass through adoption for all elective positions from the local government, state government and federal government.<ref name="AP2">Holman, Michael (24 February 1986) "Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify", ''Financial Times''</ref>
[[File:Sani Abacha (UN).jpg|left|thumb|[[Sani Abacha]] ruled Nigeria from 1993 to 1998.]]
The [[1993 Nigerian presidential election|1993 presidential election]] held on June 12, was the first since the military coup of 1983. The results, though not officially declared by the National Electoral Commission, showed the duo of [[Moshood Abiola]] and [[Baba Gana Kingibe|Babagana Kingibe]] of the Social Democratic Party defeated [[Bashir Tofa]] and [[Sylvester Ugoh|Slyvester Ugoh]] of the National Republican Convention by over 2.3 million votes. However, Babangida annulled the elections, leading to massive civilian protests that effectively shut down the country for weeks. In August 1993, Babangida finally kept his promise to relinquish power to a civilian government but not before appointing [[Ernest Shonekan]] head of the [[Cabinet of Ernest Shonekan|interim national government]].<ref>Bilski, Andrew, "Broken Promises", ''Maclean'', 6 September 1993.</ref> Babangida's regime has been considered the most corrupt and responsible for creating a culture of corruption in Nigeria.<ref>Diamond, Larry; [[Kirk-Greene, Anthony]]; [[Oyeleye Oyediran]] (1997) ''Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida'', Vantage Publishers, {{ISBN|978-2458-54-6}}.</ref> Shonekan's interim government, the shortest in the political history of the country, was overthrown in a [[1993 Nigerian coup d'état|coup d'état of 1993]] led by General [[Sani Abacha]], who used military force on a wide scale to suppress the continuing civilian unrest.

In 1995, the government hanged environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa on trumped-up charges in the deaths of four [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]] elders. Lawsuits under the American [[Alien Tort Statute]] against [[Royal Dutch Shell]] and Brian Anderson, the head of Shell's Nigerian operation, settled out of court with Shell continuing to deny liability.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wiwa et al v. Royal Dutch Petroleum et al.|url=http://wiwavshell.org/|work=Center for Constitutional Rights}}</ref> Several hundred million dollars in accounts traced to Abacha were discovered in 1999.<ref>''"Nigerian Lawyer: Abacha accounts apparently in Switzerland, Luxembourg, France, and Germany", AP press, 10 January 2000.''</ref> The regime came to an end in 1998, when the dictator died in the villa. He looted money to offshore accounts in western European banks and defeated coup plots by arresting and bribing generals and politicians. His successor, General [[Abdulsalami Abubakar]], adopted a new constitution on May 5, 1999, which provided for multiparty elections.

'''Fourth Republic (1999–present)'''{{Main|Fourth Nigerian Republic}}
[[File:Olusegun Obasanjo DD-SC-07-14396-cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Olusegun Obasanjo]] was civilian President of Nigeria from 1999 to 2007.]]
On May 29, 1999, Abubakar transferred power to the winner of the [[1999 Nigerian presidential election|1999 presidential election]], former military ruler General [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] as the second democratically elected civilian President of Nigeria heralding the beginning of the Fourth Nigerian Republic.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/2391/Abdusalam-Abubakar "Abdusalam Abubakar"], Encyclopædia Britannica Online, accessed 26 October 2012.</ref> This ended almost 33 years of military rule from 1966 until 1999, excluding the short-lived second republic (between 1979 and 1983) by military dictators who seized power in coups d'état and counter-coups.

Although the elections that brought Obasanjo to power and for a second term in the [[2003 Nigerian presidential election|2003 presidential election]] were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and hasten development.<ref>Falola and Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp. 211–34.</ref> [[Conflict in the Niger Delta|Ethnic violence for control over the oil-producing Niger Delta]] region and an [[Boko Haram insurgency|insurgency in the northeast]] are some of the issues facing the country. [[Umaru Musa Yar'Adua|Umaru Yar'Adua]] of the [[People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)|People's Democratic Party]] came into power in the [[2007 Nigerian general election|general election of 2007]]. The international community, which had been observing Nigerian elections to encourage a free and fair process, condemned this one as being severely flawed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Final Report|url=http://www.eueom-ng.org/Files/final_report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216032839/http://www.eueom-ng.org/Files/final_report.pdf|archive-date=16 February 2008|access-date=24 January 2008|publisher=EU Election Observation Mission Nigeria 2007}}</ref> President Olusegun Obasanjo acknowledged fraud and other electoral "lapses" but said the result reflected opinion polls. In a national television address in 2007, he added that if Nigerians did not like the victory of his handpicked successor, they would have an opportunity to vote again in four years.<ref>{{cite news|last=McGreal|first=Chris|date=24 April 2007|title=Ruling party named winner in disputed Nigerian election|work=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2064068,00.html|access-date=21 November 2008}}</ref> Yar'Adua died on May 5, 2010.  [[Goodluck Jonathan]] was sworn in as Yar'Adua's successor,<ref>{{cite news|date=6 May 2010|title=Nigeria's Goodluck Jonathan sworn in as president|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8664150.stm|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref> becoming the 14th head of state.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 May 2010|title=NASS confirms Sambo as vice president|url=https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/movie/24352/nass-confirm-sambo-as-vice-president.html|access-date=29 May 2011|publisher=[[The Nigerian Voice]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Akinlade|first=Muruf|date=18 May 2010|title=National Assembly confirms Sambo as Vice President|url=http://www.myondostate.com/myondostate/newssend.php?id=203|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427025349/http://www.myondostate.com/myondostate/newssend.php?id=203|archive-date=27 April 2011|access-date=29 May 2011|publisher=MyOndoState.Com}}</ref> Jonathan went on to win the [[2011 Nigerian presidential election|2011 presidential election]], with the international media reporting the elections as having run smoothly with relatively little violence or voter fraud, in contrast to previous elections.<ref name="New York2">{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|date=16 April 2011|title=Nigerians Vote in Presidential Election|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/world/africa/17nigeria.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&hp|access-date=17 April 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Muhammadu Buhari, President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|[[Muhammadu Buhari]] is currently serving as President of Nigeria, since 2015.]]
Ahead of the [[2015 Nigerian general election|general election of 2015]], a merger of the biggest opposition parties – the [[Action Congress of Nigeria]], the [[Congress for Progressive Change]], the [[All Nigeria Peoples Party]] (a faction of the [[All Progressives Grand Alliance]]), and the new PDP (a faction of serving governors of the ruling People's Democratic Party) – formed the [[All Progressives Congress]]. In the 2015 presidential election, former military head of state General Muhammadu Buhari – who had previously contested in the 2003, 2007, and 2011 presidential elections—defeated incumbent Jonathan of the [[People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)|People's Democratic Party]] by over two million votes, ending the party's sixteen year rule in the country and marking the first time in the history of Nigeria that an incumbent president lost to an opposition candidate. Observers generally praised the election as being fair. Jonathan was generally praised for conceding defeat and limiting the risk of unrest.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nigeria election: Muhammadu Buhari wins|newspaper=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32139858|access-date=31 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 April 2015|title=Obama praises Nigeria's president for conceding defeat|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/obama-praises-nigerias-president-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Vanguard}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=APC praises Jonathan for conceding defeat|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/new/apc-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|magazine=The Nation|access-date=4 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 March 2015|title=Anyaoku Praises Jonathan For Conceding Defeat|url=http://www.channelstv.com/2015/03/31/anyaoku-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Channels Television}}</ref> In the [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019 presidential election]], Buhari was re-elected for a second term in office defeating his closet rival [[Atiku Abubakar]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=AfricaNews|date=2019-02-27|title=Buhari beats Atiku to secure re-election as Nigeria president|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/27/buhari-beats-atiku-to-secure-re-election-as-nigeria-president/|access-date=2020-07-05|website=Africanews|language=en}}</ref>

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Nigeria}}
[[File:National_Assembly_Building,_Abuja,_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|[[National Assembly (Nigeria)|Nigerian National Assembly]], Abuja]]
Nigeria is a [[federal republic]] modelled after the United States,<ref>Charles Mwalimu. ''The Nigerian Legal System: Public Law''. Peter Lang. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QWrGlYsCwPIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 6].</ref> with executive power exercised by the [[President of Nigeria|President]]. The president is both [[head of state]] and [[Head of government|head of the federal government]]; the president is [[Direct election|elected by popular vote]] to a maximum of two four-year terms.<ref name="factbook3">{{cite web|title=Nigeria|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] (United States)}}</ref> The president's power is checked by a [[Senate of Nigeria|Senate]] and a [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]], which are combined in a [[Bicameralism|bicameral body]] called the [[National Assembly (Nigeria)|National Assembly]]. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. The House contains 360 seats, with the number of seats per state determined by population.<ref name="factbook3" />
{{Nigerian symbols}}
Ethnocentrism, tribalism, religious persecution, and [[prebendalism]] have plagued Nigerian politics both prior and subsequent to independence in 1960. All major parties have practised vote-rigging and other means of coercion to remain competitive. In the period before 1983 election, a report prepared by the National Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies showed that only the 1959 and 1979 elections were held without systemic rigging.<ref>Ibrahim, Jibrin (2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20131219184548/http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/afrikan-world-news/17537-third-term-agenda-nigeria-cross-roads.html "Legislation and the Electoral Process: The Third Term Agenda and the Future of Nigerian Democracy"]. Paper for Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) Nigeria Roundtable.</ref> In 2012, Nigeria was estimated to have lost over $400 billion to [[Corruption in Nigeria|corruption since independence]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2012|title=Nigeria has lost $400bn oil revenue to corruption since Independence – Ezekwesili|url=http://dailypost.ng/2012/08/31/nigeria-lost-400bn-oil-revenue-corruption-since-independence-ezekwesili/|publisher=Daily Post Nigeria}}</ref> Kin-selective altruism is prevalent in Nigerian politics, resulting in tribalist efforts to concentrate Federal power to a particular region of their interests.<ref>[[Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi]], who served briefly as Nigeria's second president, devoted his government to combating this phenomenon with Decree 33, which banned 81 political parties and 26 tribal and cultural organizations in the name of national unity. See Osaghae, ''The Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 57. {{ISBN|0-253-21197-2}}.</ref> Because of the above issues, Nigeria's political parties are [[Pan-nationalism|pan-national]] and secular in character (though this does not preclude the continuing preeminence of the dominant ethnicities).<ref name="rashid32">{{cite journal|last1=Rashid|first1=Khadijat K.|year=2003|title=Ethnicity and Sub-Nationalism in Nigeria: Movement for a Mid-West State/Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria/Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria|journal=African Studies Review|volume=46|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lancia|first=Nicole|title=Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: The Realities of Regionalism|url=http://www12.georgetown.edu/students/organizations/nscs/capitalscholar/lancia2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208073259/http://www12.georgetown.edu/students/organizations/nscs/capitalscholar/lancia2.html|archive-date=8 February 2012|access-date=28 May 2011|publisher=[[Georgetown University]]}}</ref> The two major political parties are the [[People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)|People's Democratic Party of Nigeria]] and the [[All Progressives Congress]], with twenty registered minor opposition parties.

Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo are the three largest ethnic groups in Nigeria and have maintained historical preeminence in Nigerian politics; competition amongst these three groups has fueled animosity.<ref name="rashid32"/> Following the bloody civil war, nationalism has seen an increase in the southern part of the country leading to active secessionist movements such as the [[Oodua Peoples Congress]] and the [[Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra]], though these groups are generally small and not representative of the entire ethnic group.

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of Nigeria}}
The country has a [[Judiciary|judicial branch]], with the highest court being the [[Supreme Court of Nigeria]].<ref name="factbook3" /> There are three distinct systems of law in Nigeria:

* [[Common law]], derived from its British colonial past, and a development of its own after independence;
* [[Customary law]], derived from indigenous traditional norms and practice, including the dispute resolution meetings of pre-colonial Yorubaland secret societies such as the [[Oyo Mesi]] and [[Ogboni]], as well as the [[Ekpe]] and Okonko of [[Igboland]] and [[Ibibio people|Ibibioland]];
* [[Sharia]] law, used only in the predominantly Muslim northern states of the country. It is an Islamic legal system that had been used long before the colonial administration.

=== Military ===
{{Main|Nigerian Armed Forces}}
[[File:ZSU-23-4_Shilka_01.jpg|thumb|[[Nigerian Army]] self-propelled anti-aircraft gun]]
[[File:Nigerian_Air_Force_Mil_Mi-24V_Iwelumo-1.jpg|thumb|[[Nigerian Air Force]] Mil Mi-35P]]
The Nigerian military is charged with protecting the Federal Republic of Nigeria, promoting Nigeria's global security interests, and supporting peacekeeping efforts, especially in West Africa. This is in support of the doctrine sometimes called [[Pax Nigeriana]]. The Nigerian Military consists of an [[Nigerian Army|army]], a [[Nigerian Navy|navy]], and an [[Nigerian Air Force|air force]].<ref name="factbook3" /> The military in Nigeria has played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of military rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of [[Sani Abacha]] in 1998. His successor, Abdulsalam Abubakar, handed over power to the democratically elected government of Olusegun Obasanjo the next year.

As Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as a peacekeeping force on the continent. Since 1995, the Nigerian military, through [[ECOMOG]] mandates, have been deployed as peacekeepers in [[Liberia]] (1997), [[Ivory Coast]] (1997–1999), and [[Sierra Leone]] (1997–1999).<ref name="Press3">O'Loughlin, Ed (11 March 1998) [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/nigerians-outshine-the-british-brass-1149561.html "Nigerians outshine the British brass"], ''The Independent (London)''</ref> Under an [[African Union]] mandate, it has stationed forces in Sudan's [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]] region to try to establish peace. The Nigerian military has been deployed across West Africa, curbing terrorism in countries like [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]], and [[Cameroon]], as well as dealing with the [[Mali War]], and getting [[Yahya Jammeh]] out of power in 2017.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Nigeria}}
[[File:MinForeignAffairs.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The Ministry of [[Foreign Affairs]], [[Abuja]]]]
Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made African unity the centerpiece of its foreign policy and played a leading role in the fight against the [[apartheid]] government in South Africa.<ref>Young, Andrew (20 July 2006) [http://allafrica.com/stories/200607200078.html "Collins Edomaruse, how Obasanjo cut UK, US to size"], ''This Day'' (Nigeria).</ref> One exception to the African focus was Nigeria's close relationship developed with Israel throughout the 1960s. Israel sponsored and oversaw the construction of Nigeria's parliament buildings.<ref>Burkett, Elinor (2009) ''Golda'', HarperCollins, {{ISBN|0-06-187395-0}}, p. 202.</ref>

Nigeria's foreign policy was put to the test in the 1970s after the country emerged united from its own civil war. It supported movements against white minority governments in the Southern Africa sub-region. Nigeria backed the [[African National Congress]] by taking a committed tough line with regard to the South African government and their military actions in southern Africa. Nigeria was a founding member of the [[Organisation of African Unity|Organisation for African Unity]] (now the [[African Union]]) and has tremendous influence in West Africa and Africa on the whole. Nigeria founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) and [[ECOMOG]] (especially during the Liberia and Sierra Leone civil wars) - which are economic and military organizations, respectively.

With this Africa-centered stance, Nigeria readily [[Congo Crisis|sent troops to the Congo]] at the behest of the United Nations shortly after independence (and has maintained membership since that time). Nigeria also supported several Pan-African and pro-self government causes in the 1970s, including garnering support for [[Angola]]'s [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]], [[SWAPO]] in Namibia, and aiding opposition to the minority governments of [[Mozambican War of Independence|Portuguese Mozambique]], and [[Rhodesian Bush War|Rhodesia]]. Nigeria retains membership in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. In late November 2006, it organised an Africa-South America Summit in [[Abuja]] to promote what some attendees termed "South-South" linkages on a variety of fronts.<ref>{{cite web|date=30 November 2006|title=ASAS – Africa-South America Summit|url=http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/Past/2006/November/SummitASA/summit.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518172006/http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/Past/2006/November/SummitASA/summit.htm|archive-date=18 May 2011|access-date=29 May 2011|publisher=[[African Union]]}}</ref> Nigeria is also a member of the [[International Criminal Court]], and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It was temporarily expelled from the latter in 1995 when ruled by the [[Sani Abacha|Abacha regime]].
[[File:President_Barack_Obama_and_First_Lady_Michelle_Obama_greet_His_Excellency_Goodluck_Ebele_Jonathan,_President_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|Former Nigerian President [[Goodluck Jonathan]] (center) with United States President [[Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] in August 2014]]
Nigeria has remained a key player in the [[Petroleum industry|international oil industry]] since the 1970s and maintains membership in [[OPEC]], which it joined in July 1971. Its [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|status as a major petroleum producer]] figures prominently in its sometimes volatile international relations with [[Developed country|developed countries]], notably the United States, and with developing countries.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Timothy, Shaw|year=1984|title=The State of Nigeria: Oil Prices Power Bases and Foreign Policy|journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies|volume=18|issue=2|pages=393–405|doi=10.2307/484337|jstor=484337}}</ref>

Since 2000, [[China–Nigeria relations|China-Nigerian trade relations]] have risen exponentially. There has been an increase in total trade of over 10,384 million dollars between the two nations from 2000 to 2016.<ref>LeVan, Carl; Ukata, Patrick (2018). ''The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 751. {{ISBN|978-0-19-880430-7}}.</ref> However the structure of the China-Nigerian trade relationship has become a major political issue for the Nigerian state. This is illustrated by the fact that Chinese exports account for around 80 percent of total bilateral trade volumes.<ref>LeVan, Carl; Ukata, Patrick (2018). ''The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 756. {{ISBN|978-0-19-880430-7}}.</ref> This has resulted in a serious [[Balance of trade|trade imbalance]], with Nigeria importing ten times more than it exports to China.<ref>LeVan, Carl; Ukata, Patrick (2018). ''The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 754. {{ISBN|978-0-19-880430-7}}.</ref> Subsequently, Nigeria's economy is becoming over-reliant on cheap foreign imports to sustain itself, resulting in a clear decline in Nigerian Industry under such arrangements.<ref>LeVan, Carl; Ukata, Patrick (2018). ''The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 754–755. {{ISBN|978-0-19-880430-7}}.</ref>

Continuing its Africa-centered foreign policy, Nigeria introduced the Idea of a [[Currency union|single currency]] for West Africa known as the [[Eco (currency)|Eco]] under the presumption that it would be led by the [[Nigerian naira|naira]], but on December 21, 2019; [[List of heads of state of Ivory Coast|Ivorian President]] [[Alassane Ouattara|Alassane OuattaraI]] along with [[Emmanuel Macron]] and multiple other [[Economic Community of West African States|UEMOA]] States, announced that they would merely rename the [[CFA franc]] instead of replacing the currency as originally intended. As of 2020, the Eco currency has been delayed to 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=Elliot|date=2020-09-29|title=West Africa's new currency could now be delayed by five years|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/29/west-africas-new-currency-could-now-be-delayed-by-five-years.html|access-date=2020-11-17|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Nigeria}}
[[File:Political_map_of_Nigeria.svg|thumb|alt=|Map of Nigeria with administrative divisions]]
Nigeria is divided into [[States of Nigeria|thirty-six states]] and one [[Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria|Federal Capital Territory]], which are further sub-divided into 774 [[Local government areas of Nigeria|local government areas]]. In some contexts, the states are aggregated into [[Geopolitical zones of Nigeria|six geopolitical zones]]: [[North West (Nigeria)|North West]], [[North East (Nigeria)|North East]], [[North Central, Nigeria|North Central]], [[South West (Nigeria)|South West]], [[South East (Nigeria)|South East]], and [[South South (Nigeria)|South South]].<ref>{{cite web|date=4 November 2012|title=Constitution amendment: What the people want|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/11/constitution-amendment-what-the-people-want/|access-date=14 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=6 December 2012|title=Constitutional review: Nigeria needs broader representation|url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106778:constitutional-review-nigeria-needs-broader-representation-&catid=203:youth-speak&Itemid=730|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511123924/http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106778%3Aconstitutional-review-nigeria-needs-broader-representation-&catid=203%3Ayouth-speak&Itemid=730|archive-date=11 May 2013|access-date=14 December 2012}}</ref>

Nigeria has five cities with a population of over a million (from largest to smallest): [[Lagos]], [[Kano (city)|Kano]], [[Ibadan]], [[Benin City]] and [[Port Harcourt]]. Lagos is the [[List of most populous cities in Africa|largest city in Africa]], with a population of over [[List of metropolitan areas by population|12 million]] in its [[urban area]].<ref name="felix2">{{cite news|last=Onuah|first=Felix|date=29 December 2006|title=Nigeria gives census result, avoids risky details|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L29819278.htm|access-date=23 November 2008}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Nigeria|Geology of Nigeria}}
Nigeria is located in western Africa on the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and has a total area of {{convert|923768|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Rank Order – Area|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|access-date=29 May 2011|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|32nd-largest country]]. Its borders span {{convert|4,047|km|mi}}, and it shares borders with Benin ({{convert|773|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}), Niger ({{convert|1,497|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}), Chad ({{convert|87|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}), and Cameroon (including the separatist [[Ambazonia]]) {{convert|1,690|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=on}}. Its [[coastline]] is at least {{convert|853|km|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 May 2011|title=Africa :: Nigeria|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/|access-date=29 May 2011|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}} *Note that coastlines, and borders based on rivers or natural features, are fractals, the length of which is imprecise and depends on the measurement convention adopted.</ref> Nigeria lies between latitudes [[4th parallel north|4°]] and [[14th parallel north|14°N]], and longitudes [[2nd meridian east|2°]] and [[15th meridian east|15°E]]. The highest point in Nigeria is [[Chappal Waddi]] at {{convert|2419|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The main rivers are the [[Niger River|Niger]] and the [[Benue River|Benue]], which converge and empty into the [[Niger Delta]]. This is one of the world's largest river deltas, and the location of a large area of Central African [[mangrove]]s.

Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue river valleys (which merge and form a Y-shape).<ref name="encarta22">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Nigeria|encyclopedia=[[Encarta]]|publisher=[[Microsoft]]|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557915/Nigeria.html|access-date=19 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031111170137/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557915/Nigeria.html|archive-date=11 November 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref> To the southwest of the Niger is "rugged" [[Highland (geography)|highland]]. To the southeast of the Benue are hills and mountains, which form the [[Mambilla Plateau]], the highest plateau in Nigeria. This plateau extends through the border with [[Cameroon]], where the [[montane]] land is part of the [[Bamenda Highlands]] of Cameroon.

=== Climate ===
Nigeria has a varied landscape. The far south is defined by its [[tropical rainforest climate]], where annual rainfall is {{convert|60|to|80|in|mm|-2}} per year.<ref name="gai52">{{cite web|title=Regions Used to Interpret the Complexity of Nigeria|url=http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard5.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414075757/http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard5.html|archive-date=14 April 2009|access-date=19 July 2007|work=Geographical Alliance of Iowa|publisher=[[University of Northern Iowa]]}}</ref> In the southeast stands the [[Obudu Plateau]]. [[Coastal plain]]s are found in both the southwest and the southeast.<ref name="encarta22"/> [[Mangrove swamp]]s are found along the coast.<ref name="gai42">{{cite web|title=The Human and Physical Characteristics of Nigeria|url=http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328172528/http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html|archive-date=28 March 2010|access-date=13 August 2007|work=Geographical Alliance of Iowa|publisher=[[University of Northern Iowa]]}}</ref>[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_NGA_present.svg|thumb|alt=|Climate map of Nigeria]]

The area near the border with Cameroon close to the coast is rich rainforest and part of the [[Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests|Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests]] [[ecoregion]], an important centre for [[biodiversity]]. It is habitat for the [[Drill (animal)|drill primate]], which is found in the wild only in this area and across the border in Cameroon. The areas surrounding [[Calabar]], Cross River State, also in this forest, are believed to contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The area of southern Nigeria between the Niger and the [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross Rivers]] has lost most of its forest because of development and harvesting by increased population, with it being [[Cross–Niger transition forests|replaced by grassland]].

Everything in between the far south and the far north is [[savanna]]h (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees). Rainfall is more limited to between {{convert|20|and|60|in|mm|-2|order=flip}} per year.<ref name="gai52" /> The savannah zone's three categories are [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|Guinean forest-savanna mosaic]], Sudan savannah, and Sahel savannah. Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is plains of tall grass interrupted by trees. Sudan savannah is similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees. Sahel savannah consists of patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast.<ref name="gai42" /> In the Sahel region, rain is less than {{convert|20|in|mm|sigfig=1|order=flip}} per year, and the [[Sahara|Sahara Desert]] is encroaching.<ref name="gai52" /> In the dry northeast corner of the country lies [[Lake Chad]], which Nigeria shares with Niger, Chad and Cameroon.

=== Plant ecology ===
Nigeria has numerous tree species, of which the majority of them are native while few are exotic. A high percentage of man-made forests in the country is dominated with exotic species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Onefeli|first1=Alfred|last2=Adesoye|first2=Peter|date=2014-06-23|title=Early Growth Assessment of Selected Exotic and Indigenous Tree Species in Nigeria|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/123295|journal=South-East European Forestry |language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=45–51|doi=10.15177/seefor.14-06|issn=1847-6481|doi-access=free}}</ref> This culminated from the assumption that exotic trees are fast-growing. However, studies have also investigated the growth of indigenous trees in with that of exotic species. Due to overexploitation, the remaining natural ecosystems and primary forests in Nigeria are restricted to the protected areas which include one biosphere reserve, seven national parks, one World Heritage site, 12 Strict Nature Reserves (SNRs), 32 game reserves/wildlife sanctuaries, and hundreds of forest reserves. These are in addition to several ex-situ conservation sites such as arboreta, botanical gardens, zoological gardens, and gene banks managed by several tertiary and research institutions<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Kallah|first1=Muh. S|last2=Bale|first2=J. O|last3=Abdullahi|first3=U. S|last4=Muhammad|first4=I. R|last5=Lawal|first5=R|date=2000-04-10|title=Nutrient composition of native forbs of semi-arid and dry sub-humid savannas of Nigeria|journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology|language=en|volume=84|issue=1|pages=137–145|doi=10.1016/S0377-8401(99)00131-5|issn=0377-8401}}</ref>

Many countries in Africa are affected by Invasive Alien Species (IAS). In 2004, the IUCN–World Conservation Union identified 81 IAS in [[South Africa]], 49 in [[Mauritius]], 37 in [[Algeria]] and [[Madagascar]], 35 in [[Kenya]], 28 in Egypt, 26 in [[Ghana]] and [[Zimbabwe]], and 22 in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=GISD|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/?st=100ss&fr=1&sts|access-date=2020-03-16|website=www.iucngisd.org}}</ref> However, very little is known about IAS in Nigeria, with most technical reports and literatures reporting fewer than 10 invasive plants in the country. Aside from plant invaders, ''[[Black rat|Rattus rattus]]'' and [[Avian influenza]] virus were also considered IAS in Nigeria.<ref name=":022">United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Invasive Alien Species. ''In'': African Environment Outlook 2: Our Environment, Our Wealth</ref> The initial entry of IAS into Nigeria was mainly through exotic plant introductions by the colonial rulers either for forest tree plantations or for ornamental purposes. The entry of exotic plants into Nigeria during the post-independence era was encouraged by increasing economic activity, the commencement of commercial oil explorations, introduction through ships, and introduction of ornamental plants by commercial floriculturists.<ref name=":022" />
[[File:Palm-tree-plantation--at-Kwale--Delta-state--beside-OPAC-Refinery-.jpg|thumb|Palm plantation in [[Delta State]]]]
In the semi-arid and dry sub-humid savannas of West Africa, including Nigeria, numerous species of herbaceous dicots especially from the genera ''[[Crotalaria]]'', ''[[Alysicarpus]]'', ''Cassia'' and ''[[Ipomoea|Ipomea]]'' are known to be widely used in livestock production. Quite often they are plucked or cut, and fed either as fresh or conserved fodders. The utilization of these and many other herbs growing naturally within the farm environment is opportunistic.<ref name=":122"/>

Many other species native to Nigeria, including soybean and its varieties, serve as an important source of oil and protein in this region.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} There are also many plants with medicinal purposes that are used to aid the therapy in many organs. Some of these vegetations include, ''[[Euphorbiaceae]]'', that serve purposed to aid malaria, gastrointestinal disorders and many other infections. Different stress factors such as droughts, low soil nutrients and susceptibility to pests has contributed to Maize plantations being an integral part of agriculture in this region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olaoye|first=G|date=2010-02-15|title=Evaluation of new generations of maize streak virus (msv) resistant varieties for grain yield, agronomic potential and adaptation to a southern guinea savanna ecology of Nigeria|journal=Agro-Science|volume=8|issue=2|doi=10.4314/as.v8i2.51107|issn=1119-7455|doi-access=free}}</ref>

As industrialization has increased, it has also put species of trees in the forest at risk to air pollution and studies have shown that in certain parts of Nigeria, trees have shown tolerance and grow in areas that have a significant amount air pollution<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Agbaire|first1=P. O.|last2=Esiefarienrhe|first2=E.|date=2009|title=Air Pollution tolerance indices (apti) of some plants around Otorogun Gas Plant in Delta State, Nigeria.|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jasem/article/view/55251|journal=Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|doi=10.4314/jasem.v13i1.55251|issn=1119-8362|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Environmental issues ===
{{Main|Environmental issues in the Niger Delta|Deforestation in Nigeria}}
[[File:Rainforest_range_of_Obudu_Mountains.jpg|thumb|Rainforest range of [[Obudu Mountain Resort|Obudu Mountains]]]]
[[File:Clouds_kissing_the_mountains_of_Obudu.jpg|thumb|Clouds kissing the mountains of Obudu]]
Nigeria's Delta region, home of the large oil industry, experiences serious [[oil spill]]s and other environmental problems, which has caused [[Conflict in the Niger Delta|conflict in the Delta region]].

[[Waste management]] including [[sewage treatment]], the linked processes of [[deforestation]] and [[Soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], and [[climate change]] or [[global warming]] are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in a [[megacity]] like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. This waste management problem is also attributable to unsustainable environmental management lifestyles of [[Kubwa, Abuja|Kubwa]] community in the Federal Capital Territory, where there are habits of indiscriminate disposal of waste, dumping of waste along or into the canals, sewerage systems that are channels for water flows, and the like. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanisation, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major cities of the country. Some of the solutions have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and [[Groundwater in Nigeria|groundwater]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ogbonna|first1=D.N.|last2=Ekweozor|first2=I.K.E.|last3=Igwe|first3=F.U.|year=2002|title=Waste Management: A Tool for Environmental Protection in Nigeria|journal=AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment|volume=31|issue=1|pages=55–57|doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0055:wmatfe]2.0.co;2|jstor=4315211}}</ref>

In 2005, Nigeria had the highest rate of [[deforestation]] in the world, according to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|title=News.mongabay.com|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1117-forests.html|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=News.mongabay.com}}</ref> That year, 12.2%, the equivalent of 11,089,000 hectares had been forested in the country. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares of forest every year equal to an average annual deforestation rate of 2.4%. Between 1990 and 2005, in total Nigeria lost 35.7% of its [[forest cover]], or around 6,145,000 hectares.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 January 2010|title=Rainforest analysis at Mongabay.com|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Nigeria.htm|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=Rainforests.mongabay.com}}</ref> Nigeria had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.2/10, ranking it 82nd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057}}</ref>

In 2010, thousands of people were inadvertently [[Zamfara State lead poisoning outbreak|exposed to lead-containing soil]] from informal [[gold mining]] within the northern state of Zamfara. While estimates vary, it is thought that upwards of 400 children died of acute [[lead poisoning]], making this perhaps the largest lead poisoning fatality outbreak ever encountered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bashir|first1=Muhammed|last2=Umar-Tsafe|first2=Nasir|last3=Getso|first3=Kabiru|last4=Kaita|first4=Ibrahim M.|last5=Nasidi|first5=Abdulsalami|last6=Sani-Gwarzo|first6=Nasir|last7=Nguku|first7=Patrick|last8=Davis|first8=Lora|last9=Brown|first9=Mary Jean|date=18 April 2014|title=Assessment of blood lead levels among children aged ≤ 5 years—Zamfara State, Nigeria, June–July 2012|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=63|issue=15|pages=325–327|issn=1545-861X|pmc=5779393|pmid=24739340}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Nigeria}}
[[File:Nigeria Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Nigeria exports, 2019]]
[[File:Lekki-Epe_Expressway_Sandfill_Bustop.jpg|thumb|Skyline of Nigeria's most industrialized city, Lagos]]
[[File:Abuja,_Federal_Capital_Territory_3.jpg|thumb|[[Abuja#Maitama District|Maitama district]], Abuja]]
[[File:Abuja_night_time.jpg|thumb|Abuja central business district at night]]
Nigeria's [[mixed economy]] is the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|largest in Africa]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|26th-largest in the world]] by nominal GDP, and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|25th-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity|PPP]]. It is a lower-middle-income economy,<ref>{{cite web|date=January 2011|title=World Bank list of economies|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522153925/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS|archive-date=22 May 2011|access-date=27 May 2011|publisher=http: www.worldbank.org}}</ref> with its abundant supply of natural resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, transport sectors and [[Nigerian Stock Exchange]]. Economic development has been hindered by years of [[Military dictatorship|military rule]], corruption, and mismanagement. The restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reforms have successfully put Nigeria back on track towards achieving its full economic potential. Next to petroleum, the second-largest source of foreign exchange earnings for Nigeria are [[remittance]]s sent home by Nigerians living abroad.<ref name="tribune.com.ng2">{{cite news|author=Gbola Subair- Abuja|date=8 September 2014|title=Remittances from diaspora Nigerians as lubricant for the economy|newspaper=[[Nigerian Tribune]]|url=http://www.tribune.com.ng/business/tribune-business/item/15469-remittances-from-diaspora-nigerians-as-lubricant-for-the-economy/15469-remittances-from-diaspora-nigerians-as-lubricant-for-the-economy|access-date=17 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317150032/http://www.tribune.com.ng/business/tribune-business/item/15469-remittances-from-diaspora-nigerians-as-lubricant-for-the-economy/15469-remittances-from-diaspora-nigerians-as-lubricant-for-the-economy|archive-date=17 March 2015}}</ref>

During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria accumulated a significant foreign debt to finance major infrastructural investments. With the fall of oil prices during the [[1980s oil glut]], Nigeria struggled to keep up with its loan payments and eventually defaulted on its principal debt repayments, limiting repayment to the interest portion of the loans. Arrears and penalty interest accumulated on the unpaid principal, which increased the size of the debt. After negotiations by the Nigerian authorities, in October 2005 Nigeria and its [[Paris Club]] creditors reached an agreement under which Nigeria repurchased its debt at a discount of approximately 60%. Nigeria used part of its oil profits to pay the residual 40%, freeing up at least $1.15 billion annually for poverty reduction programmes. Nigeria made history in April 2006 by becoming the first African country to completely pay off its debt (estimated $30 billion) owed to the Paris Club.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Farm_Ploughing,_Kwara_State,_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|Farm ploughing in [[Kwara State]]]]
{{Further|Agriculture in Nigeria}}
{{As of|2010}}, about 30% of Nigerians are employed in agriculture.<ref>{{cite web|date=2010|title=Labour Force Statistics, 2010|url=http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pages/download/41|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424153316/http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pages/download/41|archive-date=24 April 2015|access-date=22 June 2015|publisher=Nigerian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> Agriculture used to be the principal foreign exchange earner of Nigeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ake|first=Claude|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bs5rTH7GClgC&pg=PA48|title=Democracy and Development in Africa|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8157-0220-7|page=48|access-date=26 December 2008}}</ref> Major crops include [[beans]], [[sesame]], [[cashew nuts]], [[cassava]], [[cocoa beans]], [[Bambara groundnut|groundnuts]], [[gum arabic]], kolanut, [[maize]] (corn), [[melon]], [[millet]], [[palm kernel]]s, [[palm oil]], [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]], [[rice]], [[rubber]], [[sorghum]], [[soybeans]] and [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]].<ref name="Nigeria agriculture2">{{cite web|title=Agriculture – Nigeria – export, growth, area, crops, farming, sector|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Nigeria-AGRICULTURE.html|access-date=17 April 2015}}</ref> [[Cocoa bean|Cocoa]] is the leading non-oil foreign exchange earner.<ref name="Nigeria agriculture2" /> [[Rubber]] is the second-largest non-oil foreign exchange earner.<ref name="Nigeria agriculture2" />

Prior to the Nigerian civil war, Nigeria was self-sufficient in food.<ref name="Nigeria agriculture2" /> Agriculture has failed to keep pace with Nigeria's rapid population growth, and Nigeria now relies upon food imports to sustain itself.<ref name="Nigeria agriculture2" /> The Nigerian government promoted the use of inorganic fertilizers in the 1970s.<ref name="pasquini2">{{cite journal|last1=Pasquini|first1=MW|last2=Alexander|first2=MJ|date=2005|title=Soil fertility management strategies on the Jos Plateau: the need for integrating 'empirical' and 'scientific' knowledge in agricultural development|journal=Geographical Journal|volume=171|issue=2|pages=112–124|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00154.x}}</ref> In August 2019, Nigeria closed its border with Benin and other neighbouring countries to stop rice smuggling into the country as part of efforts to boost the local production.<ref>{{Cite news|date=29 August 2019|title=Nigeria closes part of border with Benin to check rice smuggling|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1VJ0PH-OZATP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829113752/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1VJ0PH-OZATP|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 August 2019|access-date=29 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Infrastructure ===

==== Energy ====
{{Main|Energy in Nigeria}}

[[File:Abuja road.jpg|thumb|Substation in Abuja]]Nigeria's primary energy consumption was about 108 [[Tonne of oil equivalent|Mtoe]] in 2011. Most of the energy comes from traditional [[biomass]] and waste, which account for 83% of total primary production. The rest is from fossil fuels (16%) and hydropower (1%). Since independence, Nigeria has tried to develop a domestic nuclear industry for energy. Since 2004, Nigeria has a Chinese-origin research reactor at [[Ahmadu Bello University]] and has sought the support of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] to develop plans for up to 4,000 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2027 according to the National Program for the Deployment of Nuclear Power for Generation of Electricity. In 2007, President [[Umaru Musa Yar'Adua|Umaru Yar'Adua]] urged the country to embrace nuclear power in order to meet its growing energy needs. In 2017, Nigeria signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 July 2017|title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en|publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection}}</ref>

In April 2015, Nigeria began talks with Russia's state-owned [[Rosatom]] to collaborate on the design, construction and operation of four nuclear power plants by 2035, the first of which will be in operation by 2025. In June 2015, Nigeria selected two sites for the planned construction of the nuclear plants. Neither the Nigerian government nor Rosatom would disclose the specific locations of the sites, but it is believed that the nuclear plants will be sited in [[Akwa Ibom State]] and [[Kogi State]]. The sites are planned to house two plants each. In 2017 agreements were signed for the construction of the [[Itu nuclear power plant]].

==== Transportation ====
{{Main|Transportation in Nigeria}}

Nigeria suffers from lack of adequate transportation infrastructure. As of 1999, its 194,394 kilometres of road networks are the main means of transportation, of which {{convert|60,068|km}} (including {{cvt|1,194|km}} of expressways) are paved roads and 134,326 kilometres are unpaved roads of city, town and village roads. The railways have undergone a massive revamping with projects such as the [[Lagos–Kano Standard Gauge Railway|Lagos-Kano Standard Gauge Railway]] being completed connecting northern cities of Kano, Kaduna, Abuja, Ibadan and Lagos.

There are 54 airports in Nigeria; the principal airports are [[Murtala Muhammed International Airport]] in Lagos and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport]] in Abuja. Three other international airports are [[Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport]] in [[Kano (city)|Kano]], [[Akanu Ibiam International Airport]] in [[Enugu]] and [[Port Harcourt International Airport]] in [[Port Harcourt]]. As with other transportation facilities, the airports suffer from a poor reputation for safety and operational efficiency.

==== Government satellites ====
[[File:Launch of CRS-11 mission.jpg|thumb|[[SpaceX]] launch of CRS-11 with [[Nigeria EduSat-1]] on board in 2017|alt=]]
The government has recently begun expanding this infrastructure to [[National Space Research and Development Agency|space-based communications]]. Nigeria has a space satellite that is monitored at the Nigerian National Space Research and Development Agency Headquarters in Abuja. The Nigerian government has commissioned the overseas production and launch of four satellites.

[[NigComSat-1]] was the first Nigerian satellite built, was Nigeria's third satellite, and Africa's first communication satellite. It was launched in 2007 aboard a Chinese [[Long March 3B]] [[Launch vehicle|carrier rocket]], from the [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center]] in China. The spacecraft was operated by [[NIGCOMSAT|NigComSat]] and the [[National Space Research and Development Agency|Nigerian Space Research and Development Agency]]. On November 11, 2008, NigComSat-1 failed in orbit after running out of power because of an anomaly in its solar array. It was based on the Chinese [[Dongfanghong program|DFH-4]] [[satellite bus]] and carries a variety of [[transponder]]s: four [[C band (IEEE)|C-band]]; fourteen [[Ku band|Ku-band]]; eight [[Ka band|Ka-band]]; and two [[L band|L-band]]. It was designed to provide coverage to many parts of Africa, and the Ka-band transponders would also cover Italy. The satellite was launched from Russia on September 27, 2003. Nigeriasat-1 was part of the worldwide Disaster Monitoring Constellation System.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-01-20|title=The Economic Development of Nigeria from 1914 to 2014|url=https://www.casade.org/economic-development-nigeria-1914-2014/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619145509/https://www.casade.org/economic-development-nigeria-1914-2014/|archive-date=19 June 2020|access-date=2020-01-22|website=CASADE|language=en-US}}</ref> The primary objectives of the Nigeriasat-1 were: to give early warning signals of environmental disaster; to help detect and control [[desertification]] in the northern part of Nigeria; to assist in [[demographic]] planning; to establish the relationship between [[malaria]] vectors and the environment that breeds malaria and to give early warning signals on future outbreaks of [[meningitis]] using remote sensing technology; to provide the technology needed to bring education to all parts of the country through distant learning; and to aid in conflict resolution and border disputes by mapping out state and International borders.

NigeriaSat-2, Nigeria's second satellite, was built as a high-resolution earth satellite by Surrey Space Technology Limited, a United Kingdom-based satellite technology company. It has 2.5-metre resolution panchromatic (very high resolution), 5-metre multispectral (high resolution, NIR red, green and red bands), and 32-metre multispectral (medium resolution, NIR red, green and red bands) antennas, with a ground receiving station in [[Abuja]]. The NigeriaSat-2 spacecraft alone was built at a cost of over £35 million. This satellite was launched into [[orbit]] from a military base in China.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fagoyinbo|first=Joseph Babatunde|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUdHBgAAQBAJ&q=The+NigeriaSat-2+spacecraft+alone+was+built+at+a+cost+of+over+%C2%A335+million.+This+satellite+was+launched+into+orbit+from+a+military+base+in+China&pg=PA316|title=The Armed Forces: Instrument of Peace, Strength, Development and Prosperity|date=May 2013|publisher=Author House|isbn=978-1-4772-1844-0|language=en}}</ref> On 10 November 2008 (0900 GMT), the satellite was reportedly switched off for analysis and to avoid a possible collision with other satellites. According to Nigerian Communications Satellite Limited, it was put into "emergency mode operation in order to effect mitigation and repairs".<ref>{{cite news|date=12 November 2008|title='Technical problems' shut down Nigerian satellite|agency=AFP|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g4S4e2LVeoER0jCP79S0gw3tjp7A|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104051741/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5g4S4e2LVeoER0jCP79S0gw3tjp7A|archive-date=4 January 2011}}</ref> The satellite eventually failed after losing power on 11 November 2008. On 24 March 2009, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, NigComSat Ltd. and CGWIC signed another contract for the in-orbit delivery of the NigComSat-1R satellite. NigComSat-1R was also a DFH-4 satellite, and the replacement for the failed NigComSat-1 was successfully launched into orbit by China in Xichang on 19 December 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nigcomsat-1 Program --- In-Orbit Delivery Program --- Communications Satellite --- CGWIC|url=http://www.cgwic.com/In-OrbitDelivery/CommunicationsSatellite/Program/NigComSat-1.html|website=www.cgwic.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nigcomsat-1 Program – In-Orbit Delivery Program – Communications Satellite|url=http://www.cgwic.com/In-OrbitDelivery/CommunicationsSatellite/Program/NigComSat-1.html|access-date=21 December 2010|publisher=CGWIC}}</ref> The satellite, was stated to have a positive impact on national development in various sectors such as communications, internet services, health, agriculture, environmental protection and national security.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria Launches Satellite in China|url=http://africanspotlight.com/2011/12/nigeria-launches-satellite-in-china/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214013850/http://africanspotlight.com/2011/12/nigeria-launches-satellite-in-china/|archive-date=14 February 2012|access-date=10 March 2012|publisher=African Spotlight}}</ref>

[[Nigeria EduSat-1|NigeriaEduSat-1]] was a satellite designed, built, and owned by the [[Federal University of Technology Akure]] (FUTA), in conjunction with Nigeria's National Space Research and Development Agency and Japan's Kyushu Institute of Technology. It was equipped with 0.3 megapixel and 5 megapixel cameras, and with the rest of the satellite fleet took images of Nigeria. The satellite transmitted songs and poems as an outreach project to generate Nigerian interest in science. The signal could be received by [[amateur radio operator]]s. The [[satellite constellation]] also conducted measurements of the atmospheric density {{convert|400|km}} above the Earth. The satellite cost about US$500,000 to manufacture and launch.

=== Petroleum and mining ===
{{Further|Petroleum industry in Nigeria|List of countries by oil exports|Mining industry of Nigeria}}
[[File:Topaz-169707.jpg|left|thumb|[[Topaz]] from the [[Jos Plateau]] in [[Plateau State]]]]
Nigeria is the 12th largest producer of petroleum in the world, the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves. Petroleum plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of GDP and 80% of government earnings. However, agitation for better resource control in the [[Niger Delta]], its main oil-producing region, has led to disruptions in oil production and prevents the country from exporting at 100% capacity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Lizzie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwuQ71ZbaOcC&pg=PA26|title=Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84162-239-2|page=26|access-date=26 December 2008}}</ref>
[[File:PTDF – Petroleum Technology Development Fund.jpg|thumb|PTDF – Petroleum Technology Development Fund]]
[[File:Countries_by_Natural_Gas_Proven_Reserves_(2014).svg|thumb|Countries by [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas proven reserves]] (2014). Nigeria has the largest reserves in Africa.]]
The Niger Delta Nembe Creek oil field was discovered in 1973 and produces from middle [[Miocene]] [[River delta|deltaic]] [[sandstone]]-[[shale]] in an [[anticline]] [[Petroleum trap|structural trap]] at a depth of {{convert|2|to|4|km|ft|-3|abbr=off}}.<ref>Nelson, P.H.H., Role of Reflection Seismic in Development of Nembe Creek Field, Nigeria, 1980, in Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade: 1968–1978, AAPG Memoir 30, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, {{ISBN|0-89181-306-3}}, pp. 565–576</ref> In June 2013, Shell announced a strategic review of its operations in Nigeria, hinting that assets could be divested. While many international oil companies have operated there for decades, by 2014 most were making moves to divest their interests, citing a range of issues including oil theft. In August 2014, [[Shell Oil Company]] said it was finalising its interests in four Nigerian oil fields.<ref name="ShellNigeria2">{{cite news|date=27 August 2014|title=Stakes in four Nigerian oil fields being sold by Shell|publisher=Nigeria Sun|url=http://www.nigeriasun.com/index.php/sid/225153307|access-date=28 August 2014}}</ref>

Nigeria has a total of 159 [[Petroleum reservoir|oil fields]] and 1,481 [[Oil well|wells]] in operation according to the [[Department of Petroleum Resources]].<ref name="NDES2">''Environmental Resources Managers Ltd, Niger Delta Environmental Survey Final Report Phase I; Volume I: Environmental and Socio-Economic Characteristics (Lagos: Niger Delta Environmental Survey, September 1997)''</ref> The most productive region of the nation is the coastal [[Niger Delta Basin (geology)|Niger Delta Basin]] in the Niger Delta or "south-south" region which encompasses 78 of the 159 oil fields. Most of Nigeria's oil fields are small and scattered, and as of 1990, these small fields accounted for 62.1% of all Nigerian production. This contrasts with the sixteen largest fields which produced 37.9% of Nigeria's petroleum at that time.<ref name="politicaleconomy2">''Nigeria: The Political Economy of Oil'' {{ISBN|0-19-730014-6}} (Khan, Ahmad)</ref>

In addition to its petroleum resources, Nigeria also has a wide array of underexploited mineral resources which include natural gas, coal, [[bauxite]], [[tantalite]], gold, [[tin]], iron ore, [[limestone]], [[niobium]], lead and [[zinc]].<ref name="Gov2">{{cite book|last=Safire, William|first=The New York Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-BIGv9vIoqcC&pg=PA1093|title=The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind|publisher=Macmillan|year=2007|isbn=978-0-312-37659-8|page=1093}}</ref> Despite huge deposits of these natural resources, the mining industry in Nigeria is still in its infancy.

{{wide image|Oil Factory - panoramio (cropped).jpg|800px|Oil facility at [[Bonny Island]], [[Rivers State]]}}

=== Services and tourism ===
{{Main|Banking in Nigeria|Telecommunications in Nigeria|Tourism in Nigeria}}

Nigeria has a highly developed financial services sector, with a mix of local and international banks, asset management companies, brokerage houses, insurance companies and brokers, private equity funds and investment banks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4-rlVeb1n0C&pg=PA168|title=Growing Apart: Oil, Politics, and Economic Change in Indonesia and Nigeria|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-472-06980-4|page=168|access-date=26 December 2008}}</ref> Nigeria has one of the fastest-growing telecommunications markets in the world, major emerging market operators (like [[MTN Group|MTN]], 9mobile, [[Airtel]] and [[Globacom]]) basing their largest and most profitable centres in the country.<ref>{{cite book|author1=DeRouen, Karl R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSLeN4U_C6kC&pg=PA546|title=International Security and the United States: An Encyclopedia|author2=Bellamy, Paul|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2008|isbn=978-0-275-99253-8|page=546|access-date=26 December 2008|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Nigeria's ICT sector has experienced a lot of growth, representing 10% of the nation's GDP in 2018 as compared to just 1% in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cgdev.org/reader/new-economy-africa-opportunities-nigerias-emerging-technology-sector|title=The New Economy of Africa|website=Center For Global Development}}</ref> Lagos is regarded as one of the largest technology hubs in Africa with its thriving tech ecosysytem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa's Booming Tech Hubs Are "Backbone of Tech Ecosystem" Having Grown 40% This Year|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tobyshapshak/2019/07/11/africas-booming-tech-hubs-are-backbone-of-tech-ecosystem-having-grown-40-this-year/#5ed629bf24c2|access-date=24 January 2020|website=Forbes}}</ref> Several startups like Paystack, Interswitch, Bolt and Piggyvest are leveraging technology to solve issues across different sectors.
[[File:Meridien_Akwa_Ibom_park.jpg|left|thumb|Meridien [[Akwa Ibom State|Akwa Ibom]] golf course park]]
Tourism in Nigeria centers largely on events, because of the country's ample amount of ethnic groups, but also includes rain forests, savannah, waterfalls, and other natural attractions.<ref name="suntra2">{{cite news|last=Archibong|first=Maurice|date=18 March 2004|title=Nigeria: Gold mine waiting to be tapped|work=The Sun Online|publisher=The Sun Publishing Ltd.|url=http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/travels/2004/mar/18/travels-mar18-01.htm|url-status=dead|access-date=21 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426214225/http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/travels/2004/mar/18/travels-mar18-01.htm|archive-date=26 April 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Lekki_Beach_in_Lagos.jpg|left|thumb|Lekki Beach in Lagos]]
Abuja is home to several parks and green areas. The largest, [[Millennium Park (Abuja)|Millennium Park]], was designed by architect [[Manfredi Nicoletti]] and officially opened in December 2003. Subsequent to the re-modernization project achieved by the administration of Governor Raji Babatunde Fashola, Lagos is gradually becoming a major tourist destination. Lagos is currently taking steps to become a [[global city]]. The 2009 Eyo carnival (a yearly festival originated from [[Iperu, Ogun|Iperu Remo]], Ogun State) was a step toward world city status. Currently, Lagos is primarily known as a business-oriented and a fast-paced community.<ref name="METRO2">{{cite web|title=Managing Metropolitan Lagos|url=http://www.africaleadership.org/rc/Managing%20Metropolitan%20Lagos.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513124623/http://www.africaleadership.org/rc/Managing%20Metropolitan%20Lagos.pdf|archive-date=13 May 2012|access-date=4 April 2012|publisher=R.Rasaki|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Lagos has become an important location for African and black cultural identity.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Anthony Appiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=PA53|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 2|author2=Henry Louis Gates|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9|page=53}}</ref>

Many festivals are held in Lagos; festivals vary in offerings each year and may be held in different months. Some of the festivals are [https://web.archive.org/web/20180820075714/http://www.festacfoodfair.com/ Festac Food Fair held in Festac] Town Annually, Eyo Festival, [https://web.archive.org/web/20181102044321/http://lagosblackheritagefestival.com/ Lagos Black Heritage Carnival], Lagos Carnival, Eko International Film Festival, Lagos Seafood Festac Festival, LAGOS PHOTO Festival and the Lagos Jazz Series, which is a unique franchise for high-quality live music in all genres with a focus on jazz. Established in 2010, the event takes place over a 3- to 5-day period at selected high-quality outdoor venues. The music is as varied as the audience itself and features a diverse mix of musical genres from rhythm and blues to soul, [[Afrobeat]], hip hop, bebop, and traditional jazz. The festivals provide entertainment of dance and song to add excitement to travelers during a stay in Lagos.

Lagos has sandy beaches by the Atlantic Ocean, including [[Elegushi Beach]] and Alpha Beach. Lagos also has many private beach resorts including Inagbe Grand Beach Resort and several others in the outskirts. Lagos has a variety of hotels ranging from three-star to five-star hotels, with a mixture of local hotels such as [[Eko Hotels and Suites]], [[Federal Palace Hotel]] and franchises of multinational chains such as Intercontinental Hotel, Sheraton, and Four Points by Hilton. Other places of interest include the [[Tafawa Balewa Square]], Festac town, The [[Nike Art Gallery]], [[Freedom Park (Lagos)|Freedom Park]], and the [[Cathedral Church of Christ, Lagos|Cathedral Church of Christ]].

=== Manufacturing and technology ===
[[File:Ajaokuta-factory.JPG|thumb|Soviet-built steel factory, [[Ajaokuta Steel Mill]]]]
Nigeria has a manufacturing industry that includes leather and textiles (centred in Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, and Lagos). Nigeria currently has an indigenous auto manufacturing company, [[Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-12-18|title=5 Advantages Of Driving An Innoson Vehicle|url=https://www.innosonvehicles.com/5-advantages-of-driving-an-innoson-vehicle/|access-date=2020-01-22|website=Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing|language=en-US}}</ref> located in Nnewi. It produces buses and SUVs. Car manufacturing (for the French car manufacturer [[Peugeot]] as well as for the English truck manufacturer [[Bedford Vehicles|Bedford]], now a subsidiary of [[General Motors]]), T-shirts, plastics and processed food. In this regard, some foreign vehicle manufacturing companies like Nissan have made known their plans to have manufacturing plants in Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web|author=Agande, Ben|date=24 January 2014|title=Nissan to role out 1st made in Nigeria cars in April|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/01/nissan-role-1st-made-nigeria-cars-april/|access-date=14 March 2014|work=Vanguard, Nigeria|publisher=Vanguard}}</ref> [[Ogun State|Ogun]] is considered to be Nigeria's current industrial hub, as most factories are located in Ogun and more companies are moving there, followed by Lagos.<ref>{{cite news|date=19 June 2013|title=Industrial hub: Why more companies are moving to Ogun|newspaper=Vanguard Nigeria|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/06/why-more-companies-are-moving-to-ogun/|access-date=14 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=5 May 2013|title=Ogun State's rising investment profile|url=http://www.mydailynewswatchng.com/2013/05/05/ogun-states-rising-investment-profile/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140314202910/http://www.mydailynewswatchng.com/2013/05/05/ogun-states-rising-investment-profile/|archive-date=14 March 2014|access-date=14 March 2014|publisher=Daily NewsWatch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 November 2012|title=Ogun State: Nigeria's new Industrial hub|url=http://news2.onlinenigeria.com/news/top-stories/219914-ogun-state-nigeria%E2%80%99s-new-industrial-hub.html|access-date=14 March 2014|publisher=Online Nigeria News}}</ref>

Nigeria has a few electronic manufacturers like Zinox, the first branded Nigerian computer, and manufacturers of electronic gadgets such as tablet PCs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Okonji, Emma|date=24 October 2013|title=Zinox Introduces Tablet Range of Computers, Plans Commercial Launch|url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/zinox-introduces-tablet-range-of-computers-plans-commercial-launch/162517/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027075729/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/zinox-introduces-tablet-range-of-computers-plans-commercial-launch/162517|archive-date=27 October 2013|access-date=14 March 2014|work=This Day|publisher=This Day Live}}</ref> In 2013, Nigeria introduced a policy regarding import duty on vehicles to encourage local manufacturing companies in the country.<ref>{{cite web|author=Onuba, Ifeanyi|date=4 October 2014|title=FG raises tariff on imported cars|url=http://www.punchng.com/business/business-economy/fg-raises-tariff-on-imported-cars/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127165800/http://www.punchng.com/business/business-economy/fg-raises-tariff-on-imported-cars/|archive-date=27 November 2013|access-date=14 March 2014|work=Punch Newspaper|publisher=Punch NG}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Clement, Udeme|date=19 January 2014|title=Will the new automotive policy give us affordable made-in-Nigeria car?|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/01/will-new-automotive-policy-give-us-affordable-made-nigeria-car/|access-date=14 March 2014|work=Vanguard|publisher=Vanguard Nigeria}}</ref> The city of [[Aba, Abia|Aba]] in the south-eastern part of the country is well known for handicrafts and shoes, known as "Aba made".<ref name="Naijalitz">{{cite web|title=Nigeria now generates 13,000mw of power, says Minister – Chukwuma|url=https://naijalitz.com/nigeria-now-generates-13000mw-of-power-says-minister/|access-date=28 October 2020|publisher=Naijalitz – No 1 Entertainment Portal}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Nigeria}}
[[File:Population density map of Nigerian states - English.png|thumb|upright=2.05|Population density (persons per square kilometer) in Nigeria|alt=|left]]

{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"
! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Nigeria<ref name="IEApop2011">[http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2Highlights.XLS CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion] Population 1971–2008 IEA [http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106205757/http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf|date=6 January 2012}} pp. 83–85</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web |title=Human Development Data (1990–2017) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref>
|-
! style="background:#cfb;"|Year
! style="background:#cfb;"|Million
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1971 ||style="text-align:right;"|55
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1980 ||style="text-align:right;"|71
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1990 ||style="text-align:right;"|95
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|125
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2004 ||style="text-align:right;"|138
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2008 ||style="text-align:right;"|151
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2012 ||style="text-align:right;"|167
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2016 ||style="text-align:right;"|186
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2017 ||style="text-align:right;"|191
|-
|}

The [[United Nations]] estimates that the population of Nigeria in {{UN_Population|Year}} was at {{UN_Population|Nigeria}}{{UN_Population|ref}}, distributed as 51.7% rural and 48.3% urban, and with a population density of 167.5 people per square kilometre. Around 42.5% of the population were 14 years or younger, 19.6% were aged 15–24, 30.7% were aged 25–54, 4.0% aged 55–64, and 3.1% aged 65 years or older. The median age in 2017 was 18.4 years.<ref name="People and Society: Population22">{{cite web|title=People and Society: Population|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/|access-date=17 October 2018|website=The World Fact Book|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> Nigeria is the [[World population|seventh most populous country in the world]]. The birth rate is 35.2-births/1,000 population and the death rate is 9.6 deaths/1,000 population as of 2017, while the total fertility rate is 5.07 children born/woman.<ref name="People and Society: Population22"/> Nigeria's population increased by 57 million from 1990 to 2008, a 60% growth rate in less than two decades.<ref name="IEApop20112">[http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2Highlights.XLS CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion] Population 1971–2008 IEA [http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106205757/http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf|date=6 January 2012}} pp. 83–85</ref> Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and accounts for about 17% of the continent's total population as of 2017; however, exactly how populous is a subject of speculation.<ref name="auto12">{{cite web|title=Human Development Data (1990–2017)|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data|access-date=17 October 2018|publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref>

National census results in the past few decades have been disputed. The results of the most recent census were released in December 2006 and gave a population of 140,003,542. The only breakdown available was by gender: males numbered 71,709,859, females numbered 68,293,008. According to the United Nations, Nigeria has been undergoing explosive population growth and has one of the highest growth and fertility rates in the world. By their projections, Nigeria is one of eight countries expected to account collectively for half of the world's total population increase in 2005–2050.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Population TO INCREASE BY 2.6 BILLION OVER NEXT 45 YEARS, WITH ALL GROWTH OCCURRING IN LESS DEVELOPED REGIONS|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/pop918.doc.htm|access-date=21 November 2008|publisher=UN}}</ref> The UN estimates that by 2100 the Nigerian population will be between 505 million and 1.03 billion people (middle estimate: 730 million).<ref>{{cite web|year=2010|title=Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611141930/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm|archive-date=11 June 2011|access-date=27 May 2011|publisher=UN}}</ref> In 1950, Nigeria had only 33 million people. In 2012, President Goodluck Jonathan said Nigerians should limit their number of children.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18610751 Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan urges birth control] retrieved 2 July 2012</ref>

Millions of Nigerians have emigrated during times of economic hardship, primarily to Europe, North America and Australia. It is estimated that over a million Nigerians have emigrated to the United States and constitute the [[Nigerian American]] populace. Individuals in many such Diasporic communities have joined the "Egbe Omo Yoruba" society, a national association of Yoruba descendants in North America.<ref>{{cite web|date=19 May 2007|title=Egbe Omo Yoruba, National Association of Yoruba descendants in North America|url=http://www.yorubanation.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309144042/http://www.yorubanation.org/|archive-date=9 March 2018|access-date=29 May 2011|publisher=yorubanation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kent|first=Mary Mederios|author2=Carl Haub|title=The Demographic Divide: What It Is and Why It Matters|publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]]|date=December 2005|url=http://www.prb.org/Articles/2005/TheDemographicDivideWhatItIsandWhyItMatters.aspx|access-date=6 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426083256/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2005/TheDemographicDivideWhatItIsandWhyItMatters.aspx|archive-date=26 April 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nigeria's largest city is [[Lagos]]. Lagos has grown from about 300,000 in 1950<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=John F. |author2=Daniel P. McMillen |title=Urban Economics and Real Estate: Theory and Policy |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |series=Wiley Desktop Editions |edition=2 |year=2010 |page=9 |isbn=978-0-470-59148-2}}</ref> to an estimated 13.4 million in 2017.<ref name="Major Urban Areas: Population">{{cite web |title=Major Urban Areas: Population |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ |website=The World Fact Book |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref>

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in Nigeria}}

{|class="wikitable" style="float:right;clear:right"
|-
|[[File:Hausa harpist.jpg|150px]]
|[[File:IGBO CULTURAL ATTIRE.jpg|150px]]
|[[File:Kwarastatedrummers.jpg|150px]]
|-
|A [[Hausa people|Hausa]] lute player
|[[Igbo people|Igbo]] Chief
|[[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] drummers
|}
Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups, with varying languages and customs, creating a country of rich ethnic diversity. The three largest ethnic groups are the [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and [[Igbo people|Igbo]], together accounting for more than 70% of the population, while the [[Edo people|Edo]], [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]], [[Fula people|Fulɓe]], [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]], [[Urhobo people|Urhobo-Isoko]], [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]], [[Ebira people|Ebira]], [[Nupe people|Nupe]], [[Gbagyi people|Gbagyi]], [[Jukun people (West Africa)|Jukun]], [[Igala people|Igala]], [[Idoma people|Idoma]] and [[Tiv people|Tiv]] comprise between 25 and 30%; other minorities make up the remaining 5%.<ref name=NGeo>"Nigeria" in ''Geographica: The complete Atlas of the world'', Random House, 2002, {{ISBN|0-375-72037-5}}</ref> The [[Middle Belt]] of Nigeria is known for its diversity of ethnic groups, including the [[Atyap people|Atyap]], [[Berom people|Berom]], Goemai, Igala, [[Kofyar people|Kofyar]], Pyem, and Tiv. The official population count of each of Nigeria's ethnicities is disputed as members of different ethnic groups believe the census is rigged to give a particular group (usually believed to be northern groups) numerical superiority.<ref name="felix2" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Growing Apart: Oil, Politics, and Economic Change in Indonesia and Nigeria |first=Peter |last=Lewis |page=132 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-472-06980-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4-rlVeb1n0C&pg=PA132}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria |first=Rotimi T. |last=Suberu |publisher=US Institute of Peace Press |year=2001 |page=154 |isbn=978-1-929223-28-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKeUMmDlPkEC&pg=PA154}}</ref>

There are small minorities of British, American, [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian]], [[Chinese people in Nigeria|Chinese]] (est. 50,000),<ref>{{cite web
|last = Politzer
|first = Malia
|title = China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration
|publisher = Migration Information Source
|date = August 2008
|url = http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690
|access-date =7 June 2011}}</ref> [[White Zimbabweans|white Zimbabwean]],<ref>{{cite web
|last = Simpson
|first = Sarah
|title = Why white Zimbabwean farmers plan to stay in Nigeria
|work =[[The Christian Science Monitor]]
|date = August 2008
|url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0502/p04s01-woaf.html
|access-date =7 June 2011}}</ref> Japanese, Greek, Syrian and Lebanese immigrants. Immigrants also include those from other West African or East African nations. These minorities mostly reside in major cities such as Lagos and Abuja, or in the Niger Delta as employees for the major oil companies. A number of Cubans settled in Nigeria as political refugees following the [[Cuban Revolution]].

In the middle of the 19th century, a number of ex-slaves of [[Afro-Cubans|Afro-Cuban]] and [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] descent<ref>Toyin Falola, ''The History of Nigeria'', Greenwood Press, 1999, pp. 41, 47.</ref> and emigrants from Sierra Leone established communities in Lagos and other regions of Nigeria. Many ex-slaves came to Nigeria following the emancipation of slaves in the Americas. Many of the immigrants, sometimes called [[Saro people|Saro]] (immigrants from Sierra Leone) and [[Brazilians in Nigeria|Amaro]] (ex-slaves from Brazil)<ref>Abiola Dosumu Elegbede-Fernandez, ''Lagos A Legacy of Honour''. Spectrum Books, 1992, pp. 19, 27.</ref> later became prominent merchants and missionaries in these cities.

=== Languages ===

{{Main|Languages of Nigeria}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2018}}
[[File:Nigeria linguistical map 1979.svg|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Map of Nigeria's linguistic groups]]

There are 521 languages that have been spoken in Nigeria; nine of them are extinct.{{dubious|date=June 2021}} In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria, English, was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country, owing to the influence of British colonisation which ended in 1960. Many French speakers from surrounding countries have influenced the English spoken in the border regions of Nigeria and some Nigerian citizens have become fluent enough in French to work in the surrounding countries. The French spoken in Nigeria may be mixed with some native languages. French may also be mixed with English.

The major languages spoken in Nigeria represent three major families of [[languages of Africa]]: the majority are [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] languages, such as [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Ijaw languages|Ijaw]], [[Fula language|Fulfulde]], [[Ogoni languages|Ogoni]], and [[Edo language|Edo]]. [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]], spoken in the northeast, primarily in [[Borno State|Borno]] and [[Yobe State]], is part of the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] family, and [[Hausa language|Hausa]] is an [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] language. Even though most ethnic groups prefer to communicate in their own languages, English as the official language is widely used for education, business transactions and for official purposes. English as a first language is used by only a small minority of the country's urban elite, and it is not spoken at all in some rural areas. Hausa is the most widely spoken of the three main languages spoken in Nigeria.

With the majority of Nigeria's populace in the rural areas, the major languages of communication in the country remain indigenous languages. Some of the largest of these, notably Yoruba and Igbo, have derived standardised languages from several different dialects and are widely spoken by those ethnic groups. [[Nigerian Pidgin|Nigerian Pidgin English]], often known simply as "[[Pidgin]]" or "Broken" (Broken English), is also a popular [[lingua franca]], though with varying regional influences on dialect and slang. The pidgin English or Nigerian English is widely spoken within the Niger Delta Region.<ref>{{cite book |title=Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study |first=Efurosibina E. |last=Adegbija |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-59221-173-9 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auI_WuBrWncC&pg=PA55 |location=Last paragraph |access-date=26 December 2008}}</ref>

=== Religion ===

{{Main|Religion in Nigeria}}{{Pie chart|thumb=right|caption=Religion in Nigeria (est. 2018)<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web
|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/
|title=Africa :: Nigeria — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency
|date=2018
|quote=Total population: 214 million Religions: Muslim, 53.5%; Christian, 45.9%; Other, 0.6%}}</ref>|label1=[[Muslim]]|value1=55.9|color1=Green|label2=[[Christians|Christian]]|value2=43.6|color2=DodgerBlue|label3=[[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]]|value3=0.6|color3=White}}Nigeria is a religiously diverse society, with [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]] being the most widely professed religions. Nigerians are nearly equally divided into [[Muslims]] and [[Christians]], with a tiny minority of adherents of [[traditional African religions]] and other religions.<ref name="Cia 19">CIA Factbook: Nigeria [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/fields/401.html] (Retrieved 9 May 2020)</ref> The Christian share of Nigeria's population is on decline because of lower [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] compared to Muslims in the north.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13644-021-00450-5?platform=hootsuite|doi = 10.1007/s13644-021-00450-5|title = Christians, Muslims and Traditional Worshippers in Nigeria: Estimating the Relative Proportions from Eleven Nationally Representative Social Surveys|year = 2021|last1 = McKinnon|first1 = Andrew|journal = Review of Religious Research|volume = 63|issue = 2|pages = 303–315|hdl = 2164/16008|hdl-access = free}}</ref> As in other parts of Africa where Islam and Christianity are dominant, religious syncretism with the traditional African religions is common.<ref>Chitando, Ezra (editor: Afe Adogame), ''African Traditions in the Study of Religion, Diaspora and Gendered Societies'', [[Routledge]] (2016), p. 31, {{ISBN|9781317184188}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=VMjeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false]</ref>

A 2012 report on religion and public life by the [[Pew Research Center]] stated that in 2010, 49.3 percent of Nigeria's population was Christian, 48.8 percent was Muslim, and 1.9 percent were followers of indigenous and other religions, or unaffiliated.<ref name="Pew Forum on Religion2">{{cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101080244/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-percentage.php|archive-date=1 January 2013|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> However, in a report released by Pew Research Center in 2015, the Muslim population was estimated to be 50%, and by 2060, according to the report, Muslims will account for about 60% of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/}}</ref> The 2010 census of [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] has also reported that 48.8% of the total population was Christian, slightly larger than the Muslim population of 43.4%, while 7.5% were members of other religions.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|title=Religious Adherents, 2010 – Nigeria|url=http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_166_2.asp|access-date=28 July 2013|publisher=World Christian Database}}</ref> However, these estimates should be taken with caution because sample data is mostly collected from major urban areas in the south, which are predominantly Christian.<ref name="Regional Distribution of Christians2">{{cite web|title=Regional Distribution of Christians|date=19 December 2011|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-regions/|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=Pewforum.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Distribution of Christians|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-muslim/Regional}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=27 January 2011|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=Pewforum.org}}</ref>

Islam dominates North Western Nigeria (Hausa, Fulani and others), with 99% Muslim, and a good portion of Northern Eastern Nigeria (Kanuri, Fulani and other groups) Nigeria. In the west, the Yoruba tribe is predominantly split between Muslims and Christians with 10% adherents of traditional religions. [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and locally cultivated Christianity are widely practiced in Western areas, while [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] is a more prominent Christian feature of South Eastern Nigeria. Both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism are observed in the Ibibio, [[Anaang people|Anaang]], [[Efik people|Efik]], [[Ijaw people|Ijo]] and Ogoni lands of the south. The Igbos (predominant in the east) and the [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] (south) are 98% Christian, with 2% practicing traditional religions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria: a secular or multi religious state – 2|url=http://www.thenationonlineng.net/2011/index.php/columnist/thursday/jide-osuntokun/46858-nigeria-a-secular-or-multi-religious-state-2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306085141/http://www.thenationonlineng.net/2011/index.php/columnist/thursday/jide-osuntokun/46858-nigeria-a-secular-or-multi-religious-state-2.html|archive-date=6 March 2014|access-date=15 April 2014}}</ref> The [[Middle Belt|middle belt]] of Nigeria contains the largest number of minority ethnic groups in Nigeria, who were found to be mostly Christians and members of traditional religions, with a small proportion of Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|date=29 November 2004|title=The Middle Belt: History and politics|url=http://www.nasarawastate.org/newsday/news/culture/11129114540.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229202021/http://www.nasarawastate.org/newsday/news/culture/11129114540.html|archive-date=29 February 2012|access-date=13 March 2012|publisher=Nasarawastate.org}}</ref>
[[File:AbujaNationalMosque.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Abuja National Mosque]]]]
[[File:Catedral Nacional em Abuja, Nigéria.jpg|thumb|left|[[National Church of Nigeria]], [[Abuja]]]][[File:NG-Sharia.png|thumb|Nigerian states that implement some form of sharia law (in green)]]Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in sub-Saharan Africa. The vast majority of [[Islam in Nigeria|Muslims in Nigeria]] are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] belonging to [[Maliki]] school of [[jurisprudence]]; however, a sizeable minority also belongs to [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi]] [[Madhhab]]. A large number of Sunni Muslims are members of [[Sufism|Sufi]] brotherhoods. Most Sufis follow the [[Qadiriyya]], [[Tijaniyyah]] and/or the [[Mouride]] movements. A significant [[Shia Islam in Nigeria|Shia minority exists]]. Some northern states have incorporated [[Sharia]] law into their previously secular legal systems, which has brought about some controversy.<ref name="tiptoe">Owobi Angrew, "Tiptoeing Through A Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria", ''[[Journal of African Law]]'', Vol. 48, No 2, 2002.</ref> [[Kano State]] has sought to incorporate Sharia law into its constitution.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Kano Seeks Supremacy of Sharia Over Constitution
|publisher = wwrn.org
|date = 17 March 2005
|url = http://wwrn.org/articles/15994/
|access-date=7 June 2011}}</ref> The majority of [[Quranism|Quranists]] follow the Kalo Kato or Quraniyyun movement. There are also [[Ahmadiyya]] and Mahdiyya minorities,<ref name="Diversity in Nigerian Islam">{{cite web |url=http://www3.qeh.ox.ac.uk/pdf/nrn/nrn-pp01.pdf |title=Diversity in Nigerian Islam |access-date=15 April 2014}}</ref> as well as followers of the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref name="The Baháʼí Community of Nigeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.bahai.org/national-communities/nigeria |title=The Baháʼí Community of Nigeria |access-date=15 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/26525030/The-Middle-Belt-Movement-and-the-Formation-of-Christian-Consciousness-in-Colonial-Northern-Nigeria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091126032348/http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/26525030/The-Middle-Belt-Movement-and-the-Formation-of-Christian-Consciousness-in-Colonial-Northern-Nigeria|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 November 2009|title=The Middle Belt Movement and the Formation of Christian Consciousness in Colonial Northern Nigeria. – Britannica Online Encyclopedia|date=26 November 2009}}</ref>

Among Christians, the Pew Research survey found that 74% were Protestant, 25% were Catholic, and 1% belonged to other Christian denominations, including a small [[Orthodoxy#Christianity|Orthodox Christian]] community.<ref name="features.pewforum.org2">{{cite web|date=19 December 2011|title=Table: Christian Population in Numbers by Country | Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|url=http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/population-number.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107133111/http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/population-number.php|archive-date=7 January 2012|access-date=16 July 2014|publisher=Features.pewforum.org}}</ref> Leading Protestant churches in the country include the [[Church of Nigeria]] of the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[General Council of the Assemblies of God Nigeria|Assemblies of God Church]], the [[Nigerian Baptist Convention]] and [[T.B. Joshua|The Synagogue, Church Of All Nations]]. Since the 1990s, there has been significant growth in many other churches, independently started in Africa by Africans, particularly the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Protestant]] ones. These include the [[Redeemed Christian Church of God]], [[Winners' Chapel]], [[Christ Apostolic Church]] (the first Aladura Movement in Nigeria), [[Living Faith Church Worldwide]], [[Deeper Christian Life Ministry]], [[Evangelical Church of West Africa]], [[Mountain of Fire and Miracles]], [[Christ Embassy]], [[The Lord's Chosen Charismatic Revival Movement|Lord's Chosen Charismatic Revival Movement]], [[Celestial Church of Christ]], and [[Dominion City]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/11/16/young-nigerians-are-connecting-pentecostal-churches-will-they-return-catholicism|title=Young Nigerians are connecting with Pentecostal churches. Will they return to Catholicism?|date=16 November 2017|work=America Magazine|access-date=19 March 2018|language=en}}</ref> In addition, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Nigeria|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the [[Aladura Church]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church in Nigeria|Seventh-day Adventist]] and various indigenous churches have also experienced growth.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Academic Study of Religion in Nigeria |doi=10.1016/S0048-721X(88)80017-4 |volume=18 |journal=Religion |pages=37–46|year = 1988|last1 = Hackett|first1 = Rosalind I.J.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Aladura Christianity: A Yoruba Religion |doi=10.2307/1581109 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=266–291 |journal=Journal of Religion in Africa |jstor=1581109 |year = 1993|last1 = Ray|first1 = Benjamin C.}}</ref> The Yoruba area contains a large Anglican population, while [[Igboland]] is a mix of Roman Catholics, Protestants, and a small population of [[Igbo Jews]]. The Edo area is composed predominantly of members of the Assemblies of God, which was introduced into Nigeria by Augustus Ehurie Wogu and his associates at Old Umuahia.

Nigeria has become an African hub for the [[Grail Movement]] and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishnas]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwrn.org/articles/5544/?&place=nigeria&section=hari-krishna|title=Day Hare Krishna Came to Town|author=Ebonugwo, Mike |publisher=wwrn.org |date=1 September 2004 |access-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> and the largest temple of the [[Eckankar]] religion is in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, with a total capacity of 10,000.

=== Health ===

{{Further|Health in Nigeria}}
[[File:Primus International Superspeciality Hospital.jpg|thumb|right|upright=2.25|A hospital in Abuja]]Health care delivery in Nigeria is a concurrent responsibility of the three tiers of government in the country, and the private sector.<ref>Rais Akhtar; Health Care Patterns and Planning in Developing Countries, Greenwood Press, 1991. p. 264</ref> Nigeria has been reorganising its health system since the [[Bamako Initiative]] of 1987, which formally promoted community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/userfees/background.htm
|title=User fees for health: a background
|access-date=28 December 2006
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128203803/http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/userfees/background.htm
|archive-date=28 November 2006
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based health care reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/4/378
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828093311/http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/4/378
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=28 August 2007
|title=Effect of the Bamako-Initiative drug revolving fund on availability and rational use of essential drugs in primary health care facilities in south-east Nigeria
|access-date=28 December 2006
}}</ref>

[[HIV/AIDS in Nigeria|HIV/AIDS rate in Nigeria]] is much lower compared to the other African nations such as Botswana or South Africa whose prevalence (percentage) rates are in the double digits. {{As of|2019|}}, the [[HIV]] prevalence rate among adults ages 15–49 was 1.5 percent.<ref name=":0" /> The [[life expectancy]] in Nigeria is 54.7 years on average,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title={{!}} Human Development Reports|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/NGA|access-date=2021-02-04|website=hdr.undp.org}}</ref> and 71% and 39% of the population have access to improved water sources and improved [[sanitation]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Countdown Country Profiles|url=https://profiles.countdown2030.org/#/cp/NGA|access-date=2021-02-04|website=profiles.countdown2030.org}}</ref> {{As of|2019|}}, the infant mortality is 74.2 deaths per 1,000 [[live birth (human)|live births]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) - Nigeria {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=NG|access-date=2021-02-04|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>

In 2012, a new bone marrow donor program was launched by the [[University of Nigeria]] to help people with [[leukaemia]], [[lymphoma]], or [[sickle cell disease]] to find a compatible donor for a life-saving [[Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation|bone marrow transplant]], which cures them of their conditions. Nigeria became the second African country to have successfully carried out this surgery.<ref name=McNeil>{{cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/12/health/a-match-and-a-mission-helping-blacks-battle-cancer.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all
|title=Finding a Match, and a Mission: Helping Blacks Survive Cancer
|last=McNeil
|first=Donald
|date=11 May 2012
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=15 May 2012}}</ref> In the [[Western African Ebola virus epidemic|2014 Ebola outbreak]], Nigeria was the first country to effectively contain and eliminate the Ebola threat that was ravaging three other countries in the West African region; the unique method of [[contact tracing]] employed by Nigeria became an effective method later used by countries such as the United States, when Ebola threats were discovered.<ref name="Matt Schiavenza">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/why-nigeria-stopped-ebola-but-not-boko-haram/381442/|title=Why Nigeria Was Able to Beat Ebola, but Not Boko Haram|author=Matt Schiavenza|date=14 October 2014|work=The Atlantic|access-date=17 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="The Punch">{{cite news|url=http://www.punchng.com/news/us-sends-medical-experts-to-study-how-nigeria-contained-ebola/ |title=US sends experts to study Nigeria's anti-Ebola strategies |newspaper=The Punch |date=3 October 2014 |access-date=8 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205124719/http://www.punchng.com/news/us-sends-medical-experts-to-study-how-nigeria-contained-ebola/ |archive-date= 5 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Vanguard">{{cite web |url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/10/us-sends-medical-experts-study-nigeria-tamed-ebola/ |title=US sends medical experts to study how Nigeria tamed Ebola |publisher=Vanguard |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref>

The Nigerian health care system is continuously faced with a shortage of doctors known as '[[Human capital flight|brain drain]]', because of emigration by skilled Nigerian doctors to North America and Europe. In 1995, an estimated 21,000 Nigerian doctors were practising in the United States alone, which is about the same as the number of doctors working in the Nigerian public service. Retaining these expensively trained professionals has been identified as one of the goals of the government.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Anekwe
|first = Mike Chinedu
|title = BRAIN DRAIN: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE (1)
|publisher =[[Niger Delta Congress]]
|date = April 2003
|url = http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/barticles/brain_drain_the_nigerian_experie.htm
|access-date = 7 June 2011
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110527134510/http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/barticles/brain_drain_the_nigerian_experie.htm
|archive-date = 27 May 2011
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

=== Education ===

{{Main|Education in Nigeria}}
[[File:University of Lagos2.jpg|The [[University of Lagos]]|thumb]]

Education in Nigeria is overseen by the [[Federal Ministry of Education (Nigeria)|Ministry of Education]]. [[Local government areas of Nigeria|Local authorities]] take responsibility for implementing policy for state-controlled public education and state schools at a regional level. The education system is divided into [[kindergarten]], [[primary education]], [[secondary education]] and [[tertiary education]]. After the 1970s oil boom, tertiary education was improved so it would reach every subregion of Nigeria. 68% of the Nigerian population is literate, and the rate for men (75.7%) is higher than that for women (60.6%).<ref name=CP2006>{{cite web|title=Country Profile – Nigeria|publisher=[[United States Library of Congress]] – Federal Research Division|date=July 2008|url= http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Nigeria.pdf|access-date =28 May 2011}}</ref>

Nigeria provides free, government-supported education, but attendance is not compulsory at any level, and certain groups, such as nomads and the handicapped, are under-served. The education system consists of six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four, five or six years of university education leading to a bachelor's degree.<ref name=CP2006/> The government has majority control of university education. Tertiary education in Nigeria consists of universities (public and private), polytechnics, monotechnics, and colleges of education. The country has a total of 138 universities, with 40 federally owned, 39 state owned, and 59 privately owned.

=== Crime ===
{{Main|Crime in Nigeria}}
[[File:Nigerian_female_police.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A [[Nigeria Police Force|Nigerian police officer]] at the [[Eyo festival]] in Lagos]]
Nigeria is home to a [[Organized crime in Nigeria|substantial network of organised crime]], active especially in [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]], shipping heroin from Asian countries to Europe and America; and [[cocaine]] from South America to Europe and South Africa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Organized Crime: African Criminal Enterprises|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime/african|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906100838/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime/african/|archive-date=6 September 2015|access-date=7 June 2011|publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]}}</ref> Various [[Confraternities in Nigeria|Nigerian confraternities]] or student "campus cults" are active in both organised crime and in political violence as well as providing a network of corruption within Nigeria. As confraternities have extensive connections with political and military figures, they offer excellent alumni networking opportunities. The Supreme Vikings Confraternity, for example, boasts that twelve members of the [[Rivers State House of Assembly]] are cult members.<ref name="cults2">{{cite news|date=31 July 2008|title=Cults of violence – How student fraternities turned into powerful and well-armed gangs|work=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11849078|access-date=7 June 2011}}</ref> In lower levels of society, there are the "[[area boys]]", organised gangs mostly active in Lagos who specialise in mugging and small-scale drug dealing. Gang violence in Lagos resulted in 273 civilians and 84 policemen killed in the period of August 2000 to May 2001.<ref>{{cite news|last=Olukoya|first=Sam|date=20 February 2003|title=Crime war rages in Nigeria|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1443902.stm|access-date=7 June 2011}}</ref>

There is some [[piracy in the Gulf of Guinea]], with attacks directed at all types of vessels. Consistent with the rise of Nigeria as an increasingly dangerous hot spot, 28 of the 30 seafarers kidnapped globally between January and June 2013 were in Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nicnic |first=Donna |title=Maritime Security: Current Threats and Implications |url=https://www.pacmar.com/story/2013/10/01/features/maritime-security-current-threats-and-implications/184.html |website=Pacific Maritime Magazine |date=1 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317212618/https://pacmar.com/story/2013/10/01/features/maritime-security-current-threats-and-implications/184.html |archive-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Internationally, Nigeria is infamous for a form of bank fraud dubbed ''419'', a type of [[advance-fee scam]] (named after Section 419 of the Nigerian Penal Code) along with the "Nigerian scam", a form of [[confidence trick]] practised by individuals and criminal syndicates.<ref>{{cite web|author=Glickman, Harvey|year=2005|title=The Nigerian "419" Advance Fee Scams: Prank or Peril?|url=http://www.haverford.edu/pols/faculty/glickman/Articles/CJAS_Text_final_1-35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050115001333/http://www.haverford.edu/pols/faculty/glickman/Articles/CJAS_Text_final_1-35.pdf|archive-date=15 January 2005|access-date=27 May 2011|publisher=[[Haverford College]], Department of Political science}}</ref> These scams involve a complicit Nigerian bank (the laws being set up loosely to allow it) and a scammer who claims to have money he needs to obtain from that bank. The victim is talked into exchanging bank account information on the premise that the money will be transferred to them and they will get to keep a cut. In reality, money is taken out instead, and/or large fees (which seem small in comparison with the imaginary wealth to be gained) are deducted. In 2003, the Nigerian [[Economic and Financial Crimes Commission]] was created to combat this and other forms of organised financial crime,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Establishment Act |url=https://www.efccnigeria.org/efcc/about-efcc/the-establishment-act |website=[[Economic and Financial Crimes Commission]] |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> and in some cases, it has succeeded in bringing the [[crime boss]]es to justice and even managing to return the stolen money to victims.<ref>{{cite web |title=EFCC recovers and returns $4.48m to 86 year old Hong Kong woman |url=http://www.efccnigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=686&Itemid=2 |website=[[Economic and Financial Crimes Commission]] |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061007150402/http://www.efccnigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=686&Itemid=2 |archive-date=7 October 2006 |date=13 October 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Nigeria has been [[Corruption in Nigeria|pervaded by political corruption]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Adebanwi|first=Wale|author-link=Wale Adebanw|title=Mobilizing for Change|work=Contesting the Nigerian State|year=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137324535|isbn=978-1-137-32453-5}}</ref> Nigeria was ranked 136 out of 182 countries in [[Transparency International]]'s 2014 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Chima, Obinna|date=4 December 2014|title=Nigeria Records Improvement, Ranked 39th on Corruption Index|url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigeria-records-improvement-ranked-39th-on-corruption-index/195767/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208144949/https://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigeria-records-improvement-ranked-39th-on-corruption-index/195767/|archive-date=8 February 2015|access-date=8 February 2015|publisher=This Day Live}}</ref> More than $400 billion were stolen from the treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=23 April 2007|title=A Failure of Democracy in Nigeria|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1613615,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529003012/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1613615,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 May 2007|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> In 2015, incumbent President Muhammadu Buhari said corrupt officials have stolen $150 billion from Nigeria in the last 10 years.<ref>"[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33689115 Nigerian former minister 'stole $6bn of public money']". BBC News. 28 July 2015.</ref>

=== Poverty ===
{{Main|Poverty in Nigeria}}

[[Poverty in Nigeria|Nigeria poverty rates]] have gone down significantly in the 2010s because of economic growth. The World Bank states Nigeria has had a 7.4% economic growth in July 2019 which has been their highest yet since the [https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/NGA/nigeria/gdp-gross-domestic-product#:~:text=Nigeria%20gdp%20for%202018%20was,a%2018.18%25%20decline%20from%202015. gross domestic product rate decreased to 2%.] While as of May 4, 2020, 40% of Nigerians live in poverty, this number still shows the growth of the developing country, with [https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/NGA/nigeria/gdp-gross-domestic-product#:~:text=Nigeria%20gdp%20for%202018%20was,a%2018.18%25%20decline%20from%202015. a previously counted 61% of the population living in poverty in 2012.] Having made their own plans to reduce this number, Nigeria has presented a plan to the [[World Bank Group]] to lower this number tremendously. Government instability, which affects the rate at which citizens are employed, is the major reason for the poverty levels being higher in certain periods of time.

=== Human rights ===
{{Main|Human rights in Nigeria}}
[[File:Protesters at the endSARS protest in Lagos, Nigeria 19.jpg|thumb|[[End SARS]] is a decentralised social movement, and series of mass protests against [[police brutality]] in Nigeria.]]
[[File:Women_in_Tech.jpg|thumb|[[Nigerian]] women in tech]]
Nigeria's human rights record remains poor.<ref name="StateDeptHumanRights2">{{cite web|date=25 February 2009|title=2008 Human Rights Report: Nigeria|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/af/119018.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226175315/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/af/119018.htm|archive-date=26 February 2009|access-date=20 March 2009|work=2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|publisher=United States, Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor}}</ref> According to the U.S. Department of State,<ref name="StateDeptHumanRights2" /> the most significant human rights problems are: use of excessive force by security forces; impunity for abuses by security forces; arbitrary arrests; prolonged pretrial detention; judicial corruption and executive influence on the judiciary; rape, torture and other cruel, [[inhuman or degrading treatment]] of prisoners, detainees and suspects; harsh and life‑threatening prison and detention centre conditions; human trafficking for the purpose of prostitution and forced labour; societal violence and vigilante killings; [[Child labour in Nigeria|child labour]], child abuse and [[Child sexual abuse in Nigeria|child sexual exploitation]]; [[Domestic violence in Nigeria|domestic violence]]; discrimination based on ethnicity, region and religion.

Nigeria is a state party of the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=OHCHR | Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/cedaw/pages/cedawindex.aspx|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref> It also has signed [[Maputo Protocol]], an international treaty on women's rights, and the African Union Women's Rights Framework.<ref>{{cite news|date=17 March 2017|title=Failure to pass equality bill betrays Nigerian women, activists say|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeria-women-lawmaking-idUSKCN0WJ2L4|newspaper=Reuters|last1=Guilbert|first1=Kieran}}</ref> Discrimination based on sex is a significant human rights issue. Forced marriages are common.<ref>{{cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld – Nigeria: Prevalence of forced marriage, particularly in Muslim and Yoruba communities; information on legislation, including state protection; ability of women to refuse a forced marriage|url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/50b4ab202.html}}</ref> [[Child marriage in Nigeria|Child marriage]] remains common in Northern Nigeria;<ref>{{cite news|title=Nigeria's child brides: 'I thought being in labour would never end'|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/02/nigeria-child-brides-religion |last=Mark |first=Monica |date=2 September 2013 |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref> 39% of girls are married before age 15, although the Marriage Rights Act banning marriage of girls below 18 years old was introduced on a federal level in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last=Clarke|first=Joe Sandler|date=11 March 2015|title=Nigeria: Child brides facing death sentences a decade after child marriage prohibited|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/mar/11/the-tragedy-of-nigerias-child-brides|work=The Guardian}}</ref> There is rampant [[Polygamy in Nigeria|polygamy in Northern Nigeria]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Shoneyin|first=Lola|author-link=Lola Shoneyin|date=19 March 2010|title=Polygamy? No thanks|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/20/polygamy-nigeria-abuja-tradition|work=The Guardian |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref> Submission of the wife to her husband and [[Domestic violence in Nigeria|domestic violence are common]]. Women have less land rights.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Bioye Tajudeen |last1=Aluko |first2=Abdul–Rasheed |last2=Amidu |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/accra/papers/ts09/ts09_04_aluko_amidu.pdf |title=Women and Land Rights Reforms in Nigeria |date=2006 |publisher=5th FIG Regional Conference |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref> [[Maternal death|Maternal mortality]] was at 814 per 100,000 live births in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) | Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> [[Female genital mutilation in Nigeria|Female genital mutilation is common]], although a ban was implemented in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|last=Topping|first=Alexandra|date=29 May 2015|title=Nigeria's female genital mutilation ban is important precedent, say campaigners|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/may/29/outlawing-fgm-nigeria-hugely-important-precedent-say-campaigners|work=The Guardian}}</ref> In Nigeria, at least half a million suffer from [[Urogenital fistula|vaginal fistula]], largely as a result of lack of medical care.<ref>{{Cite web|title=In Nigeria, neglected women bear the shame of fistulas|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/6/11/in-nigeria-neglected-women-bear-the-shame-of-fistulas.html|website=america.aljazeera.com |last=Oduah |first=Chika |date=11 June 2015 |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=6 March 2002|title=The Dutch doctor and the river spirit|url=http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-dutch-doctor-and-the-river-spirit/ |website=Radio Netherlands Archives |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref> Early marriages can result in fistula.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Gwyneth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_dfsWsTOigC&q=early%20marriage%20fistula&pg=PT14|title=Obstetric Fistula: Guiding Principles for Clinical Management and Programme Development|last2=Bernis|first2=L. De|last3=Safer|first3=World Health Organization Department of Making Pregnancy|date=1 January 2006|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=9789241593670|author-link=Gwyneth Lewis (scientist)|via=Google Books}}</ref>

[[Gender inequality in Nigeria|Women face a large amount of inequality]] politically in Nigeria, being subjugated to a bias which is [[Sexism|sexist]] and reinforced by socio-cultural, economic and oppressive ways.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ajayi|first=Kunle|date=2007|title=Gender Self-Endangering: The Sexist Issue in Nigerian Politics|journal=The Social Science Journal|volume=14|pages=137–147|via=Department of Political Science, University of Ado}}</ref> Women throughout the country were only politically [[Emancipation|emancipated]] in 1979.<ref>Epiphany Azinge, "The Right to Vote in Nigeria: A Critical Commentary on the Open Ballot System," ''Journal of African Law'', Vol. 38, No. 2 (1994), pp. 173-180.</ref> Yet husbands continue to dictate the votes for many women in Nigeria, which upholds the patriarchal system.<ref name="Ajayi, Kunle 200723">{{cite journal |last=Ajayi |first=Kunle |date=2007 |title=Gender Self-Endangering: The Sexist Issue in Nigerian Politics |journal=The Social Science Journal |volume=14 |number=137–147 &#x2013 |via=Department of Political Science, University of Ado}}</ref> Most workers in the [[Informal economy|informal sector]] are women.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fapohunda|first=Tinuke M|date=1 January 2012|title=Women and the Informal Sector in Nigeria: Implications for Development|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258344067 |journal=British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences |issn=2046-9578 |volume=4 |number=1}}</ref> Women's representation in government since independence from Britain is very poor. Women have been reduced to sideline roles in appointive posts throughout all levels in government and still make up a tiny minority of elected officials.<ref name="Ajayi, Kunle 200723" /> But nowadays with more education available to the public, Nigerian women are taking steps to have more active roles in the public, and with the help of different initiatives, more businesses are being started by women.

Under the [[Sharia in Nigeria|Shari'a]] penal code that applies to Muslims in twelve northern states, offences such as alcohol consumption, [[LGBT rights in Nigeria|homosexuality]],<ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2016|title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/|work=The Washington Post |last1=Bearak |first1=Max |last2=Cameron |first2=Darla |access-date=21 June 2021 }}</ref> infidelity and theft carry harsh sentences, including amputation, lashing, stoning and long prison terms.<ref name="UKtravel2">{{cite web|date=20 March 2009|title=Sub Saharan Africa, Nigeria|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria?ta=lawsCustoms&pg=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524133652/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria?ta=lawsCustoms&pg=3|archive-date=24 May 2011|access-date=20 March 2009|work=Travel advice by country|publisher=United Kingdom, Foreign & Commonwealth Office}}</ref> According to 2013 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]], 98% of Nigerians believe homosexuality should not be accepted by society.<ref name="pewglobal.org2">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ |title=The Global Divide on Homosexuality |work=pewglobal |date=4 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Telecommunications ===
{{Main|Telecommunications in Nigeria}}

According to the National Bureau of Statistics in 2020, Nigeria has about 136,203,231 million internet users out of an estimated population of 205,886,311.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 2020|title=Telecoms Data: Active Voice and Internet per State, Porting and Tariff Information|url=https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/1122|journal=National Bureau of Statistics|volume=Q1 2020|pages=93|via=}}</ref> This implies that as of 2020, 66 percent of the Nigerian population are connected to the internet and using it actively. Although Nigerians are using the internet for educational, social networking, and entertainment purposes, the internet has also become a tool for mobilizing political protests in Nigeria. However, the Nigerian government has become threatened by how its citizens are using the internet to influence governance and political changes. Using various measures including but not limited to Illegal arrest, taking down of websites, passport seizures, and restricted access to bank accounts, the Nigerian Government punishes citizens for expressing themselves on the internet and working to stifle internet freedom.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Paul|first=Emmanuel|date=2019-11-28|title=Everything you need to know about Nigeria's Social Media Bill and what you can do about it|url=https://techpoint.africa/2019/11/28/nigerias-social-media-bill/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=Techpoint Africa|language=en-US}}</ref>

Due to how the Nigerian government is responding to internet freedom among other things such as limitations to internet access and violations of users rights, Nigeria ranked 26th out of the 65 countries evaluated for internet freedom in the Freedom House 2020 Index.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adrian Shahbaz and Allie Funk|date=12 October 2020|title=Freedom on the net 2020|url=https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-10/10122020_FOTN2020_Complete_Report_FINAL.pdf|journal=Freedom House|volume=2020|pages=36}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Nigeria}}

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Nigerian literature}}
[[File:Things_Fall_Apart_books_02.jpg|thumb|[[Chinua Achebe]]'s ''[[Things Fall Apart]]'', Africa's most popular and best selling literary piece ever, has been translated into more than forty languages.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Bob|date=14 March 2008|title=An enduring classic|url=http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=16&art_id=63036&sid=18059567&con_type=3&d_str=&fc=10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604133635/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?we_cat=16&art_id=63036&sid=18059567&con_type=3&d_str=&fc=10|archive-date=4 June 2011|access-date=7 June 2011|work=The Standard}}</ref>]]
Nigerian citizens have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria's best-known writers are [[Wole Soyinka]], the first African [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Laureate in Literature]], and [[Chinua Achebe]], best known for the novel ''[[Things Fall Apart]]'' (1958) and his controversial critique of [[Joseph Conrad]]. Other Nigerian [[List of Nigerian writers|writers]] and [[List of Nigerian poets|poets]] who are well known internationally include [[J. P. Clark|John Pepper Clark]], [[Ben Okri]], [[Cyprian Ekwensi]], [[Buchi Emecheta]], [[Helon Habila]], [[T. M. Aluko]], [[Isaac Delano]], [[Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]], [[Daniel O. Fagunwa]], [[Femi Osofisan]] and [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]], who was executed in 1995 by the military regime. Critically acclaimed writers of a younger generation include [[Adaobi Tricia Nwaubani]], [[Chris Abani]], [[Sefi Atta]], [[Helon Habila]], [[Helen Oyeyemi]], [[Nnedi Okorafor]], [[Kachi A. Ozumba]], [[Sarah Ladipo Manyika]], and [[Chika Unigwe]].

=== Music and film ===
{{Main|Music of Nigeria|Cinema of Nigeria|Festivals in Nigeria}}
[[File:Wizkid_at_Iyanya's_album_launch_concert,_2013.jpg|left|thumb|[[Wizkid (musician)|Wizkid]] is a popular [[List of Nigerian musicians|musician]] in Nigeria, Africa and worldwide.]]
Nigeria has had a huge role in the development of various genres of [[Music of Africa|African music]], including West African [[highlife]], [[Afrobeat]], [[Afrobeats]], and [[palm-wine music]], and [[amapiano]] which fuses native rhythms with techniques that have been linked to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[Jamaica]] and worldwide.

Many late 20th-century musicians such as [[Fela Kuti]] have famously fused cultural elements of various [[indigenous music]] with American [[jazz]] and [[Soul music|soul]] to form Afrobeat which has in turn influenced [[hip hop music]].<ref>Adams, S. ''Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti'': New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York; ''This Is Lagos: Yabis Night, Music and Fela'', Skoto Gallery, New York. ''African Arts'' v. 37, no. 1 (Spring 2004).</ref> [[Jùjú music|JuJu]] music, which is percussion music fused with traditional music from the Yoruba nation and made famous by [[King Sunny Adé]], is from Nigeria. [[Fuji music]], a Yoruba percussion style, was created and popularised by Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru [[Ayinde Barrister]].

Afan Music was invented and popularised by the [[Ewu]]-born poet and musician Umuobuarie Igberaese. There is a budding [[African hip hop|hip-hop movement in Nigeria]]. [[Kennis Music]], the self-proclaimed number-one record label in Africa, and one of Nigeria's biggest record labels, has a roster almost entirely dominated by hip-hop artists. In November 2008, Nigeria's music scene (and that of Africa) received international attention when MTV hosted the continent's first African music awards show in Abuja.<ref>{{cite news|date=22 November 2008|title=AP/CNN: MTV launches first-ever African music award show|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/22/MTV.Africa.ap/index.html|access-date=26 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209102925/http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/22/MTV.Africa.ap/index.html|archive-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> Additionally, the first music video played on MTV Base Africa (the 100th station on the MTV network) was [[Tuface|Tuface Idibia]]'s pan-African hit "African Queen".
[[File:Eyo_Iga_Jump.jpg|thumb|An [[Eyo festival|Eyo]] Iga Olowe Salaye masquerade jumping]]
Notable musicians from Nigeria include: [[Sade Adu]], [[King Sunny Adé]], [[Onyeka Onwenu]], [[Dele Sosimi]], [[Adewale Ayuba]], [[Ezebuiro Obinna]], [[Ebenezer Obey]], [[Femi Kuti]], [[Lagbaja]], [[Dr. Alban]], [[Bola Abimbola]], [[Tuface|Tuface Idibia]], [[Aṣa]], [[Nneka (singer)|Nneka]], [[Wale (rapper)|Wale]], [[P Square]], [[Wizkid]], [[Skepta]], [[Davido]], [[Burna Boy]] and [[D'Banj]].

The Nigerian film industry is known as [[Nollywood]] (a [[Blend word|blend]] of ''Nigeria'' and [[Hollywood]]<ref>"[https://www.economist.com/node/17723124?story_id=17723124&CFID=153287426&CFTOKEN=59754693 Nollywood: Lights, camera, Africa]", ''[[The Economist]]'', 18 December 2010, pp. 85–88.</ref>) and is now the 2nd-largest producer of movies in the world after India's [[Bollywood]]. Nigerian [[film studio]]s are based in Lagos, Kano and Enugu, forming a major portion of the local economy of these cities. Nigerian cinema is Africa's largest movie industry in terms of both value and the number of movies produced per year. Although Nigerian films have been produced since the 1960s, the country's film industry has been aided by the rise of affordable [[Digital cinema|digital filming and editing]] technologies.

The 2009 thriller film ''[[The Figurine]]'' heightened the media attention towards [[New Nigerian Cinema]] revolution. The film was a critical and commercial success in Nigeria, and it was also screened in international film festivals.<ref name="Thorburn, Jane2">{{cite web|author=Thorburn, Jane|title=NOLLYWOOD 2 Doing It Right|url=http://www.janethorburn.co.uk/nollywood2DoingItRight.html#pixsmall48adfc|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> The 2010 film ''[[Ijé]]'' by Chineze Anyaene, overtook ''The Figurine'' to become the [[List of highest-grossing films in Nigeria|highest grossing Nigerian film]]; a record it held for four years, until it was overtaken in 2014 by ''[[Half of a Yellow Sun (film)|Half of a Yellow Sun]]''(2013).<ref name="The Economist2">{{cite news|date=17 July 2014|title=Nigerian films try to move upmarket: Nollywood's new scoreboard|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2014/07/nigerian-films-try-move-upmarket|access-date=20 March 2015|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Akande, Victor|date=14 September 2014|title=Toronto: Nigerians disagree over new Nollywood|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/new/toronto-nigerians-disagree-over-new-nollywood/|access-date=24 March 2015|work=The Nation Newspaper|publisher=The Nation Online}}</ref> By 2016, this record was held by ''[[The Wedding Party (2016 film)|The Wedding Party]]'', a film by [[Kemi Adetiba]].

By the end of 2013, the film industry reportedly hit a record-breaking revenue of ₦1.72 trillion (US$11 billion). As of 2014, the industry was worth ₦853.9 billion (US$5.1 billion) making it the third most valuable film industry in the world, behind the United States and India. It contributed about 1.4% to Nigeria's economy; this was attributed to the increase in the number of quality films produced and more formal distribution methods.<ref>{{cite web|author=Liston, Enjoli|date=10 April 2014|title=Hello Nollywood: how Nigeria became Africa's biggest economy overnight|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/10/nigeria-africa-biggest-economy-nollywood|access-date=12 April 2014|work=The Guardian Newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Hazlewood, Phil|date=7 April 2014|title=Nollywood helps Nigeria kick South Africa's economic butt|url=http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/world/2014/04/07/nollywood-helps-nigeria-kick-south-africa-s-economic-butt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413145853/http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/world/2014/04/07/nollywood-helps-nigeria-kick-south-africa-s-economic-butt|archive-date=13 April 2014|access-date=12 April 2014|publisher=Sowetan Live}}</ref>

[[T.B. Joshua]]'s [[Emmanuel TV]], originating from Nigeria, is one of the most viewed television stations across Africa.<ref>{{cite news|last=Manasa|first=Makweembo|date=11 February 2010|title=TB Joshua – 21st Century Prophet in Our Midst?|work=Zambian Watchdog|url=http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2010/02/11/tb-joshua-21st-century-prophet-in-our-midst/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710080804/http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2010/02/11/tb-joshua-21st-century-prophet-in-our-midst/|archive-date=10 July 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

There are many [[festivals in Nigeria]], some of which date to the period before the arrival of the major religions in this ethnically and culturally diverse society. The main Muslim and Christian festivals are often celebrated in ways that are unique to Nigeria or unique to the people of a locality.<ref name="OnlineNigeria2">{{cite web|title=Festivals in Nigeria|url=http://www.onlinenigeria.com/festivals/|access-date=26 April 2011|work=Online Nigeria}}</ref> The Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation has been working with the states to upgrade the traditional festivals, which may become important sources of tourism revenue.<ref name="Oxford20102">{{cite book|author=Oxford Business Group|title=The Report: Nigeria 2010|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-907065-14-9|page=243|chapter=Patchwork of Celebration|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFONkYzHco8C&pg=PA243}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
[[Nigerian cuisine]], like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs, and flavourings are used in conjunction with [[palm oil]] or [[Peanut|groundnut]] oil to create deeply flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with [[chili pepper]]s. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish, while aromatic market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied.<ref>Anthonio, H.O. and Isoun, M. (1982), ''Nigerian Cookbook'', Macmillan, Lagos, {{ISBN|0-333-32698-9}}.</ref>

=== Sport ===
[[File:NIG-ARG_(2).jpg|thumb|[[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]] at the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]]]]
Football is largely considered Nigeria's national sport, and the country has its own [[Nigeria Professional Football League|Premier League]] of football. [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria's national football team]], known as the "Super Eagles", has made the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] on six occasions [[1994 FIFA World Cup|1994]], [[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998]], [[2002 FIFA World Cup|2002]], [[2010 FIFA World Cup|2010]], [[2014 FIFA World Cup|2014]], and [[2018 FIFA World Cup|2018]]. In April 1994, the Super Eagles ranked 5th in the [[FIFA World Rankings]], the highest ranking achieved by an African football team. They won the [[Africa Cup of Nations|African Cup of Nations]] in [[1980 African Cup of Nations|1980]], [[1994 African Cup of Nations|1994]], and [[2013 Africa Cup of Nations|2013]], and have also hosted the U-17 & U-20 World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the [[1996 Summer Olympics]] (in which they beat Argentina) becoming the first African football team to win gold in Olympic football.

The nation's [[1993 FIFA U-17 World Championship|1993]] [[Nigeria national under-17 football team|cadet team]] from produced some international players notably [[Nwankwo Kanu]], a two-time African footballer of the year who won the European [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] with Ajax Amsterdam and later played with [[F.C. Internazionale Milano|Inter Milan]], [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] and [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]]. Other players who graduated from the junior teams are [[Nduka Ugbade]], [[Jonathan Akpoborie]], [[Victor Ikpeba]], [[Celestine Babayaro]], [[Wilson Oruma]] and [[Taye Taiwo]]. Some other famous Nigerian footballers include [[Mikel John Obi]], [[Obafemi Martins]], [[Vincent Enyeama]], [[Yakubu (footballer)|Yakubu]], [[Rashidi Yekini]], [[Peter Odemwingie]] and [[Jay-Jay Okocha]].
[[File:NIG-ARG_(9).jpg|thumb|Nigerian football supporters at the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]] in Russia]]
Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball, cricket and track and field.<ref>{{cite web|year=2011|title=Nigerian Basketball|url=http://www.africabasket.com/Nigeria/basketball.asp|access-date=7 June 2011|publisher=Africabasket.com|archive-date=1 September 2012|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6ALsHg6xZ?url=http://www.africabasket.com/Nigeria/basketball.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Boxing is also an important sport in Nigeria; [[Dick Tiger]] and [[Samuel Peter]] are both former World Champions. In March 2021, the global governing body [[FIBA]] ranked Nigeria as Africa's top men's basketball nation.<ref>{{cite news |title= Omnisports – Basketball : Le Nigéria toujours " Number One " en Afrique|url=https://africafootunited.com/omnisports-basketball-le-nigeria-toujours-number-one-en-afrique/ |accessdate=19 March 2021 |work=AfricaFootUnited.com |date=3 March 2021 |language=French}}</ref> [[Nigeria men's national basketball team|Nigeria's national basketball team]] made the headlines internationally when it qualified for the [[Basketball at the 2012 Summer Olympics|2012 Summer Olympics]] as it beat heavily favoured world elite teams such as [[Greece men's national basketball team|Greece]] and [[Lithuania men's national basketball team|Lithuania]].<ref>[http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/news/lateNews/p/newsid/52642/arti.html OQTM – Nigeria celebrates 'greatest' victory], fiba.com, accessed 16 December 2012.</ref> Nigeria has been home to numerous internationally recognised basketball players in the world's top leagues in America, Europe and Asia. These players include [[Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame|Basketball Hall of Famer]] [[Hakeem Olajuwon]], and later [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] draft picks [[Solomon Alabi]], [[Yinka Dare]], [[Obinna Ekezie]], [[Festus Ezeli]], [[Al-Farouq Aminu]], [[Olumide Oyedeji]] and others. The [[Nigerian Premier League (basketball)|Nigerian Premier League]] has become one of the biggest and most-watched basketball competitions in Africa. The games have aired on ''Kwese TV'' and have averaged a viewership of over a million people.<ref>{{cite news |first=Lee |last=Nxumalo |title=Basketball's next frontier is Africa|url=https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/|access-date=11 January 2021 |work=New Frame |date=20 December 2020}}</ref>

Nigeria made history by qualifying the first [[Bobsleigh|bobsled]] team for the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]] from Africa when their women's two-person team qualified for [[Bobsleigh at the 2018 Winter Olympics|the bobsled competition]] at the [[2018 Winter Olympics|XXIII Olympic Winter Games]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Udoh|first1=Colin|date=17 November 2017|title=Nigeria bobsled women qualify for Winter Olympics|work=ESPN|url=http://www.espn.co.uk/espn/story/_/id/21430137/nigeria-bobsled-women-qualify-winter-olympics|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> In the early 1990s, [[Scrabble]] was made an official sport in Nigeria. By the end of 2017, there were around 4,000 players in more than 100 clubs in the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why Nigeria produces Scrabble champions|newspaper = The Economist|date = 30 November 2017|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2017/11/30/why-nigeria-produces-scrabble-champions?zid=319&ah=17af09b0281b01505c226b1e574f5cc1|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> In 2015, [[Wellington Jighere]] became the first African player to win [[World Scrabble Championship]].<ref>{{cite web|title=And The No. 1 Scrabble Nation In The World Is ...|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/08/27/491470531/and-the-no-1-scrabble-nation-in-the-world-is|access-date=27 August 2016}}</ref> In 2018, the Nigerian Curling Federation was established to introduce a new sport to the country with the hopes to get the game apart of the curriculum at the elementary, high school, and university level. At the [[2019 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship]] in Norway, Nigeria won their first international match beating France 8–5.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldcurling.org/2020/06/nigeria-rink/ |title=First African curling facility begins development in Nigeria|date=18 June 2020|publisher=[[World Curling Federation]]|access-date=1 May 2021 }}</ref>

Nigeria featured women's and men's national teams in [[beach volleyball]] that competed at the [[2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |accessdate=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Nigeria}}
* [[Index of Nigeria-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Nigeria]]
* [[Telephone numbers in Nigeria]]
* [[Deportation of West African migrants from Nigeria]]

{{reflist|group=Note}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite web|language=en|title=Black China: Africa's First Superpower Is Coming Sooner Than You Think|website=Newsweek|date=15 January 2020|first=Sam |last=Hill|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/black-china-africas-first-superpower-is-coming-sooner-than-you-think/ar-BBYYOwW?ocid=spartanntp}}
* Dibua, Jeremiah I. ''Modernization and the crisis of development in Africa: the Nigerian experience'' (Routledge, 2017).
* Falola, Toyin; and Adam Paddock. '' Environment and Economics in Nigeria'' (2012).
* Falola, Toyin and Ann Genova. ''Historical Dictionary of Nigeria'' (Scarecrow Press, 2009)
* Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008)
* Shillington, Kevin. ''Encyclopedia of African History''. (U of Michigan Press, 2005) p. 1401.
* Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. ''Nigeria: a country study'' (U.S. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division, 1992) [https://www.loc.gov/item/92009026/ online free], comprehensive historical and current coverage; not copyright.
*Jones, Cunliffe-Peter. ''My Nigeria Five Decades of Independence. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).''
*Achebe, Chinua. ''The trouble with Nigeria. (Fourth Dimension, 1983)''

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Nigeria}}
* {{Official website|http://www.nigeria.gov.ng}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Nigeria}}
* {{OSM relation|192787}}
* [https://www.theinfostride.com/forum/index.php?topic=257 Know More about Nigeria]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ Nigeria]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].


{{Nigeria topics|state=collapsed}}
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Taiwan

2021-08-20T07:16:53Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{Short description|Country in East Asia}} {{other uses}} {{redirect|Republic of China}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} {{coord|24|N|121|E|type:c..."

{{Short description|Country in East Asia}}
{{other uses}}
{{redirect|Republic of China}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{coord|24|N|121|E|type:country_region:TW|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of China
| common_name = Taiwan
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{native name|zh-Hant-TW|中華民國}}{{efn native lang|tw|name=word1|t=中華民國|p=Zhōnghuá Mínguó|m=Tiong-hûa Bîn-kok|s=Chûng-fà Mìn-koet}}|{{transl|zh|Zhōnghuá Mínguó}} ([[Pinyin]])}}
| image_flag = Flag of the Republic of China.svg
| alt_flag = A red flag, with a small blue rectangle in the top left hand corner on which sits a white sun composed of a circle surrounded by 12 rays.
| flag_type = [[Flag of the Republic of China|Flag]]
| image_coat = National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg
| alt_coat = A blue circular emblem on which sits a white sun composed of a circle surrounded by 12 rays.
| other_symbol = '''[[Seal of the Republic of China|National seal]]''' {{lang|zh-Hant|中華民國之璽}} "[[Seal of the Republic of China]]" [[File:中華民國之璽.svg|85px]]<hr>'''National flower''' [[File:Meihua ROC.svg|20px]] {{lang|zh-Hant|梅花}} [[National Flower of the Republic of China|Plum blossom]]
| symbol_type = [[Emblem of Taiwan|Emblem]]
| national_anthem = {{lang|zh-Hant|中華民國國歌}} ''Zhōnghuá Mínguó guógē'' "[[National Anthem of the Republic of China]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National anthem of the Republic of China (Taiwan) 中華民國國歌(演奏版).ogg]]}}</div>
| flag_anthem = {{lang|zh-Hant|中華民國國旗歌}} ''Zhōnghuá Míngúo Gúoqígē'' "[[National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:中華民國國旗歌 (演奏版).ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Island of Taiwan (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe ([[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] highlighted)|[[File:Locator map of the ROC Taiwan.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of [[Free area of the Republic of China|territories administered by the ROC (Free Area)]]|[[File:Republic of China (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Taiwan (dark green) with maximal historical extent of ROC territorial claims (light green)|default=1}}
| map_caption =
| largest_city = [[New Taipei City|New Taipei]]
| capital =[[Taipei]]{{efn|[[Taipei]] is the official seat of [[government of the Republic of China]] although the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] does not specify the ''de jure'' capital.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2013/12/04/2003578264/2 |title=Since the implementation of the Act Governing Principles for Editing Geographical Educational Texts (地理敎科書編審原則) in 1997, the guiding principle for all maps in geographical textbooks was that Taipei was to be marked as the capital with a label stating: "Location of the Central Government" |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101013333/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2013/12/04/2003578264/2 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref name="capital">{{cite news |title=Interior minister reaffirms Taipei is ROC's capital |date=5 December 2013|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2013/12/05/2003578356 |newspaper=Taipei Times |access-date=7 December 2013}}</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|25|04|N|121|31|E|type:city_region:TW}}
| ethnic_groups = >95% [[Han Taiwanese]] —70% [[Hoklo Taiwanese|Hoklo]] —14% [[Hakka people|Hakka]] —14% [[Waishengren]] 2% [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Indigenous]]<ref>{{cite book |year=2016 |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2016 |publisher=Executive Yuan, R.O.C.|url=https://issuu.com/eyroc/docs/the_republic_of_china_yearbook_2016|access-date=31 May 2020 |isbn=9789860499490 |page=10|quote=Ethnicity: Over 95 percent Han Chinese (including Holo, Hakka and other groups originating in mainland China); 2 percent indigenous Austronesian peoples}}</ref>{{efn|Mixed indigenous-Han ancestry is included in the figure for Han Chinese.}}
| official_languages = None{{efn|[[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]] (''[[de facto]]'')<ref name="推動雙語國家政策問題研析">{{cite web |title=推動雙語國家政策問題研析|url=https://www.ly.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=6590&pid=173510 |website=www.ly.gov.tw |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=zh}}</ref> [[Vernacular Chinese]] (used in most occasions) [[Classical Chinese]] (used in formal or ceremonial occasions, religious or cultural rites, official documents, legal and court rulings and judiciary documents)<ref>{{cite web |title=法律統一用語表-常見公文用語說明|url=http://oga.ncu.edu.tw/ncuoga/dispatch/doc/%E5%B8%B8%E8%A6%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%96%87%E7%94%A8%E8%AA%9E%E8%AA%AA%E6%98%8E1050106.pdf |access-date=2 June 2021 |language=zh}}</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |title=笨蛋，台灣有第一官方語嗎？|url=https://opinion.cw.com.tw/blog/profile/351/article/6632 |website=opinion.cw.com.tw |access-date=11 July 2021 |language=zh}}</ref> 
| languages_type = [[Official script]]
| languages = [[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional Chinese]]<ref>{{cite web |title=行政院第3251次院會決議 |url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/Page/4EC2394BE4EE9DD0/51cc88a4-2066-44da-964d-18e10468f578|website=www.ey.gov.tw |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=zh}}</ref>
| languages2_type = [[National language]]s{{efn|A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language".<ref name="natLangAct">{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言發展法 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |language=zh}}</ref>}}
| languages2 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Formosan languages]]<ref>{{cite web |title = Indigenous Languages Development Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date = 22 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka]]<ref>{{cite web |title = Hakka Basic Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019}}</ref>
* [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Hokkien]]{{efn|name = nat-lang|Not designated but meets legal definition}}
* [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]]{{efn|name = nat-lang}}
* [[Matsu dialect|Matsu]]{{efn|name = nat-lang}}
* [[Taiwan Sign Language]]
}}
| religion = {{vunblist
|35.1% [[Buddhism in Taiwan|Buddhism]]
|33.0% [[Taoism]]
|18.7% [[Irreligion|No religion]]
|3.9% [[Christianity in Taiwan|Christianity]]
|9.3% [[Religion in Taiwan|Other]] / Unknown<ref>https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/taiwan/</ref>}}
| demonym = [[Taiwanese people|Taiwanese]]<ref name="cia-factbook" />
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[constitution]]al [[republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of the Republic of China|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Tsai Ing-wen]]
| leader_title2 = [[Vice President of the Republic of China|Vice President]]
| leader_name2 = [[Lai Ching-te]]
| leader_title3 = [[Premier of the Republic of China|Premier]]
| leader_name3 = [[Su Tseng-chang]]
| leader_title4 = [[President of the Legislative Yuan|Legislative Yuan President]]
| leader_name4 = [[Yu Shyi-kun]]
| leader_title5 = [[President of the Control Yuan|Control Yuan President]]
| leader_name5 = [[Chen Chu]]
| leader_title6 = [[List of presidents of the Judicial Yuan|Judicial Yuan President]]
| leader_name6 = [[Hsu Tzong-li]]
| leader_title7 = [[List of presidents of the Examination Yuan|Examination Yuan President]]
| leader_name7 = [[Huang Jong-tsun]]
| legislature = [[Legislative Yuan]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of the Republic of China|Formation]]
| sovereignty_note =
| established_event1 = Establishment
| established_date1 = [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|1 January 1912]]
| established_event2 = Took control of [[Geography of Taiwan|Taiwan]] and the [[Penghu Island|Pescadores]]{{efn|Interpretations on whether this entails a complete transfer of the territory’s sovereignty to the Republic of China vary. Japan renounced the claims to Taiwan and Pescadores in the [[Treaty of San Francisco]] in 1952; see [[Retrocession Day]], [[Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan]] and [[political status of Taiwan]].}}
| established_date2 = [[History of Taiwan (1945-present)|25 October 1945]]
| established_event3 = [[Constitution of the Republic of China|Constitution adopted]]
| established_date3 = 25 December 1947
| established_event4 = [[Government of the Republic of China|Current government]] [[1948 Chinese presidential election|established]]
| established_date4 = 20 May 1948
| established_event5 = [[Chinese Communist Revolution|Government moved to Taipei]]
| established_date5 = 7 December 1949
| established_event6 = [[Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area|Status defined by law]]
| established_date6 = 16 July 1992
| area_km2 = 36,197
| area_footnote = <ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="cia-factbook" />
| area_rank = 
| population_estimate = 23,568,378<ref name="Natl Statistics">{{cite web |title=Statistics from Statistical Bureau |url=http://eng.stat.gov.tw/point.asp?index=9 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=National Statistics, Republic of China (Taiwan)}}</ref>
| population_census = 23,123,866<ref>{{cite web|title=General Statistical analysis report, Population and Housing Census|url=http://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/Data/5428162113SIDMH93P.pdf|website=National Statistics, ROC (Taiwan)|access-date=26 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226090918/http://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/Data/5428162113SIDMH93P.pdf|archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| population_estimate_rank = 56th
| population_census_year = 2010
| population_census_rank =
| population_density_km2 = 650
| population_density_rank = 10th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.403 trillion<ref name="IMFWEOTW">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/weo-report?c=528,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LUR,LP,&sy=2019&ey=2021&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2020 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2021
| GDP_PPP_rank = 19th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $56,959<ref name="IMFWEOTW"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 13th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $682.702 billion<ref name="IMFWEOTW"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_rank = 21st
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $32,123<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs4/ninews/11002/news11002.pdf |title=GDP: Preliminary Estimate for 2020Q4 and Outlook for 2021 |publisher=[[Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics]] |website=dgbas.gov.tw |access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 29th
| Gini = 34.1
| Gini_year = 2017
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Percentage share of disposable income by quintile groups of income recipients and measures of income distribution |url=https://win.dgbas.gov.tw/fies/doc/result/106/a11/Year17.ods |website=stat.gov.tw |access-date=26 June 2019}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.916
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/Data/112116036FDX2D8F3.pdf|title=國情統計通報（第 014 號）|publisher= Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, Taiwan (ROC)|date=21 January 2021|access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 23rd
| currency = [[New Taiwan dollar]] (NT$)
| currency_code = TWD
| time_zone = [[National Standard Time]]
| utc_offset = +8
| date_format = {{bulleted list
|YYYY-MM-DD
|YYY-MM-DD ([[Minguo calendar]])
}}
| electricity = 110 V–60 Hz{{efn|220 V is also used for high power appliances such as air conditioners}}
| drives_on = Right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Taiwan|+886]]
| cctld = {{vunblist|[[.tw]] |[[.台灣]] |[[.台湾]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://brussels38.icann.org/meetings/brussels2010/transcript-board-25jun10-en.txt |title=ICANN Board Meeting Minutes |publisher=ICANN |date=25 June 2010}}</ref>}}
}}
'''Taiwan''',{{efn native lang|tw|name=word2|t=臺灣 or 台灣|p=Táiwān|m=Tâi-uân|s=Tǒi-vǎn|a=Taywan|pw=Taiwan}} officially the '''Republic of China''' ('''ROC'''),{{efn native lang|tw|name=word1|t=中華民國|p=Zhōnghuá Mínguó|m=Tiong-hûa Bîn-kok|s=Chûng-fà Mìn-koet}}{{Efn|see [[#Name|etymology]] below|name=|group=}} is a [[country]] in [[East Asia]].<ref name="fell">{{cite book|last1=Fell|first1=Dafydd|title=Government and Politics in Taiwan|date=2018|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1317285069|page=305|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8hHDwAAQBAJ|quote=Moreover, its status as a vibrant democratic state has earned it huge international sympathy and a generally positive image.}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Campbell |first1=Matthew |title=China's Next Crisis Brews in Taiwan's Upcoming Election |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-01-07/china-s-next-crisis-brews-in-taiwan-s-upcoming-election |magazine=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |date=7 January 2020 |issue=4642 |pages=34–39 |issn=0007-7135 |access-date=24 September 2020 |quote=Much has changed in Taiwan since Chiang’s day, but this liminal quality has never really gone away. By almost any functional standard, it's a sovereign country}}</ref> It shares maritime borders with the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (PRC) to the northwest, [[Japan]] to the northeast, and the [[Philippines]] to the south. The main island of Taiwan has an area of {{convert|35808|km2}}, with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly [[Urbanization|urbanised]] [[Taiwanese people|population]] is concentrated. The capital is [[Taipei]], which, along with [[New Taipei]] and [[Keelung]], forms the [[Taipei metropolitan area|largest metropolitan area]] of Taiwan. Other major cities include [[Kaohsiung]], [[Taichung]], [[Tainan]] and [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|Taoyuan]]. With 23.57 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries in the world.

[[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]-speaking ancestors of [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]] settled the [[Geography of Taiwan|island]] around 6,000 years ago. In the 17th century, large-scale [[Han people|Han Chinese]] immigration to western Taiwan began under a [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colony]] and continued under the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. The island was [[Taiwan under Qing rule|annexed in 1683]] by the [[Qing dynasty]] of China, and [[Treaty of Shimonoseki|ceded]] to the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1895. The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], which had [[Xinhai Revolution|overthrown the Qing in 1911]], took control of Taiwan on behalf of the [[World War II Allies]] following the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945. The resumption of the [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in the ROC's loss of [[mainland China]] to forces of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) and [[Republic of China retreat to Taiwan|retreat to Taiwan]] in 1949. Its effective jurisdiction has since been limited to [[free area of the Republic of China|Taiwan and numerous smaller islands]].

In the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialisation called the "[[Taiwan Miracle]]". In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ROC transitioned from a one-party military dictatorship to a multi-party democracy with a [[semi-presidential system]]. Taiwan's export-oriented industrial economy is the [[list of countries by GDP (nominal)|21st-largest]] in the world by nominal GDP, and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|20th-largest]] by PPP measures, with major contributions from steel, machinery, electronics and chemicals manufacturing. Taiwan is a [[developed country]],<ref name="wb">[https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519 World Bank Country and Lending Groups] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111190936/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519 |date=11 January 2018 }}, [[World Bank]]. Retrieved 10 July 2018.</ref><ref name="qq">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/text.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421023851/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/pdf/text.pdf|url-status=dead|title=IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, April 2016, p. 148|archive-date=21 April 2016}}</ref> ranking 15th in [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]]. It is ranked highly in terms of political and [[civil liberties]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2019|title=Freedom in the World 2019|date=3 January 2019|website=freedomhouse.org|access-date=22 February 2019}}</ref> [[education]], [[health care]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yao|first1=Grace|last2=Cheng|first2=Yen-Pi|last3=Cheng|first3=Chiao-Pi|date=5 November 2008|title=The Quality of Life in Taiwan|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=92|issue=2|pages=377–404|doi=10.1007/s11205-008-9353-1|s2cid=144780750|quote=a second place ranking in the 2000 Economist's world healthcare ranking}}</ref> and [[Human development (economics)|human development]].{{efn |name="HDI-1" |The UN [[China and the United Nations|does not consider]] the Republic of China as a [[sovereign state]]. The HDI report does not include Taiwan as part of the People's Republic of China when calculating mainland China's figures.<ref name="HDI-2">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Readers_reprint.pdf|title=- Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org}}</ref> Taiwan's government calculated its HDI to be 0.907 based on UNDP's 2010 methodology, which would rank it 21st, between Austria and Luxembourg in the UN list dated 14 September 2018.<ref name="HDI-3">{{cite web|url=http://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs2/gender/International%20Gender/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8.xls|format=Excel|script-title=zh:2018中華民國人類發展指數(HDI)|access-date=12 November 2018|year=2018|publisher=Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.|language=zh-hant|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811222036/http://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs2/gender/International%20Gender/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8.xls|archive-date=11 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="HDI-4">{{cite web |title=Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |oclc=1061292121 |access-date=9 December 2018 |date=14 September 2018}}</ref> |group="nb"}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/Data/11715541971.pdf|year=2010|publisher=Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.|language=zh|script-title=zh:2010中華民國人類發展指數 (HDI)|access-date=2 July 2010}}</ref>

The [[political status of Taiwan]] is contentious. The ROC no longer represents China as a member of the [[United Nations]], after UN members voted in 1971 to [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|recognize the PRC]] instead. Meanwhile, the ROC continued to claim to be the [[Two Chinas|legitimate representative of China]] and its territory, although this has been downplayed since its democratization in the 1990s. Taiwan is claimed by the PRC, which refuses diplomatic relations with countries that recognise the ROC. Taiwan [[foreign relations of Taiwan|maintains official diplomatic relations]] with 14 out of 193 UN member states and the [[Holy See]],<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/solomon-islands-ends-diplomatic-ties-with-taiwan-stands-by-china-11568642229|title=Solomon Islands Ends Diplomatic Ties with Taiwan, Stands by China|last=Dou|first=Eva|website=The Wall Street Journal|date=16 September 2019|access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-20/kiribati-to-switch-diplomatic-ties-from-taiwan-to-china/11532192|title=Kiribati cuts ties with Taiwan in diplomatic switch to China days after Solomon Islands pivot|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=20 September 2019|access-date=20 September 2019}}</ref> though many others maintain unofficial diplomatic ties with Taiwan through [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office|representative offices]] and institutions that function as [[de facto embassy#Taiwan|''de facto'' embassies and consulates]]. International organisations in which the PRC participates either refuse to grant membership to Taiwan or allow it to participate only on a non-state basis under various names. Domestically, the major political contention is between parties favouring eventual [[Chinese unification]] and promoting a pan-Chinese identity contrasted with those [[Taiwan independence movement|aspiring to formal international recognition]] and promoting a [[Taiwanese people#The current state of Taiwanese identity|Taiwanese identity]], although both sides have moderated their positions to broaden their appeal.<ref>{{cite book |title=Party Politics in Taiwan |given=Dafydd |surname=Fell |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-134-24021-0 |page=85 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |given1=Christopher H. |surname1=Achen |given2=T. Y. |surname2=Wang |chapter=The Taiwan Voter: An Introduction |pages=1–25 |editor-given1=Christopher H. |editor-surname1=Achen |editor-given2=T. Y. |editor-surname2=Wang |title=The Taiwan Voter |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2017 |doi=10.3998/mpub.9375036 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-0-472-07353-5 }} pp. 1–2.</ref>

==Name==
{{See also|Chinese Taipei|Names of China|China and the United Nations}}

Various names for the island of Taiwan remain in use, each derived from explorers or rulers during a particular historical period. The name [[Formosa]] ({{lang|zh-hant|[[:wikt:福爾摩沙|福爾摩沙]]}}) dates from 1542, when [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] sailors sighted an uncharted island and noted it on their maps as ''Ilha Formosa'' ("beautiful island").<ref name="yb:history">{{cite book |chapter=Chapter 3: History |chapter-url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch03.pdf |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2011 |year=2011 |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514004941/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch03.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2012 |page=46}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ilha Formosa: the Emergence of Taiwan on the World Scene in the 17th Century |url=https://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/formosa/english/02.htm |website=npm.gov.tw}}</ref> The name ''Formosa'' eventually "replaced all others in European literature"{{attribution needed|date=December 2018}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=10|ps=: "A Dutch navigating officer named [[Jan Huyghen van Linschoten|Linschotten]] [sic], employed by the Portuguese, so recorded the island in his charts, and eventually the name of Formosa, so euphonious and yet appropriate, replaced all others in European literature."}} and remained in common use among English speakers into the 20th century.<ref>see for example:
* {{cite book |title=Sketches from Formosa |year=1915 |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William_Campbell_(missionary) |publisher=Marshall Brothers |location=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/sketchesfromtaiw00camprich#page/278/mode/2up |ol=7051071M }}
* {{harvp|Campbell|1903}}
* {{harvp|Davidson|1903}}</ref>

In the early 17th century, the [[Dutch East India Company]] established a commercial post at [[Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan)|Fort Zeelandia]] (modern-day [[Anping District|Anping]], [[Tainan]]) on a coastal sandbar called "Tayouan",{{sfnp|Valentijn|1903|p=52}} after their [[ethnonym]] for a nearby [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwanese aboriginal]] tribe, possibly [[Taivoan people]], written by the Dutch and Portuguese variously as ''Taiouwang'', ''Tayowan'', ''Teijoan'', etc.<ref name="Mair">{{cite web |last=Mair |first=V. H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |year=2003 |title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language |url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html |quote=The true derivation of the name "Taiwan" is actually from the ethnonym of a tribe in the southwest part of the island in the area around Ping'an. As early as 1636, a Dutch missionary referred to this group as Taiouwang. From the name of the tribe, the Portuguese called the area around Ping'an as Tayowan, Taiyowan, Tyovon, Teijoan, Toyouan, and so forth. Indeed, already in his ship's log of 1622, the Dutchman Cornelis Reijersen referred to the area as Teijoan and Taiyowan. }}</ref> This name was also adopted into the Chinese vernacular (in particular, [[Hokkien]], as {{zh|poj={{linktext|Tāi-oân}}/{{linktext|Tâi-oân}}}}) as the name of the sandbar and nearby area (Tainan). The modern word "Taiwan" is derived from this usage, which is written in different transliterations ({{lang|zh-hant|{{linktext|大員}}, {{linktext|大圓}}, {{linktext|大灣}}, {{linktext|臺員}}, {{linktext|臺圓}}}} and {{lang|zh-hant|{{linktext|臺窩灣}}}}) in Chinese historical records. The area occupied by modern-day Tainan was the first permanent settlement by both European colonists and Chinese immigrants. The settlement grew to be the island's most important trading centre and served as its capital until 1887.

Use of the current Chinese name ({{lang|zh-hant|{{linktext|臺灣}}/{{linktext|台灣}}}}) became official as early as 1684 with the establishment of [[Taiwan Prefecture]] which centred in modern-day Tainan. Through its rapid development the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as "Taiwan".<ref name="蔡玉仙等編">{{cite book |script-title=zh:府城文史 | editor=蔡玉仙 |display-editors=etal |year=2007 |publisher=[[Tainan City Government]] |language=zh |isbn=978-986-00-9434-3}}</ref><ref name="石守謙主編">{{cite book |editor=Shih Shou-chien |editor-link=Shih Shou-chien |year=2003 |trans-title = Ilha Formosa: the Emergence of Taiwan on the World Scene in the 17th Century |script-title=zh:福爾摩沙 : 十七世紀的臺灣、荷蘭與東亞 |language=zh |publisher = National Palace Museum |place=Taipei |isbn=978-957-562-441-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kato |first=Mitsutaka |orig-year=1940 |year=2007 |script-title =zh:昨日府城明星台南: 發現日治下的老臺南 |language=zh |translator=黃秉珩 |publisher=臺南市文化資產保護協會 |isbn=978-957-28079-9-6}}</ref><ref name="Oosterhoff">{{cite book |title=Colonial Cities: Essays on Urbanism in a Colonial Context |editor1-first=Robert |editor1-last=Ross |editor2-first=Gerard J. |editor2-last=Telkamp |chapter=Zeelandia, a Dutch colonial city on Formosa (1624–1662) |first=J.L. |last=Oosterhoff |pages=51–62 |publisher=Springer |year=1985 |isbn=978-90-247-2635-6}}</ref>

In his ''[[Daoyi Zhilüe]]'' (1349), [[Wang Dayuan]] used "[[Liuqiu (medieval)|Liuqiu]]" as a name for the island of Taiwan, or the part of it closest to [[Penghu]].{{sfnp|Thompson|1964|p=166}}
Elsewhere, the name was used for the [[Ryukyu Islands]] in general or [[Okinawa]], the largest of them; indeed the name ''Ryūkyū'' is the Japanese form of ''Liúqiú''. The name also appears in the ''[[Book of Sui]]'' (636) and other early works, but scholars cannot agree on whether these references are to the Ryukyus, Taiwan or even [[Luzon]].{{sfnp|Thompson|1964|p=163}}

The official name of the country is the "Republic of China"; it has also been known under various names throughout its existence. Shortly after the ROC's establishment in 1912, while it was still located on the Chinese mainland, the government used the short form "China" (''{{lang|zh-Latn-TW|Zhōngguó}}'' ({{nowrap|{{lang|zh-Hant-TW|{{linktext|中國}}}}}})) to refer to itself, which derives from ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|zhōng}}'' ("central" or "middle") and ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|guó}}'' ("state, nation-state"),{{efn|Although this is the present meaning of ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|guó}}'', in [[Old Chinese]] (when its pronunciation was something like {{nowrap|/*qʷˤək/}})<ref name=bs>[[Reconstructions of Old Chinese|Baxter-Sagart]].</ref> it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.<ref name=wilx/>}} a term which also developed under the [[Zhou dynasty]] in reference to its [[demesne|royal demesne]],{{efn|Its use is attested from the 6th-century [[Classic of History]], which states "[[Tian (god)|Huangtian]] bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" ({{lang|zh|皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王}}).<ref>{{lang|zh|[[:s:zh:尚書|《尚書》]], [[:s:zh:尚書/梓材|梓材]].}} {{in lang|zh}}</ref>}} and the name was then applied to the area around [[Luoyi]] (present-day Luoyang) during the [[Eastern Zhou]] and then to China's [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] before being used as an occasional synonym for the state during the [[Qing dynasty|Qing era]].<ref name=wilx>{{citation |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |title=Chinese History: A Manual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC |year=2000 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |series=Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA132 132] |isbn=978-0-674-00249-4 }}</ref>

During the 1950s and 1960s, after the government had withdrawn to Taiwan upon losing the [[Chinese Civil War]], it was commonly referred to as "Nationalist China" (or "[[Free area of the Republic of China|Free China]]") to differentiate it from "Communist China" (or "[[China|Red China]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garver|first=John W. |title=The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia|publisher=M.E. Sharp|date=April 1997|isbn=978-0-7656-0025-7}}</ref>

It was a member of the United Nations representing "''China''" until 1971, when it [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|lost its seat]] to the People's Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become commonly known as "Taiwan", after the island that comprises 99 per cent of the territory under its control. In some contexts, especially ROC government publications, the name is written as "Republic of China (Taiwan)", "Republic of China/Taiwan", or sometimes "Taiwan (ROC)".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.president.gov.tw/|title=Office of President of the Republic of China (Taiwan)|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/about.php|title=Government Portal of the Republic of China (Taiwan)|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=President Tsai interviewed by BBC |url=https://english.president.gov.tw/News/5962 |access-date=16 June 2020 |work=Office of the President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) |date=18 January 2020 |quote=Well, the idea is that we don't have a need to declare ourselves an independent state. We are an independent country already and we call ourselves the Republic of China (Taiwan)}}</ref>

The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name "[[Chinese Taipei]]" due to diplomatic pressure from the People's Republic of China. For instance, it is the name under which it has [[Chinese Taipei at the 1984 Summer Olympics|competed at the Olympic Games since 1984]], and its name as an observer at the [[World Health Organization]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLI62888|title=Taiwan hopes WHO assembly will help boost its profile|last=Reid|first=Katie|work=Reuters|date=18 May 2009|access-date=11 June 2013|archive-date=15 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015040228/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/18/idUSLI62888|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Taiwan|History of the Republic of China}}
{{hatnote|See the [[History of China]] article for historical information in [[mainland China]] before 1949.}}

===Early settlement (to 1683)===
{{Main|Prehistory of Taiwan|Dutch Formosa|Spanish Formosa|Kingdom of Middag|Kingdom of Tungning}}
[[File:Tsou youth of Taiwan (pre-1945).jpg|thumb|upright|A young [[Tsou people|Tsou]] man]]
Taiwan was joined to the Asian mainland in the [[Late Pleistocene]], until sea levels rose about 10,000 years ago.<ref name="GillespieGillespie2009">{{cite book|author1=Rosemary Gillespie|author2=Rosemary G. Gillespie|author3=D. A. Clague|title=Encyclopedia of Islands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA904|year=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25649-1|page=904}}</ref> Fragmentary human remains dated 20,000 to 30,000 years ago have been found on the island, as well as later artifacts of a [[paleolithic]] culture.<ref name="PrasetyoNastiti2021">{{cite book|author1=Bagyo Prasetyo|author2=Titi Surti Nastiti|author3=Truman Simanjuntak|title=AUSTRONESIAN DIASPORA: A New Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFwXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|year=2021|publisher=UGM PRESS|isbn=978-602-386-202-3|page=125}}</ref><ref name="palaeolithic">{{cite journal |last1=Olsen |first1=John W. |last2=Miller-Antonio |first2=Sari |title=The Palaeolithic in Southern China |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=129–160 |year=1992 |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17011 |hdl=10125/17011}}</ref>{{sfnp|Jiao|2007|pp=89–90}}

Around 6,000 years ago, Taiwan was settled by farmers, most likely from what is now southeast China.{{sfnp|Jiao|2007|pp=91–94}}
They are believed to be the ancestors of today's Taiwanese indigenous peoples, whose languages belong to the [[Austronesian language family]], but show much greater diversity than the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|rest of the family]], which spans a huge area from [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] west to [[Madagascar]] and east as far as [[New Zealand]], Hawaii and [[Easter Island]]. This has led linguists to propose Taiwan as the [[urheimat]] of the family, from which seafaring peoples dispersed across Southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans.<ref name="ref1">{{cite journal |title=Taiwan's gift to the world |last=Diamond |first=Jared M |author-link=Jared Diamond |year=2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916193454/http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2006 |journal=Nature |volume=403 |pages=709–710 |doi=10.1038/35001685 |pmid=10693781 |issue=6771 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..709D|s2cid=4379227 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last=Fox |first=James J |url=https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/2/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf |title=Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies |book-title=Symposium Austronesia |location=Universitas Udayana, Bali |year=2004}}</ref>

[[Han Chinese]] fishermen began settling in the Penghu islands in the 13th century.<ref name="shep">{{cite book |last=Shepherd |given=John R. |title=Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1993 |pages=7–8 |isbn=978-0-8047-2066-3}} Reprinted Taipei: SMC Publishing, 1995.</ref> Hostile tribes, and a lack of valuable trade products, meant that few outsiders visited the main island until the 16th century.<ref name="shep"/> During the 16th century, visits to the coast by fishermen and traders from Fujian, as well as Chinese and Japanese pirates, became more frequent.<ref name="shep"/>

The Dutch East India Company attempted to establish a trading outpost on the Penghu Islands (Pescadores) in 1622, but was [[Sino–Dutch conflicts|driven off by Ming forces]].{{sfnp|Wills|2006|p=88}}
In 1624, the company established a stronghold called Fort Zeelandia on the coastal islet of Tayouan, which is now part of the main island at [[Anping, Tainan]].<ref name="Oosterhoff" />
When the Dutch arrived, they found southwestern Taiwan already frequented by a mostly-transient Chinese population numbering close to 1,500.{{sfnp|Andrade|2008|loc=Chapter 6 Note 5}} David Wright, a Scottish agent of the company who lived on the island in the 1650s, described the lowland areas of the island as being divided among 11 [[chiefdom]]s ranging in size from two settlements to 72. Some of these fell under Dutch control, including the [[Kingdom of Middag]] in the central western plains, while others remained independent.<ref name="Oosterhoff" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Formosa Under the Dutch: Described from Contemporary Records, with Explanatory Notes and a Bibliography of the Island |year=1903 |first=William |last=Campbell |author-link=William Campbell (missionary)|publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner |url=https://archive.org/details/formosaunderdut01campgoog |pages=[https://archive.org/details/formosaunderdut01campgoog/page/n185 6]–7 }}</ref> The Company encouraged farmers to immigrate from [[Fujian]] and work the lands under Dutch control.{{sfn|Andrade|2008|loc=Chapter 6}} By the 1660s, some 30,000 to 50,000 Chinese were living on the island.{{sfnp|Wills|2006|p=98}}

[[File:Atlas Blaeu-Van der Hem - Taioan.jpg|left|thumb|[[Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan)|Fort Zeelandia]], the [[Governor of Formosa|Governor]]'s residence in Dutch Formosa]]
In 1626, the [[Spanish Empire]] landed on and occupied northern Taiwan as a trading base, first at [[Keelung]] and in 1628 building [[Fort San Domingo]] at [[Tamsui]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort San Domingo |url=https://en.tshs.ntpc.gov.tw/xmdoc/cont?xsmsid=0G292396897604829770 |publisher=Tamsui Historical Museum |access-date=30 October 2020 |quote=Fort San Domingo, located at the hilltop overlooking Tamsui River estuary, was established by the Spanish in 1628.}}</ref> This colony lasted 16 years until 1642, when the last Spanish fortress fell to Dutch forces.{{sfnp|Wills|2006|p=91}} The Dutch then marched south, subduing hundreds of villages in the western plains between their new possessions in the north and their base at Tayouan.{{sfnp|Wills|2006|p=91}}

Following the fall of the [[Ming dynasty]] in Beijing in 1644, [[Koxinga]] (Zheng Chenggong) pledged allegiance to the [[Yongli Emperor]] of [[Southern Ming]] and attacked the Qing dynasty along the southeastern coast of China.<ref name="LuWangNMHTW">{{cite web |url=https://tainanstudy.nmth.gov.tw/article/detail/9/read? |script-title=zh:臺南與鄭成功 |trans-title=Tainan and Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) |author=Yan Xing |website=Tainan Literature and History Research Database |publisher=National Museum of Taiwan History |access-date=12 February 2021 |script-quote=zh:這時成功意志堅决，便單獨倡導拒滿復明運動，以金，厦兩島爲根據地地，不斷地向閩，浙東南一進攻，奉永明王永曆正朔 ... 于永曆十一年（清順治十四年公元一六五七年）受永水明王封為延平王 |trans-quote=Then Chenggong (Koxinga) resolutely and independently advocated for the movement to resist the Manchus and restore Ming, with bases in Kinmen and Xiamen continuously attacked southeastern Min (Fujian) and Zhejiang, pledged to serve the Youngli emperor of Ming ... in 1657 was conferred the title King of Yanping by the Yong Ming emperor}}.</ref> In 1661, under increasing Qing pressure, he moved his forces from his base in [[Xiamen]] to Taiwan, [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia|expelling the Dutch]] in the following year. Some analysts consider his regime to be loyal to the Ming, while others argue that he acted as an independent ruler and his intentions were unclear.{{sfnp|Andrade|2008|loc=Preface Note 1|ps=: "Second, this book is also about how Taiwan first came under Chinese political control, thanks to the Ming loyalist regime of Zheng Chenggong."}}{{sfnp|Wills|2006|pp=94–95}}<ref>{{cite book |surname=Struve |given=Lynn |year=1988 |chapter=The Southern Ming |title=Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644 |editor1-given=Frederic W. |editor1-surname=Mote |editor2-given=Denis |editor2-surname=Twitchett |pages=641–725 |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24332-2 }} pp. 722–725.</ref>

After being ousted from Taiwan, the Dutch allied with the new Qing dynasty in China against the Zheng regime in Taiwan. Following some skirmishes the Dutch retook the northern fortress at Keelung in 1664.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wills |first1=John E. |title=The Dutch Reoccupation of Chi-lung, 1664–1668 |year=2001 |publisher=University of California |location=California |isbn=9780936127095}}</ref> Zheng Jing sent troops to dislodge the Dutch, but they were unsuccessful. The Dutch held out at Keelung until 1668, when aborigine resistance,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g3oWoSKVnVIC&pg=PA95&dq=pescadores+dutch+defeat&hl=en&sa=X&ei=R-y2VI3TG8S4ggS3oIL4DA&ved=0CCgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=pescadores%20dutch%20defeat&f=false Shepherd 1993], p. 95.</ref> and the lack of progress in retaking any other parts of the island persuaded the colonial authorities to abandon this final stronghold and withdraw from Taiwan altogether.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Blussé|first1=Leonard|title=Pioneers or cattle for the slaughterhouse? A rejoinder to A.R.T. Kemasang|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|date=1 January 1989|volume=145|issue=2|page=357|doi=10.1163/22134379-90003260}}</ref>

===Qing rule (1683–1895)===
{{Main|Taiwan under Qing rule}}
[[File:Taiwanese aboriginese deerhunt1.png|thumb|upright|Hunting deer, painted in 1746]]
In 1683, following the defeat of Koxinga's grandson by an armada led by Admiral [[Shi Lang]] of southern Fujian, the Qing dynasty formally annexed Taiwan, placing it under the jurisdiction of Fujian province. The Qing imperial government tried to reduce piracy and vagrancy in the area, issuing a series of edicts to manage immigration and respect aboriginal land rights. Immigrants mostly from southern Fujian continued to enter Taiwan. The border between taxpaying lands and what was considered "savage" lands shifted eastward, with some aborigines becoming [[sinicized]] while others retreated into the mountains. During this time, there were a number of conflicts between different ethnic groups of Han Chinese, Quanzhou Minnanese feuding with Zhangzhou and Hakkas peasants, and major clan fights between Minnans (Hoklos), Hakkas and aborigines too.

There were more than a hundred rebellions, riots, and instances of civil strife during the Qing's administration, including the [[Lin Shuangwen rebellion]] (1786–1788). Their frequency was evoked by the common saying "every three years an uprising, every five years a rebellion" (三年一反、五年一亂), primarily in reference to the period between 1820 and 1850.<ref>{{Cite book | title = The Indigenous Dynamic in Taiwan's Postwar Development: The Religious and Historical Roots of Entrepreneurship | last = Skoggard | first = Ian A. | isbn =9781563248467 | ol=979742M | year = 1996 | publisher = M.E. Sharpe}} p. 10</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwanus.net/history/3/12.htm|script-title=zh:三年小反五年大亂|language=zh-tw|website=台灣海外網}}</ref><ref name="RebellionTWCulture">{{cite web |url=http://nrch.culture.tw/twpedia.aspx?id=3553 |trans-title=Civil Strife |script-title=zh:民變 |author= |website=Encyclopedia of Taiwan (台灣大百科) |publisher=Taiwan Ministry of Culture |access-date=28 February 2021 |trans-quote=The rumor of "every three years a small uprising, five years a large rebellion" circulated around Taiwan. According to research, the repeated commotions described by this idiom occurred primarily during the 30-year period between 1820 and 1850. |script-quote=zh:臺灣有「三年一小反，五年一大反」之謠。但是根據研究，這句俗諺所形容民變迭起的現象，以道光朝（1820-1850）的三十多年間為主}}.</ref>

Northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were the scene of subsidiary campaigns in the [[Sino-French War]] (August 1884 to April 1885). The French occupied Keelung on 1 October 1884, but were [[Battle of Tamsui|repulsed from Tamsui]] a few days later. The French won some tactical victories but were unable to exploit them, and the [[Keelung Campaign]] ended in stalemate. The [[Pescadores campaign (1885)|Pescadores Campaign]], beginning on 31 March 1885, was a French victory, but had no long-term consequences. The French evacuated both Keelung and the Penghu archipelago after the end of the war.

In 1887, the Qing upgraded the island's administration from being the Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian Province to [[Taiwan Province#History|Fujian-Taiwan-Province]], the twentieth in the empire, with its capital at [[Taipei]]. This was accompanied by a modernization drive that included building China's first railway.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|pp=247, 620}}

===Japanese rule (1895–1945)===
{{Main|Taiwan under Japanese rule}}
[[File:Xilaian Incident.jpg|thumb|Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the [[Tapani Incident]] in 1915 from the [[Tainan]] jail to court.]]
Following Qing's defeat in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895), Taiwan, its associated islands, and the Penghu archipelago were ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] by the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]], along with other concessions.<ref name="ShimonosekiROC">{{cite web |url=http://libdb1.npm.gov.tw/ttscgi/capimg2.exe?20:268540019:910000115001-0-0.pdf |title= Treaty of Peace between China and Japan (Treaty of Shimonoseki) |author= |date=17 April 1895 |website=Ch'ing Dynasty Treaties and Agreements Preserved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) |publisher=National Palace Museum |access-date=10 February 2021 |script-quote=zh:中國將管理下開地方之權並將該地方所有堡壘軍器工廠及一切屬公物件永遠讓於日本...台湾全岛及所有附属各岛屿...澎湖列岛 |trans-quote=China shall yield to Japan in perpetuity the rights to administer the following regions as well as all fortresses, munition factories, and public properties thereof ... the entire island of Taiwan and all appertaining islands ... Penghu archipelago}}.</ref> Inhabitants on Taiwan and Penghu wishing to remain Qing subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and move to mainland China. Very few Taiwanese saw this as feasible.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Ryōtarō|last1=Shiba|author-link=Ryōtarō Shiba|script-title=ja:台湾紀行: 街道をゆく〈40〉|language=ja |title=Taiwan kikō : kaidō o yuku yonjū |date=1995|publisher=Asahi Shinbunsha|location=Tōkyō|isbn=978-4-02-256808-3}}</ref> On 25 May 1895, a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the [[Republic of Formosa]] to resist impending Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on 21 October 1895.<ref>{{cite book | title=Memories of the future: national identity issues and the search for a new Taiwan | editor-first=Stéphane | editor-last=Corcuff | publisher=M.E. Sharpe | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-7656-0792-8 | chapter=The Taiwan Republic of 1895 and the failure of the Qing modernizing project | first=Andrew | last=Morris | pages=3–24 }}</ref> Guerrilla fighting continued periodically until about 1902 and ultimately took the lives of 14,000 Taiwanese, or 0.5 per cent of the population.<ref name = msu>{{cite web | title = History of Taiwan | work = Windows on Asia | publisher = Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901122350/http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/Taiwan/history.html| url = http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/Taiwan/history.html |archive-date=1 September 2006| access-date = 3 December 2014 }}</ref> Several subsequent rebellions against the Japanese (the [[Beipu uprising]] of 1907, the [[Tapani incident]] of 1915, and the [[Wushe incident|Musha incident]] of 1930) were all unsuccessful but demonstrated opposition to Japanese colonial rule.

Japanese colonial rule was instrumental in the industrialization of the island, extending the railways and other transport networks, building an extensive sanitation system, and establishing a formal [[education in Taiwan|education system in Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Going to school in East Asia | editor1-first=Gerard A. | editor1-last=Postiglione | editor2-first=Jason | editor2-last=Tan | publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-313-33633-1 | chapter=Schooling in Taiwan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419122101/http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~iaezcpc/Going%20to%20School%20in%20East%20Asia%20--%20SCHOOLING%20IN%20TAIWAN.htm| chapter-url=http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~iaezcpc/Going%20to%20School%20in%20East%20Asia%20--%20SCHOOLING%20IN%20TAIWAN.htm|archive-date=19 April 2010 | first1=Chuing Prudence | last1=Chou | first2=Ai-Hsin | last2=Ho | pages=344–377 }}</ref> Japanese rule ended the practice of [[headhunting]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hsu|first=Mutsu|year=1991|title=Culture, Self and Adaptation: The Psychological Anthropology of Two Malayo-Polynesian Groups in Taiwan|publisher=Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica|location=Taipei, Taiwan|isbn=978-957-9046-78-7}}</ref> During this period the human and natural resources of Taiwan were used to aid the development of Japan, and the production of [[cash crop]]s such as rice and sugar greatly increased. By 1939, Taiwan was the seventh-greatest sugar producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2001 |date=2001 |chapter=History |chapter-url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2001/chpt04-3.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031027032513/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2001/chpt04-3.htm |archive-date=27 October 2003 |publisher=Government Information Office}}</ref> Still, the Taiwanese and aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens. After suppressing Chinese guerrillas in the first decade of their rule, Japanese authorities engaged in a series of bloody campaigns against the mountain aboriginals, culminating in the Musha Incident of 1930.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tropics of Savagery: The Culture of Japanese Empire in Comparative Frame |first=Robert |last=Tierney |publisher=University of California Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-520-94766-5 |pages=8–9 }}</ref> Intellectuals and labourers who participated in left-wing movements within Taiwan were also arrested and massacred (e.g. [[Chiang Wei-shui]] and [[Masanosuke Watanabe]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guancha.cn/Lv-Zhenghui/2014_10_18_277323.shtml |script-title=zh:吕正惠：战后台湾左翼思想状况漫谈一——日本剥削下的台湾社会 |date= 18 November 2014}}</ref>

Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide [[Japanization|assimilation project]] to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire and people were taught to see themselves as Japanese under the Kominka Movement, during which time Taiwanese culture and religion were outlawed and the citizens were encouraged to adopt [[Japanese surname]]s.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130731160817/http://taiwanpedia.culture.tw/en/content?ID=3803 Kominka Movement – 台灣大百科全書 Encyclopedia of Taiwan]. Taiwanpedia.culture.tw (5 August 2013). Retrieved 25 August 2013.</ref> By 1938, 309,000 [[Japanese people|Japanese settlers]] resided in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Formosa (Taiwan) Under Japanese Rule|first=A. J.|last=Grajdanzev|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=15|year=1942|pages=311–324|jstor=2752241|issue=3|doi=10.2307/2752241}}</ref>

Taiwan held strategic wartime importance as Imperial Japanese military campaigns first expanded and then contracted over the course of [[World War II]]. The "[[The Japanese Navy Taiwan and South Pacific Mandate political project|South Strike Group]]" was based at the [[Taihoku Imperial University]] in Taipei. During World War II, tens of thousands of Taiwanese served in the Japanese military.<ref>{{cite web|year=2007 |title=History |work=Oversea Office Republic of China (Taiwan) |url=http://www.roc-taiwan.org/ct.asp?xItem=456&CtNode=2243&mp=1&xp1= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328070813/http://www.roc-taiwan.org/ct.asp?xItem=456&CtNode=2243&mp=1&xp1= |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 March 2007 |access-date=2 July 2007 }}</ref> Over 2,000 women, euphemistically called "[[comfort women]]", were forced into sexual slavery for Imperial Japanese troops.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protesters demand justice from Japan on 'comfort women' (update) {{!}} Society – FOCUS TAIWAN – CNA ENGLISH NEWS |url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/asoc/201308140029.aspx |website=focustaiwan.tw}}</ref>

The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] operated heavily from Taiwanese ports. In October 1944 the [[Formosa Air Battle]] was fought between American carriers and Japanese forces based in Taiwan. Important Japanese military bases and industrial centres throughout Taiwan, such as Kaohsiung and Keelung, were targets of heavy raids by [[Raid on Taipei|American bombers]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shu LinKou Air Station: World War II|url=http://shulinkou.tripod.com/dawg2e.html|publisher=Ken Ashley, U.S. military photo archives|access-date=14 June 2011}}</ref>

After Japan's surrender ended World War II, most of Taiwan's approximately 300,000 Japanese residents were [[World War II evacuation and expulsion|expelled and sent to Japan]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Andrew D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqwKCgAAQBAJ|title=Japanese Taiwan: Colonial Rule and its Contested Legacy|date=30 July 2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4725-7674-3|pages=115–118|language=en}}</ref>

===Republic of China (1912–1949)===
{{Main|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}
[[File:Ando Rikichi surrender.jpg|thumb|General [[Chen Yi (Kuomintang)|Chen Yi]] (right) accepting the receipt of [[General Order No. 1]] from [[Rikichi Andō]] (left), the last Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan, in [[Zhongshan Hall|Taipei City Hall]]]]

While Taiwan was still under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was founded on the mainland on 1 January 1912, following the [[Xinhai Revolution]], which began with the [[Wuchang uprising]] on 10 October 1911, replacing the Qing dynasty and ending over two thousand years of [[Dynasties in Chinese history|imperial rule]] in China.<ref name="cuhk">{{cite book |title=China, Fiver thousand years of History and Civilization|date=2007|publisher=City University Of Hong Kong Press|page=116|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA116|access-date=9 September 2014|isbn=978-962-937-140-1}}</ref> From its founding until 1949 it was based in mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to [[Warlord Era|warlordism]] (1915–28), [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion]] (1937–45), and the Chinese Civil War (1927–50), with central authority strongest during the [[Nanjing decade]] (1927–37), when most of China came under the control of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) under an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[one-party state]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Denny |title=Taiwan: A Political History |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2003 |location=Ithaca, New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn/page/55 55], 56 |url=https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn|url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8014-8805-4}}</ref>

After the [[Surrender of Japan]] on 25 October 1945, the US Navy ferried ROC troops to Taiwan to accept the formal surrender of Japanese military forces in Taipei on behalf of the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Powers]], as part of [[General Order No. 1]] for temporary military occupation. General [[Rikichi Andō]], governor-general of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all Japanese forces on the island, signed the receipt and handed it over to General Chen Yi of the ROC military to complete the official turnover. Chen Yi proclaimed that day to be "[[Retrocession Day|Taiwan Retrocession Day]]", but the Allies considered Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to be under military occupation and still under Japanese sovereignty until 1952, when the [[Treaty of San Francisco]] took effect.<ref>{{Cite journal
|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1955/may/04/far-east-formosa-and-the-pescadores#S5CV0540P0_19550504_HOC_582
|title=Far East (Formosa and the Pescadores)
|journal=Hansard |volume=540
|date=4 May 1955
|quote=The sovereignty was Japanese until 1952. The Japanese Treaty came into force, and at that time Formosa was being administered by the Chinese Nationalists, to whom it was entrusted in 1945, as a military occupation.
|access-date=1 September 2010 |issue=cc1870–4
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|title=Resolving Cross-Strait Relations Between China and Taiwan
|first1=Jonathan I. |last1=Charney |first2=J. R. V. |last2=Prescott
|journal=American Journal of International Law
|volume=94 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=453–477
|quote=After occupying Taiwan in 1945 as a result of Japan's surrender, the Nationalists were defeated on the mainland in 1949, abandoning it to retreat to Taiwan.
|jstor=2555319
|doi=10.2307/2555319
|s2cid=144402230 }}</ref>
Although the [[1943 Cairo Declaration]] had envisaged returning these territories to China, it had no legal status as treaty, and also in the Treaty of San Francisco and [[Treaty of Taipei]] Japan renounced all claim to them without specifying to what country they were to be surrendered. This introduced the disputed [[political status of Taiwan|sovereignty status of Taiwan]] and whether the ROC has sovereignty over Taiwan or only remaining over [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands]].

The ROC administration of Taiwan under [[Chen Yi (Kuomintang)|Chen Yi]] was strained by increasing tensions between Taiwanese-born people and newly arrived mainlanders, which were compounded by economic woes, such as [[hyperinflation]]. Furthermore, cultural and linguistic conflicts between the two groups quickly led to the loss of popular support for the new government, while the mass movement led by the working committee of the Chinese Communist Party also aimed to bring down the Kuomintang government.<ref>{{Cite journal
|url=http://www.cqvip.com/QK/82017X/201704/671820046.html
|script-title=zh:对台湾"228事件"性质与影响的再认识 |language=zh-Hans
|journal=China Today |volume=64
|issue=4 |page=64 |date=1 April 2017
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=This Is the Shame |date=10 June 1946 |newspaper=Time |location = New York |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792979,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105114338/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,792979,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 January 2007}}</ref> The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered island-wide unrest, which was suppressed with military force in what is now called the [[February 28 Incident]]. Mainstream estimates of the number killed range from 18,000 to 30,000. Those killed were mainly members of the Taiwanese elite.<ref>{{cite news |title=China: Snow Red & Moon Angel |date=7 April 1947 |newspaper=Time | location = New York |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804090,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111074426/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804090,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shackleton |first1=Allan J. |year=1998 |title=Formosa Calling: An Eyewitness Account of Conditions in Taiwan during the February 28th, 1947 Incident |url=http://homepage.usask.ca/~llr130/taiwanlibrary/formosacalling/formosa-calling.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205010159/http://homepage.usask.ca/~llr130/taiwanlibrary/formosacalling/formosa-calling.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 February 2011 |location=Upland, California |publisher=Taiwan Publishing Company |oclc=40888167 |access-date=18 December 2014 }}</ref>

[[File:Movement KMTretreat.svg|thumb|left|The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei]]
After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Director-general [[Chiang Kai-shek]], and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), led by [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]]. Throughout the months of 1949, a series of Chinese Communist offensives led to the capture of its capital [[Nanjing]] on 23 April and the subsequent defeat of the Nationalist army on the mainland, and the Communists founded the People's Republic of China on 1 October.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kubek|first=Anthony |title=How the Far East was lost: American policy and the creation of Communist China|year=1963|isbn=978-0-85622-000-5}}</ref>

On 7 December 1949, after the loss of four capitals, Chiang [[Retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan|evacuated his Nationalist government to Taiwan]] and made Taipei the [[temporary capital]] of the ROC (also called the "wartime capital" by Chiang Kai-shek).<ref name="wartime-capital">{{cite web|author-link=Huang Fu-san |last=Huang |first=Fu-san |year=2010 |url=http://info.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=27358&CtNode=2527&mp=21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429070335/http://info.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=27358&CtNode=2527&mp=21 |archive-date=29 April 2011 |script-title=zh:臺灣簡史－麻雀變鳳凰的故事 |language=zh |trans-title=A Brief History of Taiwan: A Sparrow Transformed into a Phoenix |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China|access-date=13 September 2009|quote={{lang|zh-hant|1949年，國民政府退守臺灣後，以臺北為戰時首都}}}}</ref> Some 2 million people, consisting mainly of soldiers, members of the ruling Kuomintang and intellectual and business elites, were evacuated from mainland China to Taiwan at that time, adding to the earlier population of approximately six million. These people came to be known in Taiwan as '[[waishengren|Mainlanders]]' ({{lang|zh-Latn|Waishengren}}, {{lang|zh|外省人}}). In addition, the ROC government took to Taipei many national treasures and much of China's [[gold reserves]] and foreign currency reserves.<ref name="bbctimeline-retreat">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1949_1955.stm|title=Taiwan Timeline – Retreat to Taiwan|year=2000|work=BBC News|access-date=21 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Dunbabin |first=J.P.D. |title=The Cold War |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2008 |page=187 |isbn=978-0-582-42398-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVriqPvx7iwC&pg=PA187 |quote=In 1949 Chiang Kai-shek had transferred to Taiwan the government, gold reserve, and some of the army of his Republic of China.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ng|first=Franklin|title=The Taiwanese Americans|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1998|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPzsB_wJQW0C&pg=PA10|isbn=978-0-313-29762-5}}</ref>

After losing control of mainland China in 1949, the ROC retained control of Taiwan and Penghu ([[Taiwan Province|Taiwan, ROC]]), parts of Fujian ([[Fujian Province, Republic of China|Fujian, ROC]])—specifically Kinmen, [[Wuqiu, Kinmen|Wuqiu]] (now part of Kinmen) and the Matsu Islands and two major [[South China Sea Islands|islands in the South China Sea]] (within the [[Pratas Islands|Dongsha]]/Pratas and [[Spratly Islands|Nansha]]/Spratly island groups). These territories have remained under ROC governance until the present day. The ROC also briefly retained control of the entirety of [[Hainan]] (an island province), parts of [[Zhejiang]] ([[Chekiang Province, Republic of China|Chekiang]])—specifically the [[Dachen Islands]] and [[Yijiangshan Islands]]—and portions of the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] ([[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet was ''de facto'' independent from 1912 to 1951]]), [[Qinghai]], [[Xinjiang]] ([[Xinjiang Province, Republic of China|Sinkiang]]) and [[Yunnan]]. The Communists [[battle of Hainan Island|captured Hainan]] in 1950, captured the Dachen Islands and Yijiangshan Islands during the [[First Taiwan Strait Crisis]] in 1955 and defeated the [[Kuomintang Islamic insurgency|ROC revolts in Northwest China]] in 1958. ROC forces in Yunnan province entered Burma and Thailand in the 1950s and [[1960–61 campaign at the China–Burma border|were defeated by Communists in 1961]].

Ever since losing control of mainland China, the Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over 'all of China', which it defined to include mainland China (including Tibet, which [[annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China|remained independent until 1951]]), Taiwan (including Penghu), [[Mongolia]] (known by the ROC as '[[Outer Mongolia]]', {{lang|zh|外蒙古}}) and [[administrative divisions of Taiwan|other minor territories]]. In mainland China, the victorious Communists proclaimed the PRC to be the sole legitimate government of China (which included Taiwan, according to their definition) and that the Republic of China had been vanquished.<ref>{{cite web |year= 2005 |title=The One-China Principle and the Taiwan Issue |work=PRC Taiwan Affairs Office and the Information Office of the State Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210182724/http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4 |url=http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4 |archive-date=10 February 2006 | quote=Section 1: Since the KMT ruling clique retreated to Taiwan, its regime has continued to use the designations 'Republic of China' and 'government of the Republic of China,' despite having long since completely forfeited its right to exercise state sovereignty on behalf of China. }}</ref>

=== Republic of China on Taiwan (1949–present) ===
{{Main|History of the Republic of China|History of Taiwan (1945–present)}}

====Martial law era (1949–1987)====
{{see also|Martial law in Taiwan|Taiwan Miracle}}
[[File:Chiang Kai-shek in full uniform.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Chiang Kai-shek]], leader of the [[Kuomintang]] from 1925 until his death in 1975|alt=A Chinese man in military uniform, smiling and looking towards the left. He holds a sword in his left hand and has a medal in shape of a sun on his chest.]]
Martial law, declared on Taiwan in May 1949,<ref name="martial">{{cite web |publisher=National Archives Administration, National Development Council |url=https://www.archives.gov.tw/Publish.aspx?cnid=1014&p=857 |script-title=zh:三、台灣戒嚴令 |language=zh |trans-title=III. Decree to establish martial law in Taiwan |date=2 October 2009 |access-date=23 May 2012}}</ref> continued to be in effect after the central government relocated to Taiwan. It was not repealed until 38 years later, in 1987.<ref name="martial" /> Martial law was used as a way to suppress the political opposition during the years it was active.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taiwandc.org/228-intr.htm|title=28 February 1947 – Taiwan's Holocaust Remembered – 60th Commemoration|year=2007|publisher=New Taiwan, Ilha Formosa|access-date=2 July 2009}}</ref> During the [[White Terror (Taiwan)|White Terror]], as the period is known, 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-Communist.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Malaysia/Story/A1Story20080716-77050.html|title=Taiwan president apologises for 'white terror' era|agency=Reuters|access-date=2 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401191615/http://www.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Malaysia/Story/A1Story20080716-77050.html|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many citizens were arrested, tortured, imprisoned and executed for their real or perceived link to the Chinese Communist Party. Since these people were mainly from the intellectual and social elite, an entire generation of political and social leaders was decimated. In 1998, a law was passed to create the "Compensation Foundation for Improper Verdicts" which oversaw compensation to White Terror victims and families. President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] made an official apology in 2008, expressing hope that there would never be a tragedy similar to White Terror.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7509805.stm |title=Taiwan sorry for white terror era |first=Caroline |last=Gluck |date=16 July 2008 |work=BBC News |location=London}}</ref>

Initially, the United States abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to the Communists. However, in 1950 the conflict between [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]], which had been ongoing since the Japanese withdrawal in 1945, escalated into full-blown war, and in the context of the Cold War, US President [[Harry S. Truman]] intervened again and dispatched the US Navy's 7th Fleet into the [[Taiwan Strait]] to prevent hostilities between Taiwan and mainland China.<ref name=1950-US-DoD>{{Cite journal|author=US Department of Defense |title=Classified Teletype Conference, dated 27 June 1950, between the Pentagon and General Douglas MacArthur regarding authorization to use naval and air forces in support of South Korea. Papers of Harry S. Truman: Naval Aide Files |publisher=Truman Presidential Library and Museum |year=1950 |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week1/kw_22_1.htm|page=1 and 4|quote=Page 1: In addition 7th Fleet will take station so as to prevent invasion of Formosa and to insure that Formosa not be used as base of operations against Chinese mainland." Page 4: "Seventh Fleet is hereby assigned to operational control CINCFE for employment in following task hereby assigned CINCFE: By naval and air action prevent any attack on Formosa, or any air or sea offensive from Formosa against mainland of China.}}</ref> In the Treaty of San Francisco and the Treaty of Taipei, which came into force respectively on 28 April 1952 and 5 August 1952, Japan formally renounced all right, claim and title to Taiwan and Penghu, and renounced all treaties signed with China before 1942. Neither treaty specified to whom sovereignty over the islands should be transferred, because the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed on whether the ROC or the PRC was the legitimate government of China.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alagappa|first=Muthiah|title=Taiwan's presidential politics|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=2001|page=265|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zx7nPeGWgwC&pg=PA265|isbn=978-0-7656-0834-5}}</ref> Continuing conflict of the Chinese Civil War through the 1950s, and intervention by the United States notably resulted in legislation such as the [[Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty]] and the [[Formosa Resolution of 1955]].

[[File:U.S. President Eisenhower visited TAIWAN 美國總統艾森豪於1960年6月訪問臺灣台北時與蔣中正總統-2.jpg|thumb|left|With Chiang Kai-shek, US president [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] waved to crowds during his visit to [[Taipei]] in June 1960.]]
As the Chinese Civil War continued without truce, the government built up military fortifications throughout Taiwan. Within this effort, KMT veterans built the now famous [[Central Cross-Island Highway]] through the [[Taroko Gorge]] in the 1950s. The two sides would continue to engage in sporadic military clashes with seldom publicized details well into the 1960s on the China coastal islands with an unknown number of [[Project National Glory|night raids]]. During the [[Second Taiwan Strait Crisis]] in September 1958, Taiwan's landscape saw [[Nike-Hercules missile]] batteries added, with the formation of the 1st Missile Battalion Chinese Army that would not be deactivated until 1997. Newer generations of missile batteries have since replaced the Nike Hercules systems throughout the island.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the ROC maintained an authoritarian, single-party government while its economy became industrialized and technology-oriented. This rapid economic growth, known as the [[Taiwan Miracle]], was the result of a fiscal regime independent from mainland China and backed up, among others, by the support of US funds and demand for Taiwanese products.<ref name="bbctimeline-coldwar">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1955_1972.stm |title=Taiwan Timeline – Cold war fortress |year=2002 |work=BBC News |access-date=2 July 2009}}</ref>{{sfnp|Makinen|Woodward|1989|ps=: "Yet, the Chinese Nationalist government attempted to isolate Taiwan from the mainland inflation by creating it as an independent currency area. And during the later stages of the civil war it was able to end the hyperinflation on Taiwan, something it was unable to do on the mainland despite two attempts."}} In the 1970s, Taiwan was economically the second fastest growing state in Asia after Japan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917286-3,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220041321/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917286-3,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 December 2009 |title=China: Chiang Kai-shek: Death of the Casualty |date=14 April 1975 |newspaper=Time |page=3 |access-date=16 December 2009}}</ref> Taiwan, along with Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore, became known as one of the [[Four Asian Tigers]]. Because of the Cold War, most Western nations and the United Nations regarded the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China until the 1970s. Later, especially after the termination of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, most nations switched [[diplomatic recognition]] to the PRC (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758).

Until the 1970s the government was regarded by Western critics as undemocratic for upholding [[martial law]], for severely repressing any political opposition, and for controlling media. The KMT did not allow the creation of new parties and those that existed did not seriously compete with the KMT. Thus, competitive democratic elections did not exist.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sun |first=Yat-sen |author2=Julie Lee Wei |author3=Ramon Hawley Myers |author4=Donald G. Gillin |title=Prescriptions for saving China: selected writings of Sun Yat-sen|editor=Julie Lee Wei |editor2=Ramon Hawley Myers |editor3=Donald G. Gillin |publisher=Hoover Press |year=1994 |page=36 |isbn=978-0-8179-9281-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YA3TzmnYRpYC |quote=The party first applied Sun's concept of political tutelage by governing through martial law, not tolerating opposition parties, controlling the public media, and using the 1947 constitution drawn up on the China mainland to govern. Thus, much of the world in those years gave the government low scores for democracy and human rights but admitted it had accomplished an economic miracle.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chao |first=Linda |author2=Ramon Hawley Myers |title=Democracy's new leaders in the Republic of China on Taiwan |publisher=Hoover Press |year=1997 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-8179-3802-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tIiAd4MABAIC |quote=Although this party [the KMT] had initiated a democratic breakthrough and guided the democratic transition, it had also upheld martial law for thirty-six years and severely repressed political dissent and any efforts to establish an opposition party. [...] How was it possible that this party, so hated by opposition politicians and long regarded by Western critics as a dictatorial, Leninist-type party, still remained in power?}}</ref>{{sfnp|Fung|2000|p=67|ps=: "Nanjing was not only undemocratic and repressive but also inefficient and corrupt. [...] Furthermore, like other authoritarian regimes, the GMD sought to control people's mind."}}{{sfnp|Fung|2000|p=85|ps=: "The response to national emergency, critics argued, was not merely military, it was, even more important, political, requiring the termination of one-party dictatorship and the development of democratic institutions."}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Copper|first=John Franklin |title=Consolidating Taiwan's democracy |publisher=University Press of America |year=2005|page=8|isbn=978-0-7618-2977-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=761bWuEtEfEC |quote=Also, the "Temporary Provisions" (of the Constitution) did not permit forming new political parties, and those that existed at this time did not seriously compete with the Nationalist Party. Thus, at the national level the KMT did not permit competitive democratic elections.}}</ref> From the late 1970s to the 1990s, however, Taiwan went through reforms and social changes that transformed it from an authoritarian state to a democracy. In 1979, a pro-democracy protest known as the [[Kaohsiung Incident]] took place in [[Kaohsiung]] to celebrate [[Human Rights Day]]. Although the protest was rapidly crushed by the authorities, it is today considered as the main event that united Taiwan's opposition.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1972_1986.stm|title=Out with the old|year=2002|work=BBC News|access-date=30 October 2009}}</ref>

[[Chiang Ching-kuo]], Chiang Kai-shek's son and successor as the ROC president and chairman of the KMT, began [[History of Taiwan#Democratic reforms|reforms]] to the political system in the mid-1980s. In 1984, the younger Chiang selected [[Lee Teng-hui]], a Taiwanese-born, US-educated technocrat, to be his vice-president. In 1986, the [[Democratic Progressive Party]] (DPP) was formed and inaugurated as the first opposition party in the ROC to counter the KMT. A year later, Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law on the main island of Taiwan (martial law was lifted on Penghu in 1979, Matsu island in 1992 and Kinmen island in 1993). With the advent of democratization, the issue of the political status of Taiwan gradually resurfaced as a controversial issue where, previously, the discussion of anything other than unification under the ROC was [[taboo]].

====Post-martial law era (1987–present)====
{{See also|Politics of the Republic of China}}
[[File:President Lee teng hui.png|thumb|upright|In 1988, [[Lee Teng-hui]] became the first president of the Republic of China born in Taiwan and was the first to be democratically elected in 1996.]]

After the death of Chiang Ching-kuo in January 1988, Lee Teng-hui succeeded him and became the first president born in Taiwan. Lee continued the democratic reforms to the government and decreased the concentration of government authority in the hands of mainland Chinese. Under Lee, Taiwan underwent a process of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]] in which Taiwanese culture and history were promoted over a pan-China viewpoint in contrast to earlier KMT policies which had promoted a Chinese identity. Lee's reforms included printing banknotes from the Central Bank rather than the Provincial Bank of Taiwan, and streamlining the [[Taiwan Provincial Government]] with most of its functions transferred to the [[Executive Yuan]]. Under Lee, the original members of the [[Legislative Yuan]] and [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]] (a former supreme legislative body defunct in 2005),<ref>{{Cite thesis
|url=http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/handle/246246/262968
|title=Influence of Constitutional Reform on Parliamentary System in Taiwan: From the Perspective of the Abolishment of the National Assembly
|publisher=Graduate Institute of National Development, National Taiwan University, the Republic of China
|date=29 November 2014
|type=thesis
}}</ref> elected in 1947 to represent mainland Chinese constituencies and having held the seats without re-election for more than four decades, were forced to resign in 1991. The previously nominal representation in the Legislative Yuan was brought to an end, reflecting the reality that the ROC had no jurisdiction over mainland China, and vice versa. Restrictions on the use of [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] in the broadcast media and in schools were also lifted.<ref name="ÁrokayGvozdanović2014">{{cite book|author1=Judit Árokay|author2=Jadranka Gvozdanović|author3=Darja Miyajima|title=Divided Languages?: Diglossia, Translation and the Rise of Modernity in Japan, China, and the Slavic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4K9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|year=2014|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-3-319-03521-5|page=73}}</ref>

Reforms continued in the 1990s. The [[Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China]] and the [[Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area]] defined the status of the ROC, making Taiwan its ''de facto'' territory. Lee Teng-hui re-elected in 1996, in the first direct presidential election in the history of the ROC.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/asia_pacific/2000/taiwan_elections2000/1986_1999.stm|title=Taiwan Timeline – Path to democracy|year=2002|work=BBC News|access-date=3 July 2009}}</ref> During the later years of Lee's administration, he was involved in corruption controversies relating to government release of land and weapons purchase, although no legal proceedings commenced. In 1997, "To meet the requisites of the nation prior to national unification",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Annotated_Republic_of_China_Laws/Additional_Articles_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China/1997 |title=Annotated Republic of China Laws/Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China/1997 |publisher=Wikibooks |date=22 April 2015 |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China was passed and then the former "constitution of five powers" turns to be more tripartite.

In 2000, [[Chen Shui-bian]] of the Democratic Progressive Party was elected as the first non-Kuomintang (KMT) President and was re-elected to serve his second and last term since 2004. Polarized politics emerged in Taiwan with the formation of the [[Pan-Blue Coalition]], led by the KMT, and the [[Pan-Green Coalition]], led by the DPP. The former prefers eventual [[Chinese unification]], while the latter prefers [[Taiwan independence movement|Taiwanese independence]].<ref>{{cite news|first1=James|last1=Pomfret|first2=Matthew|last2=Miller|first3=Ben|last3=Blanchard|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/taiwan-election-idUSKCN0UV02I|title=After vote, China tells Taiwan to abandon independence "hallucination"|work=Reuters|date=17 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211044749/https://www.reuters.com/article/taiwan-election-idUSKCN0UV02I|archive-date=11 February 2019}}</ref> In early 2006, President Chen Shui-bian remarked:
"The National Unification Council will cease to function. No budget will be ear-marked for it and its personnel must return to their original posts...The National Unification Guidelines will cease to apply."<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4753974.stm BBC News: Taiwan scraps unification council], 27 February 2006</ref>

[[File:20160115-21-51-51-20160115-21-51-51-P1150734-2 (24410595995).jpg|thumb|The ruling [[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]] has traditionally leaned in favour of [[Taiwan independence]].]]
On 30 September 2007, the ruling DPP approved a [[Resolution (law)|resolution]] asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal country". It also called for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-30-taiwan_N.htm|title=Taiwan party asserts separate identity from China |website=USA Today}}</ref> The Chen administration also pushed for referendums on [[2004 Taiwanese cross-Strait relations referendum|cross-Strait relations in 2004]] and [[2008 Taiwanese United Nations membership referendums|UN entry in 2008]], both of which held on the same day as the presidential election. They both failed due to voter turnout below the required legal threshold of 50 per cent of all registered voters.<ref name="lam200803">{{cite journal | last = Lam | first = Willy | title = Ma Ying-jeou and the Future of Cross-Strait Relations | journal = China Brief | volume = 8 | issue = 7 | date = 28 March 2008 | url = http://jamestown.org/china_brief/article.php?articleid=2374064 | access-date = 4 April 2008 | format =– [https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ALam+intitle%3AMa+Ying-jeou+and+the+Future+of+Cross-Strait+Relations&as_publication=China+Brief&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080413105956/http://www.jamestown.org/china_brief/article.php?articleid=2374064 |archive-date = 13 April 2008 }}</ref> The Chen administration was dogged by public concerns over reduced economic growth, legislative gridlock due to a pan-blue, opposition-controlled Legislative Yuan and corruption involving the First Family as well as government officials.<ref name="economist20080323">{{cite news | title = The Nationalists are back in Taiwan | newspaper = The Economist | location = London | date = 23 March 2008 }}</ref><ref name="ft20080325">{{Cite news | title = Straitened times: Taiwan looks to China | newspaper = Financial Times | date= 25 March 2008 | url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/07d43e18-fa9a-11dc-aa46-000077b07658.html}}</ref>

Following revelations that lead to an [[Chen Shui-bian corruption charges|investigation of Chen Shui-bian for corruption charges]], the KMT was able to increase its majority in the Legislative Yuan in the [[2008 Republic of China legislative election|January 2008 legislative elections]], while its nominee Ma Ying-jeou went on to [[2008 Republic of China presidential election|win the presidency]] in March of the same year, campaigning on a platform of increased economic growth and better ties with the PRC under a policy of "[[Special non-state-to-state relations|mutual non-denial]]".<ref name="lam200803" /> Under Ma, Taiwan and China opened up direct flights and cargo shipments, with the latter country even making it possible for Taiwan to participate in the annual [[World Health Assembly]]. Threats from China faded from the public's mind, although U.S. analysts Richard Fisher and Richard Bush argued that military tensions with the PRC had not been reduced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-08-20-voa17-68706212/409333.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140310030905/http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-08-20-voa17-68706212/409333.html |archive-date=10 March 2014 |title=Taiwan-China Economic Ties Boom, Military Tensions Remain {{!}} English |publisher=Voice of America |date=20 August 2009 |access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref>

[[File:2014 太陽花學運 DSC00465 (13573978414).jpg|thumb|[[Sunflower Student Movement|Student protest]] in Taipei against a controversial [[Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement|trade agreement with China]] in March 2014]]
In 2014, the a group of university students successfully occupied the Legislative Yuan and prevented the ratification of the [[Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement]] in what became known as the [[Sunflower Student Movement]]. The movement gave rise to youth-based third parties such as the [[New Power Party]], and is viewed to have contributed to Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) victories the [[2016 Taiwanese presidential election|2016 presidential]] and [[2016 Taiwanese legislative election|legislative elections]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ho |first1=Ming-sho |title=The Activist Legacy of Taiwan's Sunflower Movement |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/08/02/activist-legacy-of-taiwan-s-sunflower-movement-pub-76966 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref> This marked the first time in Taiwanese history that the KMT lost its legislative majority.

In 2016, [[Tsai Ing-wen]] of the DPP became the president of Taiwan. In 2020, she called on the international community to defend the self-ruled island's democracy in the face of renewed threats from China and called on the latter to democratize and renounce the use of military force against Taiwan. [[Paramount leader|Chinese leader]] [[Xi Jinping]] had earlier expressed that Taiwan was part of China, who reserves the right to use force but will strive to achieve peaceful "reunification". Xi also offered to discuss unification with parties or individuals under the precondition of "one China", but both Tsai and the KMT rejected Xi's proposal.<ref name="TsaiDemocracy">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-china/taiwan-president-calls-for-international-support-to-defend-democracy-idUSKCN1OZ058 |title=Taiwan President Calls For International Support To Defend Democracy |date=4 January 2019 |access-date=5 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="TsaiDemocratizePRC">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-05/china-must-democratize-for-taiwan-progress-president-tsai-says |title=China Must Democratize for Taiwan Progress, President Tsai Says |date=5 January 2019 |access-date=6 January 2019 |quote=Tsai called on Beijing to become more democratic and renounce the use of military force if it wants to have any chance of winning over the hearts and minds of the Taiwanese public. ... Chinese President Xi Jinping offered on Wednesday to begin discussions on unification with any parties or individuals that accept Taiwan is part of "one China." Both Tsai and the China-friendly opposition Kuomintang rejected Xi's proposal, saying his "one country, two systems" framework lacks support in Taiwan.}}</ref>

In January 2020, Tsai was [[2020 Taiwanese presidential election|re-elected]] and in the simultaneous [[2020 Taiwanese legislative election|legislative election]] President Tsai's Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won a majority with 61 out of 113 seats. The Kuomintang (KMT) got 38 seats.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-51077553|title=Taiwan election: Tsai Ing-wen wins second presidential term|work=BBC News|date=11 January 2020}}</ref>

In the 2020 [[Democracy Index]] published in 2021, Taiwan was one of "three countries [in Asia]" that "moved from the 'flawed democracy' category to be classified as 'full democracies'." It ranks 11th globally {{As of|2021|lc=y|post=.}}<ref name="index2020">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2020/|quote=There were some impressive improvements and some dramatic declines, as discussed in the 'Highlights' section, with Taiwan registering the biggest improvement... |title=Democracy Index 2020: In sickness and in health?|website=[[Economist Intelligence Unit|EIU.com]]|url-access=registration|access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="indexreport2020">{{cite report |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/democracy-index-2020.pdf|title=Democracy Index 2020|quote=The star-performer in this year’s Democracy Index, measured by the change in both its score and rank, is Taiwan, which was upgraded from a 'flawed democracy' to a 'full democracy', after rising 20 places in the global ranking from 31st place to 11th |work=The Economist Intelligence Unit |date=2021}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Taiwan}}
[[File:Taiwan NASA Terra MODIS 23791.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Taiwan is mostly mountainous in the east, with gently sloping plains in the west. The [[Penghu Islands]] are west of the main island.]]
Taiwan is an [[island country]] in East Asia. The main island, known historically as ''Formosa'', makes up 99 per cent of the area controlled by the ROC, measuring {{convert|35808|km2|sqmi|0}} and lying some {{convert|180|km|mi|0}} across the [[Taiwan Strait]] from the southeastern coast of mainland China. The [[East China Sea]] lies to its north, the [[Philippine Sea]] to its east, the [[Luzon Strait]] directly to its south and the [[South China Sea]] to its southwest. [[List of islands of Taiwan|Smaller islands]] include a number in the Taiwan Strait including the Penghu archipelago, the Kinmen and Matsu Islands near the Chinese coast, and some of the [[South China Sea]] Islands.

The main island is a tilted [[fault block]], characterized by the contrast between the eastern two-thirds, consisting mostly of five rugged mountain ranges parallel to the east coast, and the flat to gently rolling plains of the western third, where the majority of Taiwan's population reside. There are several peaks over 3,500 m, the highest being [[Yu Shan]] at {{cvt|3952|m|ft}}, making Taiwan the world's [[List of islands by highest point|fourth-highest island]]. The tectonic boundary that formed these ranges is still active, and the island experiences many earthquakes, a few of them highly destructive. There are also many active [[submarine volcano]]es in the Taiwan Straits.

Taiwan contains four terrestrial ecoregions: [[Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests]], South China Sea Islands, [[South Taiwan monsoon rain forests]], and [[Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> The eastern mountains are heavily forested and home to a diverse range of wildlife, while land use in the western and northern lowlands is intensive. The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.38/10, ranking it 76th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map TWN present.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Köppen climate classification of Taiwan]]

Taiwan lies on the [[Tropic of Cancer]], and its general [[climate]] is marine [[tropical climate|tropical]].<ref name="cia-factbook">{{cite web |title=Taiwan |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/taiwan/ |work=The World Factbook |publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=6 May 2019}}</ref> The northern and central regions are subtropical, whereas the south is tropical and the mountainous regions are temperate.{{sfnp|Exec. Yuan|2014|p=44}} The average rainfall is {{convert|2600|mm|abbr=off}} per year for the island proper; the [[East Asian rainy season|rainy season]] is concurrent with the onset of the summer [[East Asian Monsoon]] in May and June.{{sfnp|Exec. Yuan|2014|p=45}} The entire island experiences hot, humid weather from June through September. [[Typhoon]]s are most common in July, August and September.{{sfnp|Exec. Yuan|2014|p=45}} During the winter (November to March), the northeast experiences steady rain, while the central and southern parts of the island are mostly sunny.

Due to [[Climate change in Taiwan|climate change]], the average temperature in Taiwan has risen {{Convert|1.4|C-change|abbr=}} in the last 100 years, which is twice of the worldwide temperature rise.<ref>{{cite web|title=Climate of Taiwan|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-taiwan-62832.html|access-date=18 September 2020|website=Travel Tips – USA Today|language=en}}</ref> The goal of the Taiwanese government is to cut [[carbon emissions]] by 20 per cent in 2030 compared to 2005 levels, and by 50 per cent in 2050 compared to 2005 levels. Carbon emissions increased by 0.92 per cent between 2005 and 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Is Taiwan Doing Enough to Address Climate Change in The Hottest Summer Ever?｜Politics & Society｜2020-08-19｜web only|url=https://english.cw.com.tw/article/article.action?id=2780|access-date=18 September 2020|website=CommonWealth Magazine}}</ref>

===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of Taiwan}}
[[File:DabajianMountain.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dabajian Mountain]]]]
The island of Taiwan lies in a complex [[tectonics|tectonic]] area between the [[Yangtze Plate]] to the west and north, the [[Okinawa Plate]] on the north-east, and the [[Philippine Mobile Belt]] on the east and south. The upper part of the crust on the island is primarily made up of a series of [[terrane]]s, mostly old [[island arc]]s which have been forced together by the collision of the forerunners of the [[Eurasian Plate]] and the [[Philippine Sea Plate]]. These have been further uplifted as a result of the detachment of a portion of the Eurasian Plate as it was [[subduction|subducted]] beneath remnants of the Philippine Sea Plate, a process which left the crust under Taiwan more buoyant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~anderson/taiwan/tai_index.html |title=Geology of Taiwan |publisher=University of Arizona |access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref>

The east and south of Taiwan are a complex system of belts formed by, and part of the zone of, active collision between the North Luzon Trough portion of the [[Luzon Volcanic Arc]] and South China, where accreted portions of the Luzon Arc and Luzon forearc form the [[Haian Range|eastern Coastal Range]] and parallel inland [[Huatung Valley|Longitudinal Valley]] of Taiwan, respectively.<ref>Clift, Schouten and Draut (2003) in ''Intra-Oceanic Subduction Systems: Tectonic and Magmatic Processes'', {{ISBN|1-86239-147-5}} p84–86</ref>

The major seismic faults in Taiwan correspond to the various suture zones between the various terranes. These have produced major quakes throughout the history of the island. On 21 September 1999, a 7.3 quake known as the "[[1999 Jiji (Chichi) earthquake|921 earthquake]]" killed more than 2,400 people. The [[seismic hazard map]] for Taiwan by the [[USGS]] shows 9/10 of the island at the highest rating (most hazardous).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/GSHAP/eastasia/asiafin.gif |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000303055258/http://seismo.ethz.ch/gshap/eastasia/asiafin.gif |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2000 |title=USGS seismic hazard map of Eastern Asia |publisher=Seismo.ethz.ch |access-date=30 May 2011 }}</ref>

=={{anchor|status}}Political and legal status==
{{Main|Political status of Taiwan}}
{{See also|List of states with limited recognition|Foreign relations of China#International territorial disputes}}

The political and legal statuses of Taiwan are contentious issues. The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Republic of China government is illegitimate, referring to it as the "Taiwan Authority".<ref>{{cite web|year=2005 |title=The One-China Principle and the Taiwan Issue |work=PRC Taiwan Affairs Office and the Information Office of the State Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213045631/http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4|url=http://www.gwytb.gov.cn:8088/detail.asp?table=WhitePaper&title=White%20Papers%20On%20Taiwan%20Issue&m_id=4|archive-date=13 February 2006 |access-date=3 December 2014}} Section 1: "Since the KMT ruling clique retreated to Taiwan, although its regime has continued to use the designations "Republic of China" and "government of the Republic of China," it has long since completely forfeited its right to exercise state sovereignty on behalf of mainland China and, in reality, has always remained only a separate state on the island of Taiwan."</ref><ref name="tfp09">{{cite web |title=Taiwan flashpoint: Introduction – Present status |website=BBC News |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) |date=2009 |access-date=6 December 2020 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/present_status.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205164959/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/present_status.stm |archive-date=5 December 2020 |quote=But Taiwan's leaders say it is clearly much more than a province, arguing that it is a sovereign state. It has its own constitution, democratically-elected leaders, and 400,000 troops in its armed forces. }}</ref> The ROC has its own currency, [[Taiwan passport|widely accepted passport]], postage stamps, internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]], armed forces and constitution with an independently elected president. It has not formally renounced its claim to the mainland, but ROC government publications have increasingly downplayed this historical claim.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chang |first=Bi-yu |date=2015 |title=Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgaUBwAAQBAJ&q=9781317658122&pg=PA58 |location=Oxon, UK, and New York City |publisher=Routledge |pages=35–40, 46–60 |isbn=978-1-317-65812-2 }}</ref>

Internationally, there is controversy{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} on whether the ROC still exists as a state or a defunct state per [[international law]] due to the lack of wide diplomatic recognition. Though it was a [[Member states of the United Nations#Original members|founding member of United Nations]], the ROC now has neither official membership nor observer status in the organization.

Broadly speaking, domestic public opinion has preferred the status quo, with a moderate increase in pro-independence sentiment since democratization. In 2020, an annual poll run by [[National Chengchi University]] found that 52.3 per cent of respondents preferred postponing a decision or maintaining the status quo indefinitely, 35.1 per cent of respondents preferred eventual or immediate independence, and 5.8 per cent preferred eventual or immediate unification.<ref name="chengchi2020">{{cite web |title=Taiwan Independence vs. Unification with the Mainl |url=https://esc.nccu.edu.tw/PageDoc/Detail?fid=7801&id=6963 |publisher=Election Study Center, [[National Chengchi University]] |access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref>

===Relations with the PRC===
{{See also|Cross-Strait relations}}
[[File:2015 Ma–Xi Meeting 08.jpg|thumb|[[2015 Ma–Xi meeting]]]]
The political environment is complicated by the potential for military conflict should Taiwan declare ''[[de jure]]'' independence. It is the official PRC policy to force unification if peaceful unification is no longer possible, as stated in its [[anti-secession law]], and for this reason there is a substantial military presence on the Fujian coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/china/facility/liancheng.htm|title=Liancheng / Lianfeng Airbase – Chinese Military Forces|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|access-date=7 June 2009|quote=In March 2000 it was reported that the PLA Air Force was deploying new air-defense missiles [possibly batteries of Russian-made S-300 missiles] opposite Taiwan at the coastal cities of Xiamen and Shantou, and at Longtian, near Fuzhou.}}</ref><ref name=2004NatDefRpt>{{cite web|year=2004 |title=2004 National Defense Report |work=ROC Ministry of National Defense |url=http://report.mnd.gov.tw/eng/pdf/all-1-360.pdf |access-date=5 March 2006|pages=89–90|quote=The PRC refusal to renounce using military power against Taiwan, its current emphasis on 'enhancing preparation for military struggle', its obvious intention of preparing a war against Taiwan reflected in operational deployment, readiness efforts, and annual military exercises in the Southeast China coastal region, and its progress in aerospace operations, information warfare, paralyzing warfare, and non-conventional warfare, all of these factors work together so that the ROC Armed Forces face an increasingly complicated and difficult situation in terms of self-defense and counterattack. These multiple daunting challenges are testing our defense security. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060311012134/http://report.mnd.gov.tw/eng/pdf/all-1-360.pdf |archive-date = 11 March 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Forsythe|first1=Michael|title=Protests in Hong Kong Have Roots in China's 'Two Systems'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/30/world/asia/the-hong-kong-protests-what-you-should-know.html|access-date=14 April 2015|work=The New York Times|date=29 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Chung|first1=Lawrence|title='One country, two systems' right formula for Taiwan, Xi Jinping reiterates|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1601307/one-country-two-systems-right-formula-taiwan-xi-jinping-reiterates?page=all|access-date=14 April 2015|work=South China Morning Post|date=27 September 2014}}</ref>

For almost 60 years, there were no direct transportation links, including direct flights, between Taiwan and the PRC. This was a problem for many Taiwanese businesses that had opened factories or branches in mainland China. The former DPP administration feared that such links would lead to tighter economic and political integration with mainland China.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} In the 2006 Lunar New Year Speech, President Chen Shui-bian called for managed opening of links. Direct weekend charter flights between Taiwan and mainland China began in July 2008 under the KMT government, and the first direct daily charter flights took off in December 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5346905.ece|title=Direct flights between China and Taiwan mark new era of improved relations|last=Yu|first=Sophie|author2=Jane Macartney |date=16 December 2008|newspaper=The Times|access-date=4 June 2009 | location=London}}</ref>

On 29 April 2005, Kuomintang [[Chairman of the Kuomintang|Chairman]] [[Lien Chan]] travelled to Beijing and [[2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China|met]] with Chinese Communist Party [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2005/04/30/2003252532|title=Lien, Hu share 'vision' for peace|last=Hong|first=Caroline|date=30 April 2005|work=Taipei Times|access-date=3 June 2016}}</ref> the first meeting between the leaders of the two parties since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. On 11 February 2014, [[Mainland Affairs Council]] head [[Wang Yu-chi]] travelled to [[Nanjing]] and met with [[Taiwan Affairs Office]] head [[Zhang Zhijun]], the [[2014 Wang–Zhang meetings|first meeting between high-ranking officials]] from either side.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2014/02/12/2003583307|title=MAC Minister Wang in historic meeting|last=Wang|first=Chris|date=12 February 2014|work=Taipei Times|access-date=3 June 2016}}</ref> Zhang paid a reciprocal visit to Taiwan and met Wang on 25 June 2014, making Zhang the first minister-level PRC official to ever visit Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/06/25/asia-pacific/politics-diplomacy-asia-pacific/first-minister-level-chinese-official-heads-to-taipei-for-talks/|title=First minister-level Chinese official heads to Taipei for talks|date=25 June 2014|newspaper=Japan Times|issn=0447-5763|access-date=4 June 2016}}</ref> On 7 November 2015, Ma Ying-jeou (in his capacity as ''[[Leader of Taiwan]]'') and Xi Jinping (in his capacity as leader of Mainland China<ref>{{cite news|last1=Huang|first1=Cary|title=Xi's a mister, so is Ma: China and Taiwan have an unusual solution for an old problem|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/1875810/xis-mister-so-ma-china-and-taiwan-have-unusual-solution|access-date=12 November 2015|work=South China Morning Post|date=5 November 2015}}</ref>) travelled to Singapore and [[2015 Ma–Xi meeting|met up]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan-relations/2015/11/07/450352/Cross-strait-leaders.htm|title=Cross-strait leaders meet after 66 years of separation|last=Chiao|first=Yuan-Ming|date=7 November 2015|work=China Post|access-date=3 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110044804/http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan-relations/2015/11/07/450352/Cross-strait-leaders.htm|archive-date=10 November 2015}}</ref> marking the highest-level exchange between the two sides since 1945.<ref name=cnaupdate>{{cite news|last1=Lee|first1=Shu-hua|last2=Chang|first2=S.C|title=President Ma to meet China's Xi in Singapore Saturday (update)|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/afav/201511040001.aspx|access-date=4 November 2015|agency=Central News Agency}}</ref> In response to US support for Taiwan, the [[Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China|PRC defense ministry]] declared in 2019 that "If anyone dares to split Taiwan from China, the Chinese military has no choice but to fight at all costs".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/02/china-says-war-with-us-would-be-a-disaster-as-tensions-mount|title=China says war with US would be a disaster as tensions mount|date=2 June 2019|access-date=2 June 2019|website=The Guardian}}</ref>

The PRC supports a version of the [[One-China policy]], which states that Taiwan and mainland China are both part of China, and that the PRC is the only legitimate [[Government of China (disambiguation)|government of China]]. It uses this policy to prevent the international recognition of the ROC as an independent sovereign state, meaning that Taiwan participates in international forums under the name "Chinese Taipei". It is the [[Anti-Secession Law|official policy]] of the PRC to promote reunification but employ non-peaceful means in the event of Taiwan seccession or if peaceful unification is no longer possible.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1285915.stm|title=Country profile: Taiwan|date=11 September 2009|work=BBC News|access-date=17 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="TsaiDemocracy"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.fapa.org/chinawp/chinathreatwp223.html|title=China's Threats, Editorial|date=23 February 2000|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=31 October 2011|archive-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107124808/http://www.fapa.org/chinawp/chinathreatwp223.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

With the emergence of the Taiwanese independence movement, the name "Taiwan" has been used increasingly often on the island.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/12/world/asia/12taiwan.html|title=Taiwan's Independence Movement Likely to Wane|last=Wong|first=Edward |date=12 March 2008|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref> President Tsai Ing-wen has supported the [[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]] and expressed her solidarity with the people of [[Hong Kong]]. Tsai pledged that as long as she is Taiwan's president, she will never accept "[[one country, two systems]]".<ref>"[http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201906100017.aspx Tsai, Lai voice support for Hong Kong extradition bill protesters]". ''Focus Taiwan''. The Central News Agency. 10 June 2019.</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Taiwan}}
[[File:RC (Taiwan).png|thumb|upright=1.7|Countries maintaining relations with the ROC{{legend|#008000|diplomatic relations and embassy in [[Taipei]]}}
{{legend|#0080ff|unofficial relations (see text)}}|alt=A map of the world showing countries which have relations with the Republic of China. Only a few small countries maintain diplomatic relations with the government of Taiwan, mainly in Central America, South America and Africa.]]

Before 1928, the [[foreign policy]] of Republican China was complicated by a lack of internal unity—competing centres of power all claimed legitimacy. This situation changed after the defeat of the [[Beiyang Government|Peiyang Government]] by the Kuomintang, which led to widespread diplomatic recognition of the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/countries/china |title=Countries – China|publisher=US Department of State, Office of the Historian|access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref>

After the KMT's retreat to Taiwan, most countries, notably the countries in the [[Western Bloc]], continued to maintain relations with the ROC. Due to diplomatic pressure, recognition gradually eroded and many countries switched recognition to the PRC in the 1970s. UN Resolution 2758 (25 October 1971) recognized the People's Republic of China as China's sole representative in the United Nations.<ref>Eyal Propper. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120325191248/http://israelcfr.com/documents/issue5_china.pdf "How China Views its National Security,"] [[Israel Council on Foreign Relations|The Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs]], May 2008.</ref>

[[File:Taiwanese Embassy in Mbabane.JPG|thumb|[[Embassy of the Republic of China (Taiwan) in the Kingdom of Eswatini|ROC embassy]] in [[Eswatini]]]]
The PRC refuses to have diplomatic relations with any nation that has diplomatic relations with the ROC, and requires all nations with which it has diplomatic relations to make a statement recognizing its claims to Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henckaerts|first=Jean-Marie|title=The international status of Taiwan in the new world order|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=1996|pages=96–97|isbn=978-90-411-0929-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9kuVIayxDoC&pg=PA96}}</ref> As a result, only {{Numrec|ROC||UN member states}} and the [[Holy See]] maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China.<ref name=":0" /> The ROC maintains unofficial relations with most countries via ''de facto'' [[embassy|embassies]] and [[consul (representative)|consulates]] called [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office]]s (TECRO), with branch offices called "Taipei Economic and Cultural Offices" (TECO). Both TECRO and TECO are "unofficial commercial entities" of the ROC in charge of maintaining [[diplomacy|diplomatic relations]], providing consular services (i.e. visa applications), and serving the national interests of the ROC in other countries.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vang|first=Pobzeb |title=Five Principles of Chinese Foreign Policies|publisher=AuthorHouse|year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4343-6971-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvXlFsxmJiMC|page=46}}</ref>

From 1954 to 1979, the United States was a partner with Taiwan in a mutual defense treaty. The United States remains one of the [[Republic of China-United States relations|main allies]] of Taiwan and, through the [[Taiwan Relations Act]] passed in 1979, has continued selling arms and providing military training to the [[Republic of China Armed Forces|Armed Forces]].<ref name="TRA-review">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1272.cfm|title=The Taiwan Relations Act After 20 Years: Keys to Past and Future Success|first=Stephen J.|last=Yates|author-link=Stephen J. Yates|date=16 April 1999|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=19 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722095740/http://www.heritage.org/research/asiaandthepacific/bg1272.cfm|archive-date=22 July 2009}}</ref> This situation continues to be an issue for the People's Republic of China, which considers US involvement disruptive to the stability of the region. In January 2010, the Obama administration announced its intention to sell $6.4 billion worth of military hardware to Taiwan. As a consequence, the PRC threatened the US with economic sanctions and warned that their co-operation on international and regional issues could suffer.<ref name="SanctionsAFP">{{cite news|title=China: US spat over Taiwan could hit co-operation |date=2 February 2010 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jDzKLVZ7X2dz8yrsshklcJZh38Cg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206214100/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jDzKLVZ7X2dz8yrsshklcJZh38Cg |archive-date=6 February 2010 |access-date=17 July 2014}}</ref>

The official position of the United States is that the PRC is expected to "use no force or threat[en] to use force against Taiwan" and the ROC is to "exercise prudence in managing all aspects of [[Cross-Strait relations]]." Both are to refrain from performing actions or espousing statements "that would unilaterally alter Taiwan's status".<ref name="UsPolicyToTaiwan">{{cite press release |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=21 April 2004|title=Overview of US Policy Towards Taiwan |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2004/31649.htm |access-date=17 July 2014 |last=Kelly |first=James A.}}</ref>

On 16 December 2015, the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]] announced a deal to sell $1.83 billion worth of arms to the armed forces of the ROC.<ref>{{cite news|title=US to sell arms to Taiwan despite Chinese opposition|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-35115507?|work=[[BBC News]]|date=16 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Obama to push ahead on Taiwan frigate sales despite Chinese anger|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/12/14/obama-to-push-ahead-on-taiwan-frigate-sales-despite-chinese-anger.html|publisher=[[CNBC]]|agency=[[Reuters]]|date=14 December 2015}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|foreign ministry of the PRC]] had expressed its disapproval for the sales and issued the US a "stern warning", saying it would hurt [[China–United States relations|PRC–US relations]].<ref>{{cite news|title=China warns against first major US-Taiwan arms sale in four years|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/16/china-warns-against-us-taiwan-arms-sale-defence|work=[[The Guardian]]|agency=[[Reuters]]|date=16 December 2015}}</ref>

===Participation in international events and organizations===
{{See also|Foreign relations of Taiwan#Relation with International organizations|Chinese Taipei}}

The ROC was a founding member of the United Nations, and held the [[China and the United Nations|seat of China]] on the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] and other UN bodies until 1971, when it was expelled by Resolution 2758 and replaced in all UN organs with the PRC. Each year since 1992, the ROC has petitioned the UN for entry, but its applications have not made it past committee stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taiwandc.org/un-2001.htm |title=Taiwan and the United Nations |publisher=New Taiwan |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Flag of Chinese Taipei for Olympic games.svg|thumb|The flag used by Taiwan at the Olympic Games, where it competes as "[[Chinese Taipei]]" (中華台北)|alt=A white symbol in shape of a five petal flower ringed by a blue and a red line. In its centre stands a circular symbol depicting a white sun on a blue background. The five Olympic circles (blue, yellow, black, green and red) stand below it.]]
Due to its limited international recognition, the Republic of China has been a member of the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]] (UNPO) since the foundation of the organization in 1991, represented by a government-funded organization, the [[Taiwan Foundation for Democracy]] (TFD), under the name "Taiwan".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unpo.org/content/view/7908/146/ |title=Taiwan |publisher=UNPO |access-date=7 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tfd.org.tw/english/about.php|title=About TFD|publisher=TFD}}</ref>

Also due to its One China policy, the PRC only participates in international organizations where the ROC does not participate as a sovereign country. Most [[Member states of the United Nations|member states]], including the United States, do not wish to discuss the issue of the ROC's political status for fear of souring diplomatic ties with the PRC.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tkacik |first=John |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2009/05/13/2003443455 |title=John Tkacik on Taiwan: Taiwan's 'undetermined' status|newspaper=Taipei Times |date=13 May 2009 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> However, both the US and Japan publicly support the ROC's bid for membership in the World Health Organization (WHO) as an observer.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Su |first=Joy |title=WHO application: a question of health or politics? |date=19 May 2004 |newspaper=Taipei Times |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/05/19/2003156094}}</ref> However, though the ROC sought to participate in the WHO since 1997,<ref>{{cite news|title=Minister Chiu leads our WHA delegation to actively hold bilateral talks with delegations from other nations. This event has been the most successful medical-related diplomatic record over the past years.|url=http://www.mohw.gov.tw/EN/CommonPages/DocPrint.aspx?doc_no=45250|access-date=27 January 2015|publisher=Ministry of Health and Welfare|date=18 June 2014|location=Republic of China|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210005025/http://www.mohw.gov.tw/EN/CommonPages/DocPrint.aspx?doc_no=45250|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=ROC urges world public to support WHO bid|url=http://taiwaninfo.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=19343&CtNode=103&htx_TRCategory=&mp=4|access-date=27 January 2015|work=Taiwan Info|date=3 May 2002|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210015656/http://taiwaninfo.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=19343&CtNode=103&htx_TRCategory=&mp=4|archive-date=10 February 2015}}</ref> their efforts were blocked by the PRC until 2010, when they were invited as observers to attend the World Health Assembly, under the name "Chinese Taipei".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xitem=103148&ctnode=427&mp=9|title=Taiwan delegation to participate in WHA|newspaper=Taiwan Today|date=14 May 2010|access-date=2 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119091612/http://www.taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xitem=103148&ctnode=427&mp=9|archive-date=19 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, Taiwan again began to be excluded from the WHO even in an observer capacity.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO Bows to China Pressure, Contravenes Human Rights in Refusing Taiwan Media|url=https://international.thenewslens.com/article/95982|website=international.thenewslens.com|access-date=31 March 2020|date=18 May 2018}}</ref> This exclusion caused a number of scandals during the [[COVID-19]] outbreak.<ref>{{cite web |last=Davidson|first=Helen|date=30 March 2020|title=Senior WHO adviser appears to dodge question on Taiwan's Covid-19 response|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/30/senior-who-adviser-appears-to-dodge-question-on-taiwans-covid-19-response |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Blanchard |first1=Ben |title=Parties unite over Taiwan's exclusion from WHO anti-virus planning |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-taiwan/parties-unite-over-taiwans-exclusion-from-who-anti-virus-planning-idUSKBN1ZN0QG |work=Reuters |access-date=31 March 2020|date=24 January 2020 }}</ref>

Due to PRC pressure, the ROC has used the name "Chinese Taipei" in international events where the PRC is also a party (such as the [[Olympic Games]]) since the ROC, PRC, and [[International Olympic Committee]] came to an agreement in 1981.<ref name="Lin">{{cite news |title=How 'Chinese Taipei' came about |author=Catherine K. Lin |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/08/05/2003419446 |newspaper=Taipei Times |date=5 August 2008}}</ref><ref name="chinese-taipei">{{cite news |url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan%20relations/2008/07/25/167036/Taiwan-insists.htm |title=Taiwan insists on 'Chinese Taipei' |newspaper=China Post |date=25 July 2008 |access-date=28 May 2009 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629085958/http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan%20relations/2008/07/25/167036/Taiwan-insists.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ROC is typically barred from using its national anthem and national flag in international events due to PRC pressure; ROC spectators attending events such as the Olympics are often barred from bringing [[Flag of the Republic of China|ROC flags]] into venues.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taiwan flags in Salt Lake ruffle a few feelings |date=10 February 2002 |newspaper=The Deseret News |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/894748/Taiwan-flags-in-SL-ruffle-a-few-feelings.html}}</ref> Taiwan also participates in the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum (since 1991) and the [[World Trade Organization]] (since 2002) under the name "Chinese Taipei". The ROC was a founding member of the [[Asian Development Bank]], but since China's ascension in 1986 has participated under the name "Taipei,China". The ROC is able to participate as "China" in organizations in which the PRC does not participate, such as the [[World Organization of the Scout Movement]]. A [[2018 Taiwanese referendum|referendum question in 2018]] asked if Taiwan should compete as "Taiwan" in the [[2020 Summer Olympics]], but failed after it was alleged that doing so could result in athletes being banned from competing entirely.<ref name="HortonNYT2018">{{Cite news|last=Horton|first=Chris|date=26 November 2018|title=Taiwan Asked Voters 10 Questions. It Got Some Unexpected Answers. (Published 2018)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/26/world/asia/taiwan-election.html|access-date=17 February 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

===Domestic opinion===
{{See also|Taiwan independence|Chinese Unification}}

Broadly speaking, domestic public opinion has preferred maintaining the status quo, though pro-independence sentiment has steadily risen since democratization, with a significant increase since 2018. In 2020, an annual poll run by National Chengchi University found that 28.5 per cent of respondents preferred postponing a decision, 25.5 per cent supported maintaining the status quo indefinitely, 35.1 per cent of respondents voted for eventual or immediate independence, and 5.8 per cent chose eventual or immediate unification. On the other hand, Taiwanese identity has seen a significant rise in the same poll since democratization: in 2020, 67 per cent of respondents identified as Taiwanese only, versus 27.5 per cent who identified as both Chinese and Taiwanese and 2.4 per cent who identified as Chinese.<ref name="chengchi2020" />

The KMT, the largest Pan-Blue party, supports the status quo for the indefinite future with a stated ultimate goal of unification. However, it does not support unification in the short term with the PRC as such a prospect would be unacceptable to most of its members and the public.<ref name="ma-three-noes" /> Ma Ying-jeou, chairman of the KMT and former president of the ROC, has set out democracy, economic development to a level near that of Taiwan, and equitable wealth distribution as the conditions that the PRC must fulfill for reunification to occur.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national%20news/2008/05/16/156644/Unification-with.htm|title=Unification with China unlikely 'in our lifetimes': president-elect|last=Enav|first=Peter |date=16 May 2008|newspaper=China Post|access-date=13 June 2009|quote='It is very difficult for us to see any unification talks even in our lifetimes,' Ma said. 'Taiwanese people would like to have economic interactions with the mainland, but obviously they don't believe their political system is suitable for Taiwan.'}}</ref>

The Democratic Progressive Party, the largest Pan-Green party, officially seeks independence, but in practice also supports the status quo because its members and the public would not accept the risk of provoking the PRC.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Eckholm |first=Erik |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/22/world/why-a-victory-in-taiwan-wasn-t-enough-for-some.html |title=Why a Victory in Taiwan Wasn't Enough for Some|newspaper=The New York Times|date=22 March 2000 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=BBC News |title=Taiwan Flashpoint: Independence debate |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/independence_debate.stm |year=2009 |quote=Since neither outcome looks likely in the short or even medium term, it is perhaps not surprising that opinion polls suggest most Taiwanese people want things to stay as they are, with the island's ambiguous status unresolved.}}</ref>

On 2 September 2008, Mexican newspaper ''[[El Sol de Mexico|El Sol de México]]'' asked President Ma of the Kuomintang about his views on the subject of "[[two Chinas]]" and if there was a solution for the sovereignty issues between the two. The president replied that the relations are neither between two Chinas nor two states. It is a special relationship. Further, he stated that the sovereignty issues between the two cannot be resolved at present, but he quoted the "[[1992 Consensus]]", currently {{when||date=November 2019|reason=When?}} accepted by both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, as a temporary measure until a solution becomes available.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.oem.com.mx/oem/notas/n836891.htm|title=Impulsa Taiwan la reconciliación|date=2 September 2008|newspaper=El Sol de México|language=es|access-date=9 June 2009|quote=Esencialmente, no definiríamos la relación a través del estrecho de Taiwan como una relación de dos países o dos Chinas, porque nuestra Constitución no lo permite. Nosotros definiríamos está relación como una relación muy especial, ya que la Constitución nuestra, igual que la Constitución de China continental, no permite la existencia de otro país dentro del territorio.}}</ref>

On 27 September 2017, Taiwanese premier [[William Lai]] of the Democratic Progressive Party said that he was a "political worker who advocates Taiwan independence", but that as Taiwan was already an independent country called the Republic of China, it had no need to declare independence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayonline.com/chinaindia/china/taiwanese-premiers-independence-stance-incurs-beijings-wrath |title=Taiwanese premier's independence stance incurs Beijing's wrath |publisher=TODAYonline |date=28 September 2017 |access-date=6 October 2017}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of the Republic of China|Politics of the Republic of China}}
{{See also|Elections in Taiwan|Human rights in Taiwan|North-South divide in Taiwan}}
[[File:Presidential Building, Taiwan (0747).JPG|thumb|Taiwan's popularly elected president resides in the [[Presidential Office Building|Presidential Office Building, Taipei]], originally built in the Japanese era for colonial governors.]]

The government of the Republic of China was founded on the 1947 [[Constitution of the Republic of China|Constitution of the ROC]] and its [[Three Principles of the People]], which states that the ROC "shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people".<ref name="yb:government">{{cite book |title=The Republic of China Yearbook |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ |chapter=Chapter 4: Government |chapter-url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch04.pdf |pages=55–65 |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan) |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512091917/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/ |archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref> It underwent significant revisions in the 1990s, known collectively as the Additional Articles. The government is divided into five branches (''Yuan''): the Executive Yuan (cabinet), the Legislative Yuan (Congress or Parliament), the [[Judicial Yuan]], the [[Control Yuan]] (audit agency), and the [[Examination Yuan]] (civil service examination agency).

[[File:蔡英文官方元首肖像照.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Tsai Ing-wen]], [[President of the Republic of China]]]]

The [[head of state]] and [[commander-in-chief]] of the armed forces is the [[President of the Republic of China|president]], who is elected by popular vote for a maximum of 2 four-year terms on the same ticket as the vice-president. The president has authority over the Yuan. The president appoints the members of the Executive Yuan as their cabinet, including a [[Premier of the Republic of China|premier]], who is officially the President of the Executive Yuan; members are responsible for policy and administration.<ref name="yb:government" />

The main [[Legislature|legislative body]] is the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] Legislative Yuan with 113 seats. Seventy-three are elected by popular vote from single-member constituencies; thirty-four are elected based on the proportion of nationwide votes received by participating political parties in a separate party list ballot; and six are elected from two three-member aboriginal constituencies. Members serve four-year terms. Originally the unicameral National Assembly, as a standing [[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] and [[electoral college]], held some parliamentary functions, but the National Assembly was abolished in 2005 with the power of constitutional amendments handed over to the Legislative Yuan and all eligible voters of the Republic via referendums.<ref name="yb:government" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Taiwan assembly passes changes |date=7 June 2005 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4616043.stm}}</ref>

[[File:蘇貞昌院長.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Su Tseng-chang]], [[Premier of the Republic of China]]]]
The premier is selected by the president without the need for approval from the legislature, but the legislature can pass laws without regard for the president, as neither he nor the Premier wields veto power.<ref name="yb:government" /> Thus, there is little incentive for the president and the legislature to negotiate on legislation if they are of opposing parties. After the election of the pan-Green's Chen Shui-bian as President in 2000, legislation repeatedly stalled because of deadlock with the Legislative Yuan, which was controlled by a pan-Blue majority.<ref>{{cite news |last=Huang |first=Jei-hsuan |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/09/14/2003327608 |title=Letter: KMT holds the key|newspaper=Taipei Times |date=14 September 2006 |page=8 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> Historically, the ROC has been dominated by strongman single party politics. This legacy has resulted in executive powers currently being concentrated in the office of the president rather than the premier, even though the constitution does not explicitly state the extent of the president's executive power.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jayasuriya|first=Kanishka|title=Law, capitalism and power in Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|page=217|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OqGSrD9QhXcC&pg=PA217|isbn=978-0-415-19743-4}}</ref>

The Judicial Yuan is the highest [[judiciary|judicial]] organ. It interprets the constitution and other laws and decrees, judges administrative suits, and disciplines public functionaries. The president and vice-president of the Judicial Yuan and additional thirteen justices form the Council of Grand Justices.<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China (2005) |at=Article 5}}</ref> They are nominated and appointed by the president, with the consent of the Legislative Yuan. The highest court, the [[Supreme Court of the Republic of China|Supreme Court]], consists of a number of civil and criminal divisions, each of which is formed by a presiding judge and four associate judges, all appointed for life. In 1993, a separate [[List of constitutional courts|constitutional court]] was established to resolve constitutional disputes, regulate the activities of political parties and accelerate the democratization process. There is no [[jury trial|trial by jury]] but the right to a fair public trial is protected by law and respected in practice; many cases are presided over by multiple judges.<ref name="yb:government" />

The Control Yuan is a watchdog agency that monitors (controls) the actions of the executive. It can be considered a standing [[Government agency|commission]] for administrative inquiry and can be compared to the [[Court of Auditors]] of the [[European Union]] or the [[Government Accountability Office]] of the United States.<ref name="yb:government" /> It is also responsible for the [[National Human Rights Commission (Taiwan)|National Human Rights Commission]].

The Examination Yuan is in charge of validating the qualification of civil servants. It is based on the old [[imperial examination]] system used in dynastic China. It can be compared to the [[European Personnel Selection Office]] of the European Union or the [[Office of Personnel Management]] of the United States.<ref name="yb:government" /> It was downsized in 2019, and there have been calls for its abolition.<ref name="2020amend">{{cite news|url=https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/201912100011|last1=Wang|first1=Yang-yu|last2=Kao|first2=Evelyn|title=Legislature passes revised law to shrink Examination Yuan|work=[[Central News Agency (Taiwan)|Central News Agency]]|date=10 December 2019|access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yang |first1=Mien-chieh |last2=Chung |first2=Jake |title=Examination Yuan at odds with self |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2020/08/07/2003741273 |access-date=10 March 2021 |work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref>

=== Constitution ===
The constitution was drafted in by the KMT while the ROC still governed the Chinese mainland, went into effect on 25 December 1947.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ginsburg|first=Tom|title=Judicial review in new democracies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=111|year=2003|isbn=978-0-521-52039-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJrsouEjOZEC&pg=PA111}}</ref> The ROC remained under martial law from 1948 until 1987 and much of the constitution was not in effect.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} Political reforms beginning in the late 1970s resulted in the end of martial law in 1987, and Taiwan transformed into a multiparty democracy in the early 1990s. The constitutional basis for this transition to democracy was gradually laid in the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China. In addition, these articles localized the Constitution by suspending portions of the Constitution designed for governance of China and replacing them with articles adapted for the governance of and guaranteeing the political rights of residents of the Taiwan Area, as defined in the Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yeh |first1=Jiunn-rong |title=The Constitution of Taiwan |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1849465120 |pages=3–4}}</ref>

National boundaries were not explicitly prescribed by the 1947 Constitution, and the Constitutional Court declined to define these boundaries in a 1993 interpretation, viewing the question as a political question to be resolved by the Executive and Legislative Yuans.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chang |first1=Ming-hsuan |last2=Mazzetta |first2=Matthew |title=DPP lawmakers seek removal of 'national unification' from Constitution |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/202009300019 |access-date=8 March 2021 |work=[[Central News Agency (Taiwan)]] |issue=3 September 2020}}</ref> The 1947 Constitution included articles regarding representatives from former Qing dynasty territories including [[Tibet]] and Mongolia (though it did not specify whether this excluded Outer Mongolia).<ref>{{cite web |title=蒙古不是中華民國固有之疆域 |url=https://features.ltn.com.tw/spring/article/2017/breakingnews/2228191 |website=自由時報 [[Liberty Times]] |accessdate=6 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203153813/https://features.ltn.com.tw/spring/article/2017/breakingnews/2228191}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of the Republic of China (Taiwan) |url=https://english.president.gov.tw/page/94 |access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref> The ROC recognized [[Mongolia]] as an independent country in 1946 after signing the 1945 [[Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance]], but after retreating to Taiwan in 1949 it reneged on its agreement in order to preserve its claim over China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Keith Allan II |title=Imagined Territory: The Republic of China's 1955 Veto of Mongolian Membership in the United Nations |journal=Journal of American-East Asian Relations |date=3 September 2018 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=263–295 |doi=10.1163/18765610-02503003}}</ref> The Additional Articles of the 1990s did not alter national boundaries, but suspended articles regarding Mongolian and Tibetan representatives. The ROC began to accept the Mongolian passport and removed clauses referring to Outer Mongolia from the Act Governing Relations between the People of the Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area in 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm |title = Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China |publisher = BBC News |date = 26 February 2002 |access-date = 14 February 2021}}</ref> In 2012 the Mainland Affairs Council issued a statement clarifying that Outer Mongolia was not part of the ROC's national territory in 1947,<ref>{{cite news |title=Mongolia not within national boundary under ROC Constitution: MAC |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/politics/201205210043 |access-date=8 March 2021 |work=[[Central News Agency (Taiwan)]] |date=21 May 2012}}</ref> and that the termination of the Sino-Soviet Treaty had not altered national territory according to the Constitution.<ref>{{cite news |title=有關外蒙古是否為中華民國領土問題說明新聞參考資料 |trans-title=Reference materials about the territory of the Republic of China exclude Outer Mongolia |url=http://www.mac.gov.tw/public/Attachment/252122204856.pdf |access-date=22 May 2012 |agency=[[Mainland Affairs Council]] |language=zh-tw}}</ref> The [[Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission]] in the Executive Yuan was abolished in 2017.

===Major camps===
{{multiple image
| width = 100
| footer =
| image1 = DPP-Taiwan.svg
| alt1 = A circular logo representing the island of Taiwan surrounded by the text "DEMOCRATIC PROGRESSIVE PARTY" and "民主進步黨"
| caption1 = The [[Democratic Progressive Party]], the main [[Pan-Green Coalition]] party
| image2 = Emblem of the Kuomintang.svg
| alt2 = A circular logo representing a white sun on a blue background. The sun is a circle surrounded by twelve triangles.
| caption2 = Emblem of the [[Kuomintang]], the main [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] party
}}

Taiwan's political scene is divided into two major camps in terms of cross-Strait relations, i.e. how Taiwan should relate to China or the PRC. The Pan-Green Coalition (e.g. the Democratic Progressive Party) leans pro-independence, and the Pan-Blue Coalition (e.g. the Kuomintang) leans pro-unification. Moderates in both camps regard the Republic of China as a sovereign independent state, but the Pan-Green Coalition regard the ROC as [[Four-Stage Theory of the Republic of China|synonymous with Taiwan]], while moderates in the Pan-Blue Coalition view it as [[1992 Consensus|synonymous with China]]. These positions formed against the backdrop of the PRC's [[Anti-Secession Law]], which threatens invasion in the event of formal independence.

[[File:Wu San-lien after election.jpg|thumb|left|Taiwanese-born [[Tangwai]] ("independent") politician [[Wu San-lien]] (second left) celebrates with supporters his landslide victory of 65.5 per cent in [[Taipei]]'s first mayoral election in January 1951.]]
The Pan-Green Coalition is composed of the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party and [[Taiwan Statebuilding Party]] (TSP). They oppose the idea that Taiwan is part of China, and seeks wide diplomatic recognition and an eventual declaration of formal [[Taiwan independence]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/independence_debate.stm |title=Taiwan Flashpoint: Independence Debate |author= |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2021}} In September 2007, the then ruling Democratic Progressive Party approved a resolution asserting separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "''normal country''". It called also for general use of "''Taiwan''" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the "Republic of China".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-30-taiwan_N.htm |title=Taiwan party asserts separate identity from China |newspaper=USA Today |date=30 September 2007 |access-date=29 May 2009}}</ref> Some members of the coalition, such as former President Chen Shui-bian, argue that it is unnecessary to proclaim independence because "Taiwan is already an independent, sovereign country" and the Republic of China is the same as Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|author=Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=1653&l=1 |title=Taiwan Strait I: What's Left of 'One China'?|publisher=International Crisis Group |date=6 June 2003 |access-date=29 May 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080709035143/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=1653&l=1 |archive-date = 9 July 2008}}</ref> Despite being a member of KMT prior to and during his presidency, Lee Teng-hui also held a similar view and was a supporter of the [[Taiwanization]] movement.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shirk|first=Susan L.|title=China: Fragile Superpower|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-530609-5|url=https://archive.org/details/chinafragilesupe00shir}}</ref>

The Pan-Blue Coalition, composed of the pro-unification Kuomintang, [[People First Party (Republic of China)|People First Party]] (PFP) and [[New Party (Republic of China)|New Party]] generally support the spirit of the 1992 Consensus, where the KMT declared that there is one China, but that the ROC and PRC have different interpretations of what "China" means. They favour eventual re-unification of China.<ref name="panblue-reunif-chineseid">{{Cite book|last=Pares|first=Susan |title=A political and economic dictionary of East Asia|publisher=Routledge|date=24 February 2005|page=267|isbn=978-1-85743-258-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJKePP5ATKUC|quote=The Pan-Blue coalition on the whole favours a Chinese nationalist identity and policies supporting reunification and increased economic links with the People's Republic of China.}}</ref> The more mainstream Pan-Blue position is to lift investment restrictions and pursue negotiations with the PRC to immediately open direct transportation links. Regarding independence, the mainstream Pan-Blue position is to maintain the status quo, while refusing immediate reunification.<ref name="ma-three-noes">{{cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2008/01/21/2003398185 |title=Looking behind Ma's 'three noes'|newspaper=Taipei Times |date=21 January 2008 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> President Ma Ying-jeou stated that there will be no unification nor declaration of independence during his presidency.<ref name="MasClaimtoMainland">{{Cite news |last=Ko |first=Shu-Ling |title=Ma refers to China as ROC territory in magazine interview|newspaper=Taipei Times|date=8 October 2008|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/10/08/2003425320}}</ref><ref name="chinapost.com.tw">{{Cite news|title=Taiwan and China in 'special relations': Ma|newspaper=China Post|date=4 September 2008|url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/china-taiwan%20relations/2008/09/04/173082/Taiwan-and.htm}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, Pan-Blue members usually seek to improve relationships with mainland China, with a current focus on improving economic ties.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4482617.stm |title=World | Asia-Pacific | Taiwan opposition leader in China |work=BBC News |date=26 April 2005 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref>

===National identity===
{{Main|Taiwanese people#The current state of Taiwanese identity}} {{See also|Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity}}
[[File:National Chengchi University identity survey.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Results from an identity survey conducted each year since 1992 by the Election Study Center, [[National Chengchi University]].<ref name="nccu"/> Responses are Taiwanese (green), Chinese (red) or Both Taiwanese and Chinese (hatched). Non-responses are shown as grey.]]
Roughly 84 per cent of Taiwan's population are descendants of Han Chinese immigrants from Qing China between 1683 and 1895. Another significant fraction descends from Han Chinese who immigrated from mainland China in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The shared cultural origin combined with several hundred years of geographical separation, some hundred years of political separation and foreign influences, as well as hostility between the rival ROC and PRC have resulted in national identity being a contentious issue with political overtones.

Since democratic reforms and the lifting of martial law, a distinct Taiwanese identity (as opposed to Taiwanese identity as a subset of a Chinese identity) is often at the heart of political debates. Its acceptance makes the island distinct from mainland China, and therefore may be seen as a step towards forming a consensus for ''de jure'' Taiwan independence.<ref name="power-shift">{{Cite book|last=Shambaugh|first=David L.|title=Power shift|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|pages=179–183 |isbn=978-0-520-24570-9}}</ref> The Pan-Green camp supports a predominantly Taiwanese identity (although "Chinese" may be viewed as cultural heritage), while the Pan-Blue camp supports a predominantly Chinese identity (with "Taiwanese" as a regional/diasporic Chinese identity).<ref name="panblue-reunif-chineseid" /> The KMT has downplayed this stance in the recent years and now supports a Taiwanese identity as part of a Chinese identity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/eo20081230ho.html|title=No sign of a 'peace agreement'|last=Okazaki|first=Hisahiko|date=30 December 2008|newspaper=Japan Times|access-date=15 July 2009|quote=For one thing, I believe there is recognition that the awareness of Taiwanese identity is now irreversible. The KMT government did things like rename the "Taiwan Post" to "Chunghwa Post" as soon as it came in. But it did not take much time to perceive that it would cause a backlash among the Taiwan populace. The cross-strait exchanges have also brought about opposition demonstrations from time to time. This appears to be one of the reasons for the abrupt decline in the approval rating of the Ma administration.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1211639,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024135148/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1211639,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 October 2007|title=10 Questions: Ma Ying-jeou|date=10 July 2006|newspaper=Time|access-date=15 July 2009|quote=I am Taiwanese as well as Chinese.}}</ref>

In an annual poll conducted by National Chengchi University, Taiwanese identification has increased substantially since democratization in the early 1990s, while Chinese identification has fallen to a low level and identification as both has also seen a reduction. In 1992, 17.6 per cent of respondents identified as Taiwanese only, 25.5 per cent as Chinese only, 46.4 per cent as both, and 10.5 per cent declining to state. In 2020, 64.3 per cent identified as Taiwanese, 2.6 per cent as Chinese, 29.9 per cent as both, and 3.2 per cent declining.<ref name="nccu">{{cite web |title=Taiwanese / Chinese Identity(1992/06~2020/12) |url=https://esc.nccu.edu.tw/PageDoc/Detail?fid=7800&id=6961 |website=Election Study Center |publisher=[[National Chengchi University]] |access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref> A survey conducted in Taiwan in July 2009, showed that 82.8 per cent of respondents consider the ROC and the PRC as two separate countries with each developing on its own.<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429190528/http://www.gvm.com.tw/gvsrc/200907_GVSRC_others_E.pdf|url=http://www.gvm.com.tw/gvsrc/200907_GVSRC_others_E.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|title=Survey on President Ma's Approval Rating and Cross-Strait Relations After First Year of Direct Flights|date=24 July 2009|publisher=Global Views Survey Research Center|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Taiwan}}

Taiwan is, in practice, divided into 22 subnational divisions, each with a self-governing body led by an elected leader and a legislative body with elected members. Duties of local governments include social services, education, urban planning, public construction, water management, environmental protection, transport, public safety, and more.

There are three types of subnational divisions: special municipalities, counties, and cities. Special municipalities and cities are further divided into districts for local administration. Counties are further divided into townships and county-administered cities which have elected mayors and councils, and share duties with the county. Some divisions are indigenous divisions which have different degrees of autonomy to standard ones. In addition, districts, cities and townships are further divided into villages and neighbourhoods.

{{Administrative divisions of Taiwan|map=show}}

==Military==
{{Main|Republic of China Armed Forces}}
{{See also|Republic of China Military Academy}}

[[File:Thunderbolt 2000 MLRS Side View 20111105a.jpg|thumb|[[Republic of China Army]] [[Thunderbolt-2000]]]]
The [[Republic of China Army]] takes its roots in the [[National Revolutionary Army]], which was established by [[Sun Yat-sen]] in 1925 in [[Guangdong]] with a goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang. When the [[People's Liberation Army]] won the Chinese Civil War, much of the National Revolutionary Army retreated to Taiwan along with the government. It was later reformed into the Republic of China Army. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army.

The ROC and the United States signed the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty in 1954, and established the [[United States Taiwan Defense Command]]. About 30,000 US troops were stationed in Taiwan, until the United States established diplomatic relations with the PRC in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Shortall|first1=Dominick|last2=Johnson|first2=Jesse|date=28 October 2020|title=Once unimaginable, some now debating return of U.S. forces to Taiwan|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/10/28/asia-pacific/us-forces-taiwan-china/|access-date=6 January 2021|website=The Japan Times|language=en-US}}</ref>

Today, Taiwan maintains a large and technologically advanced military, mainly as a defence to the constant threat of invasion by the People's Liberation Army using the Anti-Secession Law of the People's Republic of China as a pretext. This law authorizes the use of military force when certain conditions are met, such as a danger to mainlanders.<ref name=2004NatDefRpt />

From 1949 to the 1970s, the primary mission of the Taiwanese military was to "retake mainland China" through Project National Glory. As this mission has transitioned away from attack because the relative strength of the PRC has massively increased, the ROC military has begun to shift emphasis from the traditionally dominant Army to the [[Republic of China Air Force|air force]] and [[Republic of China Navy|navy]].

[[File:IDF Pre-production.jpg|thumb|[[Republic of China Air Force]] [[AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo|indigenously produced fighter]] airplane in [[Ching Chuan Kang Air Base]]
|alt=A light fighter aircraft on the ground with two men who are maintaining it.]]
Control of the armed forces has also passed into the hands of the civilian government.<ref name=towards>{{cite journal|last=Fravel|first=M. Taylor|title=Towards Civilian Supremacy: Civil-Military Relations in Taiwans's Democratization|journal=Armed Forces & Society|year=2002|volume=29|issue=1|pages=57–84|doi=10.1177/0095327X0202900104|s2cid=146212666|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/510e/42aa20fb53c1a69b45b48b0b55b34117b361.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212081044/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/510e/42aa20fb53c1a69b45b48b0b55b34117b361.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB988242686540854310?mod=googlewsj |title=Committed to Taiwan |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date= 26 April 2001|access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> As the ROC military shares historical roots with the KMT, the older generation of high-ranking officers tends to have Pan-Blue sympathies. However, many have retired and there are many more non-mainlanders enlisting in the armed forces in the younger generations, so the political leanings of the military have moved closer to the public norm in Taiwan.{{sfn|Swaine|Mulvenon|2001|p=65|ps=: "[...]the ROC military functioned until very recently as an instrument of KMT rule [...] the bulk of the officer corps is still composed of mainlanders, many of whom allegedly continue to support the values and outlook of more conservative KMT and New Party members. This is viewed as especially the case among the senior officers of the ROC Army. Hence, many DPP leaders insist that the first step to building a more secure Taiwan is to bring the military more fully under civilian control, to remove the dominant influence of conservative KMT elements, and to reduce what is regarded as an excessive emphasis on the maintenance of inappropriate ground force capabilities, as opposed to more appropriate air and naval capabilities."}}

The ROC began a force reduction plan, ''Jingshi An'' (translated to streamlining program), to scale down its military from a level of 450,000 in 1997 to 380,000 in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2004/P101.htm |title=Taiwan Yearbook 2004 |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China |access-date=28 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106230514/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2004/P101.htm |archive-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, the armed forces of the ROC number approximately 300,000,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=28601&ctNode=3389|title=Women Take Command|last=Bishop|first=Mac William|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China|access-date=5 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428091100/http://www.gio.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=28601&ctNode=3389|archive-date=28 April 2011}}</ref> with nominal reserves totalling 3.6 million {{As of|2015|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2005/p104.html |title=Taiwan Yearbook 2005 |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China |access-date=28 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127214132/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2005/p104.html |archive-date=27 January 2010}}</ref> Conscription remains universal for qualified males reaching age eighteen, but as a part of the reduction effort many are given the opportunity to fulfill their draft requirement through alternative service and are redirected to government agencies or arms related industries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/729500.stm |title=ASIA-PACIFIC | Military alternative in Taiwan |work=BBC News |date=1 May 2000 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> Current plans call for a transition to a predominantly professional army over the next decade.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2009/03/21/2003439010/wiki |title=The myth: a professional military in five years|newspaper=Taipei Times |date=21 March 2009 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/print/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_347888.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313072548/http://www.straitstimes.com/print/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_347888.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 March 2009 |title=Taiwan to end conscription |newspaper=The Straits Times |date=9 March 2009 |access-date=28 May 2009 }}</ref> Conscription periods are planned to decrease from 14 months to 12.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=124D9E23B9033ED0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |title=Taiwan to shorten conscription term to one year |publisher=Central News Agency website, Taipei|date=3 December 2008 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref> In the last months of the Bush administration, Taipei took the decision to reverse the trend of declining military spending, at a time when most Asian countries kept on reducing their military expenditures. It also decided to strengthen both defensive and offensive capabilities. Taipei still keeps a large military apparatus relative to the island's population: military expenditures for 2008 were NTD 334 billion (approximately US $10.5 billion), which accounted for 2.94 per cent of GDP.
[[File:ROCAF C-130H 1307 Taxiing at Songshan Air Force Base 20160924.jpg|thumb|The [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130H]] in [[Songshan Airport|Songshan AFB]]]]

The armed forces' primary concern at this time, according to the ''National Defense Report'', is the possibility of an invasion by the PRC, consisting of a naval blockade, airborne assault or missile bombardment.<ref name=towards /> Four upgraded [[Kidd class destroyer|''Kidd''-class destroyers]] were purchased from the United States, and commissioned into the Republic of China Navy in 2005–2006, significantly upgrading Taiwan's protection from aerial attack and submarine hunting abilities.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kidd-class warships set sail for Taiwan |date=31 October 2005 |newspaper=Taipei Times |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2005/10/31/2003278135}}</ref> The Ministry of National Defense planned to purchase diesel-powered submarines and Patriot anti-missile batteries from the United States, but its budget has been stalled repeatedly by the opposition-Pan-Blue Coalition controlled legislature. The military package was stalled from 2001 to 2007 where it was finally passed through the legislature and the US responded on 3 October 2008, with a $6.5 billion arms package including PAC III Anti-Air systems, AH-64D Apache Attack helicopters and other arms and parts.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taiwanese leader hails weapons deal with US |date=5 October 2008 |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/04/AR2008100400477.html | first=Jane | last=Rickards}}</ref> A significant amount of military hardware has been bought from the United States, and, {{As of|2009|lc=y}}, continues to be legally guaranteed by the Taiwan Relations Act.<ref name="TRA-review" /> In the past, France and the Netherlands have also sold military weapons and hardware to the ROC, but they almost entirely stopped in the 1990s under pressure of the PRC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceri-sciencespo.com/archive/july01/jpcabest.pdf|title=France's Taiwan Policy: A Case of Shopkeeper Diplomacy|last=Cabestan|first=Jean-Pierre|year=2001|publisher=CERI|access-date=5 June 2009|quote=By excluding the French companies from the bidding lists of many contract, Peking wanted above all to stop a growing trend (...) to disregard its objections and interests in the Taiwan issue. (...) In spite of the ban of arms sales to Taiwan approved by the French government in January 1994, discreet and small-sized deals have continued to be concluded since then. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-09-24-taiwan_x.htm |title=Taiwan trying to shore up weapons support |newspaper=USA Today |date=24 September 2004 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref>

The first line of protection against invasion by the PRC is the ROC's own armed forces. Current ROC military doctrine is to hold out against an invasion or blockade until the US military responds.<ref name="swaine">{{Cite book|last1=Swaine |first1=Michael D.|author-link1=Michael D. Swaine|first2=James C.|last2=Mulvenon|title=Taiwan's Foreign and Defense Policies: Features and Determinants |orig-year=2001 |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2009/MR1383.pdf |access-date=23 May 2015 |publisher=RAND Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-3094-8 |year=2001 }}</ref> There is, however, no guarantee in the Taiwan Relations Act or any other treaty that the United States will defend Taiwan, even in the event of invasion.<ref>{{Cite news|title=China Threat to Attack Taiwan Alarms Asia |date=14 March 2005 |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050411032736/http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2005%2F03%2F14%2Finternational%2Fi003051S91.DTL |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/03/14/international/i003051S91.DTL |archive-date=11 April 2005 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The joint declaration on security between the US and Japan signed in 1996 may imply that Japan would be involved in any response. However, Japan has refused to stipulate whether the "area surrounding Japan" mentioned in the pact includes Taiwan, and the precise purpose of the pact is unclear.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kapstein|first=Ethan B. |author2=Michael Mastanduno |title=Unipolar politics|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=194|isbn=978-0-231-11309-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68s2k0ztkCMC&pg=PA194|year=1999|quote=The Japanese leadership openly split on whether a crisis in Taiwan was included in the geographic expression "area surrounding Japan." In the event, Japan refused to stipulate the contingencies under which it would provide rear area support for U.S. forces or even the geographic scope of the "area surrounding Japan". (...) The two sides have not articulated clearly what the alliance stands ''for'', nor who it is defined to protect ''against''.}}</ref> The [[Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty]] (ANZUS Treaty) may mean that other US allies, such as Australia, could theoretically be involved.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tow |first=William |year=2005 |title=ANZUS: Regional versus Global Security in Asia? |journal=International Relations of the Asia-Pacific |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=197–216 |doi= 10.1093/irap/lci113 }}</ref> While this would risk damaging economic ties with China,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/07/13/1089694360063.html|title=China and Taiwan: flashpoint for a war|date=14 July 2004|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=13 June 2009}}</ref> a conflict over Taiwan could lead to an economic blockade of China by a greater coalition.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mirski |first1=Sean |title=Stranglehold: The Context, Conduct and Consequences of an American Naval Blockade of China |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2013/02/12/stranglehold-context-conduct-and-consequences-of-american-naval-blockade-of-china-pub-51135 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |publisher=Journal Of Strategic Studies |access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lague |first1=David |last2=Kang Lim |first2=Benjamin |title=China's fear of an American blockade |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-army-blockade/chinas-fear-of-an-american-blockade-idUSKCN1S6140 |website=Reuters |date=30 April 2019 |agency=Reuters |access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Axe |first1=David |title=To Defeat China In War, Strangle Its Economy: Expert |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidaxe/2020/08/24/to-defeat-china-in-war-strangle-its-economy/ |website=Forbes |access-date=15 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Williams |title=After "the War that Never Was"—The Real Beginning |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2020/september/after-war-never-was-real-beginning |website=U.S. Naval Institute |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |access-date=15 January 2021 |language=en |date=29 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mehra |first1=Jyotsna |title=The Australia-India-Japan-US Quadrilateral: Dissecting the China Factor |url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/the-australia-india-japan-us-quadrilateral/ |website=ORF |publisher=Observer Research Foundation |access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Taiwan|Economic history of Taiwan}}

[[File:Sun Down (250260941).jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Taipei 101]] held the world record for skyscraper height from 2004 to 2010.|alt=Photo of Taipei 101 tower against a blue sky.]]
The quick industrialization and rapid growth of Taiwan during the latter half of the 20th century has been called the "Taiwan Miracle". Taiwan is one of the "Four Asian Tigers" alongside Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore.

Japanese rule prior to and during World War II brought changes in the public and private sectors, most notably in the area of public works, which enabled rapid communications and facilitated transport throughout much of the island. The Japanese also improved public education and made it compulsory for all residents of Taiwan. By 1945, hyperinflation was in progress in mainland China and Taiwan as a result of the war with Japan. To isolate Taiwan from it, the Nationalist government created a new currency area for the island, and began a price stabilization programme. These efforts significantly slowed inflation.

When the KMT government fled to Taiwan it brought millions of [[tael]]s (where 1 tael = 37.5 g or ~1.2 [[troy ounce|ozt]]) of gold and the foreign currency reserve of mainland China, which, according to the KMT, stabilized prices and reduced hyperinflation.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 April 2011|title=Gold Shipped to Taiwan in 1949 Helped Stabilize ROC on Taiwan|url=http://www.kmt.org.tw/english/page.aspx?type=article&mnum=112&anum=9442|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927081949/http://www.kmt.org.tw/english/page.aspx?type=article&mnum=112&anum=9442|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2011|newspaper=Kuomintang News Network|access-date=14 June 2011}} Translated from {{cite news |author=王銘義 |date=5 April 2011 |script-title=zh:1949年運台黃金中華民國保命本 |newspaper=China Times |url=http://forums.chinatimes.com/report/goldfile/series-cnt0405ct02.htm |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221165535/http://forums.chinatimes.com/report/goldfile/series-cnt0405ct02.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Perhaps more importantly, as part of its retreat to Taiwan, the KMT brought the intellectual and business elites from mainland China.<ref>{{cite book | last =Roy | first =Denny | title =Taiwan: A Political History | url =https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn | url-access =registration | publisher =Cornell University Press |year=2003 | location =Ithaca, NY | pages =[https://archive.org/details/taiwan00denn/page/76 76], 77 | isbn =978-0-8014-8805-4 }}</ref> The KMT government instituted many laws and [[land reform]]s that it had never effectively enacted on mainland China. The government also implemented a policy of [[import substitution industrialization|import-substitution]], attempting to produce imported goods domestically.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shih|first=Da-Nien Liu and Hui-Tzu|date=4 December 2013|title=The Transformation of Taiwan's Status Within the Production and Supply Chain in Asia|url=https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-transformation-of-taiwans-status-within-the-production-and-supply-chain-in-asia/|access-date=6 January 2021|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War, the United States began an aid programme which resulted in fully stabilized prices by 1952.<ref>{{harvnb|Makinen|Woodward|1989}}: "It was the fiscal regime change on Taiwan, as in the European episodes, that finally brought price stability. It was the aid policy that brought the budget to near balance, and when the aid programme reached its full proportions in 1952, prices stabilized."</ref> Economic development was encouraged by American economic aid and programmes such as the [[Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction]], which turned the agricultural sector into the basis for later growth. Under the combined stimulus of the land reform and the agricultural development programmes, agricultural production increased at an average annual rate of 4 per cent from 1952 to 1959, which was greater than the population growth, 3.6 per cent.<ref>Ralph Clough, "Taiwan under Nationalist Rule, 1949–1982," in Roderick MacFarquar et al., ed., ''Cambridge History of China'', Vol 15, The People's Republic Pt 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 837</ref>

In 1962, Taiwan had a (nominal) per-capita gross national product (GNP) of $170, placing its economy on a par with those of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. On a [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) basis, its GDP per capita in the early 1960s was $1,353 (in 1990 prices). By 2011 per-capita GNP, adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), had risen to $37,000, contributing to a [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) equivalent to that of other developed countries.

[[File:Neihu during 2015 winter solstice.jpg|thumb|[[Neihu District|Neihu Technology Park]] in Taipei]]
In 1974, Chiang Ching-kuo implemented the [[Ten Major Construction Projects]], the beginning foundations that helped Taiwan transform into its current export driven economy. Since the 1990s, a number of Taiwan-based technology firms have expanded their reach around the world. Well-known international technology companies headquartered in Taiwan include personal computer manufacturers [[Acer Inc.]] and [[Asus]], mobile phone maker [[HTC]], as well as electronics manufacturing giant [[Foxconn]], which makes products for [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], and [[Microsoft]]. [[Computex Taipei]] is a major computer expo, held since 1981.

Today Taiwan has a dynamic, capitalist, export-driven economy with gradually decreasing state involvement in investment and foreign trade. In keeping with this trend, some large government-owned banks and industrial firms are being [[Privatization|privatized]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=1153&CtNode=128|title=Privatization Set in Motion|last=Her|first=Kelly|date=12 January 2005|newspaper=Taiwan Review|access-date=5 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430041754/http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=1153&CtNode=128|archive-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> Real growth in GDP has averaged about 8 per cent during the past three decades. Exports have provided the primary impetus for industrialization. The trade surplus is substantial, and foreign reserves are the world's fifth largest.<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2188rank.html
| title = Reserves of foreign exchange and gold
| work = [[World Fact Book]]
| publisher = [[CIA]]
| date = 4 September 2008
| access-date = 3 January 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005020/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2188rank.html
| archive-date = 13 June 2007
| url-status=live
| quote = Rank 5 Taiwan $274,700,000,000 31 December 2007
}}</ref> The currency of Taiwan is the [[New Taiwan dollar]].

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the economic ties between Taiwan and the People's Republic of China have been very prolific. {{As of|2008}}, more than US$150 billion<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8475215.stm|title=Taiwan's Grand Hotel welcome for Chinese visitors|work=BBC News|date=23 January 2010 | first=Phil | last=Harding}}</ref> have been invested in the PRC by Taiwanese companies. Although the economy of Taiwan benefits from this situation, some have expressed the view that the island has become increasingly dependent on the mainland Chinese economy. A 2008 white paper by the Department of Industrial Technology states that "Taiwan should seek to maintain stable relation with China while continuing to protect national security, and avoiding excessive 'Sinicization' of Taiwanese economy."<ref>{{Harvnb|DoIT|2008|p=5}} "Although used-to-be-hostile tension between Taiwan and China has been eased to a certain degree, Taiwan should seek to maintain stable relation with China while continuing to protect national security, and avoiding excessive "Sinicization" of Taiwanese economy. Strategies to avoid excessive "Sinicization" of the Taiwanese economy could include efforts to increase geographic diversity of overseas Taiwanese employment, diversifying Taiwan's export markets and investment. "</ref> Others argue that close economic ties between Taiwan and mainland China would make any military intervention by the PLA against Taiwan very costly, and therefore less probable.<ref>BBC News, "Taiwan Flashpoint", "Some Taiwanese worry their economy is now dependent on China. Others point out that closer business ties makes Chinese military action less likely, because of the cost to China's own economy."</ref>

Taiwan's total trade in 2010 reached an all-time high of US$526.04 billion, according to Taiwan's Ministry of Finance. Both exports and imports for the year reached record levels, totalling US$274.64 billion and US$251.4 billion, respectively.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wang |first=Audrey |url=http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=142731&ctNode=453&mp=9|title=Taiwan's 2010 trade hits record high|newspaper=Taiwan Today|date=10 January 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Paddy field, Yilan 02.jpg|thumb|Rice paddy fields in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]]]]
In 2001, agriculture constituted only 2 per cent of GDP, down from 35 per cent in 1952.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=242 |title=US-Taiwan FTA would have limited impact |publisher=bilaterals.org |access-date=28 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060510102658/http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=242 |archive-date=10 May 2006 }}</ref> Traditional labour-intensive industries are steadily being moved offshore and with more capital and technology-intensive industries replacing them. High-technology industrial parks have sprung up in every region in Taiwan. The ROC has become a major foreign investor in the PRC, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Vietnam. It is estimated that some 50,000 Taiwanese businesses and 1,000,000 businesspeople and their dependents are established in the PRC.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Morris |first=Peter |title=Taiwan business in China supports opposition |date=4 February 2004 |newspaper=Asia Times Online |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FB04Ad04.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040213004300/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FB04Ad04.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=13 February 2004}}</ref>

Because of its conservative financial approach and its entrepreneurial strengths, Taiwan suffered little compared with many of its neighbours in the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]]. Unlike its neighbours, South Korea and Japan, the Taiwanese economy is dominated by small and medium-sized businesses, rather than the large business groups. The global economic downturn, however, combined with poor policy co-ordination by the new administration and increasing bad debts in the banking system, pushed Taiwan into [[recession]] in 2001, the first whole year of negative growth since 1947. Due to the relocation of many manufacturing and labour-intensive industries to the PRC, unemployment also reached a level not seen since the 1970s oil crisis. This became a major issue in the [[2004 Republic of China presidential election|2004 presidential election]]. Growth averaged more than 4 per cent in the 2002–2006 period and the unemployment rate fell below 4 per cent.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5411/is_199801/ai_n21432097/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608110113/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5411/is_199801/ai_n21432097/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2009 |title=Coping with Asian financial crisis: The Taiwan experience | Seoul Journal of Economics |publisher=Find Articles at BNET |date=28 April 2009 |access-date=28 May 2009}}</ref>

The ROC often joins international organizations (especially ones that also include the People's Republic of China) under a politically neutral name. The ROC has been a member of governmental trade organizations such as the World Trade Organization under the name Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) since 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/chinese_taipei_e.htm|title=Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) and the WTO|publisher=World Trade Organization|access-date=7 June 2009}}</ref>

==Transport==
{{Main|Transportation in Taiwan}}
[[File:China Airlines Lineup TPE.jpg|thumb|[[China Airlines]] aircraft line-up at [[Taoyuan International Airport]]]]
The [[Ministry of Transportation and Communications (Republic of China)|Ministry of Transportation and Communications]] of the Republic of China is the cabinet-level governing body of the transport network in Taiwan.

Civilian transport in Taiwan is characterised by extensive use of [[Scooter (motorcycle)|scooters]]. In March 2019, 13.86 million were registered, twice that of cars.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:交通部統計查詢網 |url=http://stat.motc.gov.tw/mocdb/stmain.jsp?sys=100 |website=stat.motc.gov.tw |access-date=6 May 2019 |language=zh}}</ref>

Both highways and railways are concentrated near the coasts, where the majority of the population resides, with {{convert|1619|km|abbr=on}} of [[Controlled-access highway|motorway]].

Railways in Taiwan are primarily used for passenger services, with [[Taiwan Railway Administration]] (TRA) operating a circular route and [[Taiwan High Speed Rail]] (THSR) running high speed services on the west coast. Urban transit systems include [[Taipei Metro]], [[Kaohsiung Rapid Transit]], [[Taoyuan Metro]] and [[New Taipei Metro]].

Major airports include [[Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport|Taiwan Taoyuan]], [[Kaohsiung International Airport|Kaohsiung]], [[Taipei Songshan Airport|Taipei Songshan]] and [[Taichung Airport|Taichung]]. There are currently seven airlines in Taiwan, the largest ones being [[China Airlines]] and [[EVA Air]].

There are four international seaports: [[Port of Keelung|Keelung]], [[Port of Kaohsiung|Kaohsiung]], [[Port of Taichung|Taichung]], and [[Port of Hualien|Hualien]].

==Education==
{{Main|Education in Taiwan|Academia Sinica|History of education in Taiwan}}
{{See also|Scholarships in Taiwan|Economy of Taiwan#Science}}

Taiwan's higher education system was established by Japan during the colonial period. However, after the Republic of China took over in 1945, the system was promptly replaced by the same system as in mainland China which mixed features of the Chinese and American educational systems.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Postiglione|first=Gerard A.|author2=Grace C. L. Mak |title=Asian higher education|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1997|pages=346–348|isbn=978-0-313-28901-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RTE8KCespeEC&pg=PA347}}</ref>

[[File:Chutung Senior High School Guards Standing on Hukou Camp Ground before Performance 20111105 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Taiwanese schoolgirls in 2011]]
Taiwan is well known for adhering to the Confucian paradigm of valuing education as a means to improve one's socioeconomic position in society.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://journals.openedition.org/ries/3800 | title=A matter of trust: shadow education in Taiwan | author=Prudence Chou, Chuing | journal=[[OpenEdition.org|OpenEdition]] | year=2014}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/fears-over-over-education-in-taiwan/news-story/aeae2a2d83898f684fd0ac5aaffd5816 |title=Fears over over-education in Taiwan |date= 3 September 2012 |website=The Australian}}</ref> Heavy investment and a cultural valuing of education has catapulted the resource-poor nation consistently to the top of global education rankings. Taiwan is one of the top-performing countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences. In 2015, Taiwanese students achieved one of the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA), with the average student scoring 519, compared with the OECD average of 493, placing it seventh in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=PISA – Results in Focus |publisher=OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf|page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=TWN&treshold=10&topic=PI | title=Chinese Taipei Student performance (PISA 2015) | publisher=OECD | access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/pisa-worldwide-ranking-of-math-science-reading-skills-2016-12 |title=The latest ranking of top countries in math, reading, and science is out – and the US didn't crack the top 10 |last= Kiersz |first=Andy |date=16 December 2016}}</ref>

The Taiwanese education system has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and its major role in promoting Taiwan's economic development while creating one of the world's most highly educated workforces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_M_Chap1.pdf|title=TIMSS Math 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_S_Chap1.pdf| title= TIMSS Science 2003}}</ref> Taiwan has also been praised for its high university entrance rate where the university acceptance rate has increased from around 20 per cent before the 1980s to 49 per cent in 1996 and over 95 per cent since 2008, among the highest in Asia.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url=https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/education-in-taiwan-taiwans-colleges-and-universities/ |title=Education in Taiwan: Taiwan's Colleges and Universities |last=Chou |first=Chuing |date=12 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2015/05/07/taiwan-too-many-college-graduates/26945515/ | title=Taiwan's problem? Too many college graduates, too few machinists | work=USA Today | date=7 May 2015 | access-date=19 August 2019 | author=Wiese, Elizabeth}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web | url=https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/world-view/higher-education-crisis-taiwan | title=Higher Education Crisis in Taiwan | website=Inside Higher Ed | date=5 August 2018 | access-date=19 August 2019 | author=Hsueh, Chia-Ming}}</ref> The nation's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled workforce making Taiwan one of the most highly educated countries in the world with 68.5 per cent of Taiwanese high school students going on to attend university.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book | title=Patriarchy in East Asia: A Comparative Sociology of Gender | publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] | author=Sechiyama, Kaku | year=2013 | page=254 | isbn=978-9004230606}}</ref> Taiwan has a high percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree where 45 per cent of Taiwanese aged 25–64 hold a bachelor's degree or higher compared with the average of 33 per cent among member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://chinapost.nownews.com/20160313-28397 | title=5 mil. Taiwanese hold degrees from higher education institutions | work=China Post | date=13 March 2016 | access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref>

On the other hand, the system has been criticised for placing excessive pressure on students while eschewing creativity and producing an excess supply of over-educated university graduates and a high graduate unemployment rate. With a large number of university graduates seeking a limited number of prestigious white collar jobs in an economic environment that is increasingly losing its competitive edge, this has led many graduates to be employed in lower-end jobs with salaries far beneath their expectations.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/education/university-degrees-mindset-shift-needed |title=University degrees: Mindset shift needed |last=Lee |first=Pearl |publisher=The Straits Times |date=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="auto2" /> Taiwan's universities have also been under criticism for not being able to fully meet the requirements and demands of Taiwan's 21st-century fast-moving labour market, citing a skills mismatch among a large number of self-assessed, overeducated university graduates who don't fit the demands of the modern Taiwanese labour market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://monitor.icef.com/2016/08/taiwans-higher-education-enrolment-starts-downward-slide/ |title=Taiwan's higher education enrolment starts a downward slide |date=16 August 2016 |website=ICEF Monitor}}</ref> The Taiwanese government has also received criticism for undermining the economy as it has been unable to produce enough jobs to meet the demands of numerous underemployed university graduates.<ref name="auto3" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-24156168 |title=The draw of blue collar jobs in Taiwan |last=Sui |first=Cindy |date=23 September 2013}}</ref>

As the Taiwanese economy is largely science and technology based, the labour market demands people who have achieved some form of higher education, particularly related to science and engineering to gain a competitive edge when searching for employment. Although current Taiwanese law mandates only nine years of schooling, 95 per cent of junior high graduates go on to attend a senior vocational high school, university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{cite book | title=Taiwan Country: Strategic Information and Developments | publisher=International Business Publications | year=2012 | page=25 | isbn=978-1438775708}}</ref>

Since [[Made in China 2025]] was announced in 2015, aggressive campaigns to recruit Taiwanese chip industry talent to support its mandates resulted in the loss of more than 3,000 chip engineers to mainland China,<ref name=Nikkei/> and raised concerns of a "[[brain drain]]" in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kyng |first1=James |title=Taiwan's brain drain: semiconductor engineers head to China |url=https://www.ft.com/content/6eab0c1c-167f-11ea-9ee4-11f260415385 |access-date=11 November 2020 |work=ft.com |publisher=The Financial Times |date=4 December 2020}}</ref><ref name=Nikkei>{{cite news |last1=Ihara |first1=Kensaku |title=Taiwan loses 3,000 chip engineers to 'Made in China 2025' |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/China-tech/Taiwan-loses-3-000-chip-engineers-to-Made-in-China-2025 |access-date=11 November 2020 |work=nikkei.com |publisher=Nikkei |date=3 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Strong |first1=Matthew |title=Taiwan's 'Godfather of DRAM' leaves China |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/4021096 |access-date=11 November 2020 |work=taiwannews.com |date=1 October 2020}}</ref>

Many Taiwanese students attend [[cram schools#Taiwan|cram schools]], or ''buxiban'', to improve skills and knowledge on problem solving against exams of subjects like mathematics, nature science, history and many others. Courses are available for most popular subjects and include lectures, reviews, private tutorial sessions, and recitations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investintaiwan.nat.gov.tw/en/news/200509/2005090201.html |title=Over 70% of Taiwanese parents send kids to English bushibans |publisher=Invest in Taiwan, Department of Investment Services |date=2 September 2005 |access-date=28 May 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080608050510/http://investintaiwan.nat.gov.tw/en/news/200509/2005090201.html |archive-date = 8 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=C. Smith|first=Douglas|title=Middle education in the Middle Kingdom|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1997|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqJP5uE9LewC&pg=PA119|isbn=978-0-275-95641-7}}</ref>

{{As of|2018}}, the [[literacy rate]] in Taiwan is 98.87 per cent.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國人教育水準 |url=https://www.gender.ey.gov.tw/gecdb/Stat_Statistics_DetailData.aspx?sn=cC3K6vUAfeUlTCcfbr03CQ%3d%3d&d=m9ww9odNZAz2Rc5Ooj%2fwIQ%3d%3d |website=gender.ey.gov.tw |access-date=24 May 2019 |language=zh}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Taiwan}}
[[File:Taiwan population density map.svg|thumb|Population density map of Taiwan (residents per square kilometre)]]
Taiwan has a population of about 23.4 million,{{sfnp|Exec. Yuan|2014|p=36}} most of whom are on the island of Taiwan. The remainder live on the outlying islands of Penghu (101,758), Kinmen (127,723), and Matsu (12,506).<ref name="taiwan-popstat">{{cite web|url=http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/month/m1-01.xls |title=Number of Villages, Neighborhoods, Households and Resident Population |publisher=MOI Statistical Information Service |access-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329071215/http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/month/m1-01.xls |archive-date=29 March 2014 }}</ref>

===Largest cities and counties===
{{Main|List of cities in Taiwan}}

The figures below are the March 2019 estimates for the twenty most populous administrative divisions; a different ranking exists when considering the total [[List of metropolitan areas in Taiwan#Metropolitan areas in Taiwan|metropolitan area populations]] (in such rankings the [[Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area|Taipei-Keelung metro area]] is by far the largest agglomeration). The figures reflect the number of household registrations in each city, which may differ from the number of actual residents.

{{Largest cities of Taiwan}}
{{clear}}

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Taiwanese people|Han Taiwanese|Taiwanese indigenous peoples}}
[[File:Formosan Distribution 01.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Original geographic distributions of Taiwanese indigenous peoples]]
The ROC government reports that over 95 per cent of the population is [[Han Taiwanese]], of which the majority includes descendants of early [[Han Chinese]] immigrants who arrived in Taiwan in large numbers starting in the 18th century. Alternatively, the ethnic groups of Taiwan may be roughly divided among the [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] (70 per cent), the [[Hakka people|Hakka]] (14 per cent), the [[Waishengren]] (14 per cent), and indigenous peoples (2 per cent).<ref name="cia-factbook" />

The Hoklo people are the largest ethnic group (70 per cent of the total population), whose Han ancestors migrated from the coastal southern Fujian region across the Taiwan Strait starting in the 17th century. The Hakka comprise about 15 per cent of the total population, and descend from Han migrants to Guangdong, its surrounding areas and Taiwan. Additional people of Han origin include and descend from the 2 million Nationalists who fled to Taiwan following the communist victory on the mainland in 1949.<ref name="cia-factbook" />

The indigenous [[Taiwanese aborigines]] number about 533,600 and are divided into 16 groups.{{sfnp|Exec. Yuan|2014|p=49}} The [[Amis people|Ami]], [[Atayal people|Atayal]], [[Bunun people|Bunun]], [[Kanakanavu people|Kanakanavu]], [[Kavalan people|Kavalan]], [[Paiwan people|Paiwan]], [[Puyuma people|Puyuma]], [[Rukai people|Rukai]], [[Saisiyat people|Saisiyat]], [[Saaroa people|Saaroa]], [[Sakizaya people|Sakizaya]], [[Sediq people|Sediq]], [[Thao people|Thao]], [[Truku people|Truku]] and [[Tsou people|Tsou]] live mostly in the eastern half of the island, while the [[Yami people|Yami]] inhabit [[Orchid Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/month/m1-04.xls |title=Indigenous People |publisher=MOI Statistical Information Service |date=February 2012 |access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=An Overview of Taiwan's Indigenous Groups |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/culture/indigenous/ |publisher=Government Information Office |location=Taipei |year=2006 |access-date=14 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411063355/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/culture/indigenous/ |archive-date=11 April 2012}}</ref>

===Languages===
[[File:Map of the most commonly used home language in Taiwan.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of the most commonly used home language in Taiwan where blue 'cmn' = "Mandarin", green 'nan' = "Hokkien"/"Min Nan", hot-pink 'hak' = "Hakka", burgundy 'map' = austronesian languages.]]
{{Main|Languages of Taiwan}}

[[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]] is the primary language used in business and education, and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. [[Traditional Chinese]] is used as the writing system.<ref name="yb-languages">{{cite book |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2011 |publisher=Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan) |chapter=Chapter 2: People and Language |chapter-url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch02D.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514004814/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/docs/ch02D.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2012}}</ref> The Republic of China does not have any legally designated [[official language]] , but [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]] plays the role of the [[defacto]] [[official language]].<ref name="推動雙語國家政策問題研析">{{cite web |title=推動雙語國家政策問題研析|url=https://www.ly.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=6590&pid=173510 |website=www.ly.gov.tw |access-date=25 May 2021 |language=zh}}</ref>

Since the [[May Fourth Movement]], [[written vernacular Chinese]] had replaced [[Classical Chinese]] and emerged as the mainstream [[Written vernacular Chinese|written Chinese]] in the Republic of China. But [[Classical Chinese]] continued to be widely used in the [[Government of the Republic of China]]. Most government documents in the [[Republic of China]] were written in [[Classical Chinese]] until reforms in the 1970s, in a reform movement spearheaded by President [[Yen Chia-kan]] to shift the written style to a more integrated [[vernacular Chinese]] and [[Classical Chinese]] style (文白合一行文).<ref>{{cite book|first=Feng-fu|last=Tsao|chapter=The language planning situation in Taiwan|pages=60–106|editor1-last=Baldauf|editor1-first=Richard B.|editor2-first=Robert B.|editor2-last=Kaplan|title=Language planning in Nepal, Taiwan, and Sweden|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2000|volume=115|isbn=978-1-85359-483-0}} pages 75–76.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cheong|first=Ching|title=Will Taiwan break away: the rise of Taiwanese nationalism|publisher=World Scientific|year=2001|pages=187|isbn=978-981-02-4486-6}}</ref> After January 1, 2005, the [[Executive Yuan]] also changed the long-standing official document writing habit from vertical writing style to horizontal writing style.

Today, pure [[Classical Chinese]] is occasionally used in formal or ceremonial occasions, religious or cultural rites in Taiwan. The ''[[National Anthem of the Republic of China]]'' ({{lang|zh-Hant-TW|中華民國國歌}}), for example, is in [[Classical Chinese]]. [[Taoist]] texts are still preserved in [[Classical Chinese]] from the time they were composed. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts, or [[sutra]]s, are still preserved in [[Classical Chinese]] from the time they were composed or translated from [[Sanskrit]] sources. In practice there is a socially accepted continuum between vernacular Chinese and Classical Chinese. Most official [[Government of the Republic of China|government]] documents, [[Law of Taiwan|legal]], [[Supreme Court of the Republic of China|courts rulings]] and [[Ministry of Justice (Taiwan)|judiciary]] documents use a combined [[vernacular Chinese]] and [[Classical Chinese]] style (文白合一行文).<ref>{{cite web |title=法律統一用語表-常見公文用語說明|url=http://oga.ncu.edu.tw/ncuoga/dispatch/doc/%E5%B8%B8%E8%A6%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%96%87%E7%94%A8%E8%AA%9E%E8%AA%AA%E6%98%8E1050106.pdf |access-date=2 June 2021 |language=Chinese}}</ref> For example, most official notices and formal letters are written with a number of stock Classical Chinese expressions (e.g. salutation, closing). Personal letters, on the other hand, are mostly written in vernacular, but with some Classical phrases, depending on the subject matter, the writer's level of education, etc.

As many legal documents are still written in [[Classical Chinese]], which is not easily understood by the general public, a group of Taiwanese had launched the ''Legal Vernacular Movement'' hoping to bring more [[Vernacular Chinese]] into the legal writings of the [[Republic of China]].<ref>{{cite web |title=《法律白話文運動》掀起一場法律革命|url=https://vita.tw/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%A9%B1%E6%96%87%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95-%E6%8E%80%E8%B5%B7%E4%B8%80%E5%A0%B4%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD-1fa53d10d9da |access-date=9 July 2021 |language=Chinese}}</ref>

70 per cent of the population belong to the [[Hoklo]] ethnic group and speak [[Hokkien]] natively in addition to Mandarin. The [[Hakka]] group, comprising some 14–18 per cent of the population, speak [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]. Although Mandarin is the language of instruction in schools and dominates television and radio, non-Mandarin [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese varieties]] have undergone a revival in public life in Taiwan, particularly since restrictions on their use were lifted in the 1990s.<ref name="yb-languages" />

[[Formosan languages]] are spoken primarily by the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. They do not belong to the Chinese or Sino-Tibetan language family, but to the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]], and are written in [[Writing systems of Formosan languages|Latin alphabet]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/07/20/2003674932 |title=Official documents issued in Aboriginal languages |newspaper=Taipei Times |access-date=20 July 2017}}</ref> Their use among aboriginal minority groups has been in decline as usage of Mandarin has risen.<ref name="yb-languages" /> Of the 14 extant languages, five are considered [[moribund language|moribund]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Formosan Language Archive: Linguistic Analysis and Language Processing |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Yu |first2=Ching-Hua |journal=Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=168 |url=http://aclclp.org.tw/clclp/v10n2/v10n2a2.pdf |access-date=4 August 2012}}</ref>

Taiwan is officially multilingual. A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language".<ref name="natLangAct"/> As of 2019, policies on national languages are in early stages of implementation, with Hakka and indigenous languages designated as such.

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Taiwan}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Estimated religious composition in 2020<ref name="Pew religion stats">{{cite web |last1=Washington |first1=Suite 800 |last2=Inquiries |first2=DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2020/percent/all/ |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |access-date=23 February 2019 |date=2 April 2015}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Chinese folk religion]] (including [[Confucianism]])
|value1 = 43.8
|color1 = Yellow
|label2 = [[Buddhism in Taiwan|Buddhists]]
|value2 = 21.2
|color2 = Crimson
|label3 = Others (including [[Taoism|Taoists]])
|value3 = 15.5
|color3 = Blue
|label4 = Unaffiliated
|value4 = 13.7
|color4 = Honeydew
|label5 = Christians
|value5 = 5.8
|color5 = DodgerBlue
|label6 = [[Islam in Taiwan|Muslims]]
|value6 = 1
|color6 = GreenYellow
}}

The Constitution of the Republic of China protects people's [[freedom of religion]] and the practices of belief.<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Constitution of the Republic of China |at=Chapter II, Article 13 |quote=The people shall have freedom of religious belief}}</ref> [[Freedom of religion in Taiwan]] is strong and ranks high at 9.2 in 2018 according to [[world bank]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Freedom of religion, Scale | publisher = World Bank| year= 2018 | url = https://govdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/hd6a18526?country=TWN&indicator=41930&viz=line_chart&years=1975,2018 | access-date = 2 June 2021}}</ref>

In 2005, the census reported that the five largest religions were: [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Yiguandao]], [[Protestantism]], and [[Roman Catholicism]].<ref name="religion">{{cite web | title = Taiwan Yearbook 2006 | publisher = Government of Information Office | year= 2006 | url = http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm | access-date = 1 September 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm |archive-date = 8 July 2007}}</ref> According to [[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]], the religious composition of Taiwan in 2020<ref>{{cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2020/percent/Asia-Pacific/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=19 May 2019 |date=2 April 2015}}</ref> is estimated to be 43.8 per cent [[Chinese folk religion|Folk religions]], 21.2 per cent [[Buddhism in Taiwan|Buddhist]], 15.5 Others (including [[Taoism]]), 13.7 per cent Unaffiliated, 5.8 per cent Christian and 1% Muslim. Taiwanese aborigines comprise a notable subgroup among professing Christians: "...over 64 per cent identify as Christian... Church buildings are the most obvious markers of Aboriginal villages, distinguishing them from Taiwanese or Hakka villages".<ref>Stainton, Michael (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515150705/http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/taiwan/presbyterians-and-aboriginal-revitalization-movement "Presbyterians and the Aboriginal Revitalization Movement in Taiwan"]. ''[[Cultural Survival Quarterly]]'' 26.2, 5 May 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2014.</ref> There has been a small [[Islam in Taiwan|Muslim]] community of [[Hui people]] in Taiwan since the 17th century.<ref>{{cite news |title=Islam in Taiwan: Lost in tradition |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/12/islam-taiwan-lost-tradition-2014123173558796270.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=31 December 2014}}</ref>

[[Confucianism]] is a philosophy that deals with secular moral ethics, and serves as the foundation of both [[Culture of China|Chinese]] and [[Culture of Taiwan|Taiwanese culture]]. The majority of [[Taiwanese people]] usually combine the secular moral teachings of Confucianism with whatever religions they are affiliated with.

{{As of|2019}}, there were 15,175 [[Place of worship|religious buildings]] in Taiwan, approximately one [[place of worship]] per 1,572 residents. 12,279 temples were dedicated to [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism in Taiwan|Buddhism]]. There were 9,684 [[Taoism|Taoist]] Temples and 2,317 [[Buddhism in Taiwan|Buddhist]] Temples.<ref name="表23各宗教教務概況">{{cite web|title=表23各宗教教務概況|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/File/71A8E0246065BE0|access-date=2021-06-02|language=zh}}</ref> In Taiwan’s 36,000 square kilometers of land, there are more than 33,000 places for religious (believers) to worship and gather. On average, there is one temple or church (church) or religious building for every square kilometer. The high density of place of worship is rare in the world, and it is the area with the highest density of religious buildings in the [[List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language|Chinese-speaking world]]. Taiwan is also the most religious region in the [[List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language|Chinese-speaking world]]. Even for [[Christianity]], there are 2,845 Churches.<ref name="表23各宗教教務概況"/>

A significant percentage of the population of Taiwan is non-religious. Taiwan's strong human rights protections, lack of state-sanctioned discrimination, and generally high regard for freedom of religion or belief earned it a joint #1 ranking in the 2018 [[Freedom of Thought Report]], alongside the Netherlands and Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thejournal.ie/best-and-worst-countries-atheist-4310703-Oct2018/|title=These are the best and worst countries in the world to be an atheist|work=journal.ie|access-date=2 November 2018|date=28 October 2018}}</ref>
{{quotation|Taiwan is clearly an outlier in the top 3, all-clear countries. It is non-European, and demographically much more religious. But in its relatively open, democratic and tolerant society we have recorded no evidence of laws or social discrimination against members of the non-religious minority.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/uc?export=download&id=1ChqeM59-jyB5wE2_72d8XKcTmgyq3MOB|title=THE FREEDOM OF THOUGHT REPORT 2018|date=2018|access-date=15 October 2019|quote=Taiwan is clearly an outlier in the top 3, all-clear countries. It is non-European, and demographically much more religious. But in its relatively open, democratic and tolerant society we have recorded no evidence of laws or social discrimination against members of the non-religious minority.|page=14}}</ref>}}

===LGBT===
{{Main|LGBT rights in Taiwan|Same-sex marriage in Taiwan}}
On 24 May 2017, the [[Judicial Yuan#Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]] ruled that then-current marriage laws had been violating the Constitution by denying Taiwanese same-sex couples the right to marry. The Court ruled that if the Legislative Yuan did not pass adequate amendments to Taiwanese marriage laws within two years, same-sex marriages would automatically become lawful in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wu|first1=J. R.|title=Taiwan court rules in favor of same-sex marriage, first in Asia|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-lgbt-marriage/taiwan-court-rules-in-favor-of-same-sex-marriage-first-in-asia-idUSKBN18K0UN|access-date=11 October 2017|work=Reuters|date=24 May 2017}}</ref> On 17 May 2019, Taiwan's parliament approved a bill legalising same-sex marriage, making it the first in Asia to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48305708|title=Taiwan gay marriage: Parliament legalises same-sex unions|date=17 May 2019|publisher=BBC|access-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517061353/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48305708|archive-date=17 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/17/asia/taiwan-same-sex-marriage-intl/index.html|title=Taiwan legalizes same-sex marriage in historic first for Asia|date=17 May 2019|publisher=CNN|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Steger |first=Isabella |title=In a first for Asia, Taiwan legalized same-sex marriage—with caveats |work=Quartz |date=May 17, 2019 |url=https://qz.com/1621783/taiwan-becomes-first-country-in-asia-to-legalize-same-sex-marriage/ |access-date=2021-05-31 }}</ref>

==Public health==
{{Main|Healthcare in Taiwan}}
[[File:National Taiwan University Hospital Taipei.jpg|thumb|[[National Taiwan University Hospital]]]]

The current [[healthcare system]] in Taiwan, known as National Health Insurance (NHI, {{lang-zh|全民健康保險}}), was instituted in 1995. NHI is a [[Single-payer health care|single-payer]] compulsory social insurance plan that centralizes the disbursement of healthcare funds. The system promises equal access to healthcare for all citizens, and the population coverage had reached 99 per cent by the end of 2004.<ref>Fanchiang, Cecilia.[http://taiwanjournal.nat.gov.tw/site/Tj/ct.asp?xItem=20439&CtNode=122 "New IC health insurance card expected to offer many benefits"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606010447/http://taiwanjournal.nat.gov.tw/site/Tj/ct.asp?xItem=20439&CtNode=122 |date=6 June 2008 }}, ''Taiwan Journal, 2 January 2004'' Accessed 28 March 2008</ref> NHI is mainly financed through premiums, which are based on the payroll tax, and is supplemented with out-of-pocket co-payments and direct government funding. Preventative health service, low-income families, veterans, children under three years old, and catastrophic diseases are exempt from co-payment. Low income households maintain 100 per cent premium coverage by the NHI and co-pays are reduced for disabled or certain elderly people.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Early in the program, the payment system was predominantly [[fee-for-service]]. Most health providers operate in the private sector and form a competitive market on the health delivery side. However, many healthcare providers took advantage of the system by offering unnecessary services to a larger number of patients and then billing the government. In the face of increasing loss and the need for cost containment, NHI changed the payment system from fee-for-service to a global budget, a kind of [[prospective payment system]], in 2002.

The implementation of universal healthcare created fewer [[health disparities]] for lower-income citizens in Taiwan. According to a recently published survey, out of 3,360 patients surveyed at a randomly chosen hospital, 75.1 per cent of the patients said they are "very satisfied" with the hospital service; 20.5 per cent said they are "okay" with the service. Only 4.4 per cent of the patients said they are either "not satisfied" or "very not satisfied" with the service or care provided.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taiwanese Hospital Public Satisfaction Poll |date=October 2004|publisher=Taiwan Department of Health |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090921050255/http://www.hcquality.helthe.net/reports/showreports.php?id=2_1|url=http://www.hcquality.helthe.net/reports/showreports.php?id=2_1|archive-date=21 September 2009|language=zh}}</ref>

The Taiwanese disease control authority is the [[Taiwan Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC), and during the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] outbreak in March 2003 there were 347 confirmed cases. During the outbreak the CDC and local governments set up monitoring stations throughout public transportation, recreational sites and other public areas. With full containment in July 2003, there has not been a case of SARS since.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Center for Disease Control |date=18 July 2006 |publisher=Taiwan CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov.tw |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807030114/http://www.cdc.gov.tw/ |archive-date=7 August 2016}}</ref> Owing to the lessons from SARS, a National Health Command Center was established in 2004, which includes the [[Central Epidemic Command Center]] (CECC). The CECC has since played a central role in Taiwan's approach to epidemics, including the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan|COVID-19 pandemic]].

In 2019, the infant mortality rate was 4.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, with 20 physicians and 71 hospital beds per 10,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 July 2020|title=Statistics of Medical Care Institution's Status & Hospital Utilization 2019|url=https://www.mohw.gov.tw/cp-4932-54834-2.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/354.html|title=Infant mortality rate}}</ref> Life expectancy at birth in 2020 is 77.5 years and 83.9 years for males and females, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|date=12 August 2020|title=Taiwan|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/taiwan/}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Taiwan|Cultural history of Taiwan|Chinese Cultural Renaissance}}
{{See also|Taiwanese Wave}}

[[File:taiwan.nch.ntnu.apo-hsu.2005-10a.altonthompson.jpg|thumb|[[Apo Hsu]] and the [[National Taiwan Normal University|NTNU]] Symphony Orchestra onstage in the [[National Concert Hall (Taiwan)|National Concert Hall]]]] The cultures of Taiwan are a hybrid blend from various sources, incorporating elements of [[Chinese culture|traditional Chinese culture]], attributable to the historical and ancestral origin of the majority of its current residents, [[Culture of Japan|Japanese cultural influence]], traditional Confucianist beliefs, and increasingly [[Western culture|Western values]].

During the [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law period]] in which the Republic of China was officially [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]], the [[Kuomintang]] promoted an official [[Chinese culture|traditional Chinese culture]] over Taiwan in order to emphasize that the Republic of China represents the true orthodoxy to [[Chinese Culture]] (and therefore the "real and legitimate China") as opposed to [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]].<ref>{{cite book |authors=陳鐵健、黃鐵炫 |title=《蔣介石與中國文化》 |location=Hong Kong |publisher=中華書局 |year=1992 |page=122 |language=Chinese }}</ref> The government launched what's known as the [[Chinese Cultural Renaissance]] movement in Taiwan in opposition to the cultural destructions caused by the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist Party]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. The General Assembly of Chinese Culture (中華文化總會) was established as a movement promotion council to help promote Chinese Culture in Taiwan and overseas. It was [[Kuomintang]]'s first structured plan for cultural development on Taiwan. [[Chiang Kai Shek|Chiang]] himself was the head of the General Assembly of Chinese Culture. Subsequent [[President of the Republic of China]] also became the head of this General Assembly. The [[Chinese Cultural Renaissance]] movement in Taiwan coupled with Chinese Cultural education in Taiwan had helped to elevate the cultural refinement, mannerism and politeness of many Taiwanese, in contrast to the cultural destruction (uncultured behaviour) of many mainland Chinese due to the [[Cultural Revolution]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=5 Reasons Why Chinese Tourists Are So Rude|url=https://www.jeraldinephneah.com/5-reasons-why-chinese-tourists-are-so-rude|access-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308042750/https://www.jeraldinephneah.com/5-reasons-why-chinese-tourists-are-so-rude|archive-date=8 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> This has also led to [[Chinese Culture]] (esp. its soft culture) being better preserved in Taiwan than in [[mainland China]], esp. when it comes to traditional religious and cultural customs, not to mention the continued use of [[Traditional Chinese]]. The influence of [[Confucianism]] can be found in the behaviour of [[Taiwanese people]], known for their friendliness and politeness.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-radio-and-tv-15153707|access-date=2021-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127064800/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-radio-and-tv-15153707|archive-date=27 January 2021|title=Archived copy|url-status=live}}</ref>

The uplifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] ushered a period of [[democratization]] whereby [[Freedom of Speech|Freedom of Speech and Expression]] led to a flourishing [[Taiwanese literature]] and [[Mass media in Taiwan]].

Reflecting the continuing controversy surrounding the political status of Taiwan, politics continues to play a role in the conception and development of a Taiwanese cultural identity, especially in its relationship to Chinese culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Yip|2004|pp=230–248}}; {{harvnb|Makeham|2005|pp=2–8}}; {{harvnb|Chang|2005|p=224}}</ref> In recent years, the concept of Taiwanese [[multiculturalism]] has been proposed as a relatively apolitical alternative view, which has allowed for the inclusion of mainlanders and other minority groups into the continuing re-definition of Taiwanese culture as collectively held systems of meaning and customary patterns of thought and behaviour shared by the people of Taiwan.<ref>{{harvnb|Hsiau|2005|pp=125–129}}; {{harvnb|Winckler|1994|pp=23–41}}</ref> [[Identity politics]], along with the over one hundred years of political separation from mainland China, has led to distinct traditions in many areas, including [[Taiwanese cuisine|cuisine]] and [[Music of Taiwan|music]].

===Arts===
{{Main|Music of Taiwan|Taiwanese art}}
{{Recentism|section|date=June 2021}}
[[File:2008TIBE Day1 Hall1 Opening TouhWang.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Taiwanese writer, literary critic and politician [[Wang Tuoh]]]]
Acclaimed classical musicians include violinist [[Cho-Liang Lin]], pianist [[Ching-Yun Hu]], and the Lincoln Center Chamber Music Society artist director [[Wu Han (pianist)|Wu Han]]. Other musicians include [[Jay Chou]] and groups such as [[Mayday (Taiwanese band)|Mayday]] and [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Chthonic (band)|Chthonic]], led by singer [[Freddy Lim]], which has been referred to as the "[[Black Sabbath]] of Asia".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hunt|first1=Katie|title=Meet Freddy Lim, the death metal star running for political office in Taiwan|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/13/asia/taiwan-rock-star-politician-freddy-lim/|access-date=17 January 2016|publisher=CNN.com|date=13 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=McVeigh|first1=Tracy|title=Taiwan's heavy metal star rallies fans to run for parliament on anti-China platform|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/26/taiwan-heavy-metal-star-stands-for-election|access-date=1 January 2016|work=The Observer|via=The Guardian|date=26 December 2015}}</ref>

[[List of Taiwanese television series|Taiwanese television shows]] are popular in Singapore, Malaysia, and other Asian countries. [[Cinema of Taiwan|Taiwanese films]] have won various international awards at film festivals around the world. [[Ang Lee]], a Taiwanese director, has directed critically acclaimed films such as: ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''; ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]''; ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]''; ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]''; ''[[Life of Pi (film)|Life of Pi]]''; and ''[[Lust, Caution]]''. Other famous Taiwanese directors include [[Tsai Ming-liang]], [[Edward Yang]], and [[Hou Hsiao-hsien]]. Taiwan has hosted the [[Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards]] since 1962.

Taiwan hosts the [[National Palace Museum]], which houses more than 650,000 pieces of Chinese bronze, jade, calligraphy, painting, and porcelain and is considered one of the greatest collections of Chinese art and objects in the world.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557357_9/Museum.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028163715/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557357_9/Museum.html|title=Museum|archive-date=28 October 2009|work=archive.org}}</ref> The KMT moved this collection from the [[Forbidden City]] in Beijing in 1933 and part of the collection was eventually transported to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War. The collection, estimated to be one-tenth of China's cultural treasures, is so extensive that only 1 per cent is on display at any time. The PRC had said that the collection was stolen and has called for its return, but the ROC has long defended its control of the collection as a necessary act to protect the pieces from destruction, especially during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. Relations regarding this treasure have since warmed, with the National Palace Museum loaning artwork to various museums in the PRC in 2010.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Taiwan to loan art to China amid warming ties
| url = https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hLODWs9HP8ywcjE_aaS5GPESiBvg
| agency = Agence France-Presse
| date = 22 September 2010
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110504041925/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hLODWs9HP8ywcjE_aaS5GPESiBvg
| url-status=dead
| archive-date = 4 May 2011
}}</ref>

===Popular culture===
[[Karaoke]], drawn from contemporary Japanese culture, is extremely popular in Taiwan, where it is known as KTV. KTV businesses operate in a hotel-like style, renting out small rooms and ballrooms according to the number of guests in a group. Many KTV establishments partner with restaurants and buffets to form all-encompassing and elaborate evening affairs for families, friends, or businessmen. Tour buses that travel around Taiwan have several TVs, primarily for singing Karaoke. The entertainment counterpart of a KTV is [[MTV Mandarin#Operating channels|MTV Taiwan]], particularly in urban areas. There, DVD movies can be played in a private theatre room. However, MTV, more so than KTV, has a growing reputation for being a place that young couples will go to be alone and intimate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reachtoteachrecruiting.com/about-reach-to-teach/monthly-events-html/ktv-in-taiwan-karoake-in-taiwan/|access-date=2021-04-05|website=www.reachtoteachrecruiting.com}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Taiwan has a high density of 24-hour convenience stores, which, in addition to the usual services, provide services on behalf of financial institutions or government agencies, such as collection of parking fees, utility bills, traffic violation fines, and credit card payments.<ref>{{cite journal|author=American Chamber of Commerce in Taipei |author-link=American Chamber of Commerce in Taipei |title=Convenience Stores Aim at Differentiation |journal=Taiwan Business Topics |volume=34 |issue=11 |url=http://www.amcham.com.tw/publication_topics_view.php?volume=34&vol_num=11&topics_id=558 |format=– [https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AConvenience+Stores+Aim+at+Differentiation&as_publication=Taiwan+Business+TOPICS&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516161020/http://www.amcham.com.tw/publication_topics_view.php?volume=34&vol_num=11&topics_id=558 |archive-date=16 May 2008 }}</ref> They also provide a service for mailing packages. Chains such as [[FamilyMart]] provide clothing laundry services,<ref>{{Cite web|last=News|first=Taiwan|title=FamilyMart rolls out laundry service in Taiwan {{!}} Taiwan News {{!}} 2019/01/24|url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3624427|access-date=2021-04-05|website=Taiwan News}}</ref> and it is possible to purchase or receive tickets for [[Taiwan Railways Administration|TRA]] and THSR tickets at convenience stores, specifically [[7-Eleven]], FamilyMart, [[Hi-Life (convenience store)|Hi-Life]] and [[OK (convenience store)|OK]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-12-05|title=TRA tickets collectable at stores - Taipei Times|url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2011/12/05/2003519985|access-date=2021-04-05|website=www.taipeitimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=www.kyart.com.tw|title=台灣高鐵 Taiwan High Speed Rail|url=https://en.thsrc.com.tw/ArticleContent/30125956-5176-4d8c-af61-f1984f2133a4|access-date=2021-04-05|website=en.thsrc.com.tw|language=en}}</ref>

Taiwanese culture has also influenced other cultures. [[Bubble tea]] has now become a global phenomenon with its popularity spreading across the globe.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Maggie Hiufu |title=The rise of bubble tea, one of Taiwan's most beloved beverages |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/taiwan-bubble-tea-origins/index.html |access-date=29 July 2020 |agency=CNN |publisher=Cable News Network |date=29 April 2020}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{Main|Sports in Taiwan}}
[[File:2011 Women's British Open - Tseng Yani (7) cropped.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Yani Tseng]] with the 2011 Women's British Open trophy]]
[[File:Yonex Chinese Taipei Open 2018 - Quarter Final - Tai Tzu-ying vs Sung Shuo Yun 01.jpg|upright|thumb|Tai Tzu-ying, the current world No.1 in [[Badminton World Federation|BWF]] at the [[2018 Chinese Taipei Open]]]]
[[Baseball]] is Taiwan's [[national sport]] and is a popular spectator sport. The Taiwanese [[Chinese Taipei national baseball team|men's baseball team]] and [[Chinese Taipei women's national baseball team|women's baseball team]] are world No.2 in the [[WBSC Rankings]] as of June 2021. There have been sixteen [[List of Major League Baseball players from Taiwan|Taiwanese Major League Baseball players]] in the United States as of the [[2020 Major League Baseball season|2020 MLB Season]], including former pitchers [[Chien-Ming Wang]] and [[Wei-Yin Chen]]. The [[Chinese Professional Baseball League]] in Taiwan was established in 1989,<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316075320/http://www.cpbl.com.tw/html/english/cpbl.asp|url=http://www.cpbl.com.tw/html/english/cpbl.asp|archive-date=16 March 2009 |title=Intro of CPBL |publisher=Cpbl.com.tw |access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> and eventually absorbed the competing [[Taiwan Major League]] in 2003. {{As of|2019}}, the CPBL has four teams with average attendance over 5,826 per game.<ref>{{cite web |title=About 關於中職 |url=http://www.cpbl.com.tw/footer/fans.html |website=The Official Site of CPBL |publisher=Chinese Professional Baseball League |access-date=2 January 2021}}</ref>

Besides baseball, [[basketball]] is Taiwan's other major sport.<ref>{{cite news | first = Audrey | last = Wang | title = A Passion for Hoops | date = 1 June 2008 | work = The Taiwan Review | url = http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=43967&CtNode=128 | access-date = 8 April 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120215062917/http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=43967&CtNode=128 | archive-date = 15 February 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The [[P. League+]] was established in September 2020 as Taiwan's [[professional basketball]] [[sports league|league]], consisted of 4 teams.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yen |first1=William |title=P.LEAGUE+ to boost domestic tourism, demonstrate virus prevention |url=https://focustaiwan.tw/sports/202011110025 |access-date=31 December 2020 |publisher=Focus Taiwan |date=11 November 2020}}</ref> A [[semi-professional sports|semi-professional]] [[Super Basketball League]] (SBL) has also been in play since 2003.<ref>{{cite news |title=ASEAN Basketball League to tip off with two teams from Taiwan |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3807087 |access-date=31 December 2020 |agency=Central News Agency |publisher=Taiwan News |date=31 October 2019}}</ref> Two other teams from Taiwan compete in the [[ASEAN Basketball League]], a professional men's basketball league in [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]].

Taiwan participates in international sporting organizations and events under the name of "Chinese Taipei" due to its political status. In 2009, Taiwan hosted two international sporting events on the island. The [[World Games 2009]] were held in Kaohsiung between 16 and 26 July 2009. Taipei hosted the [[21st Summer Deaflympics]] in September of the same year. Furthermore, Taipei hosted the Summer [[Universiade]] in 2017.<ref>{{cite news | first = Christie | last = Chen | title = UNIVERSIADE: Foreign athletes praise Taipei's efforts as host city | date = 30 August 2017 |work=Focus Taiwan | url = http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aftr/201708300026.aspx | access-date = 25 May 2018}}</ref> In the near future, Taipei and New Taipei City will co-host the [[2025 World Masters Games]], as governed by the [[International Masters Games Association]] (IMGA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Mayors sign hosting deal for World Masters Games |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2020/12/12/2003748579 |website=The Taipei Times |publisher=The Taipei Times |access-date=30 December 2020}}</ref>

[[Taekwondo]] has become a mature and successful sport in Taiwan in recent years. In the 2004 Olympics, [[Chen Shih-hsin]] and [[Chu Mu-yen]] won the first two gold medals in the women's flyweight event and the men's flyweight event, respectively. Subsequent taekwondo competitors such as [[Yang Shu-chun]] have strengthened Taiwan's taekwondo culture.

Taiwan has a long history of strong international presence in [[table tennis]]. [[Chen Pao-pei]] was a gold medalist in the women's singles at the [[Asian Table Tennis Championships]] in 1953 and gold medalist with [[Chiang Tsai-yun]] in the 1957 women's doubles and women's team events. [[Lee Kuo-ting]] won the men's singles at the 1958 Asian Table Tennis Championships. More recently [[Chen Chien-an]] won the 2008 [[World Junior Table Tennis Championships]] in singles and pairing with [[Chuang Chih-yuan]] won the men's doubles in 2013 at the [[2013 World Table Tennis Championships|52nd World Table Tennis Championships]]. Playing for Taiwan [[Chen Jing (table tennis)|Chen Jing]] won a bronze medal at the 1996 Olympic Games and a silver medal at the 2000 Olympic Games. 17-year-old [[Lin Yun-ju|Lin Yun-Ju]] upset both reigning world champion [[Ma Long]] and world ranked No. 3 [[Fan Zhendong]] to win the 2019 men's singles in the T2 Diamond Series in Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2013/05/21/2003562781|title=Taiwan scores first table tennis gold in Paris win – Taipei Times|website=Taipei Times|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.incheon2014ag.org/Sports/Biographies/Athletes_Profile/?ParticCode=5107814&lang=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082405/http://www.incheon2014ag.org/Sports/Biographies/Athletes_Profile/?ParticCode=5107814&lang=en|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 2014|title=Athletes_Profile {{!}} Biographies {{!}} Sports|date=6 October 2014|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympiandatabase.com/index.php?id=150315&L=1|title=Taiwanese Medals in Table Tennis in the Olympic Games|website=olympiandatabase.com|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ittf.com/2019/07/21/t2-diamond-series-match-day-4/|title=T2 Diamond Series: Match Day 4|date=21 July 2019|website=International Table Tennis Federation|access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref>

In [[Tennis]], [[Hsieh Su-wei]] is the country's most successful player, having been ranked inside the top 25 in singles in the [[WTA rankings]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Tony |title=Interview: Tennis player Hsieh Su-wei has year to remember |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/sport/archives/2012/12/07/2003549552/1 |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=Taipei Times |date=7 December 2012}}</ref> She became joint No. 1 in doubles with her partner [[Peng Shuai]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hsieh & Peng: Co-Doubles No.1s |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/hsieh-peng-co-doubles-no1s |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=WTA |date=10 May 2014}}</ref> The sisters [[Latisha Chan|Chan Yung-jan]] (Latisha Chan) and [[Chan Hao-ching]] are doubles specialists. They won their 13th WTA tournament together at the [[2019 Eastbourne International]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Chan Sisters Triumph at Eastbourne |url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aeas/201906300011.aspx |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=Focus Taiwan |date=30 June 2019}}</ref> the second-highest number of wins for a pair of sisters after the [[Williams sisters]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Livaudais |first1=Stephanie |title='Playing with your sibling is not that easy': How the Chans found common ground |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/%E2%80%98playing-your-sibling-not-easy%E2%80%99-how-chans-found-common-ground |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=WTA |date=14 March 2019}}</ref> Latisha Chan became joint No. 1 with partner [[Martina Hingis]] in 2017.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chan and Hingis secure year-end World No.1 doubles ranking |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/chan-and-hingis-secure-year-end-world-no1-doubles-ranking |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=WTA |date=27 October 2017}}</ref> The most successful men's player was [[Lu Yen-hsun]], who reached No. 33 in the [[ATP rankings]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Meiseles |first1=Josh |title=Meet The #NextGenATP on the Rise in Chinese Taipei |url=https://www.atptour.com/en/news/chinese-taipei-2019-challenger-feature-tseng-jung-wu |access-date=16 September 2019 |work=ATP Tour |date=19 April 2019}}</ref>

Taiwan is also a major Asian country for [[Korfball]]. In 2008, Taiwan hosted the World Youth Korfball Championship and took the silver medal.<ref>{{cite news|title=Netherlands Retains World Youth Korfball Champion; Taiwan is on the Way to the World.. |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/08/idUS82890+08-Nov-2008+BW20081108 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203071126/https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/11/08/idUS82890%2B08-Nov-2008%2BBW20081108 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2012 |access-date=14 June 2011 |agency=Reuters Newswire |date=8 November 2008 }}</ref> In 2009, Taiwan's korfball team won a bronze medal at the World Game.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hazeldine|first=Richard|title=Jujitsu, korfball put Taiwan back on winning track|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2009/07/22/2003449286|access-date=14 June 2011|newspaper=Taipei Times|date=22 July 2009}}</ref>

[[Yani Tseng]] is the most famous Taiwanese [[professional golfer]] currently playing on the US-based [[LPGA Tour]]. She is the youngest player ever, male or female, to win five [[Women's major golf championships|major championships]] and was ranked number 1 in the [[Women's World Golf Rankings]] for 109 consecutive weeks from 2011 to 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=At Only 22, Tseng Wins Fifth Major|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/sports/golf/2011-womens-british-open-yani-tseng-wins-fifth-major.html|date=1 August 2011|agency=Associated Press|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Victorious Tseng takes No. 1 ranking|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2011/02/14/2003495832|date=14 February 2011|agency=Agence France-Presse|work=Taipei Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://espn.go.com/golf/story/_/id/9063564/stacy-lewis-wins-lpga-founders-cup-takes-world-no-1 |title=Stacy Lewis wins, now No. 1 in world |agency=Associated Press |date=17 March 2013 |publisher=ESPN |access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref>

Taiwan's strength in [[badminton]] is demonstrated by the current world No. 1 ranking female player, [[Tai Tzu-ying]], and the world No.2 ranking male player [[Chou Tien-chen]] in the [[BWF World Tour]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Goh |first1=ZK |title=Meet Tai Tzu-ying, Chinese Taipei's Badminton Star |url=https://www.olympicchannel.com/en/stories/features/detail/tai-tzu-ying-chinese-taipei-badminton-star/ |website=Who is Tai Tzu-ying |publisher=Olympic Channel Services S.L. |access-date=29 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=BWF World Rankings |url=https://bwfbadminton.com/rankings/ |website=Rankings |publisher=Badminton World Federation |access-date=29 July 2020}}</ref>

===Calendar===
{{Main|Minguo calendar}}
{{See also|Chinese calendar|Public holidays in Taiwan}}

The standard [[Gregorian calendar]] is used for most purposes in Taiwan. The year is often denoted by the Minguo [[Calendar era|era system]] which starts in 1912, the year the ROC was founded. 2021 is year 110 Minguo (民國110年). The [[Calendar date#Gregorian, year–month–day (YMD)|East Asian date format]] is used in Chinese.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese (Traditional Han, Taiwan) (zh-Hant-TW) |url=https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSS28S_8.1.0/XFDL/i_xfdl_r_formats_zh_Hant_TW.html |website=IBM Knowledge Center |access-date=8 May 2019}}</ref>

Prior to standardisation in 1929, the official calendar was a [[Chinese calendar|lunisolar system]], which remains in use today for traditional festivals such as the [[Chinese New Year|Lunar New Year]], the [[Lantern Festival]], and the [[Dragon Boat Festival]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/festival_c/index_e.htm |title=Holidays and Festivals in Taiwan |publisher=Government Information Office, ROC |access-date=28 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009021955/http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/festival_c/index_e.htm |archive-date=9 October 2009}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal |Taiwan|Islands}}
* [[Index of Taiwan-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Taiwan]]{{-}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{Notelist-lr}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{Notelist-ur}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin |40em}}
* {{cite book |surname=Andrade |given=Tonio |date=2008 |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York and Chichester, West Sussex |version=Gutenberg-e E-book |isbn=978-0-231-50368-6}}
* {{cite journal
| surname1=Bird | given1=Michael I
| surname2=Hope | given2=Geoffrey
| surname3=Taylor | given3=David
| year=2004
| title=Populating PEP II: the dispersal of humans and agriculture through Austral-Asia and Oceania
| url=http://palaeoworks.anu.edu.au/pubs/Birdetal04.pdf
| journal=Quaternary International | volume=118–119 | pages=145–163
| doi=10.1016/s1040-6182(03)00135-6
| access-date=31 March 2007
| bibcode=2004QuInt.118..145B
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140212013511/http://palaeoworks.anu.edu.au/pubs/Birdetal04.pdf
| archive-date=12 February 2014
| url-status=dead
}}
* {{cite book |surname=Chang |given=Maukuei |chapter=The Movement to Indigenize to Social Sciences in Taiwan: Origin and Predicaments |title=Cultural, Ethnic, and Political Nationalism in Contemporary Taiwan: Bentuhua |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-7020-6 |location=New York |editor1-surname=Makeham |editor1-given=John |editor2-surname=Hsiau |editor2-given=A-chin }}
* {{cite book |surname=Davidson |given=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |url=https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |title=The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |publisher=Macmillan |year=1903 |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M }}
* {{cite web |author=DoIT |title=2008 White Paper on Taiwan Industrial Technology |year=2008 |publisher=Department of Industrial Technology |url=http://doit.moea.gov.tw/itech/data/2008_1_1_EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429095322/http://doit.moea.gov.tw/itech/data/2008_1_1_EN.pdf |archive-date=29 April 2011 }}
* {{cite book |author=Exec. Yuan |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2014 |year=2014 |isbn=978-986-04-2302-0 |publisher=Executive Yuan, R.O.C. |url=http://www.ey.gov.tw/Upload/UserFiles/YB%202014%20all%20100dpi.pdf }}
* {{Cite book |surname=Fenby |given=Jonathan |title=The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850–2009 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7139-9832-0}}
* {{Cite book |surname=Fung |given=Edmund S. K. |title=In search of Chinese democracy: civil opposition in Nationalist China, 1929–1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-77124-5 |series=Cambridge modern China series}}
* {{cite journal |surname1=Hill |given1=Catherine |surname2=Soares |given2=Pedro |surname3=Mormina |given3=Maru |surname4=Macaulay |given4=Vincent |surname5=Clarke |given5=Dougie |surname6=Blumbach |given6=Petya B. |surname7=Vizuete-Forster |given7=Matthieu |surname8=Forster |given8=Peter |surname9=Bulbeck |given9=David |surname10=Oppenheimer |given10=Stephen |surname11=Richards |given11=Martin |date=January 2007 |title=A Mitochondrial Stratigraphy for Island Southeast Asia |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=29–43 |doi=10.1086/510412 |pmc=1876738 |pmid=17160892 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Hsiau |given=A-Chin |chapter=The Indigenization of Taiwanese Literature: Historical Narrative, Strategic Essentialism, and State Violence |title=Cultural, Ethnic, and Political Nationalism in Contemporary Taiwan: Bentuhua |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-7020-6 |location=New York |editor1-surname=Makeham |editor1-given=John |editor2-surname=Hsiau |editor2-given=A-chin }}
* {{cite book |surname=Jiao |given=Tianlong |title=The Neolithic of southeast China: cultural transformation and regional interaction on the coast |publisher=Cambria Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-934043-16-5 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Makeham |given=John |chapter=Indigenization Discourse in Taiwanese Confucian Revivalism |title=Cultural, Ethnic, and Political Nationalism in Contemporary Taiwan: Bentuhua |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-7020-6 |location=New York |editor1-surname=Makeham |editor1-given=John |editor2-surname=Hsiau |editor2-given=A-chin }}
* {{Cite journal |surname1=Makinen |given1=Gail E. |surname2=Woodward |given2=G. Thomas |year=1989 |title=The Taiwanese hyperinflation and stabilization of 1945–1952 |journal=Journal of Money, Credit and Banking |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=90–105 | doi=10.2307/1992580 |jstor=1992580 }}
* {{cite journal |surname=Thompson |given=Lawrence G. |title=The earliest eyewitness accounts of the Formosan aborigines |journal=Monumenta Serica |volume=23 |pages=163–204 |year=1964 |jstor=40726116 |doi=10.1080/02549948.1964.11731044 }}
* {{cite book |surname=Valentijn |given=François |author-link=François Valentijn |chapter=History of the Dutch Trade |pages=25–75 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/formosaunderdut01campgoog#page/n41/mode/1up |title=Formosa under the Dutch: described from contemporary records, with explanatory notes and a bibliography of the island |publisher=Kegan Paul |year=1903 |editor-surname=Campbell |editor-given=William |location=London |oclc=644323041 |orig-year=First published 1724 in ''Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën'' |editor-link=William Campbell (missionary) }}
* {{cite book |surname=Wills |given=John E., Jr. |chapter=The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime |pages=84–106 |title=Taiwan: A New History |editor-given=Murray A. |editor-surname=Rubinstein |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2006 |edition=expanded |isbn=978-0-7656-1495-7 }}
* {{cite conference |surname=Winckler |given=Edwin |year=1994 |title=Cultural Policy in Postwar Taiwan |editor1-surname=Harrell |editor1-given=Stevan |editor2-surname=Huang |editor2-given=Chun-chieh |conference=Cultural Change in Postwar Taiwan ( 10–14 April 1991; Seattle) |publisher=Westview Press |place=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-8133-8632-4 }}
* {{cite book |title=Envisioning Taiwan: Fiction, Cinema and the Nation in the Cultural Imaginary |surname=Yip |given=June |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8223-3357-9 |place=Durham, N.C. and London }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/introduction.stm|work=BBC News|title=Taiwan Flashpoint|year=2005 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Bush|first=R.|author2=O'Hanlon, M.|title=A War Like No Other: The Truth About China's Challenge to America|publisher=Wiley|year=2007|isbn=978-0-471-98677-5|url=https://archive.org/details/warlikenoothertr0000bush |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Bush|first=R.|title=Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8157-1290-9 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Carpenter|first=T.|title=America's Coming War with China: A Collision Course over Taiwan|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4039-6841-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/americascomingwa00carp |ref=none }}
* {{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=Cal|last2=Tan|first2=Alexander C.|title=Taiwan's Political Economy: Meeting Challenges, Pursuing Progress|year=2012|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-58826-806-8 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Cole|first=B.|title=Taiwan's Security: History and Prospects|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-0-415-36581-9 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Copper|first=J.|title=Playing with Fire: The Looming War with China over Taiwan|publisher=Praeger Security International General Interest|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-98888-3 |ref=none }}
* Copper, John F. ed. ''Historical dictionary of Taiwan'' (1993) [https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio00cop_ehx online]
* {{cite web|author=Federation of American Scientists|title=Chinese Nuclear Forces and US Nuclear War Planning|year=2006|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/china/Book2006.pdf|display-authors=etal |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Feuerwerker|first=Albert|title=The Chinese Economy, 1912–1949|publisher=Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press|year=1968 |ref=none }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Fravel | first1 = M. Taylor | year = 2002 | title = Towards Civilian Supremacy: Civil-military Relations in Taiwan's Democratization | journal = [[Armed Forces & Society]] | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 57–84 | doi = 10.1177/0095327x0202900104 | s2cid = 146212666 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Gill|first=B.|title=Rising Star: China's New Security Diplomacy|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8157-3146-7 |ref=none }}
* {{cite journal |surname=Selby |given=Burnard |title=Formosa: The Historical Background | journal=History Today |date=Mar 1955 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=186–194 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Shirk|first=S.|title=China: Fragile Superpower: How China's Internal Politics Could Derail Its Peaceful Rise|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-530609-5|url=https://archive.org/details/chinafragilesupe00shir |ref=none }}
* Taeuber, Irene B. "Population Growth in a Chinese Microcosm: Taiwan." ''Population Index'' 27#2 (1961), pp. 101–126 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2731434 online]
* {{Cite book|last=Tsang|first=S.|title=If China Attacks Taiwan: Military Strategy, Politics and Economics|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-0-415-40785-4 |ref=none }}
* {{Cite book|last=Tucker|first=N.B.|title=Dangerous Strait: the US-Taiwan-China Crisis|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-231-13564-1 |ref=none }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Republic of China|voy=Taiwan}}
{{Library resources box}}

===Overviews and data===
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/taiwan/ Taiwan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120828223012/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/taiwan.htm Taiwan] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1285915.stm Taiwan country profile] [[BBC News]]
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35855.htm Background Note: Taiwan] US Department of State
* [http://www.taiwandc.org/history.htm Taiwan's 400 years of history] New Taiwan, Ilha Formosa
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TW Key Development Forecasts for Taiwan] from [[International Futures]]
* [http://www.oecd.org/countries/chinesetaipei/ Chinese Taipei] [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]
* {{wikiatlas|Taiwan}}

===Government agencies===
* [http://www.taiwan.gov.tw/ Office of the Government]
* [http://english.president.gov.tw/ Office of the President]
* [http://english.ey.gov.tw/ Executive Yuan]
* [http://www.judicial.gov.tw/en/ Judicial Yuan]
* [http://www.cy.gov.tw/mp21.htm Control Yuan]
* [https://www.exam.gov.tw/mp.asp?mp=5 Examination Yuan]
* [http://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/default.html Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [https://www.taiwanembassy.org/ Republic of China (Taiwan) Embassies and Missions Abroad]
* [http://eng.taiwan.net.tw/ Taiwan, The Heart of Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223063050/http://eng.taiwan.net.tw/ |date=23 December 2016 }}, Tourism Bureau, Republic of China (Taiwan)

{{Taiwan topics}}
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Mexico

2021-08-20T07:15:50Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Country in North America}} {{about|the federal republic in North America}} {{Redirect|United Mexican States|the historical states|First Mexican Republic|an..."

{{short description|Country in North America}}
{{about|the federal republic in North America}}
{{Redirect|United Mexican States|the historical states|First Mexican Republic|and|Second Federal Republic of Mexico}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Coord|23|N|102|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = United Mexican States
| common_name = Mexico
| native_name = {{lang|es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos}} ([[Mexican Spanish|Spanish]])
| image_flag = Flag of Mexico.svg
| image_flag2 = 
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Mexico.svg
| alt_coat =
| symbol_type = Coat of arms
| national_anthem = {{lang|es|[[Himno Nacional Mexicano]]}} {{small|("Mexican National Anthem")}}<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Himno Nacional Mexicano instrumental.ogg]]}}</div>
| national_motto = {{native phrase|es|[[List of national mottos#M|La Patria Es Primero]]}} {{small|("The Homeland is First")}}
| other_symbol_type =
| other_symbol =
| image_map = MEX orthographic.svg
| map_width = 260px
| capital = [[Mexico City]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|19|26|N|99|08|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = Mexico City
| official_languages = {{unbulleted list|None at [[federal government of Mexico|federal level]]{{ref label|iboxb|b|}}}}
| recognized_regional_languages = [[Mexican Spanish|Spanish]] and 68 [[Languages of Mexico|Amerindian languages]]{{ref label|iboxa|a}}
| ethnic_groups = [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|56 Amerindian]] and [[Ethnic groups in Mexico|diverse foreign ethnic groups]]
| religion = {{unbulleted list |
| 88.9% [[Christianity]]
|—77.7% [[Catholic Church in Mexico|Catholicism]]
|—11.2% Other [[Christians|Christian]]
| 10.6% [[Irreligion in Mexico|No religion]]
| 0.2% [[Religion in Mexico|Others]]
| 0.3% Unspecified
}}
| religion_year = 2020
| religion_ref = <ref name="2020 Census"/>
| languages_type = [[National language]]
| languages = [[Mexican Spanish|Spanish]] (''de facto''){{ref label|iboxb|b}}
| demonym = [[Mexicans|Mexican]]
| government_type = {{nowrap|[[Federalism|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] {{raise|0.13em|[[Republic|constitutional republic]]<ref>{{cite web |location=MX Q|url=http://www.scjn.gob.mx/SiteCollectionDocuments/PortalSCJN/RecJur/BibliotecaDigitalSCJN/PublicacionesSupremaCorte/Political_constitucion_of_the_united_Mexican_states_2008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511194922/http://www.scjn.gob.mx/SiteCollectionDocuments/PortalSCJN/RecJur/BibliotecaDigitalSCJN/PublicacionesSupremaCorte/Political_constitucion_of_the_united_Mexican_states_2008.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2011 |title=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, title 2, article 40 |publisher=SCJN |access-date=14 August 2010}}</ref>}}}}
| leader_title1 = [[President of Mexico|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]
| leader_title2 = [[President of the Senate (Mexico)|President of the Senate]]
| leader_name2 = [[Oscar Eduardo Ramírez Aguilar]]
| leader_title3 = [[President of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)|President of the Chamber of Deputies]]
| leader_name3 = [[Dulce María Sauri Riancho]]
| legislature = [[Congress of the Union|Congress]]
| upper_house = [[Senate of the Republic (Mexico)|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)|Chamber of Deputies]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Mexican War of Independence|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from [[Spain]]
| established_event1 = [[Grito de Dolores|Declared]]
| established_date1 = 16 September 1810<ref name="Castro2000">{{cite book|author=Rafaela Castro|title=Chicano Folklore: A Guide to the Folktales, Traditions, Rituals and Religious Practices of Mexican Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdzY7YjhRroC&pg=PA83|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514639-4|page=83}}</ref>
| established_event2 = [[Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire|Consummated]]
| established_date2 = 27 September 1821
| established_event3 = [[Spanish American wars of independence#New Spain and Central America|Recognized]]
| established_date3 = 28 December 1836
| established_event4 = [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|First constitution]]
| established_date4 = 4 October 1824
| established_event5 = [[Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1857|Second constitution]]
| established_date5 = 5 February 1857
| established_event6 = [[Constitution of Mexico|Current constitution]]
| established_date6 = 5 February 1917
| area =
| today =
| area_km2 = 1,972,550
| area_footnote =
| area_rank = 13th
| area_sq_mi = 761,606
| percent_water = 1.58 (as of 2015)<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#}}</ref>
| population_census = 126,014,024<ref name="2020 Census">{{cite web |title=Censo Población y Vivienda 2020 |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/2020/ |website=www.inegi.org.mx |publisher=INEGI |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_census_rank = 10th
| population_density_km2 = 61
| population_density_sq_mi = 157
| population_density_rank = 142nd
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$2.715 trillion<ref name="imf-mx">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=96&pr.y=12&sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=273&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Mexico |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref>}}
| GDP_PPP_year = 2020
| GDP_PPP_rank = 11th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $21,362<ref name="imf-mx"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 64th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$1.322 trillion<ref name="imf-mx"/>}}
| GDP_nominal_year = 2020
| GDP_nominal_rank = 15th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $10,405<ref name="imf-mx"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 64th
| Gini = 41.8 
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm|title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]|access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.779 
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 74th
| currency = [[Mexican peso]]
| currency_code = MXN
| time_zone = ''See'' [[Time in Mexico]]
| utc_offset = −8 to −5
| utc_offset_DST = −7 to −5
| DST_note =
| time_zone_DST = varies
| antipodes =
| date_format =
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Mexico|+52]]
| cctld = [[.mx]]
| footnote_a = {{note|iboxa}}Article 4.° of the [[General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inali.gob.mx/pdf/LGDLPI.pdf |title=General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples |author=INALI |date=13 March 2003 |access-date=7 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inali.gob.mx/clin-inali/ |title=Catálogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas |publisher=Inali.gob.mx |access-date=18 July 2014}}</ref>
| footnote_b = {{note|iboxb}}Spanish is ''[[de facto]]'' the official language in the Mexican federal government.
}}
'''Mexico''' ({{lang-es|México}} {{IPA-es|ˈmexiko||es-mx-México.ogg}}; [[Nahuan languages]]: {{lang|nah|Mēxihco}}), officially the '''United Mexican States''' ({{lang|es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos}}; EUM  {{IPA-es|esˈtaðos uˈniðoz mexiˈkanos||Es-mx-Estados Unidos Mexicanos.ogg}}), is a [[List of sovereign states|country]] in the southern portion of [[North America]]. It is [[borders of Mexico|bordered]] to the north by the [[United States]]; to the south and west by the [[Pacific Ocean]]; to the southeast by [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], and the [[Caribbean Sea]]; and to the east by the [[Gulf of Mexico]].<ref>Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Springfield, Massachusetts, United States, Merriam-Webster; p. 733</ref> Mexico covers {{Convert|1972550|km2|sp=us}},<ref name="cia.gov">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/ Mexico]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> making it the world's [[List of countries by area|13th-largest country]] by area; with approximately 126,014,024 inhabitants,<ref name="2020 Census" /> it is the [[List of countries by population|10th-most-populous]] country and has the [[hispanophone#Hispanosphere|most Spanish-speakers]]. Mexico is organized as a [[federation]] comprising 31 [[list of states of Mexico|states]] and [[Mexico City]],<ref>{{cite web|website=El Financiero|title=DF no es el estado 32, aclaran legisladores|url=https://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/nacional/df-no-es-el-estado-32-aclaran-legisladores|date=22 January 2016|first=Victor|last=Chavez|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref> its [[capital city|capital]] and [[List of cities in Mexico|largest metropolis]]. Other [[Metropolitan areas of Mexico|major urban areas]] include [[Guadalajara]], [[Monterrey]], [[Puebla City|Puebla]], [[Toluca]], [[Tijuana]], [[Ciudad Juárez]], and [[León, Guanajuato|León]].<ref>{{cite web|website=City Population|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/php/mexico-metro.php|title=MEXICO: Metropolitan Areas|access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref>


[[Pre-Columbian Mexico]] traces its origins to 8,000 BC and is identified as one of the six [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]];<ref>{{cite web|website=Mapscaping|title=MAPPED: THE 6 CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION|url=https://mapscaping.com/blogs/geo-candy/mapped-the-6-cradles-of-civilization|date=8 May 2018|access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref> it was home to many advanced [[Mesoamerica]]n civilizations, most notably the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and the [[Aztec]]s. In 1521, the [[Spanish Empire]] [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire|conquered and colonized]] the region from its base in [[Mexico City]], establishing the colony of [[New Spain]]. The [[Catholic Church]] played an important role in spreading Christianity and the Spanish language, while also preserving some indigenous elements.<ref>Michael Arbagi, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23100485 THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND THE PRESERVATION OF MESOAMERICAN ARCHIVES: AN ASSESSMENT]. Vol. 33, No. 2 (2011), pp. 112–120, Midwest Archives Conference,</ref> Native populations were subjugated and heavily exploited to mine rich deposits of precious metals, which contributed to Spain's status as a major world power for the next three centuries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Christon I. |chapter=Military: Bourbon New Spain |pages=455–462 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOI4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA455 |editor1-last=Werner |editor1-first=Michael |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-97370-4 }}</ref> and to a massive influx of wealth and a [[price revolution]] in Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fischer|first=David Hackett|url=https://archive.org/details/greatwavepricere00fisc|title=The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-505377-7}}</ref> Over time, a distinct [[Mexican culture|Mexican identity]] formed, based on a fusion of European and indigenous customs; this contributed to the successful [[Mexican War of Independence]] against Spain in 1821.<ref name="hist">{{cite web|website=The History Channel|title=History of Mexico|url=https://www.history.com/topics/mexico/history-of-mexico|date=9 November 2009|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref>

Mexico's early history as a [[nation state]] was marked by political and socioeconomic upheaval. The [[Texas Revolution]] and the [[Mexican–American War]] in the mid 19th century led to huge [[Territorial evolution of Mexico|territorial losses]] to the United States. Liberal [[La Reforma|reforms]] were enshrined in the [[Constitution of 1857]], which sought to integrate indigenous communities and curtail the power of the church and the military. This triggered an internal [[War of the Reform|war of Reform]] and [[French Intervention in Mexico|intervention by France]], in which conservatives installed [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Maximilian Habsburg]] as [[Emperor of Mexico|emperor]] against the Republican resistance led by [[Benito Juárez]]. The last decades of the 19th century were marked by the dictatorship of [[Porfirio Díaz]], who sought to modernize Mexico and restore order.<ref name="hist"/> The [[Porfiriato|''Porfiriato'' era]] ended in 1910 with the decade-long [[Mexican Revolution|Mexican civil war]], which killed approximately 10% of the population and after which the victorious [[Constitutionalist Army|Constitutionalist faction]] drafted a new [[Constitution of Mexico|1917 Constitution]], which remains in effect to this day. The revolutionary generals ruled as a succession of presidents until the assassination of [[Alvaro Obregón]] in 1928. This led to the formation of the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] the following year, which governed Mexico until [[2000 Mexican general election|2000]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-election-pri/chronology-checkered-history-of-the-pris-rule-in-mexico-idUSBRE85R12C20120628 |last1=Rama |first1=Anahi |last2=Stargardter |first2=Gabriel |title=Chronology: Checkered history of the PRI's rule in Mexico |date= 28 June 2012 |website= Reuters }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/mexicos-history-of-one-party-rule/2012/01/15/gIQA0NVf1P_graphic.html |title=Mexico's history of one-party rule |date= 5 January 2012 |website= The Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Padgett |first1= L. Vincent |year=1957 |title=Mexico's One-Party System: A Re-Evaluation |jstor=1952448|journal=The American Political Science Review |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=995–1008 |doi=10.2307/1952448 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Whitehead |first=Laurence |year=2007 |title=An elusive transition: The slow motion demise of authoritarian dominant party rule in Mexico |journal=Democratization |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=246–269 |doi=10.1080/13510349508403441}}</ref>


Mexico is a [[developing country]], ranking 74th on the [[Human Development Index]], but has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|15th-largest economy by nominal GDP]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|11th-largest by PPP]], with the United States being its largest economic partner.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35749.htm|title=Mexico (05/09)|date=25 June 2012|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34733.pdf|title=CRS Report for Congress|date=4 November 2008|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> Its large economy and population, global cultural influence, and steady democratization make Mexico a [[regional power|regional]] and [[middle power]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:105725&datastreamId=SUPPLEMENTARY-1.DOC&ei=fMKFT7SMKIye8gS71NHACA&usg=AFQjCNHKPFxJk5bu6Qs5R2SKSUs8IwidWw&sig2=_lt4YNVT-1ECYQBh61EWgA|title=Beyond the BICs: Strategies of influence|author1=James Scott|author2=Matthias vom Hau|publisher=The University of Manchester|access-date=11 April 2012|author3=David Hulme|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525012832/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:105725&datastreamId=SUPPLEMENTARY-1.DOC&ei=fMKFT7SMKIye8gS71NHACA&usg=AFQjCNHKPFxJk5bu6Qs5R2SKSUs8IwidWw&sig2=_lt4YNVT-1ECYQBh61EWgA|archive-date=25 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nolte |first1=Detlef |title=How to compare regional powers: analytical concepts and research topics |journal=Review of International Studies |date=October 2010 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=881–901 |doi=10.1017/S026021051000135X |id={{ProQuest|873500719}} |jstor=40961959 |s2cid=13809794 |url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/38289 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/2006/05.pdf|title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|access-date=7 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098|title=Oxford Analytica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424211219/http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098|archive-date=24 April 2007|access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> it is often identified as an [[Emerging Powers|emerging power]] but is considered a [[Newly industrialized country|newly industrialized state]] by several analysts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38056|title=G8: Despite Differences, Mexico Comfortable as Emerging Power|date=5 June 2007|publisher=ipsnews.net|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080816044329/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38056|archive-date=16 August 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Globalization2">{{Cite book|author=Paweł Bożyk|title=Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7546-4638-9|page=164|chapter=Newly Industrialized Countries|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuHsIuez5qoC}}</ref><ref name="Limits2">{{Cite book|author=Mauro F. Guillén|title=The Limits of Convergence|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-691-11633-4|page=126 (table 5.1)|chapter=Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor|author-link=Mauro F. Guillén|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CweHgfPIceYC}}</ref><ref name="AIA2">{{Cite book|author=David Waugh|title=Geography, An Integrated Approach|publisher=Nelson Thornes|year=2000|isbn=978-0-17-444706-1|edition=3rd|pages=563, 576–579, 633, and 640|chapter=Manufacturing industries (chapter 19), World development (chapter 22)|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GH0KZZthGoC}}</ref><ref name="Principles2">{{Cite book|author=N. Gregory Mankiw|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ojsWuqmorEC|title=Principles of Economics|publisher=Thomson/South-Western|year=2007|isbn=978-0-324-22472-6|edition=4th|location=Mason, Ohio}}</ref> However, the country continues to struggle with social inequality, poverty and extensive crime; it ranks poorly on the [[Global Peace Index]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Peace Index 2019: Measuring Peace in a Complex World |url=http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/06/GPI-2019-web003.pdf |website=Vision of Humanity |publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace |access-date=4 June 2020 |location=Sydney |date=June 2019 |archive-date=27 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827155045/http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/06/GPI-2019-web003.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> due in large part to ongoing conflict between the government and [[drug trafficking]] syndicates that led to over 120,000 deaths since 2006.<ref name=cfrdeaths/>

Mexico ranks [[List of World Heritage Sites in Mexico|first in the Americas and seventh in the world]] for the number of [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre — World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=25 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/events/295|title=Mexico's World Heritage Sites Photographic Exhibition at UN Headquarters|publisher=whc.unesco.org|access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[[Table of World Heritage Sites by country]]</ref> It is also one of the world's 17 [[megadiverse countries]], ranking fifth in natural [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/country/whatismegcountry.html|website=Mexican biodiversity|title=What is a mega-diverse country?|access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref> Mexico's rich cultural and biological heritage, as well as varied climate and geography, makes it a major tourist destination: as of 2018, it was the sixth most-visited country in the world, with 39 million international arrivals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://expansion.mx/economia/2018/08/27/mexico-ocupa-el-sexto-lugar-en-turismo-a-nivel-mundial|title=México ocupa el sexto lugar en turismo a nivel mundial|website=www.expansion.mx|publisher=CNN Expansión|access-date=8 January 2019|date=28 August 2018}}</ref> Mexico is a member of [[United Nations]], the [[G20]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum, the [[Organization of American States]], [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States]], and the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]].

==Etymology==

{{Main|Name of Mexico}}
[[File:CodexMendoza01.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of the founding myth of [[Tenochtitlan|Mexico-Tenochtitlan]] from the [[Codex Mendoza]]]]
{{lang|nah|[[Name of Mexico|Mēxihco]]}} is the [[Nahuatl]] term for the heartland of the [[Aztec Empire]], namely the [[Valley of Mexico]] and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the [[Mexica]]. The terms are plainly linked; it is generally believed that the [[toponym]] for the valley was the origin of the primary [[ethnonym]] for the [[Aztec Triple Alliance]], but it may have been the other way around.<ref name="Bright2004">{{cite book|author=William Bright|title=Native American Placenames of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg=PA281|year=2004|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3598-4|page=281}}</ref> In the colonial era, when Mexico was called [[New Spain]], this central region became the [[New Spain|Intendency of Mexico]], during the eighteenth-century reorganization of the empire, the [[Bourbon Reforms]]. After the colony achieved independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1821, said territory came to be known as the [[State of Mexico]], with the new country being named after its capital: [[Mexico City]], which itself was founded in 1524 on the site of the ancient Mexica capital of [[Mexico-Tenochtitlan]].

The official name of the country has changed as the [[form of government]] has changed. The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the [[Congress of Anáhuac]] called the territory ''[[Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America|América Septentrional]]'' (Northern America); the 1821 [[Plan of Iguala]] also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as {{lang|es|Imperio Mexicano}} ([[Mexican Empire (disambiguation)|Mexican Empire]]). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution) used the name {{lang|es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ierd.prd.org.mx/coy128/hlb.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101110558/http://ierd.prd.org.mx/coy128/hlb.htm|archive-date=1 November 2008 |title=El cambio de la denominación de "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" por la de "México" en la Constitución Federal |publisher=ierd.prd.org.mx |access-date=4 November 2009}}</ref>—or the variant {{lang|es|Estados-Unidos Mexicanos}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tlahui.com/politic/politi99/politi8/con1857.htm |title=Constitución Mexicana de 1857 |publisher=www.tlahui.com |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase {{lang|es|República Mexicana}}, "Mexican Republic", was used in the 1836 [[Siete Leyes|Constitutional Laws]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01361697524573725088802/p0000001.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723211610/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01361697524573725088802/p0000001.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2012 |title=Leyes Constitucionales de 1836 |publisher=Cervantesvirtual.com |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=17 July 2013 }}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Mexico}}
{{See also|History of the Catholic Church in Mexico|Economic history of Mexico|History of democracy in Mexico|History of Mexico City|Military history of Mexico}}

===Indigenous civilizations===
{{main|Pre-Columbian Mexico|Mesoamerican chronology}}
[[File:Teotihuacán-5954.JPG|thumb|[[Pyramid of the Sun]] of [[Teotihuacan]] with first human establishment in the area dating back to 600 BC]]

The earliest [[human]] artifacts in Mexico are chips of [[stone tool]]s found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago.{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=386–}} Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, and [[phaseolus|beans]], which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from [[Paleo-Indians|paleo-Indian]] hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC.<ref name="EvansWebster2013">{{cite book|author1=Susan Toby Evans|author2=David L. Webster|title=Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ba_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT54|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-80186-0|page=54}}</ref>
In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation and cultural traits such as a mythological and religious complex, and a [[vigesimal]] (base 20) numeric system, were diffused from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the [[Mesoamerica]]n culture area.<ref name="MacLachlan">{{cite book|author=Colin M. MacLachlan|title=Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqdKCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT39|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-28643-6|page=39|date=13 April 2015}}</ref> In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into [[chiefdom]]s. The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing the construction of large ceremonial centers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carmack |first1=Robert M. |last2=Gasco |first2=Janine L. |last3=Gossen |first3=Gary H. |title=The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34678-4 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>

[[File:The Florentine Codex- Agriculture.tiff|thumb|left|180px|Cultivation of maize, shown in the [[Florentine Codex]] (1576) drawn by an indigenous scribe, with text in Nahuatl on this folio]]

The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the [[Olmec]] culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Diehl |first1=Richard A. |title=The Olmecs: America's First Civilization |date=2004 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-02119-4 |pages=9–25 }}</ref> The formative-era of Mesoamerica is considered one of the six independent [[cradles of civilization]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mapscaping.com/blogs/geo-candy/mapped-the-6-cradles-of-civilization|website=Mapscaping|access-date=14 July 2019|title=MAPPED: THE 6 CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION|date=30 May 2018}}</ref> In the subsequent [[Mesoamerican chronology|pre-classical period]], the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] civilizations developed complex centers at [[Calakmul]] and [[Monte Albán]], respectively. During this period the first true [[Mesoamerican writing systems]] were developed in the [[Epi-Olmec culture|Epi-Olmec]] and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic [[Maya Script|Maya Hieroglyphic script]]. The earliest written histories date from this era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sampson |first1=Geoffrey |title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction |date=1985 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-1756-4 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>

In Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of [[Teotihuacan|Teotihuacán]], which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area as well as north. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest [[Mesoamerican pyramid|pyramidal structures]] in the pre-Columbian Americas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cowgill |first1=George L. |title=State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=21 October 1997 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=129–161 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129 |oclc=202300854 |s2cid=53663189 |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such as [[Xochicalco]] and [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]]. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, [[Nahua people]]s began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of [[Oto-Manguean languages]].

[[File:Murales Rivera - Markt in Tlatelolco 3.jpg|thumb|1945 Mural by Diego Rivera depicting the view from the [[Tlatelolco (altepetl)|Tlatelolco]] markets into Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the largest city in the Americas at the time.]]

During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 CE), Central Mexico was dominated by the [[Toltec]] culture, [[Oaxaca]] by the [[Mixtec civilization|Mixtec]], and the lowland Maya area had important centers at [[Chichén Itzá]] and [[Mayapán]]. Toward the end of the post-Classic period, the Mexica established dominance, establishing a political and economic empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), extending from central Mexico to the border with Guatemala.<ref>{{cite web|website=Ancient Civilizations World|title=Ancient Civilizations of Mexico|url=https://ancientcivilizationsworld.com/mexico/|date=12 January 2017|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> [[Alexander von Humboldt]] popularized the modern usage of "[[Aztec]]" as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the [[Tenochtitlan|Mexica state]] and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, the [[Aztec Empire|Triple Alliance]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mexika.org/2014/05/31/the-word-azteca-was-not-created-by-von-humboldt/|website=Mexicka.org|title=The word "Azteca" was NOT created by Von Humboldt!|access-date=13 July 2019|date=31 May 2014}}</ref> In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century Mexican scholars who considered it a way to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate since the late 20th century.<ref name="Port">{{cite journal |last1=León Portilla |first1=Miguel |title=Los aztecas, disquisiciones sobre un gentilico |journal=Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl |date=10 May 2009 |volume=31 |issue=31 |url=http://www.revistas.unam.mx/index.php/ecn/article/view/9231 }}</ref>

The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered territories; it was satisfied with the payment of tributes from them. It was a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of [[Soconusco|Xoconochco]] were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire was demonstrated by their restoration of local rulers to their former position after their city-state was conquered. The Aztec did not interfere in local affairs, as long as the tributes were paid.<ref>Berdan, ''et al.'' (1996), ''Aztec Imperial Strategies.'' Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC{{page needed|date=February 2011}}</ref>

The Aztec of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mexico.<ref>{{cite book |author=Coe, Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |author2=Rex Koontz |year=2002 |title=Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs |edition=5th edition, revised and enlarged |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-500-28346-2 |oclc=50131575 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs0000coem }}</ref> [[Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|The Aztec were noted for practicing human sacrifice]] on a large scale. Along with this practice, they avoided killing enemies on the battlefield. Their warring casualty rate was far lower than that of their Spanish counterparts, whose principal objective was immediate slaughter during battle.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/aztecs/sacrifice.htm|title=The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice|access-date=16 December 2011 |publisher=[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]}}</ref> This distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition of human sacrifice ended with the gradually Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Over the next centuries many other Mexican indigenous cultures were conquered and gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule.<ref>{{cite book |author=Weaver, Muriel Porter |year=1993 |title=The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica |edition=3rd |location=San Diego, CA |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-739065-9 |oclc=25832740|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2UkAQAAIAAJ }}</ref>

===Conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521)===
{{Further|Spanish conquest of Mexico}}

[[File:Cortez & La Malinche.jpg|thumb|left|Depict of [[Hernán Cortés]] and his bilingual cultural translator, [[La Malinche|Doña Marina]] ("Malinche"), meeting [[Moctezuma II]] from the ''[[Lienzo de Tlaxcala]]''. This historical document was created c. 1550 by the Tlaxcalans to remind the Spanish of their loyalty and the importance of [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcala]] during the conquest of the Aztec Empire.]]

Although the Spanish had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493, it was not until the second decade of the sixteenth century that they began exploring the coast of Mexico. The Spanish first learned of Mexico during the [[Juan de Grijalva]] expedition of 1518. The natives kept "repeating: ''Colua, Colua'', and ''Mexico, Mexico'', but we [explorers] did not know what ''Colua'' or ''Mexico'' meant", until encountering Montezuma's governor at the mouth of the [[Boca del Río, Veracruz|Rio de las Banderas]].<ref name=Diaz>Diaz, B., 1963, ''The Conquest of New Spain,'' London: Penguin Books, {{ISBN|0140441239}}</ref>{{rp|33–36}} The [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] began in February 1519 when [[Hernán Cortés]] landed on the Gulf Coast and founded the Spanish city of [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]]. Around 500 [[conquistador]]es, along with horses, cannons, swords, and long guns gave the Spanish some technological advantages over indigenous warriors, but key to the Spanish victory was making strategic alliances with disgruntled indigenous city-states (''[[altepetl]]'') who supplied the Spaniards and fought with them against the Aztec Triple Alliance. Also important to the Spanish victory was Cortés's cultural translator, Malinche, a Nahua woman enslaved in the Maya area whom the Spanish acquired as a gift. She quickly learned Spanish and gave strategic advise about how to deal with both indigenous allies and indigenous foes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Townsend |first1=Camilla |title=Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico |date=2006 |publisher=UNM Press |isbn=978-0-8263-3406-0 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> The unconquered city-state of Tlaxcala allied with the Spanish against their enemies, the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan. The Spanish gained other indigenous allies, who also joined in the war for their own reasons.

We know so much about the conquest because it is among the best documented events in world history from multiple points of view. There are accounts by the Spanish leader Cortés<ref>Cortés, Hernán. ''Five Letterss to the Emperor''. Trans. J. Bayard Morris. New York: W.W. Norton 1969</ref> and multiple other Spanish participants, including [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]].<ref>Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. ''True History of the Conquest of Mexico''. various editions. Abridge version translated by J.M. Cohen, ''The Conquest of New Spain''. London: Penguin Books 1963.</ref><ref>Fuentes, Patricia de. ''The Conquistadors: First-Person ccounts of the Conquest of Mexico''. Norman: Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.</ref> There are indigenous accounts in Spanish, Nahuatl, and pictorial narratives by allies of the Spanish, most prominently the Tlaxcalans, as well as Texcocans<ref>Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de. ''Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of Evangelical Law''. Trans. Douglass K. Ballentine. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969.</ref> and Huejotzincans, and the defeated Mexican themselves, recorded in the last volume of [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]'s [[Florentine Codex|General History of the Things of New Spain]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Narratives of the Conquest |pages=73–96 |last1=Altman |first1=Ida |last2=Cline |first2=S. L. |last3=Pescador |first3=Juan Javier |title=The Early History of Greater Mexico |date=2003 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-091543-6 }}</ref><ref>León-Portilla, Miguel. ''The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico''. Boston: Beacon Press 1992.</ref><ref>Lockhart, James. ''We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico''. Berkeley: University of California Press 1993.</ref>
[[File:FlorentineCodex BK12 F54 smallpox.jpg|thumb|right|[[Smallpox]] depicted by an indigenous artist in the 1556 [[Florentine Codex]] in its account of the conquest of Mexico from the point of view of the defeated Mexica.]]
When the Spaniards arrived, the ruler of the Aztec empire was [[Moctezuma II]], who after a delay allowed the Spanish to proceed inland to Tenochtitlan. The Spanish captured him, holding him hostage. He died while in their custody and the Spanish retreated from Tenochtitlan in great disarray. His successor and brother [[Cuitláhuac]] took control of the Aztec empire, but was among the first to fall from the first [[smallpox]] [[epidemic]] in the area a short time later.<ref>{{cite book|last=True Peters|first=Stephanie|title=Smallpox in the New World|year=2004|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA18}}i</ref> Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors, among whom [[smallpox]], measles, and other contagious diseases were endemic, epidemics of [[Old World]] infectious diseases ravaged Mesoamerica starting in the 1520s. The exact number of deaths is disputed, but unquestionably more than 3 million natives who had no [[Immunity (medical)|immunity]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Flight|first=Colette|title=Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/smallpox_01.shtml|access-date=30 December 2011|newspaper=BBC News {{!}} History|date=17 February 2011}}</ref> Other sources, however, mentioned that the death toll of the Aztecs might have reached 15 million (out of a population of less than 30 million) although such a high number conflicts with the 350,000 Aztecs who ruled an empire of 5 million or 10 million.<ref>{{cite book|last=Koplow|first=David A.|title=Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23732-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/smallpoxfighttoe00kopl/page/n283 270]|url=https://archive.org/details/smallpoxfighttoe00kopl|url-access=registration}}</ref> Severely weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeated by Cortés and his forces on his second return with the help of state of [[Tlaxcala]] whose population estimate was 300,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Smallpox: Conquered Killer|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/smallpox-article/|publisher=National Geographic|access-date=30 December 2011|date=2 December 2009}}</ref> The native population declined 80–90% by 1600 to 1–2.5 million. Any population estimate of pre-Columbian Mexico is bound to be a guess but 8–12 million is often suggested for the area encompassed by the modern nation.

The territory became part of the [[Spanish Empire]] under the name of [[New Spain]] in 1535.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzRzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |page=324 |title=Shaping the Developing World: The West, the South, and the Natural World |isbn=9781483311081 |last=Baker |first=Andy |year=2013}}</ref> [[Mexico City]] was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the [[Fall of Tenochtitlan]] in 1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico developed during the 300-year colonial period from 1521 to independence in 1821.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gibson, Charles |author-link=Charles Gibson (historian) |year=1964 |title=The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810 |edition=Reprinted 1976 |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-0196-9 |oclc=190295|url=https://archive.org/details/aztecsunderspani00gibs |url-access=registration }}</ref>

===Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821)===
{{Main|New Spain}}
{{See also|History of Mexico#Spanish Rule (1521-1821)|Economic history of Mexico#Economy of New Spain, 1521–1821|History of Mexico City#Colonial period, 1521-1821}}
[[File:Bandera Mexicana - panoramio - cz354x (3).jpg|thumb|left|The [[National Palace (Mexico)|National Palace]] on the east side of [[Plaza de la Constitución]] or ''[[Zócalo]]'', the main square of Mexico City; it was the residence of [[List of viceroys of New Spain|viceroys]] and [[Presidents of Mexico]] and now the seat of the Mexican government.]]

The 1521 capture Tenochtitlan and immediate founding of the Spanish capital [[Mexico City]] on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known as ''Nueva España'' ([[New Spain]]). The [[Kingdom of New Spain]] was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had granted [[Patronato real|sweeping powers]] to the Spanish crown, with the proviso that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I]] created the [[Council of the Indies]] based in Spain to oversee State power its overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, the ''[[Real Audiencia]],'' and then in 1535 created the viceroyalty. The viceroy was highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to the [[Archdiocese of Mexico]] in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, overseeing Roman Catholic clergy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith the only one permitted, with non-Catholics (Jews and Protestants) and Catholics (excluding Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to the [[Mexican Inquisition]], established in 1571.<ref>Chuchiak, John F. IV, "Inquisition" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 704–708</ref>

In the first half-century of Spanish rule, a network of Spanish cities was created, sometimes on pre-Columbian sites. The capital Mexico City was and remains the premier city. Cities and towns were hubs of civil officials, ecclesiastics, business, Spanish elites, and mixed-race and indigenous artisans and workers. When deposits of silver were discovered in sparsely populated northern Mexico, far from the dense populations of central Mexico, the Spanish secured the region against fiercely resistant indigenous [[Chichimeca War|Chichimecas]]. The Viceroyalty at its greatest extent included the territories of modern Mexico, [[Central America]] as far south as Costa Rica, and the western United States. The Viceregal capital Mexico City also administrated the [[Spanish West Indies]] (the [[Caribbean]]), the [[Spanish East Indies]] (that is, the [[Philippines]]), and [[Spanish Florida]]. In 1819, the Spain signed the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]] with the United States, setting New Spain's northern boundary.<ref>Salvucci, Linda. "Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)". ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, pp. 11–12. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref>
[[File:Viceroyalty of the New Spain 1819 (without Philippines).png|thumb|Viceroyalty of New Spain following the signing of the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty]]
The population of Mexico was overwhelmingly indigenous and rural during the entire colonial period and beyond, despite the massive decrease in their numbers due to epidemic diseases. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and others were introduced by Europeans and African slaves, especially in the sixteenth century. The indigenous population stabilized around one to one and a half million individuals in the 17th century from the most commonly accepted five to thirty million [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|pre-contact population]].<ref name=McCaa>{{cite web|access-date=13 July 2019 |url=http://users.pop.umn.edu/~rmccaa/mxpoprev/cambridg3.htm|website=University of Minnesota.edu|title=The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution|last=McCaa|first=Robert|date=8 December 1997}}</ref> During the three hundred years of the colonial era, Mexico received between 400,000 and 500,000 Europeans,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sluyter|first1=Andrew|title=Black Ranching Frontiers: African Cattle Herders of the Atlantic World, 1500–1900|date=2012|publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300179927|page=240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjt50jcGNu4C&pg=PA240|access-date=8 October 2016}}</ref> between 200,000 and 250,000 African slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Russell|first1=James W.|title=Class and Race Formation in North America|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9780802096784|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZgR6ubuUXcC&pg=PA26|access-date=13 December 2016|language=en|year=2009}}</ref> and between 40,000 and 120,000 Asians.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Carrillo|first1=Rubén|title=Asia llega a América. Migración e influencia cultural asiática en Nueva España (1565–1815)|url=http://www.raco.cat/index.php/asiademica/article/download/286846/375066|website=www.raco.cat |publisher=Asiadémica|access-date=13 December 2016}}</ref><ref>The Penguin Atlas of World Population History, pp. 291–92.</ref>

The first census in Mexico (then known as [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]]) that included an ethnic classification was the 1793 census. Also known as the Revillagigedo census. Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost, thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as German scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. Europeans ranged from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos from 21% to 25%, Indians from 51% to 61% and Africans were between 6,000 and 10,000. The total population ranged from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded that the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%–17% per century, mostly due to the latter having higher mortality rates from living in remote locations and being in constant war with the colonists.<ref name=aleph>{{cite web |last1=Lerner |first1=Victoria |title=Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793–1810) |trans-title=Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793–1810) |url=http://aleph.org.mx/jspui/bitstream/56789/29809/1/17-067-1968-0327.pdf |publisher=El Colegia de México |location=Mexico City |language=es |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113062234/http://aleph.org.mx/jspui/bitstream/56789/29809/1/17-067-1968-0327.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Independent-era Mexico eliminated the legal basis of the [[castas|Colonial caste system]] which led to exclusion of racial classification in the censuses to come.

[[File:Casta_Painting_by_Luis_de_Mena.jpg|thumb|left|[[Luis de Mena]], [[Virgin of Guadalupe]] and [[casta]]s, showing race mixture and hierarchy as well as fruits of the realm,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cline |first1=Sarah |title=Guadalupe and the Castas |journal=Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos |date=1 August 2015 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=218–247 |doi=10.1525/mex.2015.31.2.218 |s2cid=7995543 |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> ca. 1750]]

Colonial [[Law in Spain|law with Spanish roots]] was introduced and attached to native customs creating a hierarchy between local jurisdiction (the [[Cabildo (council)|Cabildos]]) and the Spanish Crown. Upper administrative offices were closed to native-born people, even those of pure Spanish blood ([[Criollo people|criollos]]). Administration was based on the [[racial separation]]. Society was organized in a racial hierarchy, with whites on top, mixed-race persons and blacks in the middle, and indigenous at the bottom. There were formal legal designations of racial categories. The Republic of Spaniards (''República de Españoles'') comprised European- and American-born Spaniards, mixed-race [[casta]]s, and black Africans. The Republic of Indians (''República de Indios'') comprised the indigenous populations, which the Spanish lumped under the term Indian (''indio''), a Spanish colonial social construct which indigenous groups and individuals rejected as a category. Spaniards were exempt from paying tribute, Spanish men had access to higher education, could hold civil and ecclesiastical offices, were subject to the [[Mexican Inquisition|Inquisition]], and liable for military service when the standing military was established in the late eighteenth century. Indigenous paid tribute, but were exempt from the Inquisition, indigenous men were excluded from the priesthood; and exempt from military service.

Although the racial system appears fixed and rigid, there was some fluidity within it, and racial domination of whites was not complete.<ref name="Cope, R. Douglas 1994">Cope, R. Douglas. ''The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico City, 1660–1720''. Madison, Wis.: U of Wisconsin, 1994.</ref> Since the indigenous population of New Spain was so large, there was less labor demand for expensive black slaves than other parts of Spanish America.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vinson III |first1=Ben |title=Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02643-8 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/before-mestizaje/0715B9B73FD9C23DC0F301D73959870F }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref><ref>Sierra Silva, Pablo Miguel. ''Urban Slavery in Colonial Mexico: Puebla de los Angeles 1531-1706''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018.</ref> In the late eighteenth century the crown instituted [[Bourbon Reforms|reforms]] that privileged Iberian-born Spaniards (''peninsulares'') over American-born (''criollos''), limiting their access to offices. This discrimination between the two became a sparking point of discontent for white elites in the colony.<ref>Deans-Smith, Susan. "Bourbon Reforms" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 156</ref>

The [[Marian apparition]] of the [[Virgin of Guadalupe]] said to have appeared to the indigenous [[Juan Diego]] in 1531 gave impetus to the evangelization of central Mexico.<ref>{{citation|website=Catholic News Agency |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/god_intervened_through_our_lady_of_guadalupe_to_evangelize_the_americas_explains_guadalupe_expert|title=God intervened through Our Lady of Guadalupe to evangelize the Americas, explains Guadalupe expert|date=11 August 2009|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="huff">{{citation|website=Huff Post Latino Voices|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/virgen-de-guadalupe_n_4434582|title=Everything You Need To Know About La Virgen De Guadalupe|date=12 December 2013|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> The Virgin of Guadalupe became a symbol for American-born Spaniards' (''criollos'') patriotism, seeking in her a Mexican source of pride, distinct from Spain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ortiz-Ramirez|first1=Eduardo A.|title=The Virgin of Guadalupe and Mexican Nationalism: Expressions of Criollo Patriotism in Colonial Images of the Virgin of Guadalupe |isbn=9780549596509|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NEvkyV2y2r0C&pg=PA6|access-date=9 February 2017|language=en}}</ref> The Virgin of Guadalupe was invoked by the insurgents for independence who followed Father [[Miguel Hidalgo]] during the War of Independence.<ref name="huff" />

[[Image:16th century Portuguese Spanish trade routes.png|thumb|upright=1.3|New Spain was essential to the Spanish global trading system. White represents the route of the Spanish [[Manila Galleon]]s in the Pacific and the [[Spanish treasure fleet|Spanish convoys]] in the Atlantic. (Blue represents [[Portuguese India Armadas|Portuguese routes.)]]]]

The rich deposits of silver, particularly in [[Zacatecas]] and [[Guanajuato]], resulted in silver extraction dominating the economy of New Spain. [[Royal fifth|Taxes on silver production]] became a major source of income for Spain. Other important industries were the [[haciendas]] and mercantile activities in the main cities and ports.<ref>{{citation|website=Global Security.org |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/mexico/history-3-5.htm|title=Economy of New Spain|
date=9 July 2011|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> Wealth created during the colonial era spurred the development of [[New Spanish Baroque]].{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

As a result of its trade links with Asia, the rest of the Americas, Africa and Europe and the [[Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries|profound effect of New World silver]], central Mexico was one of the first regions to be incorporated into a [[globalized]] economy. Being at the crossroads of trade, people and cultures, Mexico City has been called the "first [[world city]]".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sempa|first1=Francis P.|title=China, Spanish America, and the 'Birth of Globalization'|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/01/china-spanish-america-and-the-birth-of-globalization/|website=The Diplomat|access-date=7 February 2017|quote=Mexico City, the authors [Peter Gordon, Juan Jose Morales] note, was the 'first world city,' the precursor to London, New York, and Hong Kong, where 'Asia, Europe, and the Americas all met, and where people intermingled and exchanged everything from genes to textiles'.}}</ref> The ''[[Nao de China]]'' (Manila Galleons) operated for two and a half centuries and connected New Spain with Asia. Silver and the red dye [[cochineal]] were shipped from Veracruz to Atlantic ports in the Americas and Spain. Veracruz was also the main port of entry in mainland New Spain for European goods, immigrants from Spain, and African slaves. The ''[[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]]'' connected Mexico City with the interior of New Spain. Mexican silver pesos became the first globally used currency.

[[File:Carlos III Coin.jpg|thumb|260px|left|Silver [[peso]] mined and minted in colonial Mexico, which became a global currency.]]

Spanish forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions through the colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New Spain include the [[Chichimeca War]] (1576–1606),<ref>{{cite web |website=Latino LA: Comunidad|title=The Indigenous People of Zacatecas|url=http://latinola.com/story.php?story=1109|date=17 July 2003|access-date=14 July 2019|last=Schmal|first=John P.}}</ref> [[Tepehuán Revolt]] (1616–1620),<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Tepehuan Revolt of 1616: Militarism, Evangelism, and Colonialism in Seventeenth-Century Nueva Vizcaya|journal=The Americas|volume=58|issue=2|pages=302–303|author=Charlotte M. Gradie|location=Salt Lake City |publisher=University of Utah Press|year=2000|doi=10.1353/tam.2001.0109|s2cid=144896113}}</ref> and the [[Pueblo Revolt]] (1680), the [[Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712]] was a regional Maya revolt.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wasserstrom | first1 = Robert | year = 1980 | title = Ethnic Violence and Indigenous Protest: The Tzeltal (Maya) Rebellion of 1712 | journal = Journal of Latin American Studies | volume = 12 | pages = 1–19 | doi = 10.1017/S0022216X00017533 }}</ref> Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=William B. |title=Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages |date=1 June 1979 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0804711128 |edition=1st}}</ref> To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch [[pirates]] and protect the Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663 [[Sack of Campeche (1663)|Sack of Campeche]]<ref>{{cite web|website=In Search of Lost Places|title=Campeche, Mexico – largest pirate attack in history, now UNESCO listed|date=31 January 2017|access-date=14 July 2019|last=White|first=Benjamin|url=http://insearchoflostplaces.com/2017/01/campeche-mexico/}}</ref> and 1683 [[Attack on Veracruz]].<ref>{{cite web|website=University of Rochester Newsletter|title=The mysterious aftermath of an infamous pirate raid |url=https://www.rochester.edu/newscenter/pablo-sierra-silva-mysterious-aftermath-infamous-pirate-raid-287352/|date=13 December 2017|access-date=14 July 2019|first=Sandra|last=Knispel}}</ref> Of greater concern to the crown was of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the Spanish ports of Havana, Cuba and Manila, the Philippines in the [[Seven Years' War]]. It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northern [[presidio]]s and [[Spanish missions in California|missions]] into [[Alta California]]. The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by the mob.<ref name="Cope, R. Douglas 1994"/>

Due to the importance of New Spain administrative base, Mexico was the location of the [[House of the First Print Shop in the Americas|first printing shop]] (1539),<ref>{{cite web|website=Latino Book Review|url=https://www.latinobookreview.com/first-printing-press-in-the-americas-was-established-in-mexico|title=First Printing Press in the Americas was Established in Mexico|access-date=14 July 2019|date=2019}}</ref> [[Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico|first university]] (1551),<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Vallarta Daily News |url=https://www.vallartadaily.com/university-mexico-oldest-university-north-america/|title=UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO IS THE OLDEST UNIVERSITY IN NORTH AMERICA|access-date=14 July 2019|date=15 September 2014}}</ref> [[Alameda Central|first public park]] (1592),<ref>{{cite web |website=City Express blog|title=Mexico City's Alameda Central: the inspiration behind NYC's Central Park?|url=https://www.cityexpress.com/en/travel-blog/mexico-citys-alameda-central-the-inspiration-behind-nycs-central-park|access-date=14 July 2019 |date=15 September 2014}}</ref> and [[Biblioteca Palafoxiana|first public library]] (1640) in the Americas,<ref>{{cite web|website=Latino Book Review|url=https://www.latinobookreview.com/oldest-library-in-the-americas-is-in-mexico.html|title=Oldest Public Library in the Americas is in Mexico|access-date=14 July 2019|date=2019}}</ref> among other institutions. Important artists of the colonial period, include the writers [[Juan Ruiz de Alarcón]], [[Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora]], and [[Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz]], painters [[Cristóbal de Villalpando]] and [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]], and architect [[Manuel Tolsá]]. The [[Academy of San Carlos]] (1781) was the first major school and museum of art in the Americas.<ref>{{cite web|website=Mexico es Cultura|url=https://www.mexicoescultura.com/recinto/66495/en/academy-of-san-carlos.html|title=Academy of San Carlos
|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> German scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] spent a year in Mexico, finding the scientific community in the capital active and learned. He met Mexican scientist [[Andrés Manuel del Río Fernández]], who discovered the element [[vanadium]] in 1801.<ref>{{cite web |website=Chemicool Periodic Table|url=https://www.chemicool.com/elements/vanadium.html|title=Vanadium Element Facts|date=18 October 2012|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref>
Many Mexican cultural features including [[tequila]],<ref>{{cite web|website=Liquor.com|title=EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE HISTORY OF TEQUILA|url=https://www.liquor.com/articles/history-of-tequila/#gs.p5o3m9|first=Anna|last=Archibald|date=27 July 2015|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> first distilled in the 16th century, [[charreria]] (17th),<ref>{{cite web|website=Charro Azteca|title=A brief History of Charreria
|first=Francisco|last=Galvez|date=27 June 2017|access-date=14 July 2019|url=https://charroazteca.com/brief-history-charreria/}}</ref> [[mariachi]] (18th) and [[Mexican cuisine]], a fusion [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|of American]] and European ([[Spanish cuisine|particularly Spanish]]) cuisine, arose during the colonial era.

===War of Independence (1810–1821)===
{{Main|Mexican War of Independence}}
[[File:Miguel Hidalgo con estandarte.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Father [[Miguel Hidalgo]] with the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe. [[Antonio Fabrés]], 1905]]
On 16 September 1810, a "loyalist revolt" against the ruling [[Junta (governing body)|junta]] was declared by priest [[Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla]], in the small town of [[Dolores Hidalgo|Dolores]], Guanajuato.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miguel Hidalgo Biography|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16045a.htm|access-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> This event, known as the [[Cry of Dolores]] (Spanish: ''Grito de Dolores'') is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Grito-de-Dolores |title=Grito de Dolores |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref> The first insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish [[viceregal]] army captain [[Ignacio Allende]], the [[militia]] captain [[Juan Aldama]] and ''La Corregidora'' (English: "The Magistrate") [[Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez]]. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured and [[executed by firing squad]] in [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua|Chihuahua]], on 31 July 1811.<ref name="miranda">{{cite book|author=Angel Miranda Basurto|title=La Evolucíon de Mėxico|publisher=Editorial Porrúa|year=2002|location=Mexico City|edition=6th|isbn=970-07-3678-4|page=358|language=es|trans-title=The Evolution of Mexico}}</ref>{{rp|17–27}}

Following Hidalgo's death, the leadership was assumed by [[Ignacio López Rayón]] and then by the priest [[José María Morelos]], who occupied key southern cities with the support of [[Mariano Matamoros]] and [[Nicolás Bravo]]. In one notable incident, Nicolas Bravo captured 200 royalist soldiers, whom Morelos ordered should be executed in revenge of the murder of Bravo's father. In an act of mercy, Bravo instead pardoned the prisoners, most of whom then joined the insurgent cause.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|40–41}} In 1813 the [[Congress of Chilpancingo]] was convened and, on 6 November, signed the "[[Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America]]".<ref name="miranda" />{{rp|35–37}} This Act also abolished slavery and the caste system. Being a Catholic priest himself, Morelos also called for Roman Catholicism to be the exclusive faith in Mexico.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|44–50}} Morelos was captured and executed on 22 December 1815.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|46}}

[[File:Abrazo de Acatempan.JPG|thumb|Depiction of the ''Abrazo de Acatempan'' between [[Agustín de Iturbide]], left, and [[Vicente Guerrero]]]]
In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 [[Viceroy]] [[Juan Ruiz de Apodaca]] sent an army under the [[Criollo people|criollo]] general [[Agustín de Iturbide]] against the troops of [[Vicente Guerrero]] who had among his trusted soldiers, [[Filipino Mexicans]] who were concentrated in [[Guerrero]], a state later named after Vicente Guerrero himself and where the Mexican flag was first sewn. Chief among the Filipino-Mexican soldiers was General [[Isidoro Montes de Oca]] who defeated Royalist armies 3 times his force's size.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/456194/pdf|title=Filipinos in Nueva España: Filipino-Mexican Relations, Mestizaje, and Identity in Colonial and Contemporary Mexico|year=2011|page=414|doi=10.1353/jaas.2011.0029|quote=According to Ricardo Pinzon, these two Filipino soldiers—Francisco Mongoy and Isidoro Montes de Oca—were so distinguished in battle that they are regarded as folk heroes in Mexico. General Vicente Guerrero later became the first president of Mexico of African descent. See Floro L. Mercene, “Central America: Filipinos in Mexican History,” (Ezilon Infobase, 28 January 2005)|last1=Guevarra|first1=Rudy P.|journal=Journal of Asian American Studies|volume=14|issue=3|s2cid=144426711}}</ref> Then, the Criollo Royalist, Agustin Iturbide, instead of attacking Vicente Guerrero, approached Guerrero to join forces as he was impressed with his tenacity despite fighting larger odds, and on 24 August 1821 representatives of the [[Spanish Crown]] and Iturbide signed the "[[Treaty of Córdoba]]" and the "[[Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire]]", which recognized the [[independence of Mexico]] under the terms of the "[[Plan of Iguala]]".<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|53–80}} Similarly to José María Morelos' goals.{{Clarify|reason=This sentence appears to be an orphan of the previous—or the next—sentence, but which one?|date=May 2021}} A provision of the [[Plan of Iguala]] of [[Agustín de Iturbide]] bringing about Mexican independence in 1821, also included Catholic exclusivity in the religious sphere. The [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Constitution of 1824]] declared that the official religion of the Republic would be Catholic.

Mexico's short recovery after the War of Independence was soon cut short again by the civil wars, foreign invasion and occupation, and institutional instability of the mid-19th century, which lasted until the government of [[Porfirio Díaz]] reestablished conditions that paved the way for economic growth. The conflicts that arose from the mid-1850s had a profound effect because they were widespread and made themselves perceptible in the vast rural areas of the countries, involved clashes between castes, different ethnic groups, and haciendas, and entailed a deepening of the political and ideological divisions between republicans and monarchists.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=133 |isbn=9781107507180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ}}</ref>

===First Empire and the Early Republic (1821–1855)===
{{Main|First Mexican Empire|First Mexican Republic|Centralist Republic of Mexico}}
[[File:Mexico's Territorial Evolution.png|thumb|The [[territorial evolution of Mexico]] after independence, noting the secession of [[Federal Republic of Central America|Central America]] (purple), [[Chiapas]] annexed from [[Captaincy General of Guatemala|Guatemala]] (blue), losses to the U.S. (red, white and orange) and the reannexation of the [[Republic of Yucatán]] (red)]]

The first thirty-five years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing form of the Mexican State, from a monarchy to a federated republic. There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals, and [[Economic history of Mexico|economic stagnation]]. Catholicism remained the only permitted religious faith and the Catholic Church as an institution retained its [[fueros|special privileges]], prestige, and property, a bulwark of Conservatism. The army, another Conservative institution, also retained its privileges. Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide, became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought a [[First Mexican Empire|constitutional monarch]] from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The young and weak United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court of the emperor and sending a message to Europe via the [[Monroe Doctrine]] not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short (1822–23) and he was overthrown by army officers.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|87–88}}

The successful rebels established the [[First Mexican Republic]]. In 1824, a [[Constitution of 1824|constitution of a federated republic]] was promulgated and former insurgent general [[Guadalupe Victoria]] became the first president of the newly born republic.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|94–95}} Central America, including Chiapas, left the union. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal [[Vicente Guerrero]], a signatory of the [[Plan de Iguala]] that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. As a visibly mixed-race man of modest origins, Guerrero was seen by white political elites as an interloper.<ref>Hale, Charles A. ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968. p. 224</ref> His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General [[Anastasio Bustamante]], led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Ways of ending slavery |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> There was constant strife between Liberals, supporters of a [[federal republic|federal form of decentralized government]] and often called Federalists and their political rivals, the Conservatives, who proposed a [[Unitary state|hierarchical form of government]], were termed Centralists.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|101–115, 125–127}}
[[File:Antonio López de Santa Anna, siglo XIX, óleo sobre tela.png|thumb|left|175px|General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]]]
Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government was in question. Spain attempted to [[Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico|reconquer]] its former colony during the 1820s, but eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-called [[Pastry War]] of 1838–39.<ref>Costeloe, Michael P. "Pastry War" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 4, p. 318. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> Santa Anna lost a leg in combat during this conflict, which he used for political purposes. Emerging as a national hero in defending Mexico was creole army general, [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], who had participated in the overthrow of the emperor, fought the Spanish invasion, and came to dominate the politics for the next 25 years, until his own overthrow in 1855.

Mexico also contended with indigenous groups which controlled territory that Mexico claimed in the north. The [[Comanche Wars|Comanche]] controlled a [[Comanchería|huge territory]] in the sparsely populated region of central and northern Texas.<ref>Weber, David J., ''The Mexican Frontier, 1821–1846: The American Southwest under Mexico,'' University of New Mexico Press, 1982</ref> Wanting to stabilize and develop the frontier, the Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day Texas. The region bordered the United States, and was territory controlled by [[Comanches]]. There were few settlers from central Mexico moving to this remote and hostile territory. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican law. Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule, suspending the constitution and promulgating the [[Siete Leyes|Seven Laws]], which place power in his hands. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the [[Republic of Texas]], the [[Republic of the Rio Grande]] and the [[Republic of Yucatán]].<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|129–137}}

The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the [[Mexican–American War]]. Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. Despite that disastrous loss, Conservative Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again and then was ousted and exiled in the Liberal [[Revolution of Ayutla]].

===Liberal Reform, Second Empire, and Restored Republic (1855–1876)===
{{Main|Second Mexican Republic|La Reforma|Second Mexican Empire}}
[[File:Edouard Manet 022.jpg|thumb|''[[The Execution of Emperor Maximilian]]'', 19 June 1867. Gen. [[Tomás Mejía]], left, Maximiian, center, Gen. [[Miguel Miramón]], right. Painting by [[Édouard Manet]] 1868.]]
The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. It was a prelude to more civil wars and yet another foreign invasion. The [[La Reforma|Liberal Reform]] attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a new [[constitution|Constitution of 1857]], separating Church and State, stripping the Conservative institutions of the Church and the military of their special privileges (''[[fueros]]''); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education.<ref>Britton, John A. "Liberalism" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 739</ref> Conservatives revolted, touching off [[War of the Reform|civil war]] between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–61).

The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on the battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French. Mexican conservatives asked Emperor [[Napoleon III]] to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed Maximilian Hapsburg on the [[Second Mexican Empire|newly established throne]] of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal republic under [[Benito Juárez]] was basically a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the U.S. in April 1865, that government began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, Maximilian remained in Mexico rather than return to Europe. Republican forces captured him and he was executed in Querétaro, along with two Conservative Mexican generals. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, who was "the personification of the embattled republic,"<ref>Hamnett, Brian. "Benito Juárez" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 719–20</ref> as president.

The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily, but also discredited politically for their collaboration with the French invaders. Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism.<ref>Britton, "Liberalism" p. 740.</ref> The Mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed. New military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most notably [[Porfirio Díaz]], a hero of the [[Battle of Puebla|Cinco de Mayo]], who now sought civilian power. Juárez won re-election in 1867, but was challenged by Díaz, who criticized him for running for re-election. Díaz then rebelled, crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office of natural causes in July 1872, and Liberal [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]] became president, declaring a "religion of state" for rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the [[Plan of Tuxtepec]]. Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on the battlefield, Lerdo fled from office, going into exile.<ref>Sullivan, Paul. "Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 736–38</ref> Another army general assumed the presidency of Mexico.

===Porfiriato (1876–1911)===
{{Main|Porfirio Díaz|Porfiriato}}
[[File:'Raymond Special' on the Metlac Bridge. (29876050482).jpg|thumb|right|The Metlac rail bridge in 1897. There was large investment in rail transport during the Porfiriato]]
[[File:Centenario3.jpg|thumb|Celebration of Mexico's first one hundred years of Independence in 1910. Several projects were undertaken for the celebrations, such as the [[Monumento a la Independencia]]]]

After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General [[Porfirio Díaz]] (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of "order and progress". The [[Porfiriato]] was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an expansion of the [[Rail transport in Mexico|railroad network]] and telecommunications, and investments in the arts and sciences.<ref>{{cite web|website=Inside Mexico.com|url=https://www.inside-mexico.com/el-porfiriato-en-mexico/|title=El Porfiriato en Mexico|date=2 February 2018|access-date=18 July 2019|author=Adela M. Olvera|language=es|trans-title=The Porfiriato in Mexico}}</ref> The period was also marked by economic inequality and political repression. Díaz knew the potential for army rebellions, and systematically downsized the expenditure for the force, rather expanding the [[rurales|rural police force]] under direct control of the president. Díaz did not provoke the Catholic Church, coming to a modus vivendi with it; but he did not remove the anticlerical articles from the 1857 Constitution. From the late nineteenth century, Protestants began to make inroads in Mexico.

The government encouraged British and U.S. investment. Commercial agriculture developed in northern Mexico, with many investors from the U.S. acquiring vast ranching estates and expanding irrigated cultivation of crops. The Mexican government ordered a survey of land with the aim of selling it for development. In this period, many indigenous communities lost their lands and the men became [[landless]] wage earners on large landed enterprises (''[[hacienda]]s'').<ref>Hart, John Mason. ''Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico since the Civil War''. Berkeley: University of California Press Du 2002</ref> British and U.S. investors developed extractive mining of copper, lead, and other minerals, as well as petroleum on the Gulf Coast. Changes in Mexican law allowed for private enterprises to own the subsoil rights of land, rather than continuing the colonial law that gave all subsoil rights to the State. An industrial manufacturing sector also developed, particularly in textiles. At the same time, new enterprises gave rise to an industrial work force, which began organizing to gain labor rights and protections.

Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the ''[[científico]]s'' ("scientists").<ref>Buchenau, Jürgen. "Científicos". ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 260–265</ref> The most influential ''cientifco'' was Secretary of Finance [[José Yves Limantour]].<ref>Schmidt, Arthur, "José Ives Limantour" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico'', pp. 746–49. Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.</ref> The Porfirian regime was influenced by [[positivism]].<ref name="cientifico">{{cite web |title=cientifico |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/cientifico|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=7 February 2017|language=en}}</ref> They rejected theology and [[idealism]] in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. As an integral aspect of the liberal project was secular education. The Díaz government led a protracted [[Yaqui Wars|conflict against the Yaqui]] that culminated with the forced relocation of thousands of [[Yaqui]] to Yucatán and Oaxaca.

Díaz's long success did not include planning for a political transition beyond his own presidency. He made no attempt, however, to establish a family dynasty, naming no relative as his successor. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave an [[James Creelman|interview]] where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for a new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family, [[Francisco I. Madero]]. Madero won a surprising amount of political support when Díaz changed his mind an ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato. The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw a decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brenner |first1=Anita |title=The Wind that Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1942 |date=1 January 1984 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292790247 |edition=New}}</ref>

===Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)===
{{Further|Mexican Revolution}}
[[File:Zapatistas and Nacional de Mexico, No. 739 (5655532688).jpg|thumb|Revolutionaries, 1911]]
[[File:Madero en Cuernavaca.jpg|thumb|Candidate [[Francisco I. Madero]] with peasant leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] in [[Cuernavaca]] during the [[Mexican Revolution]]]]

The [[Mexican Revolution]] was a decade-long transformational conflict in Mexico, with consequences to this day.<ref>Benjamin, Thomas. ''La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History''. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000</ref> It saw uprisings against President Díaz, his resignation, an interim presidency, and the democratic election of a rich landowner, [[Francisco I. Madero]] in 1911. In [[Ten Tragic Days|February 1913]], a military coup d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulted in Madero's murder by agents of [[Federal Army]] General [[Victoriano Huerta]]. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, the [[Constitutionalist Army]] overseen by [[Venustiano Carranza]], and a peasant army in the South under [[Emiliano Zapata]], defeated the Federal Army. In 1914 that army was dissolved as an institution. Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, revolutionary armies sought to broker a peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico into civil war again. Constitutionalist general [[Pancho Villa]], commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general, [[Alvaro Obregón]], defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the [[battle of Celaya]] in 1915, and Villa's forces melted away. Carranza became the de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government. In 1916, the winners met at a constitutional convention to draft the [[Constitution of 1917]], which was ratified in February 1917. Said Constitution strengthened the anticlerical provisions that were carried over from the 1857 Constitution.<ref>Matute, Alvaro. "Mexican Revolution: May 1917 – December 1920" in ''Encyclopedia of Mexico''. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 862–864.</ref> With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 population of 15 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/investigations/505_mexicanrevolution.html |title=The Mexican Revolution |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |date=20 November 1910 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/missmill/ |title=Missing millions: the human cost of the Mexican Revolution |author=Robert McCaa |publisher=University of Minnesota Population Center |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

The U.S. has had a history of inference and intervention in Mexico, most notably the Mexican-American War. During the Revolution, the [[William Howard Taft|Taft]] administration supported the Huerta coup against Madero, but when [[Woodrow Wilson]] was inaugurated as president in March 1913, it refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms sales to the Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to [[United States occupation of Veracruz|occupy]] the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted.<ref>{{cite web|website=Library of Congress|title=The Mexican Revolution and the United States in the Collections of the Library of Congress, U.S. Involvement Before 1913 |url=http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/us-involvement-before-1913.html|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref> After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into [[Columbus, New Mexico]], prompting the U.S. to send [[Pancho Villa Expedition|10,000 troops]] led by General [[John J. Pershing]] in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as the U.S. entered World War I.<ref>{{cite web|website=U.S. Department of State archive|date=20 January 2009|access-date=18 July 2019|title=Punitive Expedition in Mexico, 1916–1917|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/108653.htm}}</ref> Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded [[Zimmermann Telegram|telegram]] in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War.<ref>{{cite web|website=The National WWI Museum and Memorial |url=https://www.theworldwar.org/explore/centennial-commemoration/us-enters-war/zimmermann-telegram|title=ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM|access-date=18 July 2019|date=2 March 2017}}</ref> Mexico remained neutral in the conflict.

Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant-leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919.<ref name="miranda"/>{{rp|312}} Carranza had gained support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power he did little to distribute land, and, in fact, returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in Carranza's administration, but returned to his home state of Sonora to position himself to run in the 1920 presidential election. Carranza chose a political and revolutionary no-body to succeed him. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the [[Plan of Agua Prieta]], overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General [[Adolfo de la Huerta]] became interim president, followed the election of General [[Álvaro Obregón]].

===Political consolidation and one-party rule (1920–2000)===
{{See|Institutional Revolutionary Party}}
[[File:PRI logo (Mexico).svg|thumb|left|200px|Logo of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which incorporates the colors of the Mexican flag]]
The first quarter-century of the post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as [[Presidents of Mexico]], including [[Álvaro Obregón]] (1920–24), [[Plutarco Elías Calles]] (1924–28), [[Lázaro Cárdenas]] (1934–40), and [[Manuel Avila Camacho]] (1940–46). Since 1946, no member of the military has been President of Mexico. The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even the army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929.

Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps to [[American-Mexican Claims Commission|settle claims]] with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked a [[Cristero War|major conflict]] with the [[Catholic Church in Mexico|Catholic Church]] and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution. The Church-State conflict was mediated and ended with the aid of the [[Dwight W. Morrow|U.S. Ambassador to Mexico]] and ended with an agreement between the parties in conflict, by means of which the respective fields of action were defined. Although the constitution prohibited reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election. Obregón won the 1928 elections, but was assassinated by a Catholic zealot, causing a political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, since he has just ended his term. He sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the party that was to dominate Mexico until the late twentieth century. Calles declared that the Revolution had moved from ''[[caudillo|caudillismo]]'' (rule by strongmen) to the ''era institucional'' (institutional era).<ref>{{cite web|website=Instituto Nacional de Estudios Historicos de las Revoluciones de Mexico |url=https://inehrm.gob.mx/es/inehrm/Articulo_85_aniversario_de_la_Fundacion_del_Partido_Nacional_Revolucionario_PNR|title=85º ANIVERSARIO DE LA FUNDACIÓN DEL PARTIDO NACIONAL REVOLUCIONARIO (PNR)|access-date=18 July 2019|language=es|trans-title=85th anniversary of the founding of the National Revolutionary Party (PRN)|author=Rafael Hernández Ángeles}}</ref>
[[File:Logo Petróleos Mexicanos.svg|thumb|right|Pemex, the national oil company created in 1938 for reasons of economic nationalism; it continues to provide major revenues for the government]]
Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during the period known as the [[Maximato]] (1929–1934). The Maximato ended during the presidency of [[Lázaro Cárdenas]], who expelled Calles from the country and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the [[Mexican oil expropriation]] in March 1938, which nationalized the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[United Kingdom|Anglo]]-[[Netherlands|Dutch]] oil company known as the [[Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company]]. This movement would result in the creation of the state-owned Mexican oil company [[Pemex]]. This sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Cárdenas's radical measure, but since then the company has played an important role in the economic development of Mexico. Cárdenas's successor, [[Manuel Avila Camacho|Manuel Ávila Camacho]] (1940–1946) was more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during [[World War II]], when Mexico was a significant ally, providing manpower and materiel to aid the war effort.

From 1946 the election of [[Miguel Alemán Valdés|Miguel Alemán]], the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as the [[Mexican miracle]], which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and the increase of inequality in Mexico between urban and rural areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mexican Miracle: 1940–1968|work=World History from 1500|publisher=Emayzine|url=http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/mex9.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403000322/http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/mex9.html|archive-date=3 April 2007|access-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the world by hosting the [[1968 Summer Olympics]]. The government poured huge resources into building new facilities. At the same time, there was political unrest by university students and others with those expenditures, while their own circumstances were difficult. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for weeks before the planned opening of the games, with the government of [[Gustavo Díaz Ordaz]] cracking down. The culmination was the [[Tlatelolco Massacre]],<ref name=MMex>{{Cite book|title=Massacre in Mexico|author=Elena Poniatowska|publisher=Viking, New York|year=1975|isbn=978-0-8262-0817-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmnDdj7eP-wC|author-link=Elena Poniatowska}}</ref> which claimed the lives of around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kennedy |first=Duncan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7513651.stm |title=Mexico's long forgotten dirty war |work=BBC News |date=19 July 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>
[[File:1968 Mexico emblem.svg|thumb|Logo for the 1968 Mexico Olympics]]
[[File:Estudiantes sobre cammión quemado (A68).JPG|thumb|Students in a burned bus during the [[Tlatelolco massacre|protests of 1968]]]]
Although the economy continued to flourish for some, [[distribution of wealth|social inequality]] remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what is now referred to as the [[Mexican Dirty War]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Krauze |first=Enrique |title=Furthering Democracy in Mexico |date=January–February 2006 |publisher=Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85106/enrique-krauze/furthering-democracy-in-mexico.html? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110074536/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85106/enrique-krauze/furthering-democracy-in-mexico.html |archive-date=10 January 2006 |access-date=7 October 2007 }}</ref>

[[Luis Echeverría]], Minister of the Interior under Díaz Ordaz, carrying out the repression during the Olympics, was elected president in 1970. His government had to contend with mistrust of Mexicans and increasing economic problems. He instituted some with electoral reforms.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schedler|first=Andreas|title=Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition|year=2006|publisher=L. Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-58826-440-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-QPAQAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Crandall">{{Cite book|last=Crandall|first=R.|author2=Paz and Roett|title=Mexico's Democracy at Work|chapter=Mexico's Domestic Economy: Policy Options and Choices|publisher=Lynne Reinner Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8018-5655-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160 160]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8jgyZQliQgC|url=https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160}}</ref> Echeverría chose [[José López Portillo]] as his successor in 1976. Economic problems worsened in his early term, then massive reserves of petroleum were located off Mexico's Gulf Coast. Pemex did not have the capacity to develop these reserves itself, and brought in foreign firms. Oil prices had been high because of [[OPEC]]'s lock on oil production, and López Portilla borrowed money from foreign banks for current spending to fund social programs. Those foreign banks were happy to lend to Mexico because the oil reserves were enormous and future revenues were collateral for loans denominated in U.S. dollars. When the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil]] dropped, Mexico's economy collapsed in the [[Latin American debt crisis|1982 Crisis]]. Interest rates soared, the peso devalued, and unable to pay loans, the government defaulted on its [[debt]]. [[Miguel de la Madrid|President Miguel de la Madrid]] (1982–88) resorted to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation.

In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. In [[Baja California]], the [[Ernesto Ruffo Appel|PAN candidate]] was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone presidential victor, [[Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas]], son of former President [[Lázaro Cárdenas]], broke with the PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive [[electoral fraud]], with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City to the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/mexico/government/mexico_government_the_1988_elections.html|title="Mexico The 1988 Elections" (Sources: The Library of the Congress Country Studies, CIA World Factbook)|publisher=Photius Coutsoukis |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> In 1990 the PRI was famously described by [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then there had been major challenges to the PRI's hegemony.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/massacres-disappearances-and-1968-mexicans-remember-the-victims-of-a-perfect-dictatorship-104196 |last=Gomez Romero|first=Luis |title=Massacres, disappearances and 1968: Mexicans remember the victims of a 'perfect dictatorship' |date= 5 October 2018 |website= The Conversation }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1990/09/01/cultura/652140001_850215.html |title=Vargas Llosa: "México es la dictadura perfecta" |date= 1 September 1990 |newspaper= El País |last1=País |first1=Ediciones El }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Reding |first=Andrew |year=1991 |title=Mexico: The Crumbling of the "Perfect Dictatorship" |jstor=40209208 |journal=World Policy Journal |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=255–284}}</ref>
[[File:Nafta.jpg|thumb|right|NAFTA signing ceremony, October 1992. From left to right: (standing) President [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] (Mexico), President [[George H. W. Bush]] (U.S.), and Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] (Canada)]]
Although Salinas won by fraud, he embarked on a program of [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] reforms which fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their [[free-trade agreement]]. In order to do that, the Constitution of 1917 was amended in several important ways. Article 27, which allowed the government to expropriate natural resources and distribute land, was amended to end agrarian reform and to guarantee private owners' property rights. The anti-clerical articles that muzzled religious institutions, especially the Catholic Church, were amended and Mexico reestablished of diplomatic relations with the [[Holy See]], to which the Mexican State did not recognize as a political entity. Signing on to the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) removed Mexico's autonomy over trade policy. The agreement came into effect on 1 January 1994; the same day, the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (EZLN) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against [[neoliberalism]] and [[globalization]].

In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate [[Luis Donaldo Colosio]], Salinas was succeeded by substitute PRI candidate [[Ernesto Zedillo]]. Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with the [[Mexican peso crisis]], requiring a $50 billion [[IMF]] bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by President Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cruz Vasconcelos|first=Gerardo|title=Desempeño Histórico 1914–2004|url=http://www.imef.org.mx/NR/rdonlyres/F722BEDD-A8DE-49BA-AF4F-1A00889CE618/1192/CAPITULOI1.pdf|access-date=17 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060703181721/http://www.imef.org.mx/NR/rdonlyres/F722BEDD-A8DE-49BA-AF4F-1A00889CE618/1192/CAPITULOI1.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2006|language=es}}</ref>

===Contemporary Mexico===
[[File:Vicente Fox flag (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Vicente Fox]] and his opposition [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] won the [[2000 Mexican general election|2000 general election]], ending one-party rule.]]
In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to [[Vicente Fox]] of the opposition [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, [[Felipe Calderón]] from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] then the candidate of the [[Party of the Democratic Revolution]] (PRD).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valles Ruiz |first1=Rosa María |title=Elecciones presidenciales 2006 en México. La perspectiva de la prensa escrita |trans-title=2006 presidential Elections in Mexico. The Perspective of the Press |language=es |journal=Revista mexicana de opinión pública |date=June 2016 |issue=20 |pages=31–51 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2448-49112016000100031 }}</ref> López Obrador, however, [[Controversies of the 2006 Mexican general election|contested the election]] and pledged to create an "alternative government".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reséndiz|first=Francisco|title=Rinde AMLO protesta como "presidente legítimo"|journal=El Universal|year=2006|url=http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/389114.html|language=es}}</ref>

After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the presidency again with the election of [[Enrique Peña Nieto]], the governor of the [[State of Mexico]] from 2005 to 2011. However, he won with a plurality of about 38%, and did not have a legislative majority.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/mexico/9369278/Enrique-Pena-Nieto-wins-Mexican-presidential-election.html|title=Enrique Pena Nieto wins Mexican presidential election|date=2 July 2012|work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Fuerza del Estado Michoacán.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Military forces during an anti-drug operation in [[Michoacán]]. Since 2006 Mexico has been at [[Mexican drug war|war]] against various drug cartels, costing the lives of tens of thousands of people.]]
After founding the new political party [[National Regeneration Movement|MORENA]], Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, includes parties and politicians from all over the political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority in both the upper and lower congress chambers. AMLO's (one of his many nicknames) success is attributed to the country's other strong political alternatives exhausting their chances as well as the politician adopting a moderate discourse with focus in conciliation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/lopez-obrador-a-leftist-wins-sweeping-mandate-in-mexican-presidential-election/2018/07/02/4c5e1de4-7be3-11e8-ac4e-421ef7165923_story.html|title=López Obrador, winner of Mexican election, given broad mandate|last=Sieff|first=Kevin|website=Washington Post}}</ref>

Mexico has contended with [[Crime in Mexico|high crime rates]], official corruption, [[Mexican drug war|narcotrafficking]], and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s, with [[neoliberal]] reforms, but Pemex, the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Gaurav |title=Mexico's Oil And Gas Industry Privatization Efforts Nearing Critical Phase |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/gauravsharma/2018/05/10/mexicos-oil-and-gas-industry-privatization-efforts-nearing-critical-phase/ |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Forbes |date=10 May 2018}}</ref> In AMLO's push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex has been arrested.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Barrera Diaz |first1=Cyntia |last2=Villamil |first2=Justin |last3=Still |first3=Amy |title=Pemex Ex-CEO Arrest Puts AMLO in Delicate Situation |url=https://www.rigzone.com/news/wire/pemex_exceo_arrest_puts_amlo_in_delicate_situation-14-feb-2020-161099-article/ |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Rigzone |agency=Bloomberg |date=14 February 2020}}</ref>

Although there were fears of electoral fraud in Mexico's 2018 presidential [[2018 Mexican general election|elections]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Mexico's presidential front runner on high alert for election fraud ahead of Sunday's vote |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/americas/article/2153214/mexicos-presidential-front-runner-high-alert-election-fraud |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=South China Morning Post |agency=Associated Press |date=30 June 2018}}</ref> the results gave a mandate to AMLO.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10867.pdf |title=Mexico's 2018 Elections: Results and Potential Implications |date=17 July 2018 |website=fas.org |access-date=2021-04-12}}</ref> On 1 December 2018, [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] was sworn in as the new President of Mexico. After winning a landslide victory in the July 2018 presidential elections, he became the first leftwing president for decades.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-46415993|title=Mexico's López Obrador sworn in as first leftist president in decades|work=BBC News|date=2 December 2018}}</ref>

In April 2021, the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] warned travellers that there was a very high level of [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] in Mexico.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/covid-4/coronavirus-mexico|title=COVID-19 in Mexico - COVID-19 Very High - Level 4: COVID-19 Very High - Travel Health Notices | Travelers' Health | CDC|website=wwwnc.cdc.gov}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Mexico}}
[[File:Mexico topo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Topographic map of Mexico]]

Mexico is located between latitudes [[14th parallel north|14°]] and [[33rd parallel north|33°N]], and longitudes [[86th meridian west|86°]] and [[119th meridian west|119°W]] in the southern portion of North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the [[North American Plate]], with small parts of the [[Baja California peninsula]] on the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]] and [[Cocos Plate]]s. [[Geophysics|Geophysically]], some geographers include the territory east of the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] (around 12% of the total) within Central America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grec.cat/ |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515192216/http://www.grec.cat/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 May 2016 |title=Nord-Amèrica, in Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana |publisher=Grec.cat |access-date=17 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parsons |first=Alan |author2=Jonathan Schaffer |title=Geopolitics of oil and natural gas |publisher=U.S. Department of State |series=Economic Perspectives |date=May 2004}}</ref>

Mexico's total area is {{convert|1972550|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, making it the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|world's 13th largest country by total area]]. It has coastlines on the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Gulf of California]], as well as the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and [[Caribbean Sea]], the latter two forming part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MuN7xR6wR-4C&pg=PA405 |page=405 |last=Vargas |first=Jorge A. |title=Mexico and the Law of the Sea: Contributions and Compromises |year=2011 |isbn=9789004206205}}</ref> Within these seas are about {{convert|6000|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of islands (including the remote Pacific [[Guadalupe Island]] and the [[Revillagigedo Islands]]). From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over {{convert|2000|mi|km|0|abbr=on}} in length.

On its north, Mexico shares a {{convert|3141|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} [[Mexico–United States border|border with the United States]]. The meandering [[Río Bravo del Norte]] (known as the Rio Grande in the United States) defines the border from [[Ciudad Juárez]] east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican border west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an {{convert|871|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} border with [[Guatemala]] and a {{convert|251|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} border with [[Belize]].

Mexico is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as [[Sierra Madre Oriental]] and [[Sierra Madre Occidental]], which are the extension of the [[Rocky Mountains]] from northern North America. From east to west at the center, the country is crossed by the [[Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]] also known as the Sierra Nevada. A fourth mountain range, the [[Sierra Madre del Sur]], runs from [[Michoacán]] to [[Oaxaca]].<ref name="nationsencyclopedia1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Mexico-TOPOGRAPHY.html |title=Mexico Topography |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |date=16 October 2007 |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref>

As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and the highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: [[Pico de Orizaba]] ({{convert|5700|m|ft|0|disp=or|abbr=on}}), [[Popocatépetl]] ({{convert|5462|m|ft|0|disp=or|abbr=on}}) and [[Iztaccihuatl]] ({{convert|5286|m|ft|0|disp=or|abbr=on}}) and the [[Nevado de Toluca]] ({{convert|4577|m|ft|0|disp=or|abbr=on}}). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys between these four elevations: [[Toluca]], [[Greater Mexico City]] and [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]].<ref name="nationsencyclopedia1"/>

An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the [[Chicxulub crater]]. The scientific consensus is that the [[Chicxulub impactor]] was responsible for the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]].

===Climate===
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
{{Main|Climate of Mexico}}
[[File:Mexico Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Mexico map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]]
The [[Tropic of Cancer]] effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems.

Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to {{convert|1000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]), have a yearly median temperature between {{convert|24|to|28|C|F|1}}. Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a {{convert|5|C-change|0}} difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts, except for the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja, are also vulnerable to serious [[tropical cyclone|hurricanes]] during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from {{convert|20|to|24|C|F|1|disp=or}}) because of more moderate conditions during the winter.

Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes generally above {{convert|2000|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. This gives them a year-round temperate climate with yearly temperature averages (from {{convert|16|to|18|C|F|1|disp=or}}) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the year.

Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than {{convert|2000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in the north like [[Monterrey]], [[Hermosillo]], and [[Mexicali]] experience temperatures of {{convert|40|C|F}} or more in summer. In the [[Sonoran Desert]] temperatures reach {{convert|50|C|F}} or more.

===Biodiversity===
[[File:Mexican wolf lounging.jpg|thumb|[[Mexican wolf]]]]
[[File:Graywhale_MMC.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Gray whale]]]]
Mexico ranks fourth<ref>{{cite web|title=Ocupa México cuarto lugar mundial de biodiversidad|url=http://eleconomista.com.mx/sociedad/2011/11/05/ocupa-mexico-cuarto-lugar-mundial-biodiversidad|website=El Economista|access-date=5 February 2017|language=es}}</ref> in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 [[megadiverse countries]]. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity.<ref name="SEMARNAT">{{cite web|title=Biodiversidad de México |publisher=SEMARNAT |url=http://cruzadabosquesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html |access-date=7 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007045210/http://cruzadabosquesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html |archive-date=7 October 2007}}</ref> Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in [[reptile]]s with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in [[amphibian]]s with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversidad en México|publisher=CONEVYT|url=http://oregon.conevyt.org.mx/actividades/diversidad/lectura_biodiversidad.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007013648/http://oregon.conevyt.org.mx/actividades/diversidad/lectura_biodiversidad.htm|archive-date=7 October 2007|access-date=7 October 2007}}</ref> Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in [[ecosystem]]s and fourth in overall species.<ref name="SNIB"/> About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislations.<ref name="SNIB">{{cite web|title=Sistema Nacional sobre la Biodiversidad en México|publisher=CONABIO|url=http://www.conabio.gob.mx/institucion/snib/doctos/acerca.html|access-date=7 October 2007}}</ref>

{{as of|2002|alt=In 2002}}, Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil.<ref name="autogenerated2002">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1854188.stm |title=Mexico's 'devastating' forest loss |work=BBC News |date=4 March 2002 |access-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> It had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity |journal=Nature Communications |date=8 December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=5978 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> The government has taken another initiative in the late 1990s to broaden the people's knowledge, interest and use of the country's esteemed biodiversity, through the [[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad]].

In Mexico, {{convert|170000|km2|sqmi|0}} are considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 [[List of national parks of Mexico|national parks]], 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species).<ref name="SEMARNAT"/>

The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest of the world many widely used [[Agriculture|food crops]] and [[edible plants]]. Some of Mexico's native [[culinary art|culinary]] ingredients include: chocolate, [[avocado]], [[tomato]], maize, [[vanilla]], [[guava]], [[chayote]], [[Dysphania ambrosioides|epazote]], [[Sweet potato|camote]], [[jícama]], [[nopal]], [[zucchini]], [[Crataegus mexicana|tejocote]], [[Corn smut|huitlacoche]], [[sapote]], [[mamey sapote]], many varieties of [[bean]]s, and an even greater variety of [[chili pepper|chiles]], such as the [[habanero]] and the [[jalapeño]]. Most of these names come from indigenous languages like [[Nahuatl]].

Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of [[bioprospecting]] by international research bodies.<ref>Hayden, Cori. 2003. ''When Nature Goes Public: The Making and Unmaking of Bioproscpecting in Mexico''. Princeton University Press.</ref> The first highly successful instance being the discovery in 1947 of the tuber "[[Mexican barbasco trade|Barbasco]]" (''[[Dioscorea composita]]'') which has a high content of [[diosgenin]], revolutionizing the production of [[synthetic hormones]] in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of [[combined oral contraceptive pill]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laveaga |first1=Gabriela Soto |title=Jungle Laboratories: Mexican Peasants, National Projects, and the Making of the Pill |date=2009 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-9196-8 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
===Government===
{{Main|Federal government of Mexico}}
[[File:AMLO_in_white_house.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] [[President of Mexico]]]]
[[File:NewSenateBldgMexicoCity.jpg|thumb|right|200px|New [[Senate]] building on [[Paseo de la Reforma]] and Insurgentes in Mexico City]]
The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is [[Representative democracy|representative]], democratic and [[republicanism|republican]] based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments and the municipal governments. According to the constitution, all constituent states of the federation must have a republican form of government composed of three branches: the executive, represented by a governor and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a [[List of Mexican state legislatures|unicameral congress]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livingmexico.com/government.html|title=Living México – The most complete online guide for information on Mexico.|last=https://www.sipuebla.com|website=www.livingmexico.com|language=en|access-date=27 January 2019}}</ref>{{Original research inline|date=September 2017}} and the judiciary, which will include a state Supreme Court of Justice. They also have their own civil and judicial codes.

The federal [[legislature]] is the [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Congress of the Union]], composed of the [[Senate of the Republic (Mexico)|Senate of the Republic]] and the [[Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)|Chamber of Deputies]]. The Congress makes [[federal law]], declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.<ref name="congress">{{cite web|title=Articles 50 to 79|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref>

The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by a system of [[parallel voting]] that includes plurality and [[proportional representation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Third Title, First Chapter, About Electoral systems |work=Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures) |date=15 August 1990 |publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States |url=http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |access-date=3 October 2007 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025020343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref> The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by [[Plurality voting system|plurality vote]] in [[single-member district]]s (the [[Federal electoral districts of Mexico|federal electoral districts]]) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with [[closed list|closed party lists]]<ref name="COFIPE_congreso">{{cite web|title=Third Title, First Chapter, About Electoral systems, Article 11–1 |work=Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures) |date=15 August 1990 |publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States |url=http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |access-date=3 October 2007 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025020343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref> for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fourth Title, Second Chapter, About coalitions, Article 59–1 |work=Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures) |date=15 August 1990 |publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States |url=http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |access-date=3 October 2007 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025020343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref> The Senate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the first minority or first-runner up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists.<ref name="COFIPE_congreso"/>

The [[Executive (government)|executive]] is the [[President of Mexico|President of the United Mexican States]], who is the [[head of state]] and [[head of government|government]], as well as the [[commander-in-chief]] of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the [[Mexican Executive Cabinet|Cabinet]] and other officers. The President is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the power to [[veto]] bills.<ref>{{cite web|title=Articles 80 to 93|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Suprema4.jpg|thumbnail|Site of the [[National Supreme Court of Justice|Supreme Court of Justice]]]]
The highest organ of the [[Judiciary|judicial branch]] of government is the [[National Supreme Court of Justice|Supreme Court of Justice]], the national [[supreme court]], which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the [[Federal Electoral Tribunal]], collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Articles 90 to 107|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006|access-date=3 October 2007}}</ref>

===Politics===
{{Main|Politics of Mexico}}
Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] (PRI), a [[catch-all party]]<ref>{{cite book |editor=Niko Vorobyov |title=Dopeworld: Adventures in Drug Lands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHUKBAAAQBAJ&q=taiwan+far-right+NP&pg=PA44 |quote= ... Mexico spent most of the twentieth century governed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI, a bigtent, catch-all alliance that included everyone ... |date=2019 |publisher=[[Hachette UK]]|isbn=9781317755098 }}</ref> and member of the [[Socialist International]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pri.org.mx/PriistasTrabajando/saladeprensa/comunicados/noticia.aspx?x=1485|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217142341/http://www.pri.org.mx/PriistasTrabajando/saladeprensa/comunicados/noticia.aspx?x=1485|archive-date=17 December 2008 |title=Entrevista a la Lic. Beatriz Paredes Rangel, Presidenta dle Comité Ejecutivo Nacional del PRI |date=17 December 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the [[Mexican Revolution]] and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then; the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the [[Christian Democrat Organization of America]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odca.org.mx/miembros.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714033103/http://www.odca.org.mx/miembros.html|archive-date=14 July 2008 |title=Miembros Titulares |publisher=ODCA |date=14 July 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> and the [[Party of the Democratic Revolution]] (PRD) a left-wing party,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prd.org.mx/portal/documentos/estatuto_xi.pdf |title=Estatuto del Partido de la Revolución Democrática |access-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116235928/http://www.prd.org.mx/portal/documentos/estatuto_xi.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. PRD emerged after what has now been proven was a stolen election in 1988,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Tech.com|url=http://tech.mit.edu/V124/N11/wn-mexico-11.11w.html |title=Former Mexican President Reveals '88 Presidential Election Was Rigged|author=Ginger Thompson|date=9 March 2004|access-date=19 July 2019}}</ref> and has won numerous state and local elections since then. PAN won its first governorship in 1989, and won the presidency in 2000 and 2006.<ref>{{cite web|website=Televisa.News |url=https://noticieros.televisa.com/mexico/historia-partido-accion-nacional/|title=Historia del Partido Acción Nacional|date=14 September 2014|access-date=19 July 2019}}</ref>

A new political party, [[National Regeneration Movement]] (MORENA), a leftist-populist party, emerged after the 2012 election and dominated the [[2018 Mexican general election]].<ref>{{cite web|website=Dinero en Imagen|title=¿Qué es Morena, y cuándo se fundó |url=https://www.dineroenimagen.com/actualidad/que-es-morena-y-cuando-se-fundo/101166|date=5 July 2018|access-date=19 July 2019|language=es |trans-title=What is Morena, and when was it founded?}}</ref>

Unlike many Latin American countries, the military in Mexico does not participate in politics and is under civilian control.<ref>Camp, ''Generals in the Palacio'' p.6</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Mexico}}
[[File:Alfonso_Garcia_Robles_1981.jpg|right|thumb|[[Alfonso García Robles]] diplomat who received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1982.]]

The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the [[President of Mexico]]<ref name="CPEUM89"/> and managed through the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Mexico)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]].<ref name="SRE">{{cite web|author=Internal Rules of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Article 2, Section 1 |date=10 August 2001 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.sre.gob.mx/acerca/marco_normativo/reglamento.htm |access-date=28 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611012801/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acerca/marco_normativo/reglamento.htm |archive-date=11 June 2008|language=es}}</ref> The principles of the [[foreign policy]] are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for [[international law]] and [[Sovereign state|legal equality of states]], their [[sovereignty]] and [[independence]], trend to [[non-interventionism]] in the domestic affairs of other countries, [[Dispute resolution|peaceful resolution of conflicts]], and promotion of [[international security|collective security]] through active participation in [[international organizations]].<ref name="CPEUM89">{{cite web|author=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States |title=Article 89, Section 10 |date=5 February 1917 |publisher=Chamber of Deputies |url=http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/1.pdf |access-date=28 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825041639/http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/1.pdf |archive-date=25 August 2007|language=es}}</ref> Since the 1930s, the [[Estrada Doctrine]] has served as a crucial complement to these principles.<ref name=estradadoctrine>{{cite web|last=Palacios Treviño |first=Jorge |title=La Doctrina Estrada y el Principio de la No-Intervención |url=http://www.diplomaticosescritores.org/obras/DOCTRINAESTRADA.pdf |access-date=4 April 2009 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206085102/http://diplomaticosescritores.org/obras/DOCTRINAESTRADA.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2009 }}</ref>

Mexico is founding member of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations,<ref>{{cite web|author=UN |title=United Nations Member States |date=7 November 1945 |publisher=UN official website |url=https://www.un.org/members/list.shtml#m |access-date=6 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417145758/http://www.un.org/members/list.shtml |archive-date=17 April 2009 }}</ref> the [[Organization of American States]],<ref name="Velázquez Flores 2007, p. 145">Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 145.</ref> the [[Organization of Ibero-American States]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Organization of Ibero-American States |title=Members |publisher=OEI official website |url=http://www.oei.es/acercaoei.htm |access-date=6 April 2009|language=es}}</ref> the [[OPANAL]]<ref>{{cite web|author=OPANAL |title=Members |publisher=OPANAL official website |url=http://www.opanal.org/opanal/about/about-i.htm |access-date=6 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814205200/http://opanal.org/opanal/about/about-i.htm |archive-date=14 August 2009 }}</ref> and the [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States|CELAC]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=El Presidente Felipe Calderón Hinojosa en la Ceremonia de Entrega de la Secretaría Pro Témpore del Grupo de Río |date=7 March 2007 |publisher=Gobierno Federal |url=http://portal2.sre.gob.mx/gruporio/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823035712/http://portal2.sre.gob.mx/gruporio/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=2 |archive-date=23 August 2009 |access-date=6 April 2009|language=es}}</ref> In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million [[American dollar|dollars]] to the United Nations regular budget.<ref name="unbudget">{{cite web|author=United Nations |title=Regular Budget Payments of Largest Payers |year=2008 |publisher=Global Policy |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/finance/tables/reg-budget/large08.htm |access-date=4 April 2009}}</ref> In addition, it was the only Latin American member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] since it joined in 1994 until [[Chile]] gained full membership in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=Members |date=18 May 1994 |publisher=OECD official website |url=http://www.oecd.org/document/58/0,3343,en_2649_201185_1889402_1_1_1_1,00.html |access-date=6 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chile joins the OECD's Economic Club |date=12 January 2010 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/business/2010/01/100112_chile_oecd_biz.shtml |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref>

Mexico is considered a [[regional power]]<ref name="regionalpower">{{cite web|title=Japan's Regional Diplomacy, Latin America and the Caribbean|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/2006/05.pdf|access-date=4 April 2009}}</ref><ref name="regionalpower2">{{cite web|title=Latin America: Region is losing ground to competitors|publisher=Oxford Analytica|url=http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098 |access-date=4 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024190633/http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098 |archive-date=24 October 2007}}</ref> hence its presence in major economic groups such as the [[G8+5]] and the [[G-20 major economies|G-20]]. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a [[Reform of the United Nations Security Council|reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods]]<ref name="Foreign Affairs 2005 p. 215">Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215.</ref> with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the [[Coffee Club]].<ref name="coffeeclub">{{cite news |author=Maggie Farley |title=Mexico, Canada Introduce Third Plan to Expand Security Council |date=22 July 2005 |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/22/world/fg-unreform22 |access-date=4 April 2009}}</ref>

After the [[Independence of Mexico|War of Independence]], the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its northern neighbor, [[Economy of Mexico|largest trading partner]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilateral Trade |year=2006 |publisher=Embassy of the U.S. in Mexico |url=http://usembassy-mexico.gov/eng/eataglance_trade.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827020501/http://usembassy-mexico.gov/eng/eataglance_trade.html |archive-date=27 August 2009 |access-date=28 March 2009}}</ref> and the most [[superpower|powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Kim Richard Nossal |title=Lonely Superpower or Unapologetic Hyperpower? Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era |date=29 June – 2 July 1999 |publisher=Queen's University |url=http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |access-date=28 March 2009 |archive-date=26 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526100449/http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mexico supported the [[Cuban Revolution|Cuban government]] since its establishment in the early 1960s,<ref name="keller">{{cite web|author=Renata Keller |title=Capitalizing on Castro: Mexico's Foreign Relations with Cuba, 1959–1969 |year=2009 |publisher=Latin American Network Information Center |url=http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llilas/ilassa/2009/keller.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513114515/http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llilas/ilassa/2009/keller.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2011 |access-date=28 March 2009}}</ref> the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista revolution]] in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,<ref name="salaverry">{{cite web|author=Salaverry, Jorge |title=Evolution of Mexican Foreign Policy |date=11 March 1988 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/latinamerica/bg638.cfm |access-date=28 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313091909/http://www.heritage.org/Research/LatinAmerica/bg638.cfm |archive-date=13 March 2009}}</ref> and leftist revolutionary groups in [[El Salvador]] during the 1980s.<ref name="elsalvador">{{cite web |title=El Salvador in the 1980s |publisher=Historical Text Archive |url=http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=345 |access-date=28 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501065903/http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=345 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Felipe Calderón]]'s administration (2006–2012) put a greater emphasis on relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.<ref name="Calderon FP">{{cite web|language=es |author=Dirección General de Coordinación Política |title=Se hará política exterior de Estado: Patricia Espinosa |date=2 December 2008 |publisher=Senate of the Republic |url=http://www.senado.gob.mx/gace.php?sesion=2008/12/04/1&documento=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513104203/http://www.senado.gob.mx/gace.php?sesion=2008%2F12%2F04%2F1&documento=4 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 May 2011 |access-date=29 March 2009}}</ref> [[Enrique Peña Nieto]] (2012–2018) emphasized economic issues and foreign investment, particularly the now-defunct [[Trans-Pacific Partnership]].<ref>{{cite web|website=Shaping the Pacific Alliance|title=Mexico's Foreign Policy during the Presidency of Enrique Peña Nieto|year=2018|access-date=19 July 2019|author=Ana Maria Palacio|url=http://pacificallianceblog.com/mexicos-foreign-policy-presidency-enrique-pena-nieto/}}</ref> [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] has taken a cautious approach, unwilling to challenge U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] on either trade or migration, while maintaining neutrality on [[Venezuelan protests (2014–present)|Venezuela]] and welcoming Chinese money.<ref>{{cite web|website=Global Americans|url=https://theglobalamericans.org/2019/02/amlos-cautious-foreign-policy/|title=AMLO's cautious foreign policy|author=Greg Weeks|date=15 February 2019|access-date=19 July 2019}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Mexican Armed Forces}}
{{See also|Military history of Mexico}}
[[File:Marina-Panther-Unitasgold2009.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Mexican Navy]] [[Eurocopter]]]]
The Mexican military "provides a unique example of a military leadership's transforming itself into a civilian political elite, simultaneously transferring the basis of power from the army to a civilian state."<ref>Camp, Roderic Ai. ''Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico''. New York: Oxford University Press 1992, p.6</ref> The transformation was brought about by revolutionary generals in the 1920s and 1930s, following the demise of the [[Federal Army]] following its complete defeat during the decade-long Mexican Revolution.<ref>Liewen, Edwin. ''Mexican Militarism''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1968</ref>

The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches: the [[Mexican Army]] (which includes the [[Mexican Air Force]]), and the [[Mexican Navy]]. The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics;<ref name="impreso.milenio.com"/><ref name="Mexican Naval missile">{{cite web|url=http://www.expreso.com.mx/PortalNovo/sitio/nota.php?cod_idioma=3&cod_conteudo=9320&cod=274&tipoINICIO=&codconteudoINICIO=9320 |title=Mexican Naval missile (in Spanish) |publisher=Expreso.com.mx |access-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702201536/http://www.expreso.com.mx/PortalNovo/sitio/nota.php?cod_idioma=3&cod_conteudo=9320&cod=274&tipoINICIO=&codconteudoINICIO=9320 |archive-date=2 July 2013}}</ref> military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.semar.gob.mx/informes/nueva_realidad_2004/pag_20.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041111032722/http://www.semar.gob.mx/informes/nueva_realidad_2004/pag_20.htm|archive-date=11 November 2004 |title=Buque logístico multipropósito |language=es |date=11 November 2004 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

In recent years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military by designing as well as manufacturing its own arms,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegunzone.com/556dw-15.html |title=The 5.56 X 45 mm: 2006 |publisher=Thegunzone.com |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807101157/http://www.thegunzone.com/556dw-15.html |archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> missiles,<ref name="Mexican Naval missile"/> aircraft,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/09-07-2007/0004658596&E |title=Hydra Technologies Surprises UAV Industry with Mexican-Made System, Earns Coveted Award at AUVSI's Unmanned Systems North America 2007 Show in D.C |publisher=.prnewswire.com |access-date=30 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403144418/http://www2.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104 |archive-date=3 April 2011 }}</ref> vehicles, heavy weaponry, electronics,<ref name="impreso.milenio.com"/> defense systems,<ref name="impreso.milenio.com"/> armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavy naval vessels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.semar.gob.mx/boletin/2006/bol_225_06.htm |title=Mexican navy 2006 activities official report |publisher=Semar.gob.mx |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the [[Mexican Drug War|war on drugs]], increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, [[helicopters]], digital war-fighting technologies,<ref name="impreso.milenio.com">{{cite web|author=Loke |url=http://impreso.milenio.com/node/8696274 |title=Capacitarán a militares en combates con rifles láser | Ediciones Impresas Milenio |publisher=Impreso.milenio.com |access-date=30 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514075604/http://impreso.milenio.com/node/8696274 |archive-date=14 May 2010}}</ref> urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub638.pdf |title=Strategy on recent equipment purchases: The Mexican Armed Forces in Transition |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]] in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Tlatelolco/Tlatelolco-i.htm |title=Text of the Treaty of Tlatelolco |publisher=Opanal.org |date=27 November 1963 |access-date=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430200457/http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Tlatelolco/Tlatelolco-i.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> In 1970, Mexico's national institute for nuclear research successfully refined weapons grade uranium<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inin.gob.mx/ |title=instituto nacional de investigaciones nucleares |publisher=Inin.gob.mx |access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=March 2011}} which is used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexico agreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2010/04/13/Mexico-to-slash-weapons-grade-uranium/UPI-91401271180679/ |title=Mexico to slash weapons-grade uranium |publisher=UPI.com |access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8618066.stm |work=BBC News |title=Russia and US sign plutonium pact |date=13 April 2010}}</ref> Mexico signed the UN treaty on the [[Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons|Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts,<ref>{{cite web|language=es|author=Gustavo Iruegas |title=Adiós a la neutralidad |date=27 April 2007 |work=La Jornada |url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2007/04/27/index.php?section=opinion&article=023a2pol |access-date=4 April 2009}}</ref> [[Mexico in World War II|with the exception of World War II]]. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the [[Constitution of Mexico|Constitution]] to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in [[peacekeeping|peacekeeping missions]], or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.<ref name="neutral">{{cite web|author1=Ricardo Gómez |author2=Andrea Merlos |name-list-style=amp |title=Diputados, en Favor de Derogar Neutralidad en Guerras |date=20 April 2007 |publisher=El Universal |url=http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/150273.html |access-date=4 April 2009|language=es}}</ref>

===Law enforcement===
{{main|Law enforcement in Mexico}}
[[File:FederalPoliceDF.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Federal Police (Mexico)|Federal Police]] headquarters in [[Mexico City]]]]
Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has different prerogatives and responsibilities. Local and state police departments are primarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas the [[Mexican Federal Police]] are in charge of specialized duties. All levels report to the Secretaría de Seguridad Pública (Secretary of Public Security). The General Attorney's Office (Fiscalía General de la República, FGR) is a constitutional autonomous organism in charge of investigating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, mainly those related to drug and arms trafficking,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mexidata.info/id2684.html |title=An Inside Look at Mexican Guns and Arms Trafficking |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125114503/http://mexidata.info/id2684.html |archive-date=25 November 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> espionage, and bank robberies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/mexico/national_security/mexico_national_security_police_and_law_enfor~516.html |title=Mexico Police and Law Enforcement Organizations |publisher=Photius.com |date=1 January 1994 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> The FGR operates the [[Federal Ministerial Police]] (Policia Federal Ministerial, PMF) an investigative and preventive agency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgr.gob.mx/Combate%20a%20la%20Delincuencia/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501122159/http://www.pgr.gob.mx/Combate%20a%20la%20Delincuencia/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion.asp|archive-date=1 May 2007 |title=Agencia Federal de Investigacion. Procuraduría General de la República |date=1 May 2007 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

While the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, serious abuses of power have been reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods.<ref name=brit-mex>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico |title=Mexico |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=6 March 2011}}</ref> The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to the officials who ignore its recommendations.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10696136 |title=Big, expensive and weirdly spineless |publisher=The Economist |date=14 February 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> By law, all defendants have the rights that assure them fair trials and humane treatment; however, the system is overburdened and overwhelmed with several problems.<ref name=brit-mex/>

Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime and fraud, most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens.<ref name=brit-mex/> The ''Global Integrity Index'' which measures the existence and effectiveness of national anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st behind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://report.globalintegrity.org/globalindex/results.cfm |title=Global Integrity Report |publisher=Report.globalintegrity.org |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124001/http://report.globalintegrity.org/globalindex/results.cfm |archive-date=3 October 2011}}</ref> In 2008, president Calderón proposed a major reform of the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the Union, which included oral trials, the presumption of innocence for defendants, the authority of local police to investigate crime—until then a prerogative of special police units—and several other changes intended to speed up trials.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/07/world/americas/07mexico.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |title=Mexico's Congress Passes Overhaul of Justice Laws |author=McKinley, JC Jr |work=The New York Times |date=7 March 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

===Crime===
{{Main|Crime in Mexico|Mexican Drug War|Human trafficking in Mexico}}

Drug cartels are a major concern in Mexico.<ref name=Cartel>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/07/17/world/main5167018.shtml |title=Mexico Boosts Force in War with Drug Gang |publisher=Cbsnews.com |date=17 July 2009 |access-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> [[Mexican Drug War|Mexico's drug war]], ongoing since 2006, has left over 120,000 dead and perhaps another 37,000 missing.<ref name=cfrdeaths>{{cite news |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/mexicos-drug-war|title=Mexico's Drug War|work=Council on Foreign Relations|date=24 January 2019 |access-date=19 July 2019|author1=Brianna Lee|author2=Danielle Renwick|author3=Rocio Cara Labrador}}</ref> The Mexican [[drug cartel]]s have as many as 100,000 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/mar/03/100000-foot-soldiers-in-cartels/ |title=100,000 foot soldiers in Mexican cartels |work=The Washington Times |date=3 March 2009 |access-date=7 May 2012}}</ref> Mexico's [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía|National Geography and Statistics Institute]] estimated that in 2014, one-fifth of Mexicans were victims of some sort of crime.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Franco |first1=Yanira |title=Uno de cada cinco, víctima de algún delito: Inegi |trans-title=One in five, victim of a crime: Inegi |url=https://www.milenio.com/policia/uno-de-cada-cinco-victima-de-algun-delito-inegi |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Milenio |date=1 October 2015 |location=Mexico City |language=es}}</ref> The U.S. [[Department of State]] warns its citizens to exercise increased caution when traveling in Mexico, issuing travel advisories on its website.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mexico Travel Advisory |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/mexico-travel-advisory.html |website=Travel.State.Gov |publisher=U.S. Department of State — Bureau of Consular Affairs |access-date=4 June 2020 |date=17 December 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Ayotz1napa ohs202.jpg|thumb|right|Demonstration on 26 September 2015, in the first anniversary of the [[2014 Iguala mass kidnapping|disappearance of the 43 students]] in the Mexican town of [[Iguala]]]]
President [[Felipe Calderón]] (2006–12) made eradicating organized crime one of the top priorities of his administration by deploying military personnel to cities where drug cartels operate. This move was criticized by the opposition parties and the National Human Rights Commission for escalating the violence,<ref>{{citation|newspaper=La Jornada|location=Mexico City|date=5 February 2018|access-date=11 July 2019|title=Gobierno de Calderón mantiene récord en violaciones a derechos|language=es|trans-title=Government of Calderon has a record of violations of rights |url=https://www.jornada.com.mx/2018/02/05/politica/003n1pol#|last=Olivares Alonso|first=Emir}}</ref> but its effects have been positively evaluated by the US State Department's [[Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs]] as having obtained "unprecedented results" with "many important successes".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2008/vol1/html/100777.htm|title=International Narcotics Control Strategy Report |publisher=Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs |year=2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdown against cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged criminals have been successfully killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm |title=Mexico country profile |work=BBC News |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|agency=AP |url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/12/16/killed-mexicos-drug-violence/ |title=More Than 30,000 Killed in Mexico's Drug Violence |publisher=Fox News |date=1 February 2010 |access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref> Of the total drug-related violence 4% are innocent people,<ref name="MSNBC">{{cite web |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29413556 |title=Mexican president: We're not losing drug war |access-date=9 January 2011 |work=NBC News}}</ref> mostly by-passers and people trapped in between shootings; 90% accounts for criminals and 6% for military personnel and police officers.<ref name="MSNBC"/> In October 2007, President Calderón and US president [[George W. Bush]] announced the [[Mérida Initiative]], a plan of law enforcement cooperation between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/456623.html |title=Otorgará Iniciativa Mérida 500 mdd a México en primer año |author=Gómez, Natalia |publisher=El Universal |date=22 October 2007 |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030115906/http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/456623.html |archive-date=30 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

More than 100 journalists and [[List of journalists and media workers killed in Mexico|media workers have been killed or disappeared]] since 2000, and most of these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with few perpetrators arrested and convicted.<ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom of Expression in Mexico|url=http://www.pen.org/campaign/freedom-expression-mexico|publisher=[[PEN American Center]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723210845/http://www.pen.org/campaign/freedom-expression-mexico|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Alcázar|first1=Jesús|title=Más de 100 periodistas asesinados en México desde el año 2000|url=http://www.elmundo.es/internacional/2014/06/17/53a089ccca47415c528b45a4.html|agency=[[EFE]]|publisher=[[El Mundo (Spain)]]|date=17 July 2014|language=es}}</ref>

The [[2014 Iguala mass kidnapping|mass kidnapping]] of the 43 students in [[Iguala]] on 26 September 2014 triggered nationwide protests against the government's weak response to the disappearances and widespread corruption that gives free rein to criminal organizations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tuckman |first1=Jo |title=Mexicans in biggest protest yet over missing students |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/mexicans-protesting-about-missing-students-scuffle-with-police |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |location=Mexico City}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Mexico|States of Mexico|Municipalities of Mexico|List of Mexican state legislatures}}

The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 free and sovereign states, which form a union that exercises a degree of jurisdiction over [[Mexico City]].<ref name="thought">{{cite web|publisher=Thought.Co.|title=Mexico's 31 States and One Federal District|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/states-of-mexico-1435213|author=Amanda Briney|date=8 October 2018|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref>

Each state has its own constitution, [[congress]], and a judiciary, and its citizens elect by [[direct vote|direct voting]] a [[List of Mexican state governors|governor]] for a six-year term, and representatives to their respective unicameral state congresses for three-year terms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article 116|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006 |access-date=7 October 2007}}</ref>

Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a whole and not to a particular state.<ref name="thought" /> Formerly known as the Federal District, its autonomy was previously limited relative to that of the states.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article 112|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006 |access-date=7 October 2007}}</ref> It dropped this designation in 2016 and is in the process of achieving greater political autonomy by becoming a federal entity with [[Constitutional Assembly of Mexico City|its own constitution]] and congress.<ref>{{cite web |title=Federal District is now officially Mexico City: The change brings more autonomy for the country's capital |date=30 January 2016 |work=Mexico News Daily |url=http://mexiconewsdaily.com/news/federal-district-is-now-officially-mexico-city/ |access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref>

The states are divided into [[Municipalities of Mexico|municipalities]], the smallest administrative political entity in the country, governed by a [[mayor|mayor or municipal president]] ({{lang|es|presidente municipal}}), elected by its residents by plurality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article 115|work=Political Constitution of the United Mexican States|publisher=Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States|url=http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=12|archive-date=13 November 2006|access-date=7 October 2007}}</ref>

{{Political Divisions of Mexico}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Mexico|}}
{{See also|Economic history of Mexico}}
[[File:Mexico Product Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A proportional representation of Mexico's exports. The country has the [[List of countries by economic complexity|most complex economy]] in Latin America.]]
As of April 2018, Mexico has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|15th largest]] nominal GDP (US$1.15 trillion)<ref name="invest">{{cite web |website=Investopedia.com |title=Top 20 Economies in the World|url=https://www.investopedia.com/insights/worlds-top-economies/|date=7 June 2019|access-date=15 July 2019|author=Caleb Silver}}</ref> and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|11th largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]] (US$2.45 trillion). GDP annual average growth was 2.9% in 2016 and 2% in 2017.<ref name="invest" /> Agriculture has comprised 4% of the economy over the last two decades, while industry contributes 33% (mostly automotive, oil, and electronics) and services (notably financial services and tourism) contribute 63%.<ref name="invest"/> Mexico's GDP in PPP per capita was US$18,714.05. The World Bank reported in 2009 that the country's [[Gross National Income]] in market exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America, after [[Brazil]] at US$1,830.392 billion,<ref name="GNI">{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNI.pdf |title=Total GNI Atlas Method 2009, World Bank |access-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105181216/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNI.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which led to the highest [[Gross National Income|income per capita]] in the region at $15,311.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/11/health/obesity-mexico-nafta.html |title=A Nasty, Nafta-Related Surprise: Mexico's Soaring Obesity |author=Andrew Jacobs |author2=Matt Richtel |work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2017|date=11 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212130727/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/11/health/obesity-mexico-nafta.html|archive-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="GNIPC">{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf |title=GNI per capita 2009, Atlas method and PPP, World Bank |access-date=27 December 2010 }}</ref> Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle-income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eclac.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/0/27580/GDPchartforprelimoverview_ENG.pdf|title=Reporte ECLAC|access-date=16 February 2007|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615205535/http://www.eclac.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/0/27580/GDPchartforprelimoverview_ENG.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> even though it is considered to be well below Mexico's potential growth.<ref name="Hufbauer">{{Citation |last1=Hufbauer |first1=G.C. |last2=Schott |first2=J.J. |contribution=Chapter 1, Overview |contribution-url=http://www.iie.com/publications/chapters_preview/332/01iie3349.pdf |title=NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Institute for International Economics |publication-date=October 2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1 1–78] |isbn=978-0-88132-334-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1 |date=1 January 2005 }}</ref> The [[International Monetary Fund]] predicts growth rates of 2.3% and 2.7% for 2018 and 2019, respectively.<ref name="invest"/> By 2050, Mexico could potentially become the world's fifth or seventh largest economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecatalist.org/2010/03/mexico-2050-the-world%C2%B4s-fifth-largest-economy/|title=Mexico 2050: The World's Fifth Largest Economy|date=17 March 2010 |access-date=12 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819135700/http://thecatalist.org/2010/03/mexico-2050-the-world%C2%B4s-fifth-largest-economy |archive-date=19 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/world-2050/assets/pwc-world-in-2050-report-january-2013.pdf|title=World in 2050 – The BRICs and beyond: prospects, challenges and opportunities|publisher=PwC Economics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222040853/http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/world-2050/assets/pwc-world-in-2050-report-january-2013.pdf|archive-date=22 February 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>

Although multiple international organizations coincide and classify Mexico as an upper middle income country, or a middle class country<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Mazatlan Post|date=11 April 2019 |access-date=15 July 2019|title=How much should you earn in Mexico to belong to the middle or upper class?|url=https://themazatlanpost.com/2019/04/11/how-much-should-you-earn-in-mexico-to-belong-to-the-middle-or-upper-class/}}</ref><ref name=BloombergEcon>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Noah |title=Mexico Is Solidly Middle Class (No Matter What Trump Says) |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-08-26/mexico-s-economic-growth-lifts-it-into-middle-class-status |work=Bloomberg |date=26 August 2019 }}</ref> Mexico's [[National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL)|National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy]] (CONEVAL), which is the organization in charge to measure the country's poverty reports that a huge percentage of Mexico's population lives in poverty. According to said council, from 2006 to 2010 (year on which the CONEVAL published its first nationwide report of poverty) the portion of Mexicans who live in poverty rose from 18%–19%<ref>{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2009 |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/269/hdr_2009_en_complete.pdf |website=United Nations Development Programme |publisher=United Nations |access-date=4 June 2020 |page=118}}</ref> to 46% (52 million people).<ref name="CONEVAL">{{cite web |url=http://web.coneval.gob.mx/Informes/Evaluaci%C3%B3n%202011/Informe%20de%20Evaluaci%C3%B3n%20de%20la%20Pol%C3%ADtica%20de%20Desarrollo%20Social%202011/Informe_de_evaluacion_de_politica_social_2011.pdf |title=CONEVAL Informe 2011 |access-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021025820/http://web.coneval.gob.mx/Informes/Evaluaci%C3%B3n%202011/Informe%20de%20Evaluaci%C3%B3n%20de%20la%20Pol%C3%ADtica%20de%20Desarrollo%20Social%202011/Informe_de_evaluacion_de_politica_social_2011.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> However, rather than Mexico's economy crashing, international economists attribute the huge increase in the percentage of population living below the country's poverty line to the CONEVAL using new standards to define it, as now besides people who lives below the economic welfare line, people who lacks at least one "social need" such as complete education, access to healthcare, access to regular food, housing services and goods, social security etc. were considered to be living in poverty (several countries do collect information regarding the persistence of said vulnerabilities on their population, but Mexico is the only one that classifies people lacking one or more of those needs as living below its national poverty line). Said economists do point out that the percentage of people living in poverty according to Mexico's national poverty line is around 40 times higher than the one reported by the [[World Bank|World Bank's]] international poverty line (with said difference being the biggest in the world) and ponder if it would not be better for countries in the situation of Mexico to adopt internationalized standards to measure poverty so the numbers obtained could be used to make accurate international comparisons.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gentilini |first1=Ugo |last2=Sumner |first2=Andy |title=Should poverty be defined by a single international poverty line, or country by country? (and what difference does it make?) |url=https://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/should-poverty-be-defined-by-a-single-international-poverty-line-or-country-by-country-and-what-difference-does-it-make/ |website=From Poverty to Power |publisher=Oxfam |access-date=4 June 2020 |date=24 July 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]'s own poverty line (defined as the percentage of a country's population who earns 60%<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8177864.stm |title=Just what is poor? |access-date=27 August 2019 |author=Michael Blastland |work=BBC News |date=31 July 2009}} The "economic distance" concept, and a level of income set at 60% of the median household income</ref> or less of the national median income) 20% of Mexico's population lives in a situation of poverty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Under Pressure: The Squeezed Middle Class |url=https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD-middle-class-2019-main-findings.pdf |publisher=OECD Publishing |access-date=4 June 2020 |location=Paris |date=2019}}</ref>

[[File:Torre Axtel y Bolsa de Valores.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Mexican Stock Exchange]] building]]

Among the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] countries, Mexico has the second-highest degree of economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile – although it has been falling over the last decade, being one of few countries in which this is the case.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/soc_glance-2011-en/06/01/index.html?contentType=&itemId=/content/chapter/soc_glance-2011-16-en&containerItemId=/content/serial/19991290&accessItemIds=/content/book/soc_glance-2011-en&mimeType=text/html |title=Income inequality |work=Society at a Glance 2011: Social Indicators |publisher=OECD |isbn=9789264098527 |date=12 April 2011 |access-date=16 March 2013}}</ref> The bottom ten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36% of the country's resources, whereas the upper ten percent dispose of almost 36%. The OECD also notes that Mexico's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social development is only about a third of the OECD average.<ref name="OECDREFORMA">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/35/8/49363879.pdf |title=Perspectivas OCDE: México; Reformas para el Cambio |pages=35–36 |publisher=OECD |date=January 2012 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> This is also reflected by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than the average among OECD nations whereas its literacy levels are in the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, according to [[Goldman Sachs]], by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th largest economy in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagobooth.edu/alumni/clubs/pakistan/docs/next11dream-march%20%2707-goldmansachs.pdf |title=Goldman Sachs Paper No.153 Relevant Emerging Markets |access-date=30 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331050553/http://www.chicagobooth.edu/alumni/clubs/pakistan/docs/next11dream-march%20%2707-goldmansachs.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2010 }}</ref> According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the average income in rural areas just miles away was only $8,403.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Sobresale Nuevo León por su alto nivel de vida|journal=El Norte|year=2006|url=http://busquedas.gruporeforma.com/utilerias/imdservicios3w.dll?JPrintS&file=mty/norte01/00393/00393608.htm&palabra=|language=es}}</ref> Daily minimum wages are set annually being set at $102.68 [[Mexican peso]]s (US$5.40) in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com.mx/hoy-entra-en-vigor-el-aumento-en-el-salario-minimo/|title=Hoy entra en vigor el aumento en el salario mínimo|work=Forbes Mexico|date=1 January 2019 |access-date=19 July 2019|language=es|trans-title=The increase in the minimum wage starts today}}</ref> All of the indices of social development for the Mexican Indigenous population are considerably lower than the national average, which is motive of concern for the government.<ref name="inegi.org.mx"/>

[[File:Monumento_a_la_Independencia,_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Angel of Independence]] on [[Paseo de la Reforma]], Mexico City]]
The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the world after [[China]], United States, [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]]. Mexico is the second-largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of electronics in 2011.<ref name="prnewswire.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mexican-consumer-electronics-industry-second-largest-supplier-of-electronics-to-the-us-market-131233479.html |title=Mexican Consumer Electronics Industry Second Largest Supplier of Electronics to the U.S – MEXICO CITY, Oct. 6, 2011/PRNewswire-USNewswire/ |publisher=Prnewswire.com |date=6 October 2011 |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref> The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the manufacture and OEM design of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The Mexican electronics industry grew 20% between 2010 and 2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17% between 2003 and 2009.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/> Currently electronics represent 30% of Mexico's exports.<ref name="prnewswire.com"/>

Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North American nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/2008/12/11/Mexico_tops_US_Canadian_car_makers/UPI-17741229011704/ |title=Mexico tops U.S., Canadian car makers |publisher=Upi.com |date=11 December 2008 |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities.<ref name="Gereffi">{{Cite book |last1=Gereffi |first1=G |last2=Martínez |first2=M |chapter=Mexico's Economic Transformation under NAFTA |editor-last=Crandall |editor-first=R |editor2-last=Paz |editor2-first=G |editor3-last=Roett |editor3-first=R |title=Mexico's Democracy at Work: Political and Economic Dynamics |publisher=Lynne Reiner Publishers |publication-date=30 September 2004 |isbn=978-1-58826-300-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlPiswEACAAJ |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicosdemocracy0000unse }}</ref> The "Big Three" ([[General Motors]], [[Ford]] and [[Chrysler]]) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while [[Volkswagen]] and [[Nissan]] built their plants in the 1960s.<ref name="Hufbauer Auto">{{Cite book |last1=Hufbauer |first1=G.C. |last2=Schott |first2=J.J . |contribution=Chapter 6, The Automotive Sector |contribution-url=http://www.iie.com/publications/chapters_preview/332/06iie3349.pdf |title=NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges |place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Institute for International Economics |publication-date=October 2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1 1–78] |isbn=978-0-88132-334-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1 |date=1 January 2005 }}</ref> In [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]] alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen.<ref name="Gereffi"/> In the 2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone, more than $10 billion in investment was committed. In September 2016 Kia motors opened a $1 billion factory in [[Nuevo León]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=García |first1=Daniela |title=Inauguran Kia Motors en Pesquería |trans-title=Kia Motors launched in Pesquería |url=https://www.milenio.com/estados/inauguran-kia-motors-en-pesqueria |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Milenio |date=7 September 2016 |location=Pesquería |language=es}}</ref> with Audi also opening an assembling plant in Puebla the same year.<ref>{{cite news |title=Audi inaugura planta automotriz en Puebla |trans-title=Audi opens automotive plant in Puebla |url=http://www.autoexplora.com/autoexplora-drive-style/noticias/nacionales/audi-inaugura-planta-automotriz-en-puebla/ |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Autoexplora |date=30 September 2016 |language=es}}</ref> [[BMW]], [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Nissan]] currently have plants in construction.<ref name="KiaMexico">{{cite news|title=Automaker Kia plans $1 bn assembly plant in Mexico|url=http://www.mexiconews.net/index.php/sid/225153337|date=28 August 2014|access-date=28 August 2014|publisher=Mexico News.Net}}</ref>

The domestic car industry is represented by [[DINA S.A.]], which has built buses and trucks since 1962,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dina.com.mx/history.html |title=History |author=DINA Camiones Company |access-date=15 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110559/http://www.dina.com.mx/history.html |archive-date=13 May 2011}}</ref> and the new [[Mastretta]] company that builds the high-performance [[Mastretta MXT]] sports car.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.autoblog.com/2008/07/25/london-2008-mastretta-mxt-will-be-mexicos-first-homegrown-car/|title=London 2008: Mastretta MXT will be Mexico's first homegrown car |author=Jeremy Korzeniewski |access-date=30 July 2008}}</ref> In 2006, trade with the United States and Canada accounted for almost 50% of Mexico's exports and 45% of its imports.<ref name="cia.gov"/> During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 billion [[trade deficit]] with Mexico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.koreauspartnership.org/pdf/Koreas%20Balance%20of%20Payments.pdf |title=Korea's Balance of Payments |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501111207/http://www.koreauspartnership.org/pdf/Koreas%20Balance%20of%20Payments.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become the 9th largest holder of US debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ustreas.gov/tic/mfh.txt |title=Major Foreign Holders Of Treasury Securities |publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> The commercial and financial dependence on the US is a cause for concern.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson |first=Adam |title=Mexico, Economics: The US casts a long shadow |journal=Financial Times |date=20 June 2006 |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/f53c9268-005a-11db-8078-0000779e2340,dwp_uuid=bfb8911e-ff83-11da-93a0-0000779e2340.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121023061552/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/f53c9268-005a-11db-8078-0000779e2340,dwp_uuid=bfb8911e-ff83-11da-93a0-0000779e2340.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the United States account for 0.2% of Mexico's GDP<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dallasfed.org/research/busfront/bus0401.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040625021724/http://dallasfed.org/research/busfront/bus0401.html|archive-date=25 June 2004 |title=Workers' Remittances to Mexico – Business Frontier, Issue 1, 2004 – FRB Dallas |publisher=Dallasfed.org |date=10 July 2003 |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 and is the tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stratfor.com/global_market_brief_mexico_sees_decline_remittances |title=Free Preview of Members-Only Content |publisher=Stratfor |date=30 August 2007 |access-date=30 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307204352/http://www.stratfor.com/global_market_brief_mexico_sees_decline_remittances |archive-date=7 March 2012}}</ref> According to Mexico's central bank, remittances in 2008 amounted to $25bn.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7855021.stm |title=Slowdown hits Mexico remittances |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=6 May 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

===Communications===
{{Main|Telecommunications in Mexico}}
[[File:Torre_de_teléfonos_de_Telmex.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|[[Telmex]] Tower, Mexico City.]]
The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by [[Telmex]] (''Teléfonos de México''), privatized in 1990. By 2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States. Other players in the domestic industry are [[Axtel]], Maxcom, Alestra, Marcatel, AT&T Mexico.<ref name="budde">{{cite web|website=Budde.com|title=Mexico – Telecoms Infrastructure, Operators, Regulations – Statistics and Analyses|url=https://www.budde.com.au/Research/Mexico-Telecoms-Infrastructure-Operators-Regulations-Statistics-and-Analyses|year=2019|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref> Because of Mexican [[orography]], providing a landline telephone service at remote mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones per capita is low compared to other Latin American countries, at 40 percent; however, 82% of Mexicans over the age of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has the advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the total number of mobile lines is almost two times that of landlines, with an estimation of 63 million lines.<ref name=ciacom>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/ |title=Communications |publisher=CIA Factbook |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> The telecommunication industry is regulated by the government through [[Cofetel]] (''Comisión Federal de Telecomunicaciones'').

The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.<ref name=ciacom/> Mexican satellites are operated by ''Satélites Mexicanos'' ([[Satmex]]), a private company, leader in Latin America and servicing both North and South America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satmex.com.mx/english/?opcion=0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090915211310/http://www.satmex.com.mx/english/?opcion=0|archive-date=15 September 2009 |title=Satmex. Linking the Americas |date=15 September 2009 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> It offers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada to [[Argentina]]. Through business partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services.<ref>{{cite web|author=Source: Arianespace|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=7420 |title=Mexican Operator Satmex Has Chosen Arianespace to Launch Its New Satmex 6 Satellite |publisher=Spaceref.com |date=14 February 2002 |access-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> Satmex maintains its own satellite fleet with most of the fleet being designed and built in Mexico.

Major players in the broadcasting industry are [[Televisa]], the largest Mexican media company in the Spanish-speaking world,<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|url=http://www.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214054201/http://www.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203|archive-date=14 December 2007 |title=Televisa Brings 2006 FIFA World Cup to Mexico in HD With Snell & Wilcox Kahuna SD/HD Production Switcher |publisher=Snellwilcox.com |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> [[TV Azteca]] and [[Imagen Televisión]].

===Energy===
{{See also|Electricity sector in Mexico}}
[[File:Inauguración de Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II.jpg|thumb|The Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II in Oaxaca. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the region of Mexico with the highest capacity for wind energy. (see ''[[Tehuantepecer]]'', a strong wind that affects the region)]]
Energy production in Mexico is managed by the state-owned companies [[Comisión Federal de Electricidad|Federal Commission of Electricity]] and [[Pemex]].

Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, extraction, transportation and marketing of crude oil and natural gas, as well as the refining and distribution of petroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of the largest companies in the world by revenue, making US$86 billion in sales a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americaeconomia.com/PLT_WRITE-PAGE.asp?SessionId=&Language=0&Modality=0&DateView=&NamePage=SearchResultArti&Section=1&Content=28380&Style=15624|title=Top 500 Companies in Latin America |access-date=16 February 2007 |author=América Economia |format=Requires subscription}}{{dead link|date=July 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name=fortune>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/snapshots/6385.html |title=Fortune Global 500 2010: 64. Pemex |work=Fortune |access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/5de6ef96-8b95-11db-a61f-0000779e2340.html|title=FT Non-Public 150 – the full list|date=14 December 2006|access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref> Mexico is the sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 million barrels per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216112638/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.html|archive-date=16 February 2007 |title=Top World Oil Net Exporters and Producers |access-date=16 February 2007 |author=Energy Information Administration}}</ref> In 1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.<ref name="Gereffi"/>

The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW [[Chicoasén Dam|Manuel Moreno Torres Dam]] in Chicoasén, [[Chiapas]], in the [[Grijalva River]]. This is the world's fourth most productive hydroelectric plant.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Mexico/Background.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309021853/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Mexico/Background.html|archive-date=9 March 2006 |title=EIA |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref>

Mexico is the country with the world's third largest solar potential.<ref name="S&G">Sener & GTZ 2006</ref> The country's gross solar potential is estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50 times national electricity generation.<ref name="ER">{{cite web |url=http://cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/Pres-Elvira-RenEnergyMeeting_es.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081003033523/http://cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/Pres-Elvira-RenEnergyMeeting_es.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 October 2008 |title=Perspectiva Del Mercado De La Energía Renovable En México |access-date=30 October 2010 }}</ref> Currently, there is over 1 million square meters of [[solar thermal]] panels<ref name="SENER 2009b">SENER 2009b</ref> installed in Mexico, while in 2005, there were 115,000 square meters of [[solar PV]] (photo-voltaic). It is expected that in 2012 there will be 1,8 million square meters of installed solar thermal panels.<ref name="SENER 2009b" />

The project named [[SEGH-CFE 1]], located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when complete in 2013.<ref name="Sonora Energy Group Hermosillo">[[Sonora Energy Group Hermosillo]]</ref> All of the electricity will be sold directly to the CFE and absorbed into the utility's transmission system for distribution throughout their existing network. At an installed capacity of 46.8 MWp, when complete in 2013, the project will be the first utility scale project of its kind in Mexico and the largest solar project of any kind in Latin America.

===Science and technology===
{{Main|History of science and technology in Mexico}}
[[File:Observatorio Astrofísico Guillermo Haro.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Guillermo Haro Observatory]] in [[Cananea]], [[Sonora]].]]
The [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]] was officially established in 1910,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Don M. |last1=Coerver |first2=Suzanne B. |last2=Pasztor |first3=Robert |last3=Buffington |title=Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSred4NyOKoC&pg=PA161 |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-132-8 |page=161 }}</ref> and the university became one of the most important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.<ref>Summerfield, Devine & Levi (1998), p. 285{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> UNAM provides world class education in science, medicine, and engineering.<ref>Summerfield, Devine & Levi (1998), p. 286{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher learning, such as [[National Polytechnic Institute]] (founded in 1936),<ref>Forest & Altbach (2006), p. 882{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> were established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.<ref>Fortes & Lomnitz (1990), p. 18{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> In 1959, the [[Mexican Academy of Sciences]] was created to coordinate scientific efforts between academics.

In 1995, the Mexican chemist [[Mario J. Molina]] shared the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] with [[Paul J. Crutzen]] and [[F. Sherwood Rowland]] for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1995/index.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995 |access-date=2 January 2009 |work=Nobelprize.org |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]]}}</ref> Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1995/molina-1018.html |title=Molina wins Nobel Prize for ozone work |access-date=2 January 2009 |author=Thomson, Elizabeth A. |date=18 October 1995 |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]}}</ref>

In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the construction of the [[Large Millimeter Telescope]] (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6118-9_79 |chapter=Unravelling unidentified γ-ray sources with the large millimeter telescope |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_U9jCFy5hTUC&pg=PA527 |title=The Multi-Messenger Approach to High-Energy Gamma-Ray Sources |year=2007 |last1=Carramiñana |first1=Alberto |pages=527–530 |isbn=978-1-4020-6117-2 }}</ref> It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust.

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Mexico}}
[[File:Cancun aerial photo by safa.jpg|thumb|[[Cancun]] and the [[Riviera Maya]] is the most visited region in Latin America]]

As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most visited country in the world and had the 15th highest income from tourism in the world which is also the highest in Latin America.<ref name="WTO Tourism Highlights 2018 Edition">{{cite book |title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights |year=2017 |publisher=World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) |isbn=978-92-844-1902-9 |doi=10.18111/9789284419029 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> The vast majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United States and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller number also come from other Latin American countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb/sectur/sect_Estadisticas_del_Sector|title=Turismo de internación 2001–2005, Visitantes internacionales hacia México |publisher=Secretaría de Turismo (SECTUR)|author=SECTUR|access-date=26 July 2008|year=2006|language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610233248/http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb/sectur/sect_Estadisticas_del_Sector |archive-date=10 June 2008}} pp. 5</ref> In the 2017 [[Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report]], Mexico was ranked 22nd in the world, which was 3rd in the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 |publisher=World Economic Forum |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_2017_web_0401.pdf |date=April 2017}}</ref>

The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of beaches that are frequented by sunbathers and other visitors. [[Constitution of Mexico#Article 27|According to national law]], the entirety of the coastlines are under federal ownership, that is, all beaches in the country are [[Public property|public]]. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popular beach destinations is the resort town of [[Cancún]], especially among [[university]] [[student]]s during [[spring break]]. Just offshore is the beach island of [[Isla Mujeres]], and to the east is the [[Isla Holbox]]. To the south of Cancun is the coastal strip called [[Riviera Maya]] which includes the beach town of [[Playa del Carmen]] and the ecological parks of [[Xcaret]] and Xel-Há. A day trip to the south of Cancún is the historic port of [[Tulum]]. In addition to its beaches, the town of Tulum is notable for its cliff-side [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] ruins.

On the [[Pacific]] coast is the notable tourist destination of [[Acapulco]]. Once the destination for the rich and famous, the beaches have become crowded and the shores are now home to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulco is home to renowned cliff divers: trained divers who leap from the side of a vertical cliff into the surf below.

At the southern tip of the [[Baja California peninsula]] is the resort town of [[Cabo San Lucas]], a town noted for its beaches and [[marlin]] [[fishing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icabo.com/what-to-do/cabo-fishing.aspx |title=Cabo Fishing Information – Sport Fishing in Los Cabos |publisher=icabo.com |access-date=23 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502144017/http://icabo.com/what-to-do/cabo-fishing.aspx |archive-date=2 May 2013}}</ref> Further north along the [[Sea of Cortés]] is the [[Bahía Concepción, Baja California Sur|Bahía de La Concepción]], another beach town known for its sports fishing. Closer to the United States border is the weekend draw of [[San Felipe, Baja California]].

===Transportation===
{{Main|Transportation in Mexico}}
[[File:Puente Baluarte, Mexico1.jpg|thumb|The [[Baluarte Bridge]] is the highest cable-stayed bridge in the world, the fifth-highest bridge overall and the highest bridge in the Americas.]]
The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas in the country are covered by it.<ref name=nations>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Mexico-INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html|title=Mexico Infrastructure, power and Communications|encyclopedia=National Economies Encyclopedia|access-date=13 January 2007}}</ref> The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of {{convert|366,095|km|mi|abbr=on}},<ref name=sctroad>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/|title=CIA World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref> of which {{convert|116,802|km|mi|abbr=on}} are paved.<ref name=sctroad-2>{{cite web|url=http://dgaf.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/EST_BASICA/EST_BASICA_2005/EST2005_12INFRA.pdf |title=Infraestructura Carretera |work=dgaf.sct.gob.mx |publisher=Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes |place=México |access-date=13 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716114353/http://dgaf.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/EST_BASICA/EST_BASICA_2005/EST2005_12INFRA.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007}}</ref> Of these, {{convert|10,474|km|mi|abbr=on}} are multi-lane [[Controlled-access highway|expressways]]: {{convert|9,544|km|mi|abbr=on}} are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.<ref name=sctroad-2/>

Starting in the late nineteenth century, Mexico was one of the first Latin American countries to promote railway development,<ref name=brit-mex/> and the network covers {{convert|30,952|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=encnations>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Mexico-INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html |title=Infrastructure, Power and Communications, Mexic |publisher=Encyclopedia of the Nations |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> The [[Secretariat of Communications and Transportation (Mexico)|Secretary of Communications and Transport]] of Mexico proposed a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers from [[Mexico City]] to [[Guadalajara]], [[Jalisco]].<ref name="azcentral.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/business/articles/0106mextrain06.html |title=Mexico reviving travel by train |publisher=Azcentral.com |date=6 January 2006 |access-date=30 October 2010}}{{Dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://guadalajarareporter.com/news-mainmenu-82/regional-mainmenu-85/3249-bullet-train-to-mexico-city-looks-to-be-back-on-track-.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022112/http://guadalajarareporter.com/news-mainmenu-82/regional-mainmenu-85/3249-bullet-train-to-mexico-city-looks-to-be-back-on-track-.html|archive-date=30 April 2011 |title=Bullet Train To Mexico City Looks To Be Back On Track ? |work=Guadalajara Reporter |date=17 October 2003 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> The train, which will travel at {{convert|300|km/h|abbr=off}},<ref name="systra.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.systra.com/Project-for-a-Mexico-City-Guadalajara-High-Speed-Line?lang=fr |title=Project for a Mexico City – Guadalajara High Speed Line. Rail transport engineering, public transport engineering |publisher=Systra |access-date=30 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501154553/http://www.systra.com/Project-for-a-Mexico-City-Guadalajara-High-Speed-Line?lang=fr |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref> will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in just 2 hours.<ref name="systra.com"/> The whole project was projected to cost 240 billion [[MXN|pesos]], or about 25 billion US$<ref name="azcentral.com"/> and is being paid for jointly by the Mexican government and the local private sector including the wealthiest man in the world, Mexico's billionaire business tycoon [[Carlos Slim]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-127506564/slim-invest-santa-cruz.html |work=The America's Intelligence Wire |title=Slim to invest in Santa Cruz |date=21 January 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118011900/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-127506564/slim-invest-santa-cruz.html |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> The government of the state of [[Yucatán]] is also funding the construction of a high speed line connecting the cities of [[Cozumel]] to [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] and [[Chichen Itza]] and Cancún.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.articlealley.com/article_1717563_33.html |title=Mexico Real Estate In Yucatan to Benefit from New Bullet Train |publisher=Articlealley.com |date=25 August 2010 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref>

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35 carry 97% of the passenger traffic.<ref name=encnations/> The [[Mexico City International Airport]] remains the busiest in Latin America and the 36th busiest in the world<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/Estadisticas/index.php?Publicacion=169|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531064833/http://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/Estadisticas/index.php?Publicacion=169|archive-date=31 May 2008 |title=Acerca del AICM. Posicionamiento del Aeropuerto Internacional de la Ciudad de México (AICM) con los 50 aeropuertos más importantes del mundo |publisher=AICM |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> transporting 45 million passengers a year.<ref name="aicmstats">{{cite web|url=https://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/archivos/files/Estadisticas/Estadisticas2017_En.pdf|title=Statistics Mexico City airport|publisher=Mexico City International Airport|access-date=12 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114021902/https://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/archivos/files/Estadisticas/Estadisticas2017_En.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Water supply and sanitation===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Mexico}}
[[File:Presa_de_El_Cajón.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[El Cajón Dam (Mexico)|El Cajon Dam]]]]
Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped water supply in urban areas (96.4%) as well as in rural areas (69.4%) as of 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diagnósticos del agua |url=https://www.aguas.org.mx/sitio/panorama-del-agua/diagnosticos-del-agua.html |website=Consejo Consultivo del Agua }}</ref> Other achievements include the existence of a functioning national system to finance water and sanitation infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its apex institution.

The challenges include water scarcity in the northern and central parts of the country; inadequate water service quality (drinking water quality; 11% of Mexicans receiving water only intermittently as of 2014);<ref>{{cite news |last1=Valadez |first1=Blanca |title=Sin acceso a agua potable 22 millones de mexicanos |trans-title=Without access to drinking water 22 million Mexicans |url=https://www.milenio.com/estados/acceso-agua-potable-22-millones-mexicanos |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Milenio |date=29 January 2014 |location=Mexico City |language=es}}</ref> poor technical and commercial efficiency of most utilities (with an average level of [[non-revenue water]] of 43.2% in 2010);<ref>{{cite news |title=En México se desperdicia el 43.2% de agua |trans-title=43.2% of water is wasted in Mexico |url=https://agua.org.mx/en-mexico-se-desperdicia-el-432-de-agua/ |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=Agua.org.mx |agency=El Informador |publisher=Fondo para la Comunicación y la Educación Ambiental |date=4 October 2010 |location=Mexico City |language=es}}</ref> increasing the national percentage of fully sanitized water which at 57%,<ref>{{cite news |title=En México, solo el 57% de las aguas residuales son tratadas correctamente |trans-title=In Mexico, only 57% of wastewater is treated correctly |language=es |url=https://www.iagua.es/noticias/unam/investigadores-unam-senalan-necesidad-tratar-aguas-residuales-mexico |work=iAgua |date=13 August 2018 }}</ref> is considered to not be enough, as the country's theoretically available percentage of water per capita is 60% lower than it was 60 years ago;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Enciso L. |first1=Angelica |title=Bajó 60% disponiblidad de agua per cápita en 60 años |trans-title=Per capita water availability dropped 60% in 60 years |language=es |url=https://www.jornada.com.mx/2019/10/03/sociedad/035n2soc |work=La Jornada |date=3 October 2019 }}</ref> and the improvement of adequate access in rural areas. In addition to on-going investments to expand access, the government has embarked on a large investment program to improve wastewater treatment.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Mexico}}
{{Historical populations
|type =
|percentages = pagr
|footnote = Source: [[INEGI]]
|1895 | 12700294
|1900 | 13607272
|1910 | 15160369
|1921 | 14334780
|1930 | 16552722
|1940 | 19653552
|1950 | 25791017
|1960 | 34923129
|1970 | 48225238
|1980 | 66846833
|1990 | 81249645
|2000 | 97483412
|2010 | 112336538
|2020 | 126014024
}}
Throughout the 19th century, the population of Mexico had barely doubled. This trend continued during the first two decades of the 20th century, and even in the 1921 census there was a loss of about 1 million inhabitants. The phenomenon can be explained because during the decade from 1910 to 1921 the Mexican Revolution took place. The growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s and the 1980s, when the country registered growth rates of over 3% (1950–1980). The Mexican population doubled in twenty years, and at that rate it was expected that by the year 2000 there would be 120 million Mexicans. Life expectancy went from 36 years (in 1895) to 72 years (in the year 2000). According to estimations made by Mexico's [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía|National Geography and Statistics Institute]], as of 2017 Mexico has 123.5 million inhabitants<ref>{{cite news |title=México cuenta con 123.5 millones de habitantes |trans-title=Mexico has 123.5 million inhabitants |url=https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/politica/Mexico-cuenta-con-123.5-millones-de-habitantes-20170710-0116.html |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=El Economista |agency=Notimex |date=10 July 2017 |language=es}}</ref> making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.<ref name=Spanishhistory>{{cite web|title=Spanish Language History|publisher=Today Translations|url=http://www.todaytranslations.com/index.asp-Q-Page-E-Spanish-Language-History--13053095|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050417234656/http://www.todaytranslations.com/index.asp-Q-Page-E-Spanish-Language-History--13053095|archive-date=17 April 2005|access-date=1 October 2007}}</ref> Between 2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 1.70% per year, up from 1.16% per year between 2000 and 2005.

Even though Mexico is a very ethnically diverse country, research about ethnicity has largely been a forgotten field, in consequence of the post-revolutionary efforts of Mexico's government to unify all non-indigenous Mexicans under a single ethnic identity (that of the "Mestizo"). As a result, since 1930 the only explicit ethnic classification that has been included in Mexican censuses has been that of "Indigenous peoples".<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html|url-status=dead|title=en el censo de 1930 el gobierno mexicano dejó de clasificar a la población del país en tres categorías raciales, blanco, mestizo e indígena, y adoptó una nueva clasificación étnica que distinguía a los hablantes de lenguas indígenas del resto de la población, es decir de los hablantes de español.|archive-date=23 August 2013}}</ref> Even then, across the years the government has used different criteria to count Indigenous peoples, with each of them returning considerably different numbers ranging from 6.1%<ref name="2020 Census"/> to 23% of the country's population. It is not until very recently that the Mexican government begun conducting surveys that considered other ethnic groups that live in the country such as Afro-Mexicans who amount to 2% of Mexico's population<ref name="2020 Census"/> or White Mexicans<ref name=ElUniversal>{{cite news |last1=Fuentes-Nieva |first1=Ricardo |title=Ser blanco |trans-title=Be white |language=es |url=https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/entrada-de-opinion/articulo/ricardo-fuentes-nieva/nacion/2017/07/6/ser-blanco |work=El Universal |date=6 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name=Forbes>{{cite news |last1=Solís |first1=Arturo |title=Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco |trans-title=Proven with data: in Mexico you do better if you are white |language=es |url=https://www.forbes.com.mx/inegi-lo-confirma-en-mexico-te-va-mejor-si-eres-blanco/ |work=Forbes México |date=7 August 2018 }}</ref> which amount to 47% of Mexico's population (with the criteria being based on appearance rather than on self-declared of ancestry).<ref name="Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS 2017"/><ref name="conapred.org.mx"/><ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011"/><ref name=MMSI1>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709120023/http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf |date=9 July 2018 }}, ''INEGI'', 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.</ref><ref name=ENADIS2017/> Less numerous groups in Mexico such as Asians and Middle Easterners are also accounted for, with numbers of around 1% each.

{{As of|2017}}, it is estimated that 1.2 million foreigners have settled in the country,<ref name="UN2017">{{cite web | title=Table 1: Total migrant stock at mid-year by origin and by major area, region, country or area of destination, 2017 | url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockByOriginAndDestination_2017.xlsx | publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> up from nearly 1 million in 2010.<ref>{{cite web | title=Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015 Estados Unidos Mexicanos | url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf | publisher=[[INEGI]] | access-date=9 September 2018 | page=1 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210212235/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf | archive-date=10 December 2015 | df=mdy}}</ref> The vast majority of migrants come from the United States (900,000), making Mexico the top destination for [[American immigration to Mexico|U.S. citizens abroad]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.overseasvotefoundation.org/files/counting%20american%20civilians%20abroad.pdf |title=These are our Numbers: Civilian Americans Overseas and Voter Turnout |last1=Smith |first1=Dr. Claire M. |date=August 2010 |work=OVF Research Newsletter |publisher=Overseas Vote Foundation |access-date=9 September 2018 |quote=Previous research indicates that the number of U.S. Americans living in Mexico is around 1 million, with 600,000 of those living in Mexico City. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024051944/https://www.overseasvotefoundation.org/files/counting%20american%20civilians%20abroad.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The second largest group comes from neighboring [[Guatemala]] (54,500), followed by [[Spain]] (27,600).<ref name="UN2017"/> Other major sources of migration are fellow Latin American countries, which include [[Colombia]] (20,600), [[Argentina]] (19,200) and [[Cuba]] (18,100).<ref name="UN2017"/> Historically, the [[Lebanese Mexicans|Lebanese diaspora]] and the [[Mennonites in Mexico|German-born Mennonite migration]] have left a notorious impact in the country's culture, particularly in its cuisine and traditional music.<ref name="Garcia 2005">{{cite web |url=https://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articulos2/GarciaRE.pdf |title=Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural |date=December 2005 |language=es |access-date=17 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327124211/https://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articulos2/GarciaRE.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fundacionunam.org.mx/arte-y-cultura/los-menonitas-en-mexico/ | title=Los Menonitas en México | publisher=Fundación UNAM | date=28 August 2013 | access-date=9 September 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910094730/http://www.fundacionunam.org.mx/arte-y-cultura/los-menonitas-en-mexico/ | archive-date=10 September 2018 | url-status=dead }}</ref> At the turn of the 21st century, several trends have increased the number of foreigners residing in the country such as the [[2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://expansion.mx/mi-carrera/2013/04/23/espanoles-buscan-suerte-en-mexico | title=México atrae a españoles desempleados | publisher=CNN | date=24 April 2013 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> increasing gang-related violence in the [[Northern Triangle of Central America]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.elsoldemexico.com.mx/mexico/crece-580-migracion-a-mexico-1534027.html | title=Crece 580% migración a México | publisher=El Sol de México | date=25 March 2018 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> the [[Crisis in Venezuela|ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.milenio.com/internacional/por-la-crisis-llegan-a-mexico-mas-venezolanos-expulsados | title=Por la crisis, llegan a México más venezolanos expulsados | publisher=Milenio | date=5 May 2017 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.lapatilla.com/2018/07/19/migracion-venezolana-prueba-hospitalidad-de-america-latina/ | title=Una crisis migratoria en América del Sur: la salida de venezolanos pone a prueba la hospitalidad de países vecinos | publisher=La Patilla | date=19 July 2018 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> and the [[Automotive industry in Mexico|automotive industry boom]] led by Japanese and South Korean investment.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.elsoldemexico.com.mx/republica/sociedad/japoneses-hacen-de-guanajuato-su-hogar-396083.html | title=Japoneses hacen de Guanajuato su hogar | publisher=El Sol de México | date=4 December 2017 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://lasillarota.com/pesqueria-el-municipio-de-nl-inundado-de-coreanos/231414 | title=Pesquería, el municipio de NL 'inundado' de coreanos | publisher=El Sol de México | date=27 June 2018 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref>

===Ethnicity and race===
[[File:Casta painting all.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|200px|{{lang|es|Las castas|italic=yes}}. Casta painting showing 16 racial groupings. Anonymous, 18th century, oil on canvas, 148×104 cm, {{lang|es|Museo Nacional del Virreinato|italic=no}}, {{lang|nah|[[Tepotzotlán]]|italic=no}}, Mexico.]]
Regardless of ethnicity, the majority of Mexicans are united under the same national identity.<ref name="autogenerated115">Wimmer, Andreas, 2002. ''Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict: Shadows of Modernity'', Cambridge University Press page 115</ref> This is the product of an ideology strongly promoted by Mexican academics such as [[Manuel Gamio]] and [[José Vasconcelos]] known as [[mestizaje]], whose goal was that of Mexico becoming a [[La Raza Cósmica|racially]] and [[Indigenismo|culturally]] homogeneous country.<ref name="Knight, Alan 1990. pp. 78">Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and ''indigenismo'': Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in ''The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940''. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 78–85</ref><ref name="autogenerated115"/><ref name="census">{{cite book |last1= Hall Steckel |first1=Richard |last2=R. Haines |first2=Michael |title=A population history of North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA621 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |page=621 |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7}}</ref> The ideology's influence was reflected in Mexico's national censuses of 1921 and 1930: in the former, which was Mexico's first-ever national census (but second-ever if the census made in colonial times is taken into account)<ref name=aleph/> that considered race, approximately 60% of Mexico's population identified as Mestizos,<ref name="somosprimos.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm|title=John P. Schmal, SomosPrimos.com|publisher=somosprimos.com}}</ref> and in the latter, Mexico's government declared that all Mexicans were now Mestizos, for which racial classifications would be dropped in favor of language-based ones in future censuses.<ref name="EL MESTIZAJE Y LAS CULTURAS REGIONALES"/> During most of the 20th century these censuses' results were taken as fact, with extraofficial international publications often using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition,<ref name=Factbook>{{cite web|title=North America: Mexico|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/|work=The World Factbook|access-date=11 April 2014|author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|location=Ethnic groups|quote=mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60%, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 30%, white 9%, other 1%}}</ref><ref name=brit-mex/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/377246/mestizo |title=mestizo (people) |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> but in recent time historians and academics have claimed that said results are not accurate, as on its efforts to homogenize Mexico the government inflated the Mestizo label's percentage by classifying a good number of people as such regardless of whether they were of actual mixed ancestry or not,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pla Brugat |first1=Dolores |title=Más desindianización que mestizaje. Una relectura de los censos generales de población |journal=Dimensión Antropológica |date=2011 |volume=53 |issue=September–December |pages=69–91 |url=https://www.dimensionantropologica.inah.gob.mx/?p=7401 |access-date=4 June 2020 |trans-title=More deindianization than miscegenation. A rereading of the general population censuses |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia |location=Mexico City |language=es}}</ref><ref name="Mexicosinmestizaje">[https://descargacultura.unam.mx/app1?sharedItem=6730790 "México sin mestizaje: una reinterpretación de nuestra historia"], ''UNAM'', 2016, Retrieved on 13 March 2019.</ref><ref name=redalyc>{{cite web|url=http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/105/10503808.pdf |title=Al respecto no debe olvidarse que en estos países buena parte de las personas consideradas biológicamente blancas son mestizas en el aspecto cultural, el que aquí nos interesa (p. 196) |publisher=Redalyc.org |date=16 March 2005 |access-date=27 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022220348/http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/105/10503808.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Bartolomé 1996:2">Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto. (1996) "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México". in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas, Oaxaca, IOC.[http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/iard4010/documents/Pluralismo_cultural_y_redefinicion_del_estado_en_Mexico.pdf] p. 2</ref> pointing out that an alteration so drastic of population trends compared to earlier censuses such as New Spain's 1793 census (on which Europeans were estimated to be 18% to 22% of the population, Mestizos 21% to 25% and Indigenous peoples 51% to 61%)<ref name=aleph/> is not possible and that the frequency of marriages between people of different ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico was low.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Anchondo |first1=Sandra |last2=de Haro |first2=Martha |title=El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad cultural sí importa |trans-title=Miscegenation is a myth, cultural identity does matter |url=http://istmo.mx/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/ |magazine=ISTMO |publisher=IPADE Business School |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010154747/http://istmo.mx/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |language=es |date=4 July 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="MexicoRacista1">{{cite book |first=Federico |last=Navarrete Linares |title=Mexico Racista|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FC_4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT86|access-date=23 February 2018 |date=2016 |publisher=Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico|isbn=9786073143646|page=86}}</ref> it is also observed that when asked directly about their ethno-racial identification, many Mexicans nowadays do not identify as Mestizos,<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1007/s12394-010-0074-7|title = "The Map of the Mexican's Genome": Overlapping national identity, and population genomics|journal = Identity in the Information Society|volume = 3|issue = 3|pages = 489–514|year = 2010|last1 = Schwartz-Marín|first1 = Ernesto|last2 = Silva-Zolezzi|first2 = Irma|hdl = 10871/33766|doi-access = free}}</ref> would not agree to be labeled as such,<ref name="Clute Journals">R. Martínez & C. De La Torre (2008): [https://www.clutejournals.com/index.php/JDM/article/download/4993/5084 "Racial Appearance And Income In Contemporary Mexico, pag 9 note 1"], ''Journal of Diversity Management'', 2008, Retrieved 01 April 2021.</ref> and that "static" ethnoracial labels such as "White" or "Indian" are far more prominent in contemporary Mexican society than the "Mestizo" one is, whose use is mostly limited to intellectual circles, result of the label's constantly-changing and subjective definition.<ref name=mestizajeenmexico>{{cite web |title=El mestizaje en Mexico |language=es |trans-title=The miscegenation in Mexico |first=Federico |last=Navarrete Linares |url=http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf |access-date=31 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801102632/http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The total percentage of Mexico's [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|indigenous peoples]] tends to vary depending on the criteria used by the government on its censuses: it is 6.1% if the ability to speak an indigenous language is used as the criteria to define a person as indigenous,<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref name="inegiindigenous">{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325 |title=Indicadores seleccionados sobre la población hablante de lengua indígena, 1950 a 2005 |publisher=Inegi.gob.mx |access-date=10 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118010024/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> if racial self-identification is used it is 14.9%<ref name=CDI1>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/sintesis_resultados_2005.pdf |title=Síntesis de Resultados |publisher=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas |year=2006 |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref>{{efn|1=Defined as persons who live in a household where an indigenous language is spoken by one of the adult family members or people who self-identified as indigenous ("Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o suegra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58 |title=¿Qué es y cómo se determina un hogar indígena? |language=es |trans-title=What is and how an indigenous home is determined? |work=Preguntas frecuentes [Frequent questions] |date= 23 February 2009 |publisher=CDI. Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas [CDI. National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501220757/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58 |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref>) AND persons who speak an indigenous language but who do not live in such a household ("Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indígena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluye a personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de estos hogares."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54 |title=Sistema de información e indicadores sobre la población indígena de México |language=es |trans-title=Information system and indicators on the indigenous population of Mexico |work=Indicadores y estadísticas [Indicators and statistics] |publisher=CDI. Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas [CDI. National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501220616/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54 |archive-date=1 May 2011}}</ref>)}} and if people who consider themselves part indigenous are also included it amounts to 23%.<ref name="beta.inegi.org.mx">[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf "Encuesta Intercensal 2015"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033628/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf |date=22 April 2017 }}, "[[INEGI]]", Mexico, December 2015. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref> Nonetheless, all the censuses conclude that the majority of Mexico's indigenous population is concentrated in rural areas of the southern and south-eastern Mexican states.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |title=Indicadores socioeconómicos de los pueblos indígenas |language=es |trans-title=Socio-economic indicators of indigenous peoples |work=Información |publisher=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas |via=cdi.gob.mx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041115115005/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |archive-date=15 November 2004}}</ref> with the highest percentages being found in Yucatán at 59% of the population, Oaxaca with 48%, Quintana Roo with 39%, Chiapas with 28% and Campeche with 27%.<ref name="inegi.org.mx">{{cite web |url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf |title=La Población Indigena en México |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) |access-date=17 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009152736/http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="CDI">{{cite book |last=Navarrete Linares |first=Federico |title=Los pueblos indígenas de México |language=es |trans-title=Indigenous peoples of Mexico |location=México |publisher=CDI |date=2008 |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24 |isbn=978-970-753-157-4 |via=cdi.gob.mx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130051239/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24 |archive-date=30 November 2011}}</ref>

Similarly to Mestizo and indigenous peoples, estimates of the percentage of [[Mexicans of European descent|European-descended Mexicans]] vary considerably depending on the criteria used: recent nationwide field surveys that account for different phenotypical traits (hair color, skin color etc.) report a percentage between 18%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Villarreal |first1=Andrés |title=Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico |journal=American Sociological Review |date=October 2010 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=652–678 |doi=10.1177/0003122410378232 |publisher=American Sociological Association |jstor=20799484|s2cid=145295212 }}</ref>-23%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ortiz-Hernández |first1=Luis |last2=Compeán-Dardón |first2=Sandra |last3=Verde-Flota |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Flores-Martínez |first4=Maricela Nanet |title=Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City |journal=Salud Pública de México |date=April 2011 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005 |pmid=21537803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> if the criteria is the presence of [[Blond|blond hair]], and of 47% if the criteria is skin color, with the later surveys having been conducted by Mexico's government itself.<ref name="Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS 2017">[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag.7], ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref><ref name="conapred.org.mx">[http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico"], "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref><ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011">[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/Dossier%20DISC-RACIAL.pdf "DOCUMENTO INFORMATIVO SOBRE DISCRIMINACIÓN RACIAL EN MÉXICO"], ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, 21 March 2011, retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref><ref name=ENADIS2017>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2018/EstSociodemo/ENADIS2017_08.PDF "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017"], ''CNDH'', 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 9 August 2018.</ref><ref name=MMSI2>[http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstream/handle/123456789/3525/JASC%2520IBD%2520MMSI%25202016%2520V1.0.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell"], ''INEGI'', 3 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.</ref> While during the colonial era, most of the European migration into Mexico was [[Spaniards in Mexico|Spanish]], in the 19th and 20th centuries a substantial number of non-Spanish Europeans immigrated to the country,<ref name="fnavarrete">{{cite web|url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |title=El mestizaje y las culturas |first=Federico |last=Navarrete Linares |work=México Multicultural |publisher=[[UNAM]] |location=Mexico |language=es |trans-title=Mixed race and cultures |access-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |archive-date=23 August 2013 }}</ref> with Europeans often being the most numerous ethnic group in colonial Mexican cities.<ref name="EnsayospoblaciónMéxico">{{cite book|author1=Sherburne Friend Cook|author2=Woodrow Borah|title=Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSCVztyTANcC&pg=PA223|access-date=12 September 2017|date=1998|publisher=Siglo XXI|isbn=9789682301063|page=223}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=San Miguel |first1=G. |title=Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792 |trans-title=To be «mestizo» in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792 |language=es |journal=Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy |date=November 2000 |issue=13 |pages=325–342 |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-81042000000100018 }}</ref> Nowadays Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of European populations, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being of predominantly European ancestry.<ref name="UnitedStatesandMexico">{{cite book|author1=Howard F. Cline|title=THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPl8c4XINgoC&q=northern+spanish|access-date=18 May 2017|date=1963|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674497061|page=104}}</ref>

[[File:Capilla de San Francisco Puebla.jpg|thumb|[[Puebla City|Puebla de Zaragoza]] is the most populated city of [[Puebla]]]]
The Afro-Mexican population (2,576,213 individuals {{As of|2020|lc=y}})<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref name="Encuesta Intercensal">{{cite web|title=Presentación de la Encuesta Intercensal- Principales resultados|url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf|publisher=INEGI|access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref> is an ethnic group made up of descendants of Colonial-era slaves and recent immigrants of sub-Saharan African descent. Mexico had an active slave trade during the colonial period, and some 200,000 Africans were taken there, primarily in the 17th century. The creation of a national Mexican identity, especially after the Mexican Revolution, emphasized Mexico's indigenous and European past; it passively eliminated the African ancestors and contributions. Most of the African-descended population was absorbed into the surrounding Mestizo (mixed European/indigenous) and indigenous populations through unions among the groups. Evidence of this long history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in the fact that in the 2015 inter-census, 64.9% (896,829) of Afro-Mexicans also identified as indigenous. It was also reported that 7.4% of Afro-Mexicans speak an indigenous language.<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Principales resultados—Encuesta Intercensal 2015 |trans-title=Main results — Intercensal Survey 2015 |url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf |publisher=INEGI |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313192927/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2017 |language=es |date=2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The states with the highest self-report of Afro-Mexicans were Guerrero (8.6% of the population), Oaxaca (4.7%) and Baja California Sur (3.3%).<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Tabulados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015|url=http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/tabuladosbasicos/LeerArchivo.aspx?ct=51553&c=33725&s=est&f=1|publisher=[[INEGI]]|access-date=24 December 2015}}</ref> Afro-Mexican culture is strongest in the communities of the [[Costa Chica of Oaxaca]] and [[Costa Chica of Guerrero]].

During the early 20th century, a substantial number of [[Arab Mexicans|Arabs]] (mostly [[Arab Christians|Christians]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-536840/Marin-Guzman-Roberto-and-Zidane.html|title=Find Local Contractors – Home Remodeling Contractors on Ecnext|website=goliath.ecnext.com}}</ref> began arriving from the crumbling [[Ottoman Empire]]. The largest group were the Lebanese and an estimated 400,000 Mexicans have some [[Lebanese Mexicans|Lebanese ancestry]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=The biggest enchilada|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3641163/The-biggest-enchilada.html|publisher=The Telegraph|access-date=28 February 2015|date=7 July 2007|last1=Langley|first1=William}}</ref> Smaller ethnic groups in Mexico include [[Asian Mexicans|South and East Asians]], present since the colonial era. During the colonial era Asians were termed ''Chino'' (regardless of ethnicity), and arrived as merchants, artisans and slaves.<ref name="Seijas">{{cite book|author= Tatiana Seijas|title= Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&q=Asians+in+Mexico&pg=PA21 |date= 2014|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107063129 |page=21}}</ref> A study by Juan Esteban Rodríguez, a graduate student at the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, indicated that up to one third of people sampled from [[Guerrero]] state had significantly more Asian ancestry than most Mexicans, primarily [[Filipino immigration to Mexico|Filipino]] or [[Native Indonesians|Indonesian]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/04/latin-america-s-lost-histories-revealed-modern-dna|title=Latin America's lost histories revealed in modern DNA|date=12 April 2018|website=Science | AAAS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2005/01/28/OPED2005012827368.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015180841/http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2005/01/28/OPED2005012827368.html|url-status=dead|title=Filipinos in Mexican History|archive-date=15 October 2007}}</ref> Modern Asian immigration began in the late 19th century, and at one point in the early 20th century the [[Chinese immigration to Mexico|Chinese]] were the second largest immigrant group.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chao Romero|first1=Robert|title=The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940|chapter=1. Introduction |date=2011|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816508198|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3GQ7o3HV1cC&q=chinese+in+mexico+second+largest+immigrant+group&pg=PA1|access-date=1 October 2016|title-link=The Chinese in Mexico}}</ref>

===Emigration===
{{main|Emigration from Mexico}}{{See also|Immigration to Mexico}}
In the early 1960s, around 600,000 Mexicans lived abroad, which increased sevenfold by the 1990s to 4.4 million.<ref name="Migration Yearbook">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbvaresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/1809_AnuarioMigracionRemesas_2018.pdf | title=Yearbook of Migration and Remittances: Mexico 2018 | publisher=[[BBVA Bancomer|BBVA Research]] | date=2018 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> At the turn of the 21st century, this figure more than doubled to 9.5 million.<ref name="Migration Yearbook"/> As of 2017, it is estimated that 12.9 million Mexicans live abroad, primarily in the United States, which concentrates nearly 98% of the expatriate population.<ref name="Migration Yearbook"/> The majority of Mexicans have settled in states such as [[California]], [[Texas]] and [[Illinois]], particularly around the metropolitan areas of [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Los Angeles]], [[Chicago metropolitan area|Chicago]], [[Greater Houston|Houston]] and [[Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex|Dallas–Fort Worth]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-immigrants-united-states | title=Mexican Migrants in the United States | publisher=Migration Policy Institute | date=17 March 2016 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> As a result of these major migration flows in recent decades, around 36 million U.S. residents, or 11.2% of the country's population, identified as being of full or partial Mexican ancestry.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_B03001&prodType=table | title=Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin | publisher=U.S. Census Bureau | date=2016 | access-date=9 September 2018 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20200214060959/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_B03001&prodType=table | archive-date=14 February 2020 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The remaining 2% of expatriates have settled in [[Canada]] (86,000), primarily in the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Ap-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=5&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=0&GK=1&GRP=0&PID=105411&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= | title=2011 National Household Survey | publisher=Statistics Canada | date=8 May 2013 | access-date=9 September 2018}}</ref> followed by [[Spain]] (49,000) and [[Germany]] (18,000), both European destinations represent almost two-thirds of the Mexican population living in the continent.<ref name="Migration Yearbook"/> As for Latin America, it is estimated that 69,000 Mexicans live in the region, [[Guatemala]] (18,000) being the top destination for expatriates, followed by [[Bolivia]] (10,000) and [[Panama]] (5,000).<ref name="Migration Yearbook"/>

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Mexico}}
[[File:Paz0.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Octavio Paz]] was awarded the 1981 [[Miguel de Cervantes Prize]], the 1982 [[Neustadt International Prize for Literature]], and the 1990 [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].]]
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' national language spoken by the vast majority of the population, making Mexico the world's most populous [[Hispanophone]] country.<ref>{{Ethnologue18|spa|Spanish → Mexico}}</ref><ref name=Spanishhistory/> [[Mexican Spanish]] refers to the [[Variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of the language spoken in the country, which differ from one region to another in sound, structure, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=443, 444, 445}} In general, Mexican Spanish does not make any phonetic [[Seseo|distinction among the letters ''s'' and ''z'']], as well as ''c'' when preceding the vowels ''e'' and ''i'', as opposed to [[Peninsular Spanish]]. The letters ''b'' and ''v'' have the same pronunciation as well.{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=443, 444, 445}} Furthermore, the usage of ''[[voseo|vos]]'', the [[grammatical person|second person]] [[grammatical number|singular]] [[pronoun]], found in several Latin American varieties, is replaced by ''[[T–V distinction#Spanish|tú]]''; whereas ''[[vosotros]]'', the second person plural pronoun, fell out of use and was effectively replaced by ''ustedes''.{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=443, 444, 445}} In written form, the [[Spanish Royal Academy]] serves as the primary guideline for spelling, except for words of Amerindian origin that retain their original phonology such as ''[[Northern mockingbird|cenzontle]]'' instead of ''sinzontle'' and [[Name of Mexico|''México'' not ''Méjico'']]. Words of foreign origin also maintain their original spelling such as whisky and film, as opposed to ''güisqui'' and ''filme'' as the Royal Academy suggests.{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=443, 444, 445}} The letter ''x'' is distinctly used in Mexican Spanish, which may be pronounced as {{IPA|[ks]}} (as in ''oxígeno'' or ''taxi''), as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} particularly in Amerindian words (e.g. ''mixiote'', ''Xola'' and ''uxmal'') and as the [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPAblink|x}} (such as ''Texas'' and ''Oaxaca'').{{sfn|Werner|2001|pp=443, 444, 445}}

The federal government officially recognizes [[Languages of Mexico#Indigenous languages|sixty-eight linguistic groups and 364 varieties of indigenous languages]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=INALI [Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas] | author-link=Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas | date=14 January 2008 | title=Catálogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas | url=http://www.inali.gob.mx/pdf/CLIN_completo.pdf | format=PDF online facsimile | journal=[[Diario Oficial de la Federación]] | location=Mexico City | volume=652 | issue=9 | pages=22–78 (first section), 1–96 (second section), 1–112 (third section) | oclc=46461036 | language=es}}</ref> It is estimated that around 8.3 million citizens speak these languages,<ref name="Indigenous Languages">{{cite web | url=http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/hipertexto/todas_lenguas.htm | title=Indigenous Languages in Mexico: Speakers Aged Three or Older | publisher=National Institute of Statistics and Geography | date=2015 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref> with [[Nahuatl]] being the most widely spoken by more than 1.7 million, followed by [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya]] used daily by nearly 850,000 people, [[Tzeltal language|Tzeltal]] and [[Tzotzil language|Tzotzil]], two variants of the [[Mayan languages]], are spoken by around half a million people each, primarily in the southern state of [[Chiapas]].<ref name="Indigenous Languages"/> [[Mixtec languages|Mixtec]] and [[Zapotec languages|Zapotec]], both with estimated 500,000 native speakers each, are two other well-known language groups.<ref name="Indigenous Languages"/> Since its creation in March 2003, the [[Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas|National Indigenous Languages Institute]] has been in charge of promoting and protecting the use of the country's indigenous languages, through the [[Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas|General Law of Indigenous Peoples' Linguistic Rights]], which recognizes them ''[[de jure]]'' as "national languages" with status equal to that of Spanish.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Edespig/diagnostico_y_perspectivas/leyes_declaraciones/2%20LENGUA%20Y%20CULTURA/Ley%20general%20de%20derechos%20linguisticos.pdf |title=Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas |access-date=3 August 2017 |date=2003 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054016/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Edespig/diagnostico_y_perspectivas/leyes_declaraciones/2%20LENGUA%20Y%20CULTURA/Ley%20general%20de%20derechos%20linguisticos.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> Notwithstanding, in practice, indigenous peoples often face discrimination and are unable to have proper access to public services such as education and healthcare, as well as the justice system, as Spanish is the prominent language.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://site.inali.gob.mx/pdf/MODELO_DE_ACREDITACION_Y_CERTIFICACION_EN_MATERIA_DE_LENGUAS_INDIGENAS.pdf | title=Model of Accreditation and Certification of Indigenous Languages | publisher=National Indigenous Languages Institute | date=October 2012 | page=7 | language=es | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref>

Aside from indigenous languages, there are several minority languages spoken in Mexico due to international migration such as [[Low German]] by the 80,000-strong [[Mennonites in Mexico|Menonite population]], primarily settled in the northern states, fuelled by the tolerance of the federal government towards this community by allowing them to set their own educational system compatible with their customs and traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hshs.mb.ca/mennonite_old_colony_vision.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205052716/http://www.hshs.mb.ca/mennonite_old_colony_vision.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2007|title=The Mennonite Old Colony Vision: Under siege in Mexico and the Canadian Connection|access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref> The [[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo dialect]], a variance of the [[Venetian language]], is spoken in the town of [[Chipilo]], located in the central state of [[Puebla]], by around 2,500 people, mainly descendants of Venetians that migrated to the area in the late 19th century.<ref>{{e18|vec|Venetian (Mexico)}}</ref> Furthermore, [[English language|English]] is the most commonly taught [[foreign language]] in Mexico. It is estimated that nearly 24 million, or around a fifth of the population, study the language through public schools, private institutions or self-access channels.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ei.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/latin-america-research/English%20in%20Mexico.pdf | title=English in Mexico: An examination of policy, perceptions and influencing factors | publisher=British Council | date=May 2015 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref> However, a high level of English proficiency is limited to only 5% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/economia/en-mexico-solo-de-la-poblacion-habla-ingles-imco.html | title=En México sólo 5% de la población habla inglés: IMCO | last=Becerril | first=Isabel | publisher=El Financiero | language=es | date=27 April 2015 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref> Moreover, [[French language|French]] is the second most widely taught foreign language, as every year between 200,000 and 250,000 Mexican students enroll in language courses.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/2e.pdf | title=Une Langue Pour Apprendre | page=132 | publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie | date=6 September 2010 | language=fr | access-date=11 September 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113062358/https://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/2e.pdf | archive-date=13 November 2018 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://mx.ambafrance.org/Cours-de-francais,6567 | title=Cours de français | publisher=Ambassade de France à Mexico | language=fr | date=19 March 2013 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://loutardeliberee.com/mexique-lacteur-monte-francophonie-damerique/ | title=Le Mexique, l'acteur qui monte dans la francophonie d'Amérique | last=Simon-Clerc | first=Nathalie | publisher=L'Outarde Libérée | language=fr | date=2 November 2016 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref>

===Urban areas===
{{Main|Metropolitan areas of Mexico|List of cities in Mexico}}

{{Largest cities of Mexico}}

===Religion===
{{See also|Religion in Mexico}}
{{Bar box
|title=[[Religion in Mexico]] (2020 census)<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref name=religion2020/>
|titlebar=#ddd
|float=right
|bars=
{{Bar percent|Roman Catholicism|gold|77.7}}
{{Bar percent|Protestantism|skyblue|11.2}}
{{Bar percent|Other religion|Pink|2.4}}
{{Bar percent|[[Irreligion|No religion]]|black|8.1}}
{{Bar percent|Unanswered|gray|.4}}
}}

The 2020 census by the [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía]] (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) gave [[Roman Catholicism in Mexico|Roman Catholicism]] as the main religion, with 77.7% (97,864,218) of the population, while 11.2% (14,095,307) belong to Protestant/Evangelical Christian denominations—including Other [[Christians]] (6,778,435), [[Evangelicals]] (2,387,133), [[Pentecostals]] (1,179,415), [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] (1,530,909), [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] (791,109), and members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (337,998)—; 8.1% (9,488,671) declared having [[Irreligion in Mexico|no religion]]; .4% (491,814) were unspecified.<ref name="2020 Census"/><ref name=religion2020>{{cite web|url=https://www.milenio.com/politica/comunidad/catolicismo-pierde-creyentes-censo-inegi-2021|first1=Graciela|last1=Olvera|first2=Armando|last2=Martínez|date=25 January 2021|language=es|title=Catolicismo y otras religiones pierden creyentes en México|work=Milenio|accessdate=25 March 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Nueva Basílica de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (JC) 01.JPG|thumb|left|180px|[[Our Lady of Guadalupe]], [[patron saint]] of Mexico. This painting of her at the [[Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe|Basilica of Guadalupe]] is among her most notable depictions; scientists still debate if it should be dated 1531, the year of the first apparition,<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.michaeljournal.org/articles/roman-catholic-church/item/the-apparition-of-our-lady-of-guadalupe-in-1531|title=The Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe in 1531|date=1 October 2002|publisher=michaeljournal.org}}</ref> or the 1550s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_6BaAAAAMAAJ|title=La búsqueda de Juan Diego|author= Manuel Olimón Nolasco|date=2002|publisher=Plaza & Janés|isbn=9789681105433}}</ref>]]

The 97,864,218<ref name="2020 Census"/> Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second largest Catholic community in the world, after [[Brazil]]'s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_romcath.html |title=The Largest Catholic Communities |access-date=10 November 2007 |publisher=Adherents.com}}</ref> 47% percent of them attend church services weekly.<ref>{{cite web|title=Church attendance |work=Study of worldwide rates of religiosity |year=1997 |publisher=University of Michigan |url=http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/print.php?Releases/1997/Dec97/chr121097a |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901122224/http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/print.php?Releases%2F1997%2FDec97%2Fchr121097a |archive-date=1 September 2006 |access-date=3 January 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The feast day of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]], the patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated on 12 December and is regarded by many Mexicans as the most important religious holiday of their country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Our Lady of Guadalupe|url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=456|publisher=Catholic Online|access-date=24 October 2011}}</ref>

The denominations [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] also have an important presence, especially in the cities of the border and in the indigenous communities. As of 2010, Pentecostal churches together have more than 1.3 million adherents, which in net numbers place them as the second Christian creed in Mexico. The situation changes when the different Pentecostal denominations are considered as separate entities. The third-largest Christian group is the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], which totals more than 1 million adherents. In the same census [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], whose members are known as [[Mormons]], reported 314,932 members,<ref name="2010-census"/> though the church claimed in 2009 to have over one million registered members.<ref name="lds-Mexico">{{cite web|title=Mexico, Country profile|publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Days Saints Newsroom|url=http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/mexico|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825063153/http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/mexico|archive-date=25 August 2010|url-status=dead|access-date=4 March 2011}}</ref> Other groups are growing, such as [[Iglesia apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesús]], [[Mennonites in Mexico|Mennonites]] and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] and [[La Luz del Mundo|Church of the La Luz del Mundo]], which has its center in "[[La Hermosa Provincia]]", a colony of [[Guadalajara]]. Migratory phenomena have led to the spread of different aspects of Christianity, including branches [[Protestantism|Protestants]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref name="cristianismosorientales">[https://www.iis.unam.mx/blog/cristianismos-orientales-persecucion-muerte-migracion-y-cambio/ "Cristianismos orientales: persecución, muerte, migración y cambio – Resonancias – Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales"], "UNAM", Mexico DF, 29 November 2019. Retrieved on 28 November 2020.</ref> The presence of [[History of the Jews in Mexico|Jews in Mexico]] dates back to 1521, when Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs, accompanied by several [[Converso]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Primack|first=Karen|title=Jews in places you never thought of|year=1998|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|page=305|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GhD0JZAOTHUC&q=jews+came+to+mexico+in+1521&pg=PA77|isbn=978-0-88125-608-6}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, there are 58,876 Jews in Mexico.<ref name="2020 Census"/> [[Islam in Mexico]] (with 7,982 members) is practiced mostly by [[Arab Mexican]]s.<ref name="2020 Census"/> In the 2010 census 36,764 Mexicans reported belonging to a spiritualist religion,<ref name="2020 Census"/> a category which includes a tiny [[Buddhism in Mexico|Buddhist]] population.

[[File:Capilla_del_Panteón_Francés_de_la_Piedad.JPG|thumb|right|225px|View of the Chapel of Mercy of the [[Panteón Francés]] (French Cemetery)]]
According to [[Jacobo Grinberg]] (in texts edited by the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]), the survival of magic-religious rituals of the old [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] groups is remarkable, not only in the current indigenous population but also in the [[mestizo]] and [[white people|white]] population that make up the Mexican rural and urban society. There is often a [[syncretism]] between [[shamanism]] and Catholic traditions. Another religion of popular syncretism in Mexico (especially in recent years) is the [[Santería]]. This is mainly due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory after the [[Cuban Revolution]] (mainly in states such as [[Veracruz]] and [[Yucatán]]). Even though Mexico was also a recipient of black slaves from [[Africa]] in the 16th century, the apogee of these cults is relatively new.<ref>{{Cite book| author = Jacobo Grinberg Zylberbaum | title = Los chamanes de México | date = 1989 | publisher = UNAM School of Psychology | location = Mexico City | isbn = 9686022015 | edition = University of Texas | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1QVZAAAAMAAJ&q=chamanes+en+M%C3%A9xico}}</ref> In general, popular religiosity is viewed with bad eyes by institutionally structured religions. One of the most exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult of [[Santa Muerte|Holy Dead]] (Santa Muerte). The Catholic hierarchy insists on describing it as a satanic cult. However, most of the people who profess this cult declare themselves to be Catholic believers, and consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they offer to the [[Christ Child]] and the adoration of God. Other examples are the representations of the [[Stations of the Cross|Passion of Christ]] and the celebration of [[Day of the Dead]], which take place within the framework of the Catholic Christian imaginary, but under a very particular reinterpretation of its protagonists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castells Ballarin |first1=Pilar |title=La Santa Muerte y la cultura de los derechos humanos |journal=LiminaR |date=June 2008 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.29043/liminar.v6i1.263 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In certain regions, the profession of a creed other than the Catholic is seen as a threat to community unity. It is argued that the Catholic religion is part of the ethnic identity, and that the Protestants are not willing to participate in the traditional customs and practices (the [[tequio]] or community work, participation in the festivities and similar issues). The refusal of the Protestants is because their religious beliefs do not allow them to participate in the cult of images. In extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has led to the expulsion or even murder of Protestants in several villages. The best known cases are those of [[San Juan Chamula]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/11/11/042n3est.php|title=En Chamula, cambiar religión se considera delito|date=16 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616041417/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/11/11/042n3est.php|archive-date=16 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/06/03/pol4.html|title=pol4|website=www.jornada.unam.mx}}</ref> in Chiapas, and San Nicolás, in [[Ixmiquilpan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2001/07/22/mas-hilo.html|title=mas-hilo|website=www.jornada.unam.mx}}</ref> [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]].

A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the government of the Republic to expel the [[SIL International|Summer Linguistic Institute]] (SIL), in the year 1979, which was accused of promoting the division of indigenous peoples by translating the [[Bible]] into vernacular languages and evangelizing in a Protestant creed that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The Mexican government paid attention to the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement that had held with the SIL.<ref name="WP">{{cite news |last1=Simons |first1=Marlise |title=Mexico to End Work of U.S. Translators With Indians |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1979/09/29/mexico-to-end-work-of-us-translators-with-indians/918451eb-96c9-4b77-835b-8a3dfed38a1d/ |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=29 September 1979 }}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Healthcare in Mexico}}
[[File:Mexico df - Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[General Hospital of Mexico]] in Mexico City.]]
Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in the health of its population and some indicators such as mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly developed countries like Germany or Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/mexico/63.htm |title=Mexico – Health Care and Social Security |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref> Mexico's medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most part and is usually excellent in major cities,<ref name="Health Care in Mexico">{{cite web|url=http://www.expatforum.com/articles/health/health-care-in-mexico.html |title=Health Care in Mexico |publisher=Expatforum.com |access-date=30 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://globerove.com/mexico/health-care-issues-mexico/695 |title=Health Care Issues Mexico |publisher=Kwintessential.co.uk |access-date=4 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813094826/http://globerove.com/mexico/health-care-issues-mexico/695 |archive-date=13 August 2013 }}</ref> but rural communities still lack equipment for advanced medical procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the closest urban areas to get specialized medical care.<ref name=brit-mex/> [[Social determinants of health in Mexico|Social determinants of health]] can be used to evaluate the state of health in Mexico.

State-funded institutions such as [[Mexican Social Security Institute]] (IMSS) and the [[Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers]] (ISSSTE) play a major role in health and social security. Private health services are also very important and account for 13% of all medical units in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sinais.salud.gob.mx/medicinaprivada/index.html |title=Sistema Nacional de Información en Salud – Infraestructura |publisher=Sinais.salud.gob.mx |access-date=30 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609031712/http://www.sinais.salud.gob.mx/medicinaprivada/index.html |archive-date=9 June 2010 }}</ref>

Medical training is done mostly at public universities with much specializations done in vocational or internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such as the [[University of Guadalajara]], have signed agreements with the U.S. to receive and train American students in Medicine. Health care costs in private institutions and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North American economic partners.<ref name="Health Care in Mexico"/>

===Education===
[[File:Biblioteca Central..jpg|thumb|[[Central Library (UNAM)|Central Library]] of the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]]]
{{Main|Education in Mexico}}
In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu15&s=est&c=3283 |title=INEGI literacy report −14, 2005 |publisher=Inegi.gob.mx |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722225624/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu15&s=est&c=3283 |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> for youth under the age of 14, and 91% for people over 15,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu16&s=est&c=3284 |title=INEGI literacy report 15+, 2005 |publisher=Inegi.gob.mx |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722225628/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu16&s=est&c=3284 |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> placing Mexico at 24th place in the world according to [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mexico: Youth Literacy Rate|publisher=Global Virtual University|url=http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=41&Country=MX|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719073513/http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=41&Country=MX|archive-date=19 July 2010|access-date=2 October 2007}}</ref>

Nowadays, Mexico's literacy rate is high, at 94.86% in 2018, up from 82.99% in 1980,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/MEX/mexico/literacy-rate|title=Mexico Literacy Rate 1980-2021|website=www.macrotrends.net}}</ref> with the literacy rates of males and females being relatively equal.

The [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]] ranks 103rd in the [[QS World University Rankings]], making it the best university in Mexico. After it comes the [[Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education]] as the best private school in Mexico and 158th worldwide in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telediario.mx/nacional/nombran-al-tec-de-monterrey-como-la-mejor-universidad-privada-de-mexico|title=Nombran al Tec de Monterrey como la mejor universidad privada de México|date=19 June 2019|website=Telediario CDMX|language=es|access-date=10 August 2019}}</ref> Private business schools also stand out in international rankings. [[IPADE]] and [[EGADE]], the business schools of [[Universidad Panamericana]] and of [[Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education]] respectively, were ranked in the top 10 in a survey conducted by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' among recruiters outside the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Recruiter's scoreboard Highlights|work=The Wall Street Journal/Harris Interactive survey of corporate recruiters on business schools|url=https://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/MB_06_Scoreboard.pdf|access-date=4 October 2007}}</ref>

===Women===
{{Main|Women in Mexico}}

[[File:Olga Sánchez Cordero - rostro.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Olga Sánchez Cordero]], Minister of the Interior (''Gobernacion'') in President López Obrador's cabinet]]

Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country, with rural women's status defined within the context of the family and local community. With urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century, following the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire]], cities have provided economic and social opportunities not possible within rural villages. Beginning in the late nineteenth century, women including middle-class women began working outside the home in offices and factories, and the gained access to education.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Susie S. |title=From Angel to Office Worker: Middle-Class Identity and Female Consciousness in Mexico, 1890–1950 |date=2018 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-1-4962-0649-7 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Susie S. |title=Working Women in Mexico City: Public Discourses and Material Conditions, 1879-1931 |date=2003 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-2268-2 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> Women were granted [[Women's suffrage in Mexico|suffrage]] in 1953.<ref>Morton, Ward M. ''Woman Suffrage in Mexico''. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1962</ref> In the 21st century, Mexican women are prominent in politics, academia, journalism, literature, and visual arts among other fields. In President [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]]'s first cabinet following his 2018 election, he appointed women in equal numbers as men.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lopezobrador.org.mx/2017/12/14/presenta-amlo-gabinete-para-presidencia-2018-2024/|title=Presenta AMLO Gabinete para Presidencia 2018–2024 #GabineteAMLO – AMLO|accessdate=3 March 2021}}</ref> However, a wave of feminism in 2020 has criticized the president for his tone-deaf response to murders of women in Mexico.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-women-antiviolence-mexico-idUSKBN20T2ZN|title='Despicable' – Women seethe over Mexican leader's wobbly response to violence|newspaper=Reuters|date=6 March 2020|via=www.reuters.com|last1=Solomon|first1=Daina Beth}}</ref>

Mexico is among the countries that treat particular murders of women as [[femicide]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Why Latin America treats "femicides" differently from other murders |url=https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2020/03/05/why-latin-america-treats-femicides-differently-from-other-murders |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=The Economist |issue=5 May 2020 |date=5 May 2020 |location=Monterrey}}</ref> In 2014, Mexico had the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women in the world.<ref name=femicide>{{cite web|title=Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_CEDAW52.pdf|access-date=12 March 2014}}</ref> The remains of the victims were frequently mutilated.<ref name=hp_8Jan2015>{{cite news|title=Wave Of Femicide Surges Across Mexico, Killing 6 Women Per Day|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/08/mexico-femicide_n_6437156.html|access-date=14 September 2015|publisher=Huffington Post|date=8 January 2015}}</ref> According to a 1997 study, domestic abuse in Mexican culture "is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Finkler|first=Kaja|title=Gender, domestic violence and sickness in Mexico.|journal=Social Science & Medicine|year=1997|volume=45|issue=8|pages=1147–1160|doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00023-3|pmid=9381229}}</ref> The perpetrators are often the boyfriend, father-in-law, ex-husbands or husbands but only 1.6% of the murder cases led to an arrest and sentencing in 2015.<ref name=hp_8Jan2015/> After a particularly well-publicized gruesome femicide followed by that of a kidnapped little girl, women began protesting more vociferously, falling on deaf ears, including those of President López Obrador. This is the first new and major movement with which his presidency has had to deal. On [[International Women's Day]] (8 March) in 2020, women staged a massive demonstration in Mexico City with some 80,000 participants. On Monday, 9 March 2020, the second day of action was marked by the absence of women at work, in class, shopping and other public activities. The "Day Without Women" (''Día Sin Nosotras'') was reported in the international press along with the previous day's demonstrations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Villegas |first1=Paulina |title=In Mexico, Women Go on Strike Nationwide to Protest Violence |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/09/world/americas/mexico-women-strike-protest.html |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=The New York Times |date=9 March 2020 |location=Mexico City}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Doubek |first1=James |title=Mexican Women Stay Home To Protest Femicides In 'A Day Without Us' |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/03/09/813699719/mexican-women-stay-home-to-protest-femicides-in-a-day-without-us |access-date=4 June 2020 |work=NPR |date=9 March 2020}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Mexico}}
[[File:Talaveraarmando.jpg|thumb|[[Talavera pottery]]]]
Mexican culture reflects the complexity of the [[History of Mexico|country's history]] through the blending of indigenous cultures and the [[culture of Spain]], imparted during Spain's 300-year colonial rule of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elements have been incorporated into Mexican culture as time has passed.

The Porfirian era (''el [[Porfirio Díaz|Porfiriato]]''), in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, was marked by economic progress and peace. After four decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and the arts, promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated during the [[Mexican Revolution]], cultural identity has had its foundation in the ''mestizaje'', of which the indigenous (i.e. Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people, [[José Vasconcelos]] in ''La Raza Cósmica'' (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all races (thus extending the definition of the ''mestizo'') not only biologically but culturally as well.<ref name="vasconcelos160">{{Cite book|last=Vasconcelos|first=José|others=Didier T. Jaén (translator)|title=La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race)|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8018-5655-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160 160]|url=https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160|url-access=registration}}</ref> Other Mexican intellectuals grappled with the idea of ''Lo Mexicano'', which seeks "to discover the national ethos of Mexican culture."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phelan |first1=John Leddy |title=México y lo Mexicano |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1 August 1956 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=309–318 |doi=10.1215/00182168-36.3.309 |jstor=2509215 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Nobel laureate]] [[Octavio Paz]] explores the notion of a Mexican national character in ''[[The Labyrinth of Solitude]]''.

=== Painting ===
{{Main|Mexican art}}
[[File:Palacio_de_Bellas_Artes_de_Noche.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Palacio de Bellas Artes]] (Palace of Fine Arts)]]
[[File:Murales Rivera - Ausbeutung durch die Spanier 1 perspective.jpg|thumb|[[Mexican Muralism]]. A cultural expression starting in the 1920s created by a group of Mexican painters after the [[Mexican Revolution]].]]
[[Painting]] is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in Mexican territory is about 7500 years old and has been found in the caves of the [[Baja California Peninsula]]. Pre-Columbian Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in [[Aztec codices]], in [[ceramics]], in garments, etc. .; examples of this are the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] mural paintings of [[Bonampak]], or those of [[Teotihuacán]], those of [[Cacaxtla]] and those of [[Monte Albán]].

Mural painting with religious themes had an important flowering during the 16th century; the same in religious constructions as in houses of lineage; such is the case of the convents of [[Acolman]], [[Actopan, Hidalgo|Actopan]], [[Huejotzingo]], [[Tecamachalco, Puebla|Tecamachalco]] and [[Zinacantepec]]. These were also manifested in illustrated manuscripts such as the 1576 [[Florentine codex]] overseen by Franciscan [[Bernardino de Sahagún]]. Most art in the colonial era was religious, but starting in the late seventeenth century and most prominently in the eighteenth century, secular portraits and [[casta|casta painting]] appeared. Important painters of the late colonial period were [[Juan Correa]], [[Cristóbal de Villalpando]] and [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Miguel Cabrera]].

Nineteenth-century painting had a marked romantic influence; landscapes and portraits were the greatest expressions of this era. [[Hermenegildo Bustos]] is one of the most appreciated painters of the [[historiography]] of Mexican art. Other painters include [[:es:Santiago Rebull|Santiago Rebull]], [[Félix Parra]], [[Eugenio Landesio]], and his noted pupil, the landscape artist [[José María Velasco Gómez|José María Velasco]].<ref>Widdiefield, Stacie G. ''The Embodiment of the National in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexican Painting''. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1996</ref>

[[Mexican art|Mexican painting]] of the 20th century has achieved world renown with figures such as [[David Alfaro Siqueiros]], [[José Clemente Orozco]], [[Joaquín Clausell]], [[Frida Kahlo]] and [[Diego Rivera]], a generation of idealists who marked the image of modern Mexico in the face of strong social and economic criticism. The Oaxacan School quickly gained fame and prestige, diffusion of ancestral and modern culture. Freedom of design is observed in relation to the color and texture of the canvases and murals as a period of transition between the 20th century and the 21st century. [[Federico Cantú Garza]], [[Juan O'Gorman]], and [[Rufino Tamayo]] are also important artists. Diego Rivera, the most well-known figure of [[Mexican muralism]], painted the [[Man at the Crossroads]] at the [[Rockefeller Center]] in New York City, a huge mural that was destroyed by the Rockefellers the next year because of the inclusion of a portrait of Russian communist leader [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rockefeller Controversy|publisher=Diego Rivera Prints|url=http://www.diego-rivera.org/rockefellercontroversy.html|access-date=2 October 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011103154/http://www.diego-rivera.org/rockefellercontroversy.html|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> Some of Rivera's murals are displayed at the Mexican [[National Palace (Mexico)|National Palace]] and the [[Palacio de Bellas Artes|Palace of Fine Arts]].

Some of the most outstanding painters in the late 20th century and early 21st century: [[Francisco Toledo]] was a Mexican Zapotec painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. In a career that spanned seven decades, Toledo produced thousands of works of art and became widely regarded as one of Mexico's most important contemporary artists. [[Verónica Ruiz de Velasco]] is a [[neofigurative]] painter and muralist. Both [[Verónica Ruiz de Velasco]] and [[Francisco Toledo]] were students of [[Rufino Tamayo]]. [[Gilberto Aceves Navarro]] is also considered an important contemporary artist.

Throughout history several prominent painters of different nationalities have expressed in their works the face of Mexico. Among the most outstanding we can mention are [[Claudio Linati]], [[Daniel Thomas Egerton]], [[Carl Nebel]], [[Thomas Moran]], and [[Leonora Carrington]].

=== Sculpture ===
{{Main|Sculpture in Mexico}}
[[File:El_apoteosis_de_Padre_de_la_Patria_DF_MEX.JPG|thumb|100px|View of the [[Apotheosis]] sculptural group at the [[Angel of Independence]]]]
Sculpture was an integral part of pre-Columbian [[Mesoamerica]]n civilizations, ([[Maya civilization|Mayans]], [[Olmec]]s, [[Toltec]]s, [[Mixtec]]s, [[Aztec]]s), and others, usually religious in nature. From the Spanish conquest in 1521, civil and religious sculpture was created by indigenous artists, with guidance from Spaniards, so some pre-Columbian features are evident. Since the 17th century, white and [[mestizo]] sculptors have created works with a marked influence of European classicism. After independence in 1821, sculpture was influenced by Romanticism, which tended to break the strict norms and models of classicism, while it pursued ideas influenced by realism and nationalism. Religious sculpture was reduced to a sporadic imagery, while the secular sculpture continued in portraits and monumental art of a civic nature. Between 1820 and 1880 the predominant themes were, successively: religious images, biblical scenes, allegories to the symbols of the independence insurgency, scenes and personages of pre-Columbian history, and busts of the old aristocracy, of the nascent bourgeoisie and commanders of the pre-revolution. During the 20th century, some important exponents of Mexican sculpture are [[Juan Soriano (artist)|Juan Soriano]], [[José Luis Cuevas]], and [[Sebastián (sculptor)|Enrique Carbajal]] (also known as Sebastián).{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Mexico}}
[[Image:SSA41434.JPG|left|thumb|[[Teotihuacán]], [[State of Mexico]]]]
The presence of the humans in the Mexican territory has left important archaeological findings of great importance for the explanation of the habitat of primitive man and contemporary man. The Mesoamerican civilizations managed to have great stylistic development and proportion on the human and urban scale, the form was evolving from simplicity to aesthetic complexity; in the north of the country the adobe and stone architecture is manifested, the multifamily housing as we can see in [[Casas Grandes]]; and the troglodyte dwelling in caves of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Urbanism had a great development in pre-Columbian cultures, where we can see the magnitude of the cities of [[Teotihuacán]], [[Tula (Mesoamerican site)|Tollan-Xicocotitlan]] and [[Tenochtitlan|México-Tenochtitlan]], within the environmentalist urbanism highlight the Mayan cities to be incorporated into the monumentality of its buildings with the thickness of the jungle and complex networks of roads called ''sakbés''. [[Mesoamerican architecture]] is noted for its pyramids which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient Egypt.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

[[Spanish Colonial architecture]] is marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style.
With the arrival of the Spaniards, architectural theories of the Greco-Roman order with Arab influences were introduced. Due to the process of [[Evangelization in New Spain|evangelization]], when the first monastic temples and monasteries were built, their own models were projected, such as the [[mendicant monasteries in Mexico|mendicant monasteries]], unique in their type in architecture. The interaction between Spaniards and natives gave rise to artistic styles such as the so-called ''[[tequitqui]]'' (from [[Nahuatl]]: worker). Years later the baroque and mannerism were imposed in large cathedrals and civil buildings, while rural areas are built [[hacienda]]s or stately farms with Mozarabic tendencies.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
[[Image:Ext 06Museo Soumaya FREE Fernando Romero EnterprisE photo by Adam Wiseman.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Museo Soumaya]] in Mexico City building]]
In the 19th century the neoclassical movement arose as a response to the objectives of the republican nation, one of its examples are the [[Hospicio Cabañas]] where the strict plastic of the classical orders are represented in their architectural elements, new religious buildings also arise, civilian and military that demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. Romanticists from a past seen through archeology show images of medieval Europe, Islamic and pre-Columbian Mexico in the form of architectural elements in the construction of international exhibition pavilions looking for an identity typical of the national culture. The ''art nouveau'', and the ''art deco'' were styles introduced into the design of the [[Palacio de Bellas Artes]] to mark the identity of the Mexican nation with Greek-Roman and pre-Columbian symbols.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Modern architecture in Mexico has an important development in the plasticity of form and space, [[José Villagrán García]] develops a theory of form that sets the pattern of teaching in many schools of architecture in the country within functionalism. The emergence of the new [[Mexican architecture]] was born as a formal order of the policies of a nationalist state that sought modernity and the differentiation of other nations. The development of a Mexican modernist architecture was perhaps mostly fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the [[Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City]], the main campus of the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including [[Mario Pani]], [[Eugenio Peschard]], and [[Enrique del Moral]], the buildings feature murals by artists [[Diego Rivera]], [[David Alfaro Siqueiros]], and [[José Chávez Morado]]. It has since been recognized as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/364 |title=UNESCO |publisher=Whc.unesco.org |date=29 June 2007 |access-date=17 August 2013}}</ref>

[[Juan O'Gorman]] was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing the "organic" theory, trying to integrate the building with the landscape within the same approaches of [[Frank Lloyd Wright]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arqhys.com/arquitectura-mexicana.html|title=Arquitectura mexicana|website=www.arqhys.com|access-date=15 January 2018|archive-date=15 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015150356/http://www.arqhys.com/arquitectura-mexicana.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the search for a new architecture that does not resemble the styles of the past, it achieves a joint manifestation with the mural painting and the [[landscaping]].

The Jalisco School was a proposal of those socio-political movements that the country demanded. [[Luis Barragán]] combined the shape of the space with forms of rural vernacular architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco), integrating an impressive color that handles light and shade in different tones and opens a look at the international [[minimalism]]. He won the 1980 [[Pritzker Prize]], the highest award in architecture.<ref name=eighty>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/14/HOG51LMROS1.DTL|title=The Mexican garden revisited|access-date=June 26, 2009|date=October 14, 2006|first=Katherine|last=Endicott|work=San Francisco Chronicle|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919002659/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F10%2F14%2FHOG51LMROS1.DTL|archive-date=September 19, 2011}}</ref>

Mexican architecture is a cultural phenomenon born of the ideology of nationalist governments of the 20th century, which was shaping the identity image by its colorful and variegated ornamental elements inherited from ancestral cultures, classical and monumental forms and, subsequently, the incorporation of modernism and cutting-edge international trends.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

===Photography===
{{See|Mexican art#Photography in Mexico}}
[[File:David Alfaro Siqueiros (El Coronelazo).jpg|thumb|170px|[[David Alfaro Siqueiros]] by [[Héctor García Cobo]] at [[Palacio de Lecumberri|Lecumberri prison]], Mexico City, 1960.]]
Mexico has been photographed since the nineteenth century, when the technology was first developed. During the Porfiriato, Díaz realized the importance of photography in shaping the understanding of his regime and its accomplishments. The government hired [[Guillermo Kahlo]] (father of painter [[Frida Kahlo]]) to create photographic images of Mexico's new industrial structures as well as its pre-Columbian and colonial past. Photographer [[Hugo Brehme]] specialized in images of "picturesque" Mexico, with images of Mexican places and often rural people. During the Mexican Revolution, photographers chronicled the conflict, usually in the aftermath of a battle, since large and heavy equipment did not permit action shots. [[Agustín Casasola|Agustín Victor Casasola]] is the most famous of photographer of the revolutionary era, and he collected other photographers' images in the [[Casasola Archive]]; his vast collection was purchased by the Mexican government and is now part of the government photographic repository, the Fototeca.<ref>Casanova, Rosa and Adriana Konzevik. ''Mexico: A Photographic History: A Selective Catalogue of the Fototeca Nacional of the INAH''. Mexico City: INAH/RM 2007. {{ISBN|978-968-5208-75-8}}.{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mraz |first1=John |title=Looking for Mexico: Modern Visual Culture and National Identity |date=2009 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-9220-0 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> After the revolution, Mexican photographers created photographs as art images.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Debroise |first1=Olivier |title=Mexican Suite: A History of Photography in Mexico |date=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-71611-7 }}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> Among others, notable Mexican photographers include [[Manuel Álvarez Bravo]], [[Héctor García Cobo]], and [[Graciela Iturbide]].

===Literature===
{{Main|Mexican literature|Mesoamerican literature}}
[[File:Sor Juana by Miguel Cabrera.png|thumb|left|170px|Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, "The Tenth Muse." Posthmous portrait [[Miguel Cabrera (painter)|Juan Cabrera]]]]
Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literature of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. Poetry had a rich cultural tradition in pre-Columbian Mexico, being divided into two broad categories—secular and religious. Aztec poetry was sung, chanted, or spoken, often to the accompaniment of a drum or a harp. While Tenochtitlan was the political capital, [[Texcoco (altepetl)|Texcoco]] was the cultural center; the Texcocan language was considered the most melodious and refined. The best well-known pre-Columbian poet is [[Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)|Nezahualcoyotl]].<ref>{{cite web|website=Aztecs at Mexicolore|first=John|last=Curl|access-date=14 July 2019|date=20 August 2009 |title=Aztec Poetry (1): Introduction |url=https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/home/aztec-poetry-1-intro}}</ref>

Literature during the 16th century consisted largely of histories of Spanish conquests, and most of the writers at this time were from Spain. [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo|Bernal Díaz del Castillo's]] [[Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España|True History of the Conquest of Mexico]] is still widely read today. Spanish-born poet [[Bernardo de Balbuena]] extolled the virtues of Mexico in ''Grandeza mexicana'' (Mexican grandeur) (1604); [[:es:Francisco de Terrazas|Francisco de Terrazas]] was the first Mexican-born poet to attain renown.<ref name="Britannica">{{citation|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|title=Latin American literature|last1=González Echevarría|first1=Roberto|first2=Ruth |last2=Hill|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Latin-American-literature|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref> [[Baroque literature]] flourished in the 17th century; the most notable writers of this period were [[Juan Ruiz de Alarcón]] and [[Juana Inés de la Cruz]]. Sor Juana was famous in her own time, called the "Ten Muse."<ref name="Britannica" /> The 18th and early 19th centuries gave us [[José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi]], whose ''[[The Mangy Parrot]]'' ("El Periquillo Sarniento"), is said to be the first Latin American novel. Several [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] humanists wrote at this time, and they were among the first to call for independence from Spain.<ref name="Britannica"/>

Other writers include [[Ignacio Manuel Altamirano]], [[Octavio Paz]] (Nobel Laureate), [[Carlos Fuentes]], [[Alfonso Reyes]], [[Renato Leduc]], [[Carlos Monsiváis]], [[Elena Poniatowska]], [[Mariano Azuela]] (''Los de abajo'') and [[Juan Rulfo]] (''Pedro Páramo''). [[Bruno Traven]] wrote''Canasta de cuentos mexicano'' (A basket of Mexican tales) and ''El tesoro de la Sierra Madre'' (Treasure of the Sierra Madre), [[Luis Spota]], [[Jaime Sabines]], [[Martín Luis Guzmán]], [[Nellie Campobello]], (''[[Cartucho]]''), and [[Valeria Luiselli]] (''Faces in the Crowd'') are also noteworthy.<ref>{{citation|website=Grammarly Blog|url=https://www.grammarly.com/blog/mexican-authors-who-changed-history/|date=16 September 2017 |access-date=11 July 2019|title=7 Notable Mexican Authors Who Changed History|first=Shundalyn|last=Allen}}</ref>

===Cinema===
{{Main|Cinema of Mexico}}
[[File:Dolores del Río in The Fugitive (1947 film).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Actress [[Dolores del Río]], [[Hollywood]] star in the 1920s and 1930s and prominent figure of the [[Golden Age of Mexican cinema]] in the 1940s and 1950s]]
[[Cinema of Mexico|Mexican films]] from the ''[[Golden Age of Mexican cinema|Golden Age]]'' in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. Mexican films were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe. ''[[María Candelaria]]'' (1943) by [[Emilio Fernández]], was one of the first films awarded a [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1946, the first time the event was held after World War II. The famous Spanish-born director [[Luis Buñuel]] realized in Mexico between 1947 and 1965 some of his masterpieces like ''[[Los Olvidados]]'' (1949) and ''[[Viridiana]]'' (1961). Famous actors and actresses from this period include [[María Félix]], [[Pedro Infante]], [[Dolores del Río]], [[Jorge Negrete]] and the comedian [[Cantinflas]].

More recently, films such as ''[[Like Water for Chocolate (film)|Como agua para chocolate]]'' (1992), ''[[Sexo, pudor y lágrimas|Sex, Shame, and Tears]] (1999), ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' (2001), and ''[[El crimen del Padre Amaro|The Crime of Father Amaro]]'' (2002) have been successful in creating universal stories about contemporary subjects, and were internationally recognized, as in the prestigious Cannes Film Festival. Mexican directors [[Alejandro González Iñárritu]] (''[[Amores perros]]'', ''[[Babel (film)|Babel]]'', ''[[Birdman (film)|Birdman]]'', ''[[The Revenant (2015 film)|The Revenant]]''), [[Alfonso Cuarón]] (''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'', ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (film)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]'', ''[[Gravity (2013 film)|Gravity]]'', ''[[Roma (2018 film)|Roma]]''), [[Guillermo del Toro]] (''[[Hellboy (2004 film)|Hellboy]]'', ''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]'', ''[[Crimson Peak]]'', ''[[The Shape of Water]]''), screenwriter [[Guillermo Arriaga]] and photographer [[Emmanuel Lubezki]] are some of the most known present-day film makers. Numerous Mexican actors have achieved recognition as Hollywood stars.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Don M. |last1=Coerver |first2=Suzanne B. |last2=Pasztor |first3=Robert |last3=Buffington |title=Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSred4NyOKoC&pg=PA90 |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-132-8 |page=90 }}</ref>

===Media===
{{Further|Mexican television|List of newspapers in Mexico}}
There are three major television companies in Mexico that own the primary networks and broadcast covering all nation, [[Televisa]], [[TV Azteca]] and [[Imagen Television]]. Televisa is also the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world and also the world's largest Spanish-language media network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Televisa Brings 2006 FIFA World Cup to Mexico in HD With Snell & Wilcox Kahuna SD/HD Production Switcher|work=Press release|date=27 June 2006 |publisher=[[Snell Limited|Snell & Wilcox]] |url=http://www.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060811082252/http://www.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203 |archive-date=11 August 2006 |access-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> Media company [[Grupo Imagen]] is another national coverage television broadcaster in Mexico, that also owns the newspaper [[Excélsior]]. [[Grupo Multimedios]] is another media conglomerate with Spanish-language broadcasting in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The ''[[telenovela]]s'' are very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renowned names like [[Verónica Castro]], [[Victoria Ruffo]] and [[Lucero (entertainer)|Lucero]].

===Mexican cuisine===
{{Main|Mexican cuisine}}{{See also|Mexican wine}}
[[File:Comida en la Feria del Mole 2014 12.JPG|thumb|''[[Mole sauce]]'', which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol of ''Mexicanidad''<ref name="Mole">{{cite web|title=El mole símbolo de la mexicanidad|url=http://www.cultura.gob.mx/turismocultural/cuadernos/pdf12/articulo4.pdf|publisher=CONACULTA|access-date=27 September 2016}}</ref> and is considered Mexico's national dish.<ref name="Mole"/>]]
In 2005, Mexico presented the candidature of its gastronomy for [[World Heritage Site]] of UNESCO, being the first occasion in which a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?id_nota=203109 | title =Presentan en París candidatura de gastronomía mexicana | date = 20 September 2005 | author = La Crónica de Hoy}}</ref> However, in a first instance the result was negative, because the committee did not place the proper emphasis on the importance of [[corn]] in Mexican cuisine.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/mexico/492975.html | title = Cocina mexicana, fuera de la UNESCO | date = 25 November 2005 | author = esmas.com |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121023074402/http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/mexico/492975.html | archive-date = 23 October 2012}}</ref> Finally, on 16 November 2010 Mexican gastronomy was recognized as [[Intangible cultural heritage]] by [[UNESCO]].<ref name = "GastronomiaPatrimonio">{{citation | title = Cocina, fiesta y cantos mexicanos reconocidos por UNESCO | url = http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/723787.html | publisher = [[El Universal (Mexico City)]] (newspaper) | date = 16 November 2010}}</ref> In addition, [[Daniela Soto-Innes]] was named the best female chef in the world by ''The World's Best 50 Restaurants'' in April 2019.<ref>{{citation|website=NBC News|date=26 April 2019|access-date=12 July 2019|title=Latina chef Daniela Soto-Innes is youngest to be named 'World's Best Female Chef'|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/latina-chef-daniela-soto-innes-youngest-be-named-world-s-n998946}}</ref>

The origin of the current Mexican cuisine is established during the Spanish colonial era, a mixture of the foods of [[Spain]] with native indigenous ingredients.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://projects.ups.edu/jlago/spring2003/250a/jlkeller/ | title = History and influences of Mexican food. | author = University of Puget Sound | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111208232651/http://projects.ups.edu/jlago/spring2003/250a/jlkeller/ | archive-date = 8 December 2011}}</ref> Of foods originated in Mexico is the [[corn]], the [[capsicum|pepper vegetables]] (together with Central and South America), [[calabaza]]s (together with the Americas), [[avocado]]s, [[sweet potato]] (together with Central and South America), the [[Turkey as food|turkey]] (together with the Americas) and other fruits and spices. Other Indigenous products are many [[beans]]. Similarly, some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Columbian peoples, such as the [[nixtamalization]] of corn, the cooking of food in ovens at ground level, grinding in [[molcajete]] and [[metate]]. With the Spaniards came the pork, beef and chicken meats; [[Piper (plant)|peppercorn]], sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet of Mexicans.

From this meeting of millennia old two culinary traditions, were born [[pozole]], [[mole sauce]], [[barbacoa]] and [[tamale]] is in its current forms, the [[chocolate]], a large range of [[Mexican breads|bread]]s, [[taco]]s, and the broad repertoire of [[Mexican street food]]s. Beverages such as [[atole]], [[champurrado]], milk chocolate and [[aguas frescas]] were born; desserts such as [[acitrón]] and the full range of crystallized sweets, [[rompope]], [[cajeta]], [[jericaya]] and the wide repertoire of delights created in the convents of nuns in all parts of the country.

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Mexico}}
[[File:Carlos Chavez.jpg|left|thumb|150px|alt=A black and white portrait of a middle aged man wearing a dark suit, glasses and looking down.|Portrait of [[Carlos Chávez]] by [[Carl van Vechten]] (1937)]]
Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century, when it was a Spanish colony. Music of [[New Spain]], especially that of [[Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla]] and [[Hernando Franco]], is increasingly recognized as a significant contribution to New World culture.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

Although the traditions of European opera and especially [[Italian opera]] had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and strongly influenced native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such as [[Aniceto Ortega del Villar]]'s 1871 ''[[Guatimotzin]]'', a romanticised account of the defense of Mexico by its last [[Aztec]] ruler, [[Cuauhtémoc]]. [[Ángela Peralta]] was an operatic soprano of international fame, known in Europe as "The Mexican [[Nightingale]]", who sang in the premieres of operas by [[Paniagua]], [[Morales]], and Ortega del Villar.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

[[File:Natalia_Lafourcade_2014.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Natalia Lafourcade]] has the most Latin Grammys won by a Mexican female artist.{{fact|date=July 2021}}]]

Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres, showing the diversity of Mexican culture. Traditional music includes [[mariachi]], [[banda music|banda]], [[Norteño (music)|norteño]], [[ranchera]] and [[corrido]]s; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such as [[Mexican pop music|pop]], [[Rock music in Mexico|rock]], etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry in Latin America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and South America and parts of the United States and Europe, especially Spain. Elements from the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] music have deeply influenced Mexico's music at large, distinguishing it from European and Asian traditions{{fact|date=July 2021}}.

The [[Bolero]], [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha-cha]] and [[Mambo (music)|Mambo]] invade the radio of the 40s and 50s mimicking the idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Known as [[Agustín Lara]], the Mexican composer was and interpreter of songs and boleros, most popular songwriter of his era.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

[[César Costa]] and [[Angélica María]] in the 1970s performed cover versions of songs and their own as most of the pop music produced in Mexico consisted on Spanish-language versions of English-language [[rock-and-roll]] hits.{{fact|date=July 2021}} [[Grupera]] music became definitely popular in the 1990s to collectively refer to what is now referred to as reginal Mexican music. More recent American creations [[Jazz]], [[techno]], and [[house music]] have cross over.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Mexico}}
[[File:Estadio_Azteca1706p2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Estadio Azteca]]]]
[[File:Pelota mixteca de forro ball 1.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Mesoamerican ballgame]]]]
Mexico's most popular sport is association football. It is commonly believed that football was introduced in Mexico by [[Cornish people|Cornish]] miners at the end of the 19th century. By 1902 a five-team league had emerged with a strong British influence.<ref>{{cite web|title= Introduction|publisher=Federacion Mexicana de Futbol|url=http://www.femexfut.org.mx/portalv2/%2814g40ea2rgh3vmihgs231hak%29/default.aspx?s=135|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401234658/http://www.femexfut.org.mx/portalv2/%2814g40ea2rgh3vmihgs231hak%29/default.aspx?s=135|archive-date=1 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mexico – List of Final Tables |publisher=Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation |url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/mexhist.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402011950/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/mexhist.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> Mexico's top clubs are [[Club América|América]] with 12 championships, [[Club Deportivo Guadalajara|Guadalajara]] with 11, and [[Deportivo Toluca F.C.|Toluca]] with 10.<ref>{{cite web|title= Mexico – List of Champions|publisher=Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/mexchamp.html}}</ref> [[Antonio Carbajal]] was the first player to appear in five World Cups,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/world/2002/world_cup/hof/carbajal/ |title=CNNSI.com – 2002 World Cup — World Cup Hall of Fame: Antonio Carbajal — Wednesday May 08, 2002 10:46 PM |publisher=Sportsillustrated.cnn.com |date=8 May 2002 |access-date=28 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430031228/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/world/2002/world_cup/hof/carbajal/ |archive-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> and [[Hugo Sánchez]] was named best [[CONCACAF]] player of the 20th century by IFFHS.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.terra.com/deportes/articulo/html/fox507174.htm |title=Hugo Sánchez donó trofeos pichichi y mejor jugador CONCACAF al Real Madrid |language=es |publisher=Terra.com |date=14 January 2008 |access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> [[Rafael Márquez]] is the only Mexican to have won the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]].<ref name="sports" />

The Mexican professional baseball league is named the [[Liga Mexicana de Beisbol]]. While usually not as strong as the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan, [[Mexico national baseball team|Mexico]] has nonetheless achieved several international baseball titles.<ref>{{citation|website=Medio Tiempo|url=https://www.mediotiempo.com/beisbol/mexico-historia-exito-serie-mundial-ligas-menores|title=México, una historia de éxito en la Serie Mundial de Ligas Menores|language=es|trans-title=Mexico, a history of success in the Minor League World Series|date=25 August 2010|access-date=12 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{citation|website=Medio Tiempo|url=https://www.mediotiempo.com/beisbol/mexico-es-campeon-en-el-mundial-sub-23-de-beisbol|title=México es Campeón en el Mundial Sub-23 de beisbol|language=es|trans-title=Mexico is the World Baseball Champion in the Under-23 bracket|date=29 October 2018|access-date=12 July 2019}}</ref> Mexican teams have won the [[Caribbean Series]] nine times. Mexico has had several players signed by Major League teams, the most famous of them being Dodgers pitcher [[Fernando Valenzuela]].<ref name="sports">{{citation|website=Marca Claro |url=https://www.marca.com/claro-mx/otros-deportes/2018/10/12/5bc012eb46163f49598b45b1.html|title=Los mejores deportistas mexicanos de la historia|date=12 October 2018|access-date=11 July 2019|language=es|trans-title=The best Mexican athletes in history}}</ref>

Mexico City hosted the [[1968 Summer Olympics|XIX Olympic Games]] in 1968, making it the first Latin American city to do so.<ref>{{cite web|title=2016 Binational Olympics|date=December 2003|publisher=San Diego Metropolitan|url=http://www.sandiegometro.com/2003/dec/coverstory2.html|access-date=7 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043448/http://www.sandiegometro.com/2003/dec/coverstory2.html |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> The country has also hosted the [[FIFA World Cup]] twice, in [[1970 FIFA World Cup|1970]] and [[1986 FIFA World Cup|1986]].<ref>{{cite web|title=About CONCACAF|publisher=The Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF)|url=http://www.concacaf.com/about.asp|access-date=7 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006070253/http://www.concacaf.com/about.asp |archive-date=6 October 2007}}</ref>

In 2013, [[Mexico's basketball team]] won the [[2013 FIBA Americas Championship|Americas Basketball Championship]] and qualified for the [[2014 Basketball World Cup]] where it reached the playoffs. Because of these achievements the country earned the hosting rights for the [[2015 FIBA Americas Championship]].<ref>{{cite web |title=FIBA – Mexico to host 2015 FIBA Americas Championship|publisher=[[FIBA]] |url=http://www.fiba.com/news/FIBA-Mexico-to-host-2015-FIBA-Americas-Championship|access-date=12 October 2014}}</ref>

[[Bullfighting]] (Spanish: corrida de toros) came to Mexico 500 years ago with the arrival of the Spanish. Despite efforts by animal rights activists to outlaw it, bullfighting remains a popular sport in the country, and almost all large cities have bullrings. [[Plaza México]] in Mexico City, which seats 45,000 people, is the largest bullring in the world.<ref>{{citation|website=Don Quijote|title=LOS TOROS EN MÉXICO|language=es|trans-title=Bullfighting in Mexico|access-date=11 July 2019|url=https://www.donquijote.org/es/cultura-mexicana/tradiciones/toros/}}</ref>

Mexico is an international power in [[professional boxing]].<ref name="sports"/> Thirteen [[Mexico at the Olympics|Olympic boxing medals]] have been won by Mexico.<ref>{{citation|website=Caliente.mx|url=https://mexico.as.com/mexico/2016/08/16/album/1471303609_523251.html|title=Los medallistas que ha tenido el Box Olímpico mexicano|language=es|trans-title=The Mexican Olympic boxing medal winners|access-date=11 July 2019|date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

Professional wrestling (or [[Lucha libre]] in Spanish) is a major crowd draw with national promotions such as [[Lucha Libre AAA World Wide|AAA]], [[Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre|CMLL]] and others.<ref name="sports"/>

== See also ==
*[[Index of Mexico-related articles]]
*[[Outline of Mexico]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Camp, Roderic A. ''Politics in Mexico: Democratic Consolidation Or Decline?'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)
* Davis, Diane. ''Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century'' (Temple University Press, 2010)
*{{cite journal |last1=Domínguez |first1=Jorge I |year=2004 |title=The Scholarly Study of Mexican Politics |journal=Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos |volume=20 |issue=2|pages=377–410|doi=10.1525/msem.2004.20.2.377 }}
* Edmonds-Poli, Emily, and David Shirk. ''Contemporary Mexican Politics'' (Rowman and Littlefield 2009)
* Kirkwood, Burton. ''The History of Mexico'' (Greenwood, 2000) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15456726 online edition]
* {{cite book|first=Enrique|last=Krauze|author-link=Enrique Krauze|title=Mexico: Biography of Power: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–1996|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-06-092917-6|page=896|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuuPAAZcKtYC}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |last2=Bellis |first2=Claire |last3=Zlojutro |first3=Mark |last4=Melton |first4=Phillip E |last5=Blangero |first5=John |last6=Curran |first6=Joanne E |title=Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=2011 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=293 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-293 |pmid=21978175 |pmc=3217880 }}
* Levy, Santiago. ''Good intentions, bad outcomes: Social policy, informality, and economic growth in Mexico'' (Brookings Institution Press, 2010)
* {{cite book|editor1-first=Michael C.|editor1-last=Meyer|editor2-first=William H.|editor2-last=Beezley|title=The Oxford History of Mexico|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-511228-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283/page/n149 736]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283|url-access=registration}}
* Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. ''The Course of Mexican History'' (7th ed.) (Oxford University Press, 2002) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=113260662 online edition]
* {{Cite book|last=Russell|first=Philip|title=The history of Mexico: from pre-conquest to present|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415872379/|access-date=9 July 2010|year=2010|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-87237-9}}
* Tannenbaum, Frank. ''Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Bread'' (2013)
* Werner, Michael S. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society & Culture'' (2 vol 1997) 1440pp [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98882479 online edition]
* {{cite book|last=Werner |first=Michael S. |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxp-GWiDPioC&pg=PA386 |date=January 2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-57958-337-8}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Mexico}}

'''Government'''
* {{Official website|https://www.gob.mx/|name=The Government of Mexico}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120604062931/http://www.visitmexico.com/en-i0/ Mexico Tourism Official Website |VisitMexico]

'''General information'''
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/ Mexico]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085229/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/mexico.htm Mexico] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* {{Curlie|Regional/North_America/Mexico}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm Mexico] from the [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico Mexico] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{Wikiatlas|Mexico}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|114686}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MX Key Development Forecasts for Mexico] from [[International Futures]]

{{Mexico topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Mexico}}
{{Countries of North America}}
{{Authority control}}
{{portal bar|Mexico}}

[[Category:Mexico| ]]
[[Category:Countries in North America]]
[[Category:Federal constitutional republics]]
[[Category:Former Spanish colonies]]
[[Category:E7 nations]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Newly industrializing countries]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1810]]
[[Category:1810 establishments in Mexico]]

Russia

2021-08-20T07:14:49Z

WikiJoy: Created page with "{{short description|Country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia}} {{about|the Russian Federation}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}} {{Use dmy date..."

{{short description|Country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia}}
{{about|the Russian Federation}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Coord|60|N|90|E|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Russian Federation
| common_name = Russia
| linking_name = Russia
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{lang|ru|Российская Федерация}}|''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''}}
| image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg
| national_anthem = {{nowrap|{{lang|ru|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации}}}} {{transl|ru|Gosudarstvenny gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii}} ("[[State Anthem of the Russian Federation]]")<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Russia (2000), instrumental, one verse.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = Russian Federation (orthographic projection) - only Crimea disputed.svg
| map_width = 220px
| map_caption = Russia on the globe with unrecognized territories in light green.{{Efn|[[Crimea]], which was [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed by Russia]] in 2014, remains [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262|internationally recognised]] as a part of [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Territories of the Russian Federation 2020|publisher=[[Routledge]]|author=[[Taylor & Francis]]|date=2020|section=Republic of Crimea|section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xbUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT161|isbn=978-1-003-00706-7|quote=Note: The territories of the Crimean peninsula, comprising Sevastopol City and the Republic of Crimea, remained internationally recognised as constituting part of Ukraine, following their annexation by Russia in March 2014.}}</ref>}}
| capital = [[Moscow]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|55|45|N|37|37|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| languages_type = Official language {{nobold|and national language}}
| languages = [[Russian language|Russian]]<ref name="Russian">{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|title=Chapter 3. The Federal Structure|quote="1. The Russian language shall be a state language on the whole territory of the Russian Federation."|work=[[Constitution of Russia]]|access-date=22 April 2015}}</ref>
| languages2_type = {{nobold|Recognised}} {{nowrap|[[national language]]s}}
| languages2 = See [[Languages of Russia]]
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
| 80.9% [[Russians|Russian]]
| 3.9% [[Tatars|Tatar]]
| 1.4% [[Ukrainians in Russia|Ukrainian]]
| 1.1% [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]]
| 1.0% [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]]
| 1.0% [[Chechens|Chechen]]
| 10.7% [[Ethnic groups in Russia|Other]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2010
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="perepis-2010.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/result-december-2011.ppt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118212344/http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/result-december-2011.ppt|archive-date=18 January 2012|title=ВПН-2010|website=perepis-2010.ru}}</ref>
| demonym = [[Russians|Russian]]
| government_type = [[Federalism#Russian Federation|Federal]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]<ref name="cia"/> 
| leader_title1 = [[President of Russia|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Vladimir Putin]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Mikhail Mishustin]]
| leader_title3 = [[Chairman of the Federation Council (Russia)|Speaker of the Federation Council]]
| leader_name3 = [[Valentina Matviyenko]]
| leader_title4 = [[Chairman of the State Duma|Speaker of the State Duma]]
| leader_name4 = [[Vyacheslav Volodin]]
| leader_title5 = [[Supreme Court of Russia|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5 = [[Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Lebedev|Vyacheslav Lebedev]]
| legislature = [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]]
| upper_house = [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]]
| lower_house = [[State Duma]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Russia|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Rurik dynasty|Rurikids]] [[The Primary Chronicle|founded]]
| established_date1 = 862
| established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[Kievan Rus']]}}
| established_date2 = 879
| established_event3 = [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Duchy of Moscow]]
| established_date3 = 1283
| established_event4 = [[Tsardom of Russia]]
| established_date4 = 16 January 1547
| established_event5 = [[Russian Empire]]
| established_date5 = 2 November 1721
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[February Revolution|Monarchy abolished]]}}
| established_date6 = 15 March 1917
| established_event7 = {{nowrap|[[Soviet Union]]}}
| established_date7 = 30 December 1922
| established_event8 = {{nowrap|[[Belovezha Accords|Russian Federation]]}}
| established_date8 = 12 December 1991
| established_event9 = [[Constitution of Russia|Current constitution]]
| established_date9 = 12 December 1993
| established_event10 = [[Republic of Crimea|Last polity]] [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|admitted]]
| established_date10 = 18 March 2014
| established_event11 = {{nowrap|[[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|Last amendments]]}}
| established_date11 = 4 July 2020
| area_km2 = 17098246
| area_footnote = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division |access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>
17,125,191 km2 (Including Crimea)<ref>{{cite web|url= https://rosreestr.ru/upload/Doc/18-upr/Сведения%20по%20ф.22%20за%202016%20год%20(по%20субъектам%20РФ)_на%20сайт.doc |script-title=ru:Сведения о наличии и распределении земель в Российской Федерации на 1 January 2017 (в разрезе субъектов Российской Федерации)|title=Information about availability and distribution of land in the Russian Federation as of 1 January 2017 (by federal subjects of Russia)|website=[[Rosreestr]]}}</ref>
| area_rank = 1st
| percent_water = 13<ref name=gen>{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R |archive-date=28 July 2011 |website=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=5 April 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{small|(including swamps)}}
| population_estimate = {{plainlist|
* {{DecreaseNeutral}} 146,171,015
* {{nowrap|{{small|(including [[Crimea]])}}<ref name="gks.ru-popul">{{cite web|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/6F3rqSlB/Popul2021_Site.xls|format=XLS|script-title=ru:Оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2021 г. и в среднем за 2020 г.|trans-title=Estimated population as of 1 January 2021 and on the average for 2020|language=ru|work=[[Russian Federal State Statistics Service]]|access-date=6 April 2021}}</ref>}}
* {{DecreaseNeutral}} 143,759,445
* {{small|(excluding Crimea)}}<ref name="gks.ru-popul"/>}}
| population_estimate_year = 2021
| population_estimate_rank = 9th
| population_density_km2 = 8.4
| population_density_sq_mi = 21.5
| population_density_rank = 181st
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $4,328 trillion<ref name="IMFWEORU">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report?c=922,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2019&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=IMF.org|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2021
| GDP_PPP_rank = 6th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $29,485<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 50th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.710 trillion<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_rank = 11th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $11,654<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 59th
| Gini = 37.5 
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_change = increase 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="WBgini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref>
| Gini_rank = 98th
| HDI = 0.824
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 52nd
| currency = [[Russian ruble]] ([[Ruble sign|₽]])
| currency_code = RUB
| utc_offset = +2 to +12
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Russia|+7]]
| cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.ru]]|[[.рф]]}}
| religion_year = 2017
| religion_ref = <ref name="Pew2017"/>
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space;
|73% [[Christianity in Russia|Christianity]] |—70% [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]] |—3% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |15% [[Irreligion in Russia|No religion]] |10% [[Islam in Russia|Islam]] |2% [[Religion in Russia|Other]]}}
| today =
}}

'''Russia''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|Россия}}, {{Lang|ru-Latn|Rossiya}}, {{IPA-ru|rɐˈsʲijə}}), or the '''Russian Federation''',{{efn|{{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|p=rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|links=no}}}} is a country spanning [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Northern Asia]]. It is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|largest country in the world]], covering over {{convert|17|e6km2|e6mi2}}, and encompassing more than one-eighth of Earth's inhabited land area. Russia extends across [[Time in Russia|eleven time zones]], and has the [[List of countries and territories by land borders|most borders of any country]] in the world, with [[borders of Russia|sixteen sovereign nations]].{{efn|Russia shares land borders with fourteen [[sovereign nation]]s, and has [[Maritime boundary|maritime boundaries]] with the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], and borders the two [[partially recognized states|partially recognized]] breakaway states of [[South Ossetia]] and [[Abkhazia]].}} It has a population of 146.2 million; and is the [[List of European countries by population|most populous country]] in Europe, and the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|ninth-most populous country]] in the world. [[Moscow]], the capital, is the [[List of European cities by population|largest city in Europe]], while [[Saint Petersburg]] is the nation's [[List of cities and towns in Russia by population|second-largest city]] and cultural centre. [[Russians]] are the largest [[Slavs|Slavic]] and [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European nation]]; they speak [[Russian language|Russian]], the most spoken [[Slavic languages|Slavic language]], and the most spoken [[native language]] in Europe.

The [[East Slavs]] emerged as a recognisable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The [[medieval]] state of [[Kievan Rus'|Rus']] arose in the 9th century. In 988, it adopted [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]], beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined [[Russian culture]] for the next millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated until it was finally reunified by the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] in the 15th century. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and [[Russian explorers|exploration]] to become the [[Russian Empire]], the [[List of largest empires|third-largest empire]] in history. Following the [[Russian Revolution]], the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] became the largest and leading [[Republics of the Soviet Union|constituent]] of the [[Soviet Union]], the world's first constitutionally [[socialist state]], which had a [[one-party state|one-party system]] throughout most of its existence. The Soviet Union played a [[Eastern Front (World War II)|decisive role]] in the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in [[World War II]], and emerged as a [[superpower]] and rival to the United States during the [[Cold War]]. The Soviet era saw some of the [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|most significant technological achievements]] of the 20th century, including the world's [[Sputnik|first human-made satellite]] and the launching of the [[Yuri Gagarin|first human in space]]. Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation. In the aftermath of the [[1993 Russian constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis of 1993]], a new [[Constitution of Russia|constitution]] was adopted, and Russia has since been governed as a [[federation|federal]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] republic. [[Vladimir Putin]] has dominated Russia's political system [[2000 Russian presidential election|since 2000]], and [[Russia under Vladimir Putin|his government]] has been accused of [[authoritarianism]], numerous [[Human rights in Russia|human rights abuses]], and [[Corruption in Russia|corruption]].

Russia is a [[great power]], and is considered a [[potential superpower]]. It is ranked 52nd in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]], with a [[Healthcare in Russia|universal healthcare system]], and a [[Free education|free]] [[Education in Russia|university education]]. Russia's [[Economy of Russia|economy]] is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|eleventh-largest by nominal GDP]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|sixth-largest by PPP]]. It is a recognised [[nuclear weapons states|nuclear-weapons state]], possessing the world's [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]], with the world's [[Military#Capability development|second-most powerful military]], and the [[List of countries by military expenditure|fourth-highest military expenditure]]. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the world's largest, and it is one of the leading [[oil producer|producers of oil]] and [[natural gas producer|natural gas]] globally. It is a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], a member of the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[International Investment Bank|IIB]] and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], as well as the leading member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], the [[Collective Security Treaty Organization|CSTO]], and the [[Eurasian Economic Union|EAEU]]. Russia is also home to the [[List of World Heritage Sites in Russia|ninth-greatest number]] of [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]].

==Etymology==
{{Main|Rus' people|Rus' (name)}}
{{See also|Russian (disambiguation)}}
The name ''Russia'' is derived from [[Rus' (name)|Rus']], a medieval state populated primarily by the [[East Slavs]].<ref name="EarlyH">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/2.htm|title=Russia - Early History|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=29 June 2021}}</ref> However, the proper name became more prominent in later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Русская земля" (''Russkaya zemlya''), which can be translated as "Russian land".<ref>Kuchkin V. A. Russian land // Ancient Russia in the medieval world / Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ed. E. A. Melnikova, V. Ya. Petrukhina . - M .: Ladomir, 2014. - S. 697-698.</ref> In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as ''[[Kievan Rus']]'' by modern historiography. The [[Rus (name)|name ''Rus{{'}}'']] itself comes from the early medieval [[Rus' people]], a group of [[Norsemen|Norse]] merchants and warriors who relocated from across the [[Baltic Sea]] and founded a state centred on [[Novgorod]] that later became Kievan Rus'.<ref>{{cite book|title=Viking Rus|last=Duczko|first=Wladyslaw|year=2004|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=978-90-04-13874-2|pages=10–11}}</ref>

A [[Medieval Latin]] version of the name Rus' was [[Ruthenia]], which was used as one of several designations for East Slavic and [[Eastern Orthodox]] regions, and commonly as a designation for the lands of Rus'.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nazarenko|first=Aleksandr Vasilevich|author-link=Aleksandr Nazarenko|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX-XII веков|year=2001|publisher=Languages of the Rus' culture|isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1|pages=40, 42–45, 49–50|chapter=1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI-XII века)|trans-title=Old Rus' on international routes: Interdisciplinary Essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th-12th centuries|language=ru|trans-chapter=The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)|chapter-url=http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu|archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref> The current name of the country, Россия (''Rossiya''), comes from the [[Byzantine Greek]] designation of the Rus', Ρωσσία ''Rossía''—spelled Ρωσία (''Rosía'' {{IPA-el|roˈsia|pron}}) in [[Modern Greek]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Russians: The People of Europe|last=Milner-Gulland|first=R. R.|year=1997|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-631-21849-4|pages=1–4}}</ref>

The standard way to refer to the [[Russian nationality law|citizens of Russia]] is "Russians" in English.<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Russian|title=Definition of Russian|dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster]]|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> There are two words in [[Russian language|Russian]] which are commonly translated into English as "Russians"—one is "русские" (''russkiye''), which most often refers to [[Russians|ethnic Russians]]—and the other is "россияне" (''rossiyane''), which refers to citizens of Russia, regardless of ethnicity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Merridale|first=Catherine|title=Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]]|year=2003|volume=38|number=1|pages=13–28|doi=10.1177/0022009403038001961|jstor=3180694|s2cid=143597960}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Russia}}

=== Early history ===
{{further|Scythia|Ancient Greek colonies||Early Slavs|East Slavs|Huns|Turkic expansion|Prehistory of Siberia}}
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Uralic}}
One of the first [[Cro-magnon|modern human]] bones of over 40,000 years old were found in Southern Russia, in the villages of [[Kostyonki–Borshchyovo archaeological complex|Kostyonki and Borshchyovo]] situated on the banks of the [[Don (river)|Don River]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The era of the great European cultures of the Northern-type hunters|url=http://www.iabrno.cz/agalerie/gravetta.htm|website=www.iabrno.cz|publisher=Czech Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Archaeology in Brno, The Center for Paleolithic and Paleoethnological Research|access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kostenki-12, a memorial to Upper Paleolithic culture in Eastern Europe|publisher=Institute of History of Material Culture, [[Russian Academy of Sciences|RAS]]|url=http://www.archeo.ru/rus/projects/kostenki12.htm|access-date=13 May 2021|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060712031805/http://www.archeo.ru/rus/projects/kostenki12.htm|archive-date=12 July 2006}}</ref>
[[File:IE expansion.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Kurgan hypothesis]] places [[southern Russia]] as the [[urheimat]] of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=David W.|last2=Ringe|first2=Don|date=2015-01-01|title=The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives|journal=Annual Review of Linguistics|volume=1|issue=1|pages=199–219|doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812|issn=2333-9683}}</ref>]]

[[Nomadic pastoralism]] developed in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] beginning in the [[Chalcolithic]].<ref name="Belinskij">{{Cite journal|last1=Belinskij|first1=Andrej|last2=Härke|first2=Heinrich|title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo|journal=Archeology|volume=52|issue=2|year=1999|url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|archive-date=10 June 2008|access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as [[Ipatovo kurgan|Ipatovo]],<ref name=Belinskij/> [[Sintashta]],<ref name="mounted">{{Cite book|author=Drews, Robert|title=Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|page=50|isbn=0-415-32624-9}}</ref> [[Arkaim]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Koryakova, L.|title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture|publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)|url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html|access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref> and [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]],<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"|work=Transcript|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html|access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref> which bear the earliest known traces of [[horses in warfare]].<ref name="mounted"/> In [[classical antiquity]], the Pontic-Caspian Steppe was known as [[Scythia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|author-link=Denis Sinor|title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC|year=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24304-9}}</ref>

In late 8th century BCE, [[Ancient Greek]] traders brought [[classical civilization]] to the trade emporiums in [[Tanais]] and [[Phanagoria]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jacobson, E.|title=The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World|publisher=Brill|year=1995|page=38|isbn=90-04-09856-9}}</ref>

In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the [[Goths|Gothic]] kingdom of [[Oium]] existed in Southern Russia, which was later overrun by [[Huns]].<ref name="EarlyH"/> Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the [[Bosporan Kingdom]], which was a Hellenistic [[polity]] that succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{Cite book|author=Tsetskhladze, G. R.|title=The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology|publisher=F. Steiner|year=1998|page=48|isbn=978-3-515-07302-8}}</ref> was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and [[Pannonian Avars|Eurasian Avars]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Turchin, P.|title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|pages=185–186|isbn=978-0-691-11669-3}}</ref> The [[Khazars]], who were of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic origin]], ruled the lower [[Volga]] basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 10th century.<ref name="Christian">{{Cite book|author=[[David Christian (historian)|Christian, D.]]|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|pages=286–288|isbn=978-0-631-20814-3}}</ref>

The ancestors of modern [[Russians]] are the [[List of ancient Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the [[Pinsk Marshes]], one of the largest [[wetland]]s in Europe.<ref>For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see {{Cite book|last=Barford, P. M.|title=The Early Slavs|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=15–16|isbn=978-0-8014-3977-3|year=2001}}</ref> The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from [[Kiev]] toward present-day [[Suzdal]] and [[Murom]] and another from [[Polotsk]] toward [[Novgorod]] and [[Rostov]].<ref name="Christian"/> From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in western Russia,<ref name="Christian"/> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native [[Finno-Ugric peoples]], including the [[Volga Finns#Merya|Merya]],<ref>{{Cite book|author=Paszkiewicz, H.K.|title=The Making of the Russian Nation|publisher=Darton, Longman & Todd|year=1963|page=262}}</ref> the [[Volga Finns#Muroma|Muromian]]s,<ref>{{Cite book|author=McKitterick, R.|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=15 June 1995|page=497|isbn=0-521-36447-7}}</ref> and the [[Volga Finns#Meshchera|Meshchera]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=[[Aleksandr Mongait|Mongaĭt, A.L.]]|title=Archeology in the U.S.S.R.|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|year=1959|page=335}}</ref>

=== Kievan Rus' ===
{{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of early East Slavic states}}
[[File:Kievan Rus en.jpg|upright=1.3 |thumb|[[Kievan Rus']] in the 11th century]]
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of ''[[Varangians]]'', the [[Vikings]] who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic [[From the Varangians to the Greeks|to the Black]] and [[Volga trade route|Caspian]] Seas.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Obolensky, D.|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1994|page=42|isbn=978-0-88141-008-2}}</ref> According to the ''[[Primary Chronicle]]'', a Varangian from the [[Rus' people]], named [[Rurik]], was elected ruler of [[Novgorod]] in 862.<ref name="EarlyH"/> In 882, his successor [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]] ventured south and conquered [[Kiev]],<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Thompson, J.W.|author2=Johnson, E.N.|title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|year=1937|page=268|isbn=978-0-415-34699-3}}</ref> which had been previously paying tribute to the [[Khazars]].<ref name="Christian"/> Rurik's son [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]] and Igor's son [[Sviatoslav I of Kiev|Sviatoslav]] subsequently subdued all local [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the [[Khazar Khaganate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Plokhy|first=Serhii|author-link=Serhii Plokhy|title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=2006|page=13|isbn=0-521-86403-8}}.</ref> and launched several military expeditions to [[Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus'|Byzantium]] and [[Caspian expeditions of the Rus'|Persia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|title=Byzantium & the Slavs|date=1971|pages=75–108|isbn=0-88141-008-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Francis Donald Logan|Logan, Donald F.]]|title=The Vikings in History 2nd Edition|date=1992|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0-415-08396-6}}</ref>

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vernadsky|first=George|title=Kievan Russia|pages=430|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|date=1973|isbn=978-0-300-01647-5}}</ref> The reigns of [[Vladimir the Great]] (980–1015) and his son [[Yaroslav the Wise]] (1019–1054) constitute the [[Golden Age]] of Kiev, which saw [[Christianisation of Kievan Rus'|the acceptance of]] Orthodox Christianity from [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], and the creation of the first East Slavic written [[legal code]], the ''[[Russkaya Pravda]]''.<ref name="EarlyH"/>

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the [[Kipchaks]] and the [[Pechenegs]], caused a massive migration of the East Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as [[Zalesye]].<ref name="V">{{Cite book|author=Klyuchevsky, V.|title=The course of the Russian history|volume=1|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=5-244-00072-1|year=1987|publisher=Myslʹ}}</ref>

[[File:Lebedev baptism.jpg|left|thumb|''The [[Baptism of Kievans]]'', by [[Klavdy Lebedev]].]]
The age of [[feudalism]] and decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the [[Rurikid Dynasty]] that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] in the north-east, [[Novgorod Republic]] in the north-west and [[Galicia-Volhynia]] in the south-west.<ref name="EarlyH"/>

Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|Mongol invasion]] of 1237–40, that resulted in the destruction of Kiev, and the death of about half the population of Rus'.<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael F.|last=Hamm|title=Kiev: A Portrait, 1800-1917|date=1993|publisher=[[Princeton University]] Press|pages=328|isbn=0-691-02585-1}}</ref> The invaders, later known as [[Tatars]], formed the state of the [[Golden Horde]], which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over two centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Halperin|first=Charles J.|title=Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History|date=1987|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|pages=192|isbn=978-0-253-20445-5}}</ref>

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Kingdom of Poland]], while the Novgorod Republic and Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name="EarlyH"/> The Novgorod Republic escaped Mongol occupation and together with [[Pskov]] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the [[Mongol yoke]]; they were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Prince [[Alexander Nevsky]], Novgorodians repelled the invading [[Swedes]] in the [[Battle of the Neva]] in 1240,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Neva|title=Battle of the Neva|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=22 June 2021}}</ref> as well as the [[Northern Crusades|Germanic crusaders]] in the [[Battle of the Ice]] in 1242.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ostrowski|first=Donald|date=2006|jstor=24664446|title=ALEXANDER NEVSKII'S "BATTLE ON THE ICE": THE CREATION OF A LEGEND|journal=[[Russian History (journal)|Russian History]]|volume=33|number=2/4|pages=289–312}}</ref>

=== Grand Duchy of Moscow ===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}
[[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|[[Sergius of Radonezh]] blessing [[Dmitry Donskoy]] in [[Trinity Sergius Lavra]], before the [[Battle of Kulikovo]], depicted in a painting by [[Ernst Lissner]]]]

The most powerful state to eventually arise after the destruction of Kievan Rus' was the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]], initially a part of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]].<ref name="Muscovy">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/3.htm|title=Russia - Muscovy|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> While still under the domain of the [[Mongol]]-[[Tatars]] and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus' in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the leading force in the process of the Rus' lands' reunification and expansion of Russia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Brian L.|title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|page=4|url=http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Davies.pdf#page=20}}</ref> Moscow's last rival, the [[Novgorod Republic]], prospered as the chief [[fur trade]] centre and the easternmost port of the [[Hanseatic League]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jotischky|first1=Andrew|last2=Hull|first2=Caroline|date=2005|title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Medieval World|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|pages=122–123|isbn=978-0-14-101449-4}}</ref>

Times remained difficult, with frequent [[Mongol-Tatar raids]]. [[Agriculture]] suffered from the beginning of the [[Little Ice Age]]. As in the rest of Europe, [[plague (disease)|plague]] was a frequent occurrence between 1350 and 1490.<ref name="black"/> However, because of the lower population density and better hygiene—widespread practicing of [[banya (sauna)|banya]], a wet steam bath—the death rate from plague was not as severe as in Western Europe,<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Ethan|title=Without the Banya We Would Perish: A History of the Russian Bathhouse|date=2019|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-539548-8}}</ref> and population numbers recovered by 1500.<ref name="black">{{cite book|last=Hatcher|first=John|title=The Black Death: An Intimate History|date=2008|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]]|isbn=978-0-297-84475-4}}</ref>

Led by Prince [[Dmitry Donskoy]] of Moscow and helped by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] in 1380.<ref>{{cite book|last=Galeotti|first=Mark|date=2019|title=Kulikovo 1380: The battle that made Russia|pages=96|isbn=978-1-4728-3121-7}}</ref> Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as [[Principality of Tver|Tver]] and [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].<ref name="Muscovy"/>

[[Ivan III]] ("the Great") finally threw off the control of the [[Golden Horde]] and consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first Russian ruler to take the title title "Grand Duke of all Rus'".<ref name="Muscovy"/> After the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, Moscow [[Third Rome|claimed succession to the legacy]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]].<ref name="Muscovy"/> Ivan III married [[Sophia Palaiologina]], the niece of the last [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Constantine XI]], and made the Byzantine [[double-headed eagle]] his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1886/12/the-dream-of-russia/522855/|title=The Dream of Russia|work=[[The Atlantic]]|first=Cyrus|last=Hamlin|date=December 1886|access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Tsardom of Russia ===
{{Main|Tsardom of Russia}}{{See also|Moscow, third Rome}}
[[File:Vasnetsov Ioann 4.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]], 19th-century evocation by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]], 1897]]
In development of the [[Moscow, third Rome|Third Rome]] ideas, the Grand Duke [[Ivan IV]] (the "Terrible") was officially crowned first [[Tsardom of Russia|''Tsar'']] of Russia in 1547. The ''Tsar'' [[Promulgation|promulgated]] a new code of laws ([[Sudebnik of 1550]]), established the first Russian feudal representative body ([[Zemsky Sobor]]), curbed the influence of the clergy, and introduced local self-management in rural regions.<ref name="Terrible">{{cite book|last1=Payne|first1=Robert|last2=Romanoff|first2=Nikita|title=Ivan the Terrible|date=2002|pages=520|isbn=978-0-8154-1229-8}}</ref>

During his long reign, Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of the disintegrated Golden Horde): [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] along the [[Volga]], and the [[Siberian Khanate]] in southwestern Siberia.<ref name="Terrible"/> Thus, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the [[Ural Mountains]], thus east of Europe, and into Asia, being transformed into a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental state]].<ref name="Sibir">{{cite book|last=Wood|first=Alan|title=Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 - 1991|date=2011|pages=320|isbn=978-0-340-97124-6}}</ref>

However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful [[Livonian War]] against the coalition of Poland, [[Lithuania]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], and [[Norway]] for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref name="Riasanovsky">{{cite book|last1=Riasanovsky|first1=Nicholas V.|last2=Lawrence|first2=John|title=A history of Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHdPAgAAQBAJ|date=1960|pages=654|isbn=978-0-19-534197-3}}</ref> At the same time, the Tatars of the [[Crimean Khanate]], the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid southern Russia.<ref>{{cite web|first=Eizo|last=Matsuki|url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501041101/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2011|title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves|publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University|access-date=4 May 2013}}</ref> In an effort to restore the Volga khanates, Crimeans and their [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] allies [[Russo-Crimean Wars|invaded central Russia]] and were even able to [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burn down parts of Moscow]] in 1571.<ref name="Terrible"/> But in the next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by the Russians in the [[Battle of Molodi]], forever eliminating the threat of an Ottoman–Crimean expansion into Russia.<ref>{{cite book|date=2009|last=Tucker|first=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5}}</ref> The [[Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands|slave raids of Crimeans]], however, did not cease until the late 17th century though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia, such as the [[Great Abatis Line]], constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Brian Glyn|title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire|url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf|website=[[The Jamestown Foundation]]|year=2013|page=27|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2013|author-link=Brian Glyn Williams}}</ref>
[[File:Appeal of Minin.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Kuzma Minin]] appeals to the people of [[Nizhny Novgorod]] to raise a volunteer army against the [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)|Polish invaders]]]]
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient [[Rurik Dynasty]] in 1598, and in combination with the [[Russian famine of 1601–03|famine of 1601–03]], led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the [[Time of Troubles]] in the early 17th century.<ref name="Riasanovsky"/> The [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] occupied parts of Russia, extending into even Moscow.<ref name="Muscovy"/> In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant [[Kuzma Minin]] and Prince [[Dmitry Pozharsky]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunning|first=Chester S.L.|title=Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty|publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]|date=2004|isbn=978-0-271-02465-3}}</ref> The [[Romanov Dynasty]] acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.<ref name="Romanov">{{cite book|last=Montefiore|first=Simon Sebag|author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore|title=The Romanovs 1613–1918|date=2016|pages=784|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|isbn=978-0-307-28051-0}}</ref>

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of [[Cossacks]].<ref name="Muscovy"/> In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] in reaction to the social and religious oppression they had been suffering under Polish rule.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kohut|first=Zenon E.|jstor=20101495|title=The Khmelnytsky Uprising, the Image of Jews, and the Shaping of Ukrainian Historical Memory|journal=[[Jewish History]]|volume=17|number=2|date=2003|pages=141–63}}</ref> In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, [[Aleksey I]]. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|Russo-Polish War]]. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the [[Dnieper River]], leaving the western part, [[right-bank Ukraine]], under Polish rule and the eastern part ([[Left-bank Ukraine]] and [[Kiev]]) under Russian rule.<ref name="Muscovy"/> Later, in 1670–71, the [[Don Cossacks]] led by [[Stenka Razin]] initiated a major uprising in the [[Volga Region]], but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.<ref>{{cite book|last=Avrich|first=Paul|title=Russian Rebels, 1600–1800|year=1972|publisher=[[Schocken Books]]|pages=320|isbn=978-0-393-00836-4}}</ref>

In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory.<ref name="Muscovy"/> [[List of Russian explorers|Russian explorers]] pushed eastward primarily along the [[Siberian River Routes]], and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the [[Chukchi Peninsula]], along the [[Amur River]], and on the coast of the [[Pacific Ocean]].<ref name="Sibir"/> In 1648, [[Fedot Popov]] and [[Semyon Dezhnyov]], two Russian explorers, discovered the [[Bering Strait]], and became the first Europeans to sail to North America.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=R.H|date=1981|title=The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648: Bering's precursor|location=[[London]]|publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]]|isbn=978-0-904180-07-7}}</ref>

=== Imperial Russia ===
{{Main|Russian Empire}}
[[File:Peter I by Kneller.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Peter the Great]], [[Tsar of All Russia]] in 1682–1721 and the first [[Emperor of All Russia]] in 1721–1725]]
Under [[Peter the Great]], Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721, and became one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the [[Great Northern War]] (1700−1721), forcing it to cede West [[Karelia]] and [[Ingria]] (two regions lost by Russia in the [[Time of Troubles]]), as well as the [[Governorate of Estonia]] and [[Livonia]], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded [[Saint Petersburg]] as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, [[Government reform of Peter the Great|sweeping reforms were made]], which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.<ref name="early">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/4.htm|title=Russia - Early Imperial Russia|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref>

The reign of Peter I's daughter [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]] in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–63). During this conflict, Russia annexed [[East Prussia]] and even reached the gates of [[Berlin]]. However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] by pro-Prussian [[Peter III of Russia]].<ref name="early"/>

[[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]] ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of [[Russian Enlightenment]]. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the [[Partitions of Poland]], pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe, and thus making Russia the most populous country in Europe. In the south, after the successful [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the [[Crimean Khanate]]. As a result of victories over [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran]] through the [[Russo-Persian Wars]], by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also made significant territorial gains in [[Transcaucasia]] and the [[North Caucasus]].<ref name="early"/> Catherine's successor, her son [[Paul I of Russia|Paul]], was [[Personality and reputation of Paul I of Russia|unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues]]. Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I's]] (1801–25) [[Finnish War|wresting of]] [[Finland]] from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of [[Bessarabia]] from the Ottomans in 1812. While in North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to [[Russian America|reach and colonise Alaska]].<ref name="ruling">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/5.htm|title=Russia - Ruling the Empire|editor=Glenn E. Curtis|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Territorial Expansion of Russia.svg|thumb|left|Russian [[Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)|expansion]] and [[Territorial evolution of Russia|territorial evolution]] between the 14th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chew|first=Allen F.|title=An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders|date=2009|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-01445-7}}</ref>]]
In 1803–1806, the [[first Russian circumnavigation]] was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCartan|first=E.F.|title=The Long Voyages-Early Russian Circumnavigation|journal=[[The Russian Review]]|volume=22|number=1|date=1963|pages=30–37|doi=10.2307/126593|jstor=126593}}</ref> In 1820, [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen#First Russian Antarctic expedition|a Russian expedition]] discovered the continent of [[Antarctica]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bonhomme|first=Brian|title=Russian Exploration, from Siberia to Space: A History|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|date=2012|pages=232|isbn=978-0-7864-6687-0}}</ref>

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Russia joined alliances with various other European empires, and fought against [[First French Empire|France]]. The [[French invasion of Russia]] at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold [[Russian winter]] led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European [[Grande Armée]] perished. Led by [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] and [[Barclay de Tolly]], the [[Imperial Russian Army]] ousted Napoleon from the country and drove throughout Europe in the [[war of the Sixth Coalition]], finally entering [[Paris]]. Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the [[Congress of Vienna]], which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.<ref name="ruling"/>
[[File:Koetoezov kazan.jpg|thumb|upright=|Monument to [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] in front of the [[Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg|Kazan Cathedral]] in Saint Petersburg. The Kazan Cathedral and the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in Moscow were built to commemorate [[Napoleon]]'s defeat.]]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive [[Decembrist revolt]] of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of [[Nicolas I]] (1825–55), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the [[Crimean War]].<ref name="ruling"/> Between 1847 and 1851, around one million people died across the country due to [[cholera]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey|date=2001|title=Russia and the Russians: A History|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|page=9|isbn=978-0-674-00473-3}}</ref>

Nicholas's successor [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] (1855–81) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the [[emancipation reform of 1861]]. These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the [[Balkans]] from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the [[1877–78 Russo-Turkish War]]. During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and [[British Empire|Britain]] vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar Iran, and the [[Qing dynasty]]. This rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as "[[The Great Game]]".<ref name="ninteenth">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/6.htm|title=Russia - Transformation of Russia in the Nineteenth Century|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref>

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and the reign of his son
[[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, [[Nicholas II]] (1894–1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian [[Revolution of 1905]], triggered by the unsuccessful [[Russo-Japanese War]] and the demonstration incident known as [[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms ([[Russian Constitution of 1906]]), including granting the [[freedom of speech|freedoms of speech]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the [[State Duma (Russian Empire)|State Duma]].<ref name="ninteenth"/>

=== February Revolution and Russian Republic ===
{{Main|February Revolution|Russian Provisional Government|Russian Republic}}
{{See also|1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election|Russian Democratic Federative Republic}}
[[File:Russian Imperial Family 1913.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia]] and his family [[Execution of the Romanov family|were murdered]] by the Bolsheviks in 1918.]]

In 1914, Russia entered [[World War I]] in response to [[Austria-Hungary]]'s declaration of war on Russia's ally [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-the-world-went-to-war-in-1914|title=How The World Went To War In 1914|work=[[Imperial War Museum]]|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its [[Triple Entente]] allies.<ref>{{cite book|first=Fiona K.|last=Tomaszewski|title=A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905-1914|year=2002|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97366-7|pages=19–}}</ref> In 1916, the [[Brusilov Offensive]] of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schindler|first=John|date=2003|title=Steamrollered in Galicia: The Austro-Hungarian Army and the Brusilov Offensive, 1916.|journal=[[War in History]]|volume=10|number=1|pages=27–59|doi=10.1191/0968344503wh260oa|jstor=26061940|s2cid=143618581}}</ref> However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, [[World War I casualties|high casualties]], and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917, carried out in two major acts.<ref name="revo">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/8.htm|title=Russia - Revolutions and Civil War|year=1998|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref>

The [[February Revolution]] forced [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and [[Shooting of the Romanov family|later executed]] in [[Yekaterinburg]] during the [[Russian Civil War]].<ref name="Romanov"/> The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]].<ref name="geoffreyswain">{{cite book|first=Geoffrey|last=Swain|title=Trotsky and the Russian Revolution|year=2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=15|isbn=978-1-317-81278-4|quote="The first government to be formed after the February Revolution of 1917 had, with one exception, been composed of liberals."}}</ref> On 1 September (14), 1917, upon a decree of the Provisional Government, the Russian Republic was proclaimed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prlib.ru/history/619540|script-title=ru:Провозглашена Российская республика|date=7 February 2017|script-website=ru:Президентская библиотека имени Б.Н. Ельцина}}</ref> On 6 January (19), 1918, the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision).<ref name="revo"/> The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee]].<ref name="revo"/>

=== Russian Civil War ===
{{Main|October Revolution|Russian Civil War|White movement}}
{{See also|Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918}}
[[File:Thecristisrizenoldrussiancivilwarposter.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[White émigré]] propaganda poster, circa 1932.]]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the [[Petrograd Soviet]], wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called ''[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the [[October Revolution]], led by [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]], overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first [[socialist state]].<ref name="revo"/>

Following the October Revolution, the [[Russian Civil War]] broke out between the [[anti-Communist]] [[White movement]] and the new [[Workers' council|Soviet]] regime with its [[Red Army]]. Bolshevist Russia lost its Ukrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)|Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] that concluded hostilities with the [[Central Powers]] of World War I.<ref name="revo"/> The [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]] launched an unsuccessful [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|military intervention]] in support of anti-Communist forces.<ref>Carley, M. (1989). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40106089 Allied Intervention and the Russian Civil War, 1917-1922.] The International History Review, 11(4), 689-700. Retrieved June 26, 2021.</ref> In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the [[Red Terror]] and [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union|title=How the Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union|work=[[National Geographic]]|first=Erin|last=Blakemore|date=2 September 2020|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> By the end of the civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. There were an estimated 7–12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.<ref name="civilwar">{{cite book|last=Mawdsley|first=Evan|title=The Russian Civil War|location=[[New York City]]|year=2007|isbn=978-1-68177-009-3|page=287}}</ref> Millions became [[White émigré]]s,<ref>{{cite book|last=Hassell|first=James E.|title=Russian Refugees in France and the United States Between the World Wars (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society)|date=1992|pages=96|isbn=978-0-87169-817-9}}</ref> and the [[Russian famine of 1921–22]] claimed up to five million victims.<ref>{{cite web|last=Haller|first=Francis|url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm|title=Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|date=8 December 2003|work=[[Le Temps]]|access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Soviet Union ===
{{Main|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Union|History of the Soviet Union}}
{{See also|Treaty on the Creation of the USSR}}
[[File:19190525-Lenin and bolshevik leaders on Red square.jpg|thumb|left|[[Vladimir Lenin]] and other [[Bolsheviks|Bolveshik]] leaders inspecting [[Vsevobuch]] troops on the Red Square, 1919.]]
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|formed]] the [[Soviet Union]], by merging the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] with the [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukrainian]], [[Byelorussian SSR|Byelorussian]], and the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]]. Eventually the union grew larger to compass [[republics of the Soviet Union|15 republics]], out of which, the largest in size and population was the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union for its entire history politically, culturally, and economically.<ref name="establishment">{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-established|title=USSR Established|work=[[History (American TV network)|History]]|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref>

Following [[Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin|Lenin's death]] in 1924, a [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union#List of troikas|troika]] was designated to take charge. Eventually [[Joseph Stalin]], the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of the Communist Party]], managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s. [[Leon Trotsky]], the main proponent of [[world revolution]], was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of [[Socialism in One Country]] became the official line.<ref name="death">{{cite web|url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/47659/1/Socialism%20in%20One%20Country%20Redacted.pdf|title=Socialism in One Country: A Study of Pragmatism and Ideology in the Soviet 1920s|publisher=[[University of Kent]]|last=Bensley|first=Michael|date=2014|access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the [[Great Purge]], a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, during which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including [[Old Bolshevik|original party members]] and military leaders forced to confess to nonexistent plots.<ref>{{cite book|last=Abbott|first=Gleason|author-link=Abbott Gleason|date=2009|title=A Companion to Russian History|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3}}</ref>

Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a [[command economy]], [[Industrialization in the USSR|industrialisation of the largely rural country]], and [[Collectivization in the USSR|collectivisation]] of [[Agriculture in the USSR|its agriculture]]. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to [[Gulag|penal labor camps]], including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule; millions were [[population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported and exiled]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the [[Soviet famine of 1932–1933]], The Soviet Union made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shepley|first=Nick|title=Stalin, the five year plans and the Gulags: Slavery and Terror 1929-53|date=2015|isbn=978-1-78333-087-4}}</ref>

====World War II====
[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the [[German Army (1935–1945)|German Army]].]]
[[File:World War II military deaths in Europe by theater and by year.png|upright=1.3|thumb|[[World War II casualties]] in Europe by theatre and by year. The Soviet effort was essential in defeating the Axis powers.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Burns|first1=J. H.|title=Document: The Executive of the President's Soviet Protocol Committee to the President's Special Assistant, August 10, 1943|url=https://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/the-executive-of-the-presidents-soviet-protocol-committee-to-the-presidents-special-assistant/|website=TeachingAmericanHistory.org|publisher=Ashbrook Center at Ashland University}}</ref>]]
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]; and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] the ill-prepared Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/operation-barbarossa-photos-nazi-invasion-soviet-union/31320468.html|title=Operation Barbarossa: The Nazi Invasion Of The U.S.S.R. 80 Years Ago|work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|first=Amos|last=Chapple|date=22 June 2021|access-date=2 July 2021|quote="Nazi Germany led the largest-ever ground invasion force in an attack on the Soviet Union in 1941 that unleashed a brutal conflict that cost the lives of millions of people."}}</ref> opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|largest theater of World War II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2011/09/world-war-ii-the-eastern-front/100150/|title=World War II: The Eastern Front|work=[[The Atlantic]]|first=Alan|last=Taylor|date=18 September 2011|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> The German [[Hunger Plan]] foresaw the starvation and extinction of a great part of the Soviet population,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://daily.jstor.org/the-nazis-nightmarish-plan-to-starve-the-soviet-union/|title=The Nazis' Nightmarish Plan to Starve the Soviet Union|work=[[JSTOR]]|first=Erin|last=Blakemore|date=21 February 2017|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and [[Generalplan Ost]] called for the elimination of over 70 million Russians for [[Lebensraum]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity|last=Mineau|first=André|publisher=[[Rodopi (publisher)|Rodopi]]|year=2004|isbn=978-90-420-1633-0|page=180}}</ref>

Nearly 3 million [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] in German captivity were murdered in just eight months of 1941–42.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Adam|author-link=Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|date=2010|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction'' (2nd ed.)|page=271|quote="The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide."|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-48619-4}}</ref> Although the [[Wehrmacht]] had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the [[Battle of Moscow]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Braithwaite|first=Rodric|title=Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War|location=[[London]]|publisher=[[Profile Books]]|date=2006|isbn=1-86197-759-X}}</ref> Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in the winter of 1942–43,<ref name="Stalingrad">{{cite book|last= Hellbeck|first= Jochen|date= 2015|title= Stalingrad: The City That Defeated The Third Reich|location=[[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn= 978-1-61039-496-3}}</ref> and then in the [[Battle of Kursk]] in the summer of 1943.<ref>{{cite book|last= Clark|first=Lloyd|date=2011|title= Kursk: The Greatest Battle: Eastern Front 1943|location=[[London]]|publisher=[[Headline Publishing Group|Headline]]|isbn=978-0-7553-3638-8}}</ref> Another German failure was the [[Siege of Leningrad]], in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.<ref name="Stalingrad"/> Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as [[Georgy Zhukov]] and [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–45 and [[Battle of Berlin|captured Berlin]] in May 1945.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/soviet-victory-battle-berlin-finished-nazi-germany|title=The Soviet victory in the Battle of Berlin finished Nazi Germany|work=[[National Geographic]]|first1=Neil|last1=Kagan|first2=Stephen|last2=Hyslop|date=7 May 2020|access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> In August 1945, the [[Soviet Army]] [[Soviet–Japanese War|ousted the Japanese]] from China's [[Manchukuo]] and [[North Korea]], contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939/|title=The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939|work=[[The Diplomat]]|first=Stuart D.|last=Goldman|date=28 August 2012|access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref>

The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the [[Great Patriotic War (term)|Great Patriotic War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-s-monumental-tribute-to-the-great-patriotic-war-/30599462.html|title=Russia's Monumental Tributes To The 'Great Patriotic War'|work=[[Radio Free Europe]]|quote="It is known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War" and there are a number of imposing monuments across the country to mark the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II..."|date=8 May 2020|access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> The Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the [[Big Four in World War II|Big Four]] of Allied powers in World War II,<ref>{{cite book|last=Brinkley|first=Douglas|author-link=Douglas Brinkley|title=The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&pg=PA223|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1|year=2003}}</ref> and later became the [[Four Policemen]] which was the foundation of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Urquhart|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Urquhart|title=Looking for the Sheriff|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1998/07/16/looking-for-the-sheriff/|publisher=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=July 16, 1998|access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref> During this war, which included many of the [[List of battles by casualties|most lethal battle operations]] in human history, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|Soviet civilian and military death were about 26-27 million]], accounting for about a third of all [[World War II casualties]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/05/08/dont-forget-how-the-soviet-union-saved-the-world-from-hitler|title=Don't forget how the Soviet Union saved the world from Hitler|work=[[The Washington Post]]|quote="The Red Army was "the main engine of Nazism’s destruction," writes British historian and journalist [[Max Hastings]] in "Inferno: The World at War, 1939-1945." The Soviet Union paid the harshest price: though the numbers are not exact, an estimated 26 million Soviet citizens died during World War II, including as many as 11 million soldiers. At the same time, the Germans suffered three-quarters of their wartime losses fighting the Red Army."|date=8 May 2015|access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref> The full demographic loss of Soviet citizens was even greater.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hosking|first=Geoffrey|date=2006|title= Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|pages=242|isbn=0-674-02178-9}}</ref> The [[Economy of the Soviet Union|Soviet economy]] and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the [[Soviet famine of 1946–47]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Harrison|first=Mark|date=14 April 2010|title=The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression|url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/pp2011postprint.pdf|publisher=[[University of Warwick]]}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Soviet Union emerged as a global [[superpower]] in the aftermath.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reiman|first=Michael|title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present|chapter=The USSR as the New World Superpower|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14|date=2016|publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]]|pages=169–176|jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7.14|isbn=978-3-631-67136-8}}</ref>

====Cold War====
After World War II, Eastern and Central Europe, including [[East Germany]] and eastern parts of [[Austria]] were occupied by [[Red Army]] according to the [[Potsdam Conference]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Neiberg|first=Michael|title=Potsdam: The End of World War II and the Remaking of Europe|date=2015|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|pages=368|isbn=978-0-465-04062-9}}</ref> Dependent communist governments were installed in the [[Eastern Bloc]] satellite states.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis Group]]|first=Richard C.|last=Frucht|year=2003|isbn=978-0-203-80109-3}}</ref> After becoming the world's second [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear power]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Holloway|first=David|title=Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=1994|pages=505|isbn=978-0-300-06056-0}}</ref> the Soviet Union established the [[Warsaw Pact]] alliance,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mastny|first1=Vojtech|last2=Malcolm|first2=Byrne|title=A Cardboard Castle?: An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955–1991|year=2005|publisher=[[Central European University Press]]|location=[[Budapest]]|isbn=978-963-7326-07-3}}</ref> and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the [[Cold War]], with the rivaling United States and [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wagg|first1=Stephen|last2=Andrews|first2=David|title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24167-5|page=11}}</ref>

After [[Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin|Stalin's death]] in 1953 and a short period of [[Collective leadership|collective rule]], the new leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounced [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|Stalin's many crimes and atrocities]] and launched the policy of [[de-Stalinization]], releasing many political prisoners from the [[Gulag]] labor camps.<ref>{{cite book|first=Polly|last=Jones|title=The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era|date=7 April 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-28347-7|pages=2–4}}</ref> The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the [[Khrushchev Thaw]].<ref name="Khrushchev">{{cite book|last=Taubman|first=William|pages=871|year=1990|title=Khrushchev: The Man and His Era|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] and [[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=978-0-393-32484-6}}</ref> At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States [[PGM-19 Jupiter|Jupiter missiles]] in Turkey and Soviet [[Cuban Missile Crisis|missiles in Cuba]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fuelling|first=Cody|url=https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=issr|title=To the Brink: Turkish and Cuban Missiles during the Height of the Cold War|journal=International Social Science Review|publisher=[[University of North Georgia]]|volume=93|number=3|access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Sputnik asm.jpg|thumb|[[Sputnik 1]] was the world's first artificial satellite.]]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik 1]]'', thus starting the [[Space Age]].<ref name="sputnik">{{Cite book|last=Brzezinski|first=Matthew B.|year=2007|title=Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age|location=[[New York City]]|publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]]|isbn=978-0-8050-8147-3}}</ref> Russian [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the ''[[Vostok 1]]'' manned spacecraft on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]].<ref name="gagarin">{{cite book|last=Jenks|first=Andrew L.|title=The Cosmonaut Who Couldn't Stop Smiling: The Life and Legend of Yuri Gagarin|publisher=[[Northern Illinois University Press]]|date=2012|isbn=978-0-87580-447-7}}</ref> Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of [[Collectivity of leadership|collective rule]] ensued, until [[Leonid Brezhnev]] became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the [[Era of Stagnation]], a period when economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The 1965 [[Kosygin reform]] aimed for partial [[decentralisation]] of the [[Soviet economy]] and shifted the emphasis from [[heavy industry]] and weapons to [[light industry]] and [[consumer goods]] but was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bacon|first1=Edwin|last2=Sandle|first2=Mark|title=Brezhnev Reconsidered|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|date=2002|isbn=978-0-230-50108-9}}</ref> In 1979, after a Communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the [[Soviet–Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnold|first=Anthony|title=Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective|publisher=[[Hoover Institution]] Press|date=1985|pages=157|isbn=978-0-8179-8213-3}}</ref> The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=uresposters|title=The Role of Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in the Breakdown of the USSR|author=Ezoza Nomazova, Faye O. Prichard|publisher=[[Virginia Commonwealth University]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> Finally, the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan]] in 1989 due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gates|first=Robert|title=From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War|pages=604|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|date=2007|isbn=978-1-4165-4336-7}}</ref>
[[File:President Reagan meeting with Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at Hofdi House during the Reykjavik Summit Iceland.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with [[Ronald Reagan]] in the [[Reykjavík Summit]], 1986.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brownell|first=Richard|url=https://medium.com/@rickbrownell/reagan-and-gorbachevs-first-brush-with-peace-62311c2bd0ec|title=Reagan and Gorbachev's First Brush with Peace|work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]|date=12 October 2018|access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref>]]
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) in an attempt to end the [[Era of Stagnation|period of economic stagnation]] and to [[Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)|democratise the government]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Taubman|first=William|date=2017|title=Gorbachev: His Life and Times|location=[[New York City]]|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=978-1-4711-4796-8}}</ref> This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.<ref>{{cite web|last=Beissinger|first=Mark R.|url=https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mbeissinger/files/beissinger.ceh_.article.pdf|title=Nationalism and the Collapse of Soviet Communism|publisher=[[Princeton University]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest,<ref>{{cite book|last=Hanson|first=Philip|title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=292|date=2003|isbn=978-0-582-29958-0}}</ref> but during its final years, it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in the money supply leading to inflation.<ref name="photius.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/russia/economy/russia_economy_unforeseen_results_o~1315.html|title=Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform|publisher=The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook|access-date=10 March 2008}}</ref>

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the [[Baltic states]] chose to secede from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-09-07-mn-1530-story.html|title=Independence for Baltic States : Freedom: Moscow formally recognizes Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, ending half a century of control. Soviets to being talk soon on new relationships with the three nations.|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|author=John-Thor Dahlburg and Tyler Marshall|date=7 September 1991|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> On 17 March, a [[1991 Soviet Union referendum|referendum]] was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a [[Union of Sovereign States|renewed federation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-19-mn-494-story.html|title=Vote Backs Gorbachev but Not Convincingly : Soviet Union: His plan to preserve federal unity is supported--but so is Yeltsin's for a Russian presidency.|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|first=Michael|last=Parks|date=19 March 1991|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> In June 1991, [[Boris Yeltsin]] became the first directly elected president in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/06/14/yeltsin-elected-president-of-russia/8b0dc76b-752c-4e28-a525-45ba6120ff24/|title=YELTSIN ELECTED PRESIDENT OF RUSSIA|work=[[The Washington Post]]|first=David|last=Remnick|date=14 June 1991|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> In August 1991, [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|a coup d'état attempt]] by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bonnell|first1=Victoria E.|last2=Cooper|first2=Ann|last3=Freidin|first3=Gregory|title=Russia at the Barricades: Eyewitness Accounts of the August 1991 Coup|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=1994|location=[[New York Times]]|pages=384|isbn=978-1-315-70099-1}}</ref> On 25 December 1991, following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other [[post-Soviet states]] emerged.<ref>{{cite book|last=Plokhy|first=Serhii|title=The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union|date=2014|pages=520|isbn=978-1-78074-646-3}}</ref>

=== Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present) ===
{{Main|History of Russia (1991–present)|Russia and the United Nations|1993 Constitution of Russia}}
{{See also|Commonwealth of Independent States|War of Laws|1993 Russian constitutional crisis}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin taking the Presidential Oath, 7 May 2000.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Putin]] takes the oath of office as president on his [[First inauguration of Vladimir Putin|first inauguration]], with [[Boris Yeltsin]] looking over, 2000.]]
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/58.htm|title=Russia - Economic Conditions in Mid-1996|editor=Glenn E. Curtis|year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref> During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including [[Privatization in Russia|privatisation]] and [[free trade|market and trade liberalisation]] were undertaken,<ref name="OECD">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/50/2452793.pdf|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> including radical changes along the lines of "[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]" as recommended by the United States and the [[International Monetary Fund]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/21/world/us-is-abandoning-shock-therapy-for-therussians.html|title= U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians|author=Sciolino, E.|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=20 January 2008|date=21 December 1993}}</ref>

The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of the infamous [[Russian oligarchs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-02/rich-russians-the-rise-of-the-oligarchs/10626236|title=The rise of Russia's oligarchs — and their bid for legitimacy|quote="The Russian ultra-rich amassed their wealth during the economic and social turmoil following the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the introduction of the market economy."|work=[[ABC News]]|first=Joey|last=Watson|date=2 January 2019|access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref> Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous [[capital flight]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Johnson|first=Scott|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-12/capital-flight-from-russia-carries-750-billion-price-tag-chart|title=Capital Flight From Russia Carries $750 Billion Price Tag|work=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|date=12 March 2019|access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref> The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services; the [[birth rate]] plummeted while the [[death rate]] skyrocketed, and millions plunged into poverty.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|title=Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy|publisher=[[The World Bank]]|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8213-3994-7}}</ref> The 1990s also saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, as well as the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.<ref>{{cite book|last=Satter|first=David|title=Darkness at Dawn|date=2003|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-10591-9}}</ref>

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a [[1993 Russian constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis]] which ended after military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed. In December, a [[1993 Russian constitutional referendum|referendum]] was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-players-1993-crisis/25125000.html|title=Who Was Who? The Key Players In Russia's Dramatic October 1993 Showdown|work=[[Radio Free Europe]]|date=2 October 2018|access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Obama and Medvedev sign Prague Treaty 2010.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Dmitry Medvedev]] and [[Barack Obama]] after signing the [[New START]] [[Nuclear disarmament|nuclear reduction]] treaty, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2010/04/obama-medvedev-sign-start-treaty-035522|title=Obama, Medvedev sign START treaty|work=[[Politico]]|first=Carol E.|last=Lee|date=8 April 2010|access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref>]]
The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the [[North Caucasus]], both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist [[Islamist]] insurrections.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/F7C5A6DDE80C1078492571DC001E6C5A-isn-rus-29aug.pdf|title=The North Caucasus on the Brink|work=[[International Relations and Security Network]]|first=Jeronim|last=Perovic|date=2006|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> From the time [[Chechnya|Chechen]] separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an [[First Chechen War|intermittent guerrilla war]] was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/12/12/chechen-war-reveals-weaknesses-in-yeltsin-russias-new-democracy/073047c5-d04e-41bd-a2bc-d5e8e192d919/|title=CHECHEN WAR REVEALS WEAKNESSES IN YELTSIN, RUSSIA'S NEW DEMOCRACY|work=[[The Washington Post]]|first=Lee|last=Hockstader|date=12 December 1995|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> [[Terrorism in Russia|Terrorist attacks against civilians]] were carried out by separatists, claiming thousands of lives.{{efn|Most notably the [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]], the [[Russian apartment bombings]], the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]], and the [[Beslan school siege]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/after-25-years-budyonnovsk-hostage-crisis-seen-as-horrific-harbinger-of-terror/30668760.html|title=After 25 Years, Budyonnovsk Hostage Crisis Seen As Horrific Harbinger Of Terror|work=[[Radio Free Europe]]|first1=Tony|last1=Wesolowsky|first2=Yevgenia|last2=Kotlyar|date=13 June 2020|access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gq.com/story/moscow-bombings-mikhail-trepashkin-and-putin|title=None Dare Call It a Conspiracy|work=[[GQ]]|first=Scott|last=Anderson|date=30 March 2017|access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/10/the-dubrovka-theater-siege-in-moscow-a-decade-later/263931/|title=The Dubrovka Theater Siege in Moscow, a Decade Later|work=[[The Atlantic]]|first1=Albert|last1=Oetgen|first2=Tom|last2=Balmforth|date=23 October 2012|access-date=3 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Timothy|title=Beslan: The Tragedy of School Number 1|publisher=[[Granta]]|date=2007|pages=291|isbn=978-1-86207-927-4}}</ref>}}

Russia took up the responsibility for settling the Soviet Union's external debts, even though its population made up just half of it at the time of its dissolution. In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the ruble. With a devalued ruble, the Russian government struggled to pay back its debts to internal debtors, as well as to international institutions. Despite significant attempts at economic restructuring, Russia's debt outpaced GDP growth. High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]], and resulted in a further GDP decline.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Owen|first1=David|last2=Robinson|first2=David O.|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/nft/2003/russia/index.htm|title=Russia Rebounds|date=2003|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|isbn=978-1-4519-2073-4}}</ref>

==== Putin era ====
{{Main articles|Russia under Vladimir Putin}}
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/01/world/yeltsin-resigns-overview-yeltsin-resigns-naming-putin-acting-president-run-march.html|title=YELTSIN RESIGNS: THE OVERVIEW; Yeltsin Resigns, Naming Putin as Acting President To Run in March Election|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Celestine|last=Bohlen|date=1 January 2000|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> Yeltsin left office widely unpopular, with an approval rating as low as 2% by some estimates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/apr/23/russia.marktran|title=A bold buffoon|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Mark|last=Tran|date=23 April 2007|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref> Putin then won the [[2000 Russian presidential election|2000 presidential election]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/27/world/election-russia-overview-putin-wins-russia-vote-first-round-but-his-majority.html|title=ELECTION IN RUSSIA: THE OVERVIEW; Putin Wins Russia Vote in First Round, But His Majority Is Less Than Expected|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Mark|last=Wines|date=27 March 2000|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> and [[Second Chechen War|suppressed the Chechen insurgency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/world/russia-using-brutality-to-suppress-chechens-rights-group-says.html|title=Russia Using Brutality to Suppress Chechens, Rights Group Says|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Barbara|last=Crossette|date=28 February 2002|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> As a result of [[Price of petroleum|high oil prices]], a rise in foreign investment, and prudent economic and fiscal policies, the [[Russian economy]] grew significantly; dramatically improving Russia's standard of living, and increasing its influence in [[global politics]].<ref name="challenges_p12">{{cite book |editor-first=Anders |editor-last=Åslund |editor-first2=Sergei |editor-last2=Guriev |editor-first3=Andrew C. |editor-last3=Kuchins |title=Russia After the Global Economic Crisis|chapter=Challenges Facing the Russian Economy after the Crisis|last1=Guriev|first1=Sergei|last2=Tsyvinski|first2=Aleh|publisher=Peterson Institute for International Economics; Centre for Strategic and International Studies; New Economic School|year=2010|isbn=978-0-88132-497-6|pages=12–13}}</ref> Putin went on to win a [[2004 Russian presidential election|second presidential term]] in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html|title=As Expected, Putin Easily Wins a Second Term in Russia|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Seth|last=Mydans|date=15 March 2004|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Putin with Vladimir Konstantinov, Sergey Aksyonov and Alexey Chaly 4.jpeg|thumb|[[Vladimir Putin]] (third, left), [[Sergey Aksyonov]] (first, left), [[Vladimir Konstantinov (politician)|Vladimir Konstantinov]] (second, left) and [[Aleksei Chalyi]] (right) sign the [[Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia]] in 2014]]

On 2 March 2008, [[Dmitry Medvedev]] was [[2008 Russian presidential election|elected president]] while Putin became prime minister, as the constitution barred Putin from serving a [[term limit|third consecutive presidential term]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/08/russia|title=Putin ever present as Medvedev becomes president|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Luke|last=Harding|date=8 May 2008|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> Putin returned to the presidency following the [[2012 Russian presidential election|2012 presidential elections]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russians-voting--and-watching/2012/03/04/gIQA3j6CqR_story.html|title=Putin wins election as Russian president; opponents claim widespread fraud|work=[[The Washington Post]]|first1=Kathy|last1=Lally|first2=Will|last2=Englund|date=4 March 2012|access-date= 6 June 2021}}</ref> and Medvedev was appointed prime minister.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/putin-and-medvedev-in-role-swap/a-15936376|title=Putin and Medvedev in role swap|work=[[DW News]]|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> This four year joint leadership by the two was coined "[[tandemocracy]]" by foreign media.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harding|first=Luke|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/15/dmitry-medvedev-the-rise-and-fall-of-the-robin-to-putins-batman|title=Dmitry Medvedev: the rise and fall of the Robin to Putin's Batman|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=15 January 2020|access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref>

In 2014, after President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] of Ukraine fled as a result of a [[2014 Ukrainian revolution|revolution]], Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to [[2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine|deploy Russian troops to Ukraine]], leading to the takeover of Crimea.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/ousted-ukrainian-president-asked-russian-troops-envoy-says-n43506|title=Ousted Ukrainian President Asked For Russian Troops, Envoy Says|work=[[NBC News]]|date=3 March 2014|access-date=21 March 2014}}</ref> Following a [[2014 Crimean status referendum|Crimean referendum]] in which separation was favoured by a large majority of voters,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26465962|title=Ukraine crisis: Crimea parliament asks to join Russia|website=[[BBC]]|date=6 March 2014|access-date=27 April 2015}}</ref> the Russian leadership announced the accession of Crimea into Russia, though this and the referendum that preceded it were [[Political status of Crimea|not accepted internationally]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ga11493.doc.htm|title=General Assembly Adopts Resolution Calling upon States Not to Recognize Changes in Status of Crimea Region|publisher=[[United Nations]]|date=27 March 2014|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref> The annexation of Crimea [[International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis|led to sanctions by Western countries]], after which the Russian government responded with counter-sanctions against a number of countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/11/21/russia-extends-western-food-imports-embargo-to-end-2021-a72112|title=Russia Extends Western Food Imports Embargo to End 2021|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=21 November 2020|access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref>

In September 2015, Russia started [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|military intervention]] in the [[Syrian Civil War]] in support of the Syrian government, consisting of airstrikes against militant groups of the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]], [[al-Nusra Front]] (al-Qaeda in the Levant), the [[Army of Conquest]] and other rebel groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/10/1/what-has-russia-gained-from-five-years-of-fighting-in-syria|title=What has Russia gained from five years of fighting in Syria?|work=[[Al Jazeera]]|first=Mariya|last=Petkova|date=1 October 2020|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> In March 2018, Putin was elected for a [[2018 Russian presidential election|fourth presidential term]] overall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/18/europe/vladimir-putin-russian-election-2018-results-intl/index.html|title=Putin tightens grip on power with overwhelming Russian election win|work=[[CNN]]|first1=Nathan|last1=Hodge|first2=Kara|last2=Fox|first3=Angela|last3=Dewan|date=19 March 2018|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref>

In January 2020, substantial [[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|amendments]] to the constitution were proposed,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020/651935/EPRS_BRI(2020)651935_EN.pdf|title=Constitutional change in Russia|work=[[European Parliament]]|access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> and the entire Russian government resigned,<ref>{{cite web|last=Reevell|first=Patrick|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/russian-government-resigns-vladimir-putin-proposes-constitutional/story?id=68298498|title=Russian government resigns as Putin proposes constitutional changes|work=[[ABC News]]|date=16 January 2020|access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> leading to [[Mikhail Mishustin]] becoming the new prime minister.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/who-russia-s-new-prime-minister-mikhail-mishustin-n1117251|title=Who is Russia's new prime minister Mikhail Mishustin?|work=[[NBC News]]|date=17 January 2020|access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> It took effect in July following a [[2020 Russian constitutional referendum|national vote]], allowing Putin to run for two more six-year presidential terms after his current term ends.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964|title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote|work=[[BBC]]|date=2 July 2020|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> In April 2021, Putin signed the constitutional changes into law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/05/vladimir-putin-passes-law-that-may-keep-him-in-office-until-2036|title=Vladimir Putin passes law that may keep him in office until 2036|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Andrew|last=Roth|date=5 April 2021|access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref>

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Russia}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; float:right; margin-right:9px; margin-right:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Vladimir Putin (2018-03-01) 03 (cropped).jpg|132px]]
| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg|150px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Vladimir Putin]] {{flagicon image|Standard of the President of the Russian Federation.svg|size=15x15px}} [[President of the Russian Federation|President]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Mikhail Mishustin]] [[File:Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation 2.svg|15x15px]] [[Prime Minister of the Russian Federation|Prime Minister]]
|}
According to the [[Constitution of Russia]], the country is an [[asymmetric federalism|asymmetric federation]] and [[semi-presidential]] republic, wherein the president is the [[head of state]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|website=(Article 80, § 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> and the [[Prime Minister of Russia|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[representative democracy]], with the federal government composed of three branches:<ref name="DeRouenHeo2005">{{cite book|first1=Karl R.|last1=DeRouen|first2=Uk|last2=Heo|title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA666|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-781-4|page=666}}</ref>
* Legislative: The [[bicameral]] [[Federal Assembly of Russia]], made up of the 450-member [[State Duma]] and the 170-member [[Federation Council]], adopts [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]] and the power of [[impeachment]] of the president.
* Executive: The [[President of Russia|president]] is the [[Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation|commander-in-chief]] of the [[Russian Armed Forces|Armed Forces]], can veto [[legislative bill]]s before they become law, and appoints the [[Government of Russia]] (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
* [[Judiciary of Russia|Judiciary]]: The [[Constitutional Court of Russia|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Russia|Supreme Court]] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem [[unconstitutional]].

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|website=(Article 81, § 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma).

=== Political divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}}
{{Further|Political status of Crimea and Sevastopol|Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation}}
According to the [[Constitution of Russia|constitution]], the Russian Federation is composed of 85 [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]].{{efn|Including the disputed [[Republic of Crimea]], and the federal city of [[Sevastopol]].}} In 1993, when the new constitution was adopted, there were 89 federal subjects listed, but [[Federal subjects of Russia#Mergers, splits and internal territorial changes|some were later merged]]. These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|website=(Article 95, § 2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> The federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the [[Federation Council of Russia|Federation Council]], the [[upper house]] of the [[Federal Assembly of Russia|Federal Assembly]]. They do, however, differ in the degree of [[autonomous area|autonomy]] they enjoy.<ref>KARTASHKIN, V., & ABASHIDZE, A. (2004). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/24675138 Autonomy in the Russian Federation: Theory and Practice.] International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 10(3), 203-220. Retrieved June 26, 2021.</ref>
[[File:Map of federal subjects of Russia (2014).svg|center|upright=4]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Federal subjects
! Governance
|-
| {{legend|#FFEC77|46 [[oblasts of Russia|oblast]]s}}
| The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.
|-
| {{legend|#00C160|22 [[Republics of Russia|republics]]}}
| Each is nominally autonomous;<ref>{{cite book|last=Saunders|first=R.A.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|series=Historical Dictionaries of Europe|date=2019|isbn=978-1-5381-2048-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=21ynDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232|page=232|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> home to a specific [[Ethnic groups in Russia|ethnic minority]], and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Orttung|first1=Robert|last2=Lussier|first2=Danielle|last3=Paetskaya|first3=Anna|title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders|publisher=[[EastWest Institute]]|date=2000|isbn=0-7656-0559-7|location=[[New York City]]|pages=523–524}}</ref>
|-
| {{legend|#FF9400|9 [[krais of Russia|krai]]s}}
| For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.
|-
| {{legend|#006989|4 [[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]]}}
| Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.
|-
| {{legend|#FF0037|3 [[federal cities of Russia|federal cities]]}}
| Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and [[Sevastopol]]).
|-
| {{legend|#C300FF|1 autonomous oblast}}
| The only autonomous oblast is the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gessen|first=Masha|title=Where the Jews Aren't: The Sad and Absurd Story of Birobidzhan, Russia's Jewish Autonomous Region|publisher=[[Schocken Books|Schocken]]|date=2016|isbn=978-0-8052-4246-1}}</ref>

|}

==== Federal districts ====
Federal subjects are grouped into eight [[federal districts of Russia|federal districts]], each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.<ref>''Russian Classification of Economic Regions'' (OK 024–95) of 1 January 1997 as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. (Section I. Federal Districts)</ref> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' presidential envoys have the power to implement federal law and to coordinate communication between the president and the regional governors.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Government-and-society#ref257912|title=Russia - Regional and local government|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}
[[File:2019 Foto de família dos Líderes do G20.jpg|thumb|Putin with G20 counterparts in [[Osaka]], 2019.]]
{{As of|2019}}, Russia has the fifth-largest diplomatic network in the world; maintaining diplomatic relations with 190 [[member states of the United Nations|United Nations member states]], two [[List of states with limited recognition|partially-recognized state]]s, and three [[Member states of the United Nations#Observers and non-members|United Nations observer states]]; with [[Russian embassies|144 embassies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html|title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank|publisher=Lowy Institute|access-date=27 January 2021}}</ref> It is considered a [[potential superpower]]; and is a historical [[great power]], an important [[regional power]], and one of [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. Russia is a member of the [[G20]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and takes a leading role in organisations such as the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], the [[Eurasian Economic Union|EAEU]], the [[Collective Security Treaty Organisation|CSTO]], the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]], and [[BRICS]].

Russia maintains positive relations with other countries of SCO,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/|title=Russia's 'Pivot to Asia' and the SCO|work=[[The Diplomat]]|date=21 July 2015|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> EAEU,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.evnreport.com/understanding-the-region/fact-sheet-what-is-the-eurasian-economic-union|title=Fact Sheet: What is the Eurasian Economic Union?|work=[[EVN Report]]|first=Karena|last=Avedissian|date=3 November 2019|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> and BRICS,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/councilofcouncils/global-memos/russia-and-brics-priorities-presidency|title=Russia and the BRICS: Priorities of the Presidency|work=Council of Councils|first=Sergey|last=Kulik|date=7 July 2015|access-date=2 January 2020}}</ref> especially [[Belarus–Russia relations|with neighbouring Belarus]], which is in the [[Union State]], a supranational confederation of the latter with Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecfr.eu/article/lukashenka-besieged-russias-plans-for-belarus/|title=Lukashenka besieged: Russia's plans for Belarus|work=[[European Council on Foreign Relations]]|first=Pavel|last=Slunkin|date=5 November 2020|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> [[Serbia]] has been a [[Russia–Serbia relations|historically close ally]] of Russia since centuries, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/10/29/why-serbia-wont-stop-playing-the-russia-card-any-time-soon-a67953|title=Why Serbia Won't Stop Playing the Russia Card Any Time Soon|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|first=Vuk|last=Vuksanovic|date=19 October 2019|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> In the 21st century, [[Sino-Russian relations since 1991|Sino-Russian relations]] have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically—the [[2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship|Treaty of Friendship]], and the construction of the [[Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline|ESPO oil pipeline]] and the [[Power of Siberia|Power of Siberia gas pipeline]] formed a special relationship between the two.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/06/good-china-russia-relations-are-here-to-stay/|title=Good China-Russia Relations Are Here to Stay|work=[[The Diplomat]]|first=Janko|last=Šćepanović|date=14 June 2021|access-date=5 August 2021}}</ref> [[India]] is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a historically strong [[India–Russia relations|strategic and diplomatic relationship]] since the Soviet times.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/|title=Why India and Russia Are Going to Stay Friends|work=[[Foreign Policy]]|first=Emily|last=Tamkin|date=8 July 2020|access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Russian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Sukhoi Design Bureau, 054, Sukhoi Su-57 (49581303977).jpg|thumb|[[Sukhoi Su-57]], a [[fifth-generation fighter]] of the [[Russian Air Force]].<ref name="Sukhoi">{{cite web|url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html|title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft?|work=[[RAND Corporation]]|author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson|date=17 August 2020|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]]
The [[Russian Armed Forces]] are divided into the [[Russian Ground Forces|Ground Forces]], the [[Russian Navy|Navy]], and the [[Russian Aerospace Force|Aerospace Forces]]—and there are also two independent arms of service: the [[Strategic Missile Troops]] and the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Troops]].<ref name="cia"/> {{As of|2019}}, the military had around one million active-duty personnel, which is the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|fourth-largest]].<ref name="Studies2019">{{cite book|author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link =International Institute for Strategic Studies|title=The Military Balance 2019|date=15 February 2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-85743-988-5|page=195}}</ref> Additionally, there are over 2.5 million reservists, with the total number of reserve troops possibly being as high as 20 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/docs/27/2704254_re-russian-reserve-forces-.html|title=The Global Intelligence Files|website=[[WikiLeaks]]|access-date=1 April 2015}} IISS listed total reserves as 20,000,000 for many years, assuming a Soviet-style callup. The potential reserve personnel of Russia may be as high as 20 million, depending on how the figures are counted.</ref> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be [[conscription|drafted]] for a year of service in Armed Forces.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/|title=Russia - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref>

Russia boasts the world's [[Military#Capability development|second-most powerful military]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/countries-listing.php|title=2021 Military Strength Ranking|publisher=Global Firepower|access-date=16 May 2021}}</ref> and is among the five [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|recognised]] [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapons states]], with the world's [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]].<ref name="ACO">{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat|title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance|work=[[Arms Control Association]]|date=August 2020|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> More than half of the world's 13,500 nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.<ref name="ACO"/> The country possesses the second-largest fleet of [[ballistic missile submarine]]s,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Noot|first1=Jurrien|last2=Polmar|first2=Norman|title=Submarines of the Russian and Soviet Navies, 1718-1990|publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] Press|date=1991|isbn=978-0-87021-570-4}}</ref> and is one of the only three states operating [[strategic bomber]]s,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Paul|first1=T. V.|last2=Wirtz|first2=James J.|last3=Fortmann|first3=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jy28vBqscQC&pg=PA332|title=Balance of power: theory and practice in the 21st century|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|date=2004|pages=332|isbn=0-8047-5017-3}}</ref> with the world's most powerful ground force,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/armor-tanks-total.asp|title=Tank Strength by Country (2020)|work=Global Firepower|access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref> the second-most powerful air force,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/aircraft-total.asp|title=Aircraft Strength by Country (2020)|work=Global Firepower|access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref> and the third-most powerful navy fleet.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/navy-ships.asp|title=Navy Fleet Strengths (2020)|work=Global Firepower|access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref> Russia has the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|fourth-highest military expenditure]], spending $65.1 billion in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2020-04/fs_2020_04_milex_0_0.pdf|title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2019|publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]|first1=Nan|last1=Tian|first2=Aude|last2=Fleurant|first3=Alexandra|last3=Kuimova|first4=Pieter D.|last4=Wezeman|first5=Siemon T.|last5=Wezeman|date=27 April 2020|access-date=8 January 2020}}</ref> It has a large and fully indigenous [[Defense industry of Russia|arms industry]], producing most of its own military equipment, and is the world's second-largest exporter of arms, behind only the United States.<ref name="cia"/>

===Human rights and corruption ===
{{Main|Human rights in Russia|Corruption in Russia}}
Russia's [[human rights in Russia|human rights]] management has been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and human rights [[wikt:watchdog|watchdogs]]. In particular, such organisations as [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch on Russia and Chechnya [https://www.hrw.org/en/video/2008/04/06/russia-trial HTW.org]</ref> Since 2004, [[Freedom House]] has ranked Russia as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores|title=Countries and Territories|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=10 March 2021}}</ref> Since 2011, the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]] has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its [[Democracy Index]], ranking it 124th out of 167 countries for 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/02/02/global-democracy-has-a-very-bad-year|title=Global democracy has another bad year|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=22 January 2020|access-date=6 February 2021}}</ref> In regards to [[media freedom in Russia|media freedom]], Russia was ranked 149th out of 180 countries in [[Reporters Without Borders]]' [[Press Freedom Index]] for 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/russia|title=Russia|work=Reporters Without Borders|access-date=9 December 2020}}</ref>

Russia was the lowest rated European country in [[Transparency International]]'s [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2020; ranking 129th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruptions Perceptions Index 2020|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/rus|access-date=31 January 2021|website=Transparency.org|language=en}}</ref> Corruption is perceived as a significant problem in Russia,<ref name="VOA">{{cite web|title=New Reports Highlight Russia's Deep-Seated Culture of Corruption|url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption|work=[[Voice of America]]|date=26 January 2020|access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref> impacting various aspects of life, including the economy,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Alferova|first=Ekaterina|date=26 October 2020|script-title=ru:В России предложили создать должность омбудсмена по борьбе с коррупцией|trans-title=Russia proposed to create the post of Ombudsman for the fight against corruption|url=https://iz.ru/1078501/2020-10-26/v-rossii-predlozhili-sozdat-dolzhnost-ombudsmena-po-borbe-s-korruptciei|access-date=5 November 2020|script-website=ru:Известия|website=[[Izvestia]]|language=ru}}</ref> business,<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2020|title=Russia Corruption Report|url=https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/russia/|access-date=5 November 2020|website=GAN Integrity|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Government of Russia|public administration]],<ref name="Suhara">{{cite web|author=Suhara, Manabu|title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective|url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192618/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia lost 4 billion dollars on unfavorable state procurement contracts in the last year|url=https://meduza.io/en/news/2015/12/07/russia-lost-4-billion-dollars-on-unfavorable-state-procurement-contracts-in-the-last-year|access-date=7 December 2015|website=Meduza}}</ref> [[Law enforcement in Russia|law enforcement]],<ref>{{cite news|date=2010|title=Cops for hire|url=https://www.economist.com/node/15731344|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref> [[Healthcare in Russia|healthcare]],<ref>{{cite web|author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter|first2=Tetyana|last2=Zelenska|date=2010|title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery|url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref> and [[Education in Russia|education]].<ref>{{cite web|first1=Elena|last1=Denisova-Schmidt|first2=Elvira|last2=Leontyeva|first3=Yaroslav|last3=Prytula|date=2014|title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine|url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance, and attributed to general weakness of [[rule of law]] in the country.<ref name="VOA"/>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Russia}}
[[File:Russland Relief.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Topographic map]] of Russia]]
Russia is a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] stretching vastly over both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].<ref name="natgeo">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/geography/countries/article/russia|title=Russia|work=[[National Geographic Kids]]|date=21 March 2014|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref> It spans the northernmost corner of [[Eurasia]], and has the world's [[List of countries by length of coastline|fourth-longest coastline]], at {{convert|comma=5|37653|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{efn|Russia has an additional {{convert|comma=5|850|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline along the [[Caspian Sea]], which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake|title=Is the Caspian a sea or a lake?|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|quote="Like many lakes, it does not feed into an ocean, but it is sea-like in its size and depth."|date=16 August 2018|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline/|title=Coastline - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> Russia lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[82nd parallel north|82° N]], and longitudes [[19th meridian east|19° E]] and [[169th meridian west|169° W]], and is larger than three continents: [[Oceania]], Europe, and [[Antarctica]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@callummtaylor/russia-is-huge-and-thats-about-the-size-of-it-180d99ab4a81|title=Russia is huge, and that's about the size of it.|work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]|first=Callum|last=Taylor|quote="Russia takes up 17,098,250 square kilometres, roughly one-eighth of the world's total land mass. That's larger than the entire continent of Antarctica..."|date=2 April 2018|access-date=6 July 2021}}</ref> while having the same surface area as [[Pluto]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet|title=Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Stuart|last=Clark|quote="Pluto's diameter is larger than expected at 2,370 kilometres across. This is about two-thirds the size of Earth's moon, giving Pluto a surface area comparable to Russia."|date=28 July 2015|access-date=20 June 2021}}</ref>

[[Kaliningrad Oblast]], Russia's westernmost part along the Baltic Sea, is about {{convert|9000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart from its easternmost part, [[Big Diomede|Big Diomede Island]] in the [[Bering Strait]].<ref name="Geo">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/22.htm|title=Global Position and Boundaries|editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the [[Southern Russia|southern regions]], which share a significant portion of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (containing [[Mount Elbrus]], which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the [[List of elevation extremes by region|highest peak]] in Russia and Europe);<ref name="cia"/> the [[Altai Mountains|Altai]] and [[Sayan Mountains]] in [[Siberia]]; and in the [[East Siberian Mountains]] and the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] in the [[Russian Far East]] (containing [[Klyuchevskaya Sopka]], which at {{convert|4750|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest [[active volcano]] in Eurasia).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab|title=Klyuchevskoy|work=[[Global Volcanism Program]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Topo">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|title=Topography and Drainage|editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Ural Mountains]], running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the [[Boundaries between the continents of Earth#Europe and Asia|traditional boundary between Europe and Asia]].<ref name="urals">{{cite web|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains|title=The Ural Mountains|publisher=[[NASA]]|work=[[NASA Earth Observatory]]|date=13 July 2011|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref>

Russia, alongside [[Canada]], is one of the world's only two [[List of countries bordering on two or more oceans|countries with a coast along three oceans]],<ref name="natgeo"/> due to which it has links with over thirteen marginal seas.{{efn|Russia borders, clockwise, to its west: the [[Baltic Sea]], to its southwest: the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Sea of Azov]], to its north: the [[Barents Sea]], the [[Kara Sea]], the [[Laptev Sea]], the [[Pechora Sea]], the [[White Sea]], and the [[East Siberian Sea]], to its northeast: the [[Chukchi Sea]] and the [[Bering Sea]], and to its southeast: the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and the [[Sea of Japan]].}}<ref name="Geo"/> Russia's major islands and archipelagos include [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Franz Josef Land]], [[Severnaya Zemlya]], the [[New Siberian Islands]], [[Wrangel Island]], the [[Kuril Islands]], and [[Sakhalin]].<ref name="Arctic">{{cite web|url=https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/|title=Russia|work=[[The Arctic Institute – Center for Circumpolar Security Studies]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula|title=Island hopping in Russia: Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula|work=[[Euronews]]|first=Ziryan|last=Aziz|date=28 February 2020|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> The [[Diomede Islands]] are just {{convert|3.8|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands|title=Diomede Islands – Russia|work=[[Atlas Obscura]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> and [[Kunashir Island]] is just {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from [[Hokkaido]], Japan.

Russia, home to over 100,000 rivers,<ref name="natgeo"/> has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid [[fresh water]].<ref name="Topo"/> [[Lake Baikal]], the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/|access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> [[Lake Ladoga|Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega|Onega]] in northwestern Russia are two of the [[largest lakes in Europe]].<ref name="natgeo"/> Russia is second only to [[Brazil]] by [[List of countries by total renewable water resources|total renewable water resources]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/|title=Total renewable water resources|website=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Volga]], widely seen as Russia's national river due to its historical importance, is the [[List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length|longest river]] in Europe.<ref name="rivers">{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593|title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=15 May 2019|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref> The Siberian rivers of [[Ob River|Ob]], [[Yenisey]], [[Lena River|Lena]] and [[Amur River|Amur]] are among the [[world's longest rivers]].<ref name="rivers"/>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Russia}}
[[File:Russia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.38|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Russia.<ref name="climate1">{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]]|journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|pages=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|issn=2052-4463|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]]
The sheer size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the [[humid continental climate]], which is prevalent in all parts of the country except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountains in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and Pacific oceans, while the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.
Most of [[Northwest Russia]] and Siberia has a [[subarctic climate]], with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly [[Sakha]], where the Northern [[Pole of Cold]] is located with the record low temperature of {{convert|−71.2|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}),<ref name="Arctic"/> and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast stretch of land along the Arctic Ocean and the [[Russian Arctic islands]] have a [[polar climate]].<ref name="Climate">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm|title=Climate|editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref>

The coastal part of [[Krasnodar Krai]] on the Black Sea, most notably [[Sochi]], and some coastal and interior strips of the [[North Caucasus]] possess a [[humid subtropical climate]] with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast on the [[Vistula Spit]], and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an [[oceanic climate]]. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost silvers of Siberia, possess a [[semi-arid climate]].<ref name="climate1"/>

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons—winter and summer—as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures.<ref name="Climate"/> The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Drozdov|first1=V. A.|title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea|journal=GeoJournal|year=1992|doi=10.1007/BF00717701|volume=27|page=169|issue=2|last2=Glezer|first2=O. B.|last3=Nefedova|first3=T. G.|last4=Shabdurasulov|first4=I. V.|s2cid=128960702}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|List of ecoregions in Russia|List of mammals of Russia|List of birds of Russia|List of freshwater fish of Russia|Wildlife of Russia}}
[[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|[[Yugyd Va National Park]] in the [[Komi Republic]] is the largest [[national park]] in Europe.<ref name="urals"/>]]
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including [[polar desert]]s, [[tundra]], forest tundra, [[taiga]], [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|mixed and broadleaf forest]], [[forest steppe]], [[steppe]], semi-desert, and [[subtropics]].<ref name="climate">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ru|title=Russian Federation - Main Details|work=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> About half of Russia's territory [[European countries by forest area|is forested]],<ref name="cia"/> and it has the world's largest [[forest reserves]],<ref name="biodiversity">{{cite web|url=http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/index.shtml|title=Biodiversity in Russia|work=[[Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe]]|access-date=23 October 2019}}</ref> which are known as the "Lungs of Europe"; coming second only to the [[Amazon rainforest]] in the amount of [[carbon dioxide]] it absorbs.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Walsh|first=Nick Paton|title =It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/sep/19/environment.russia|access-date=26 December 2007|location=[[London]]|quote="Forest makes up 70% of Russia's territory and spans 12 time zones. It is known as Europe's lungs and is second only to the Amazon in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs, and is home to many rare species."|date=19 September 2003}}</ref>

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of [[vascular plant]]s, 2,200 species of [[bryophyte]]s, about 3,000 species of [[lichen]]s, 7,000-9,000 species of [[algae]], and 20,000-25,000 species of [[fungi]]. Russian [[fauna]] is composed of 320 species of [[mammals]], over 732 species of [[bird]]s, 75 species of [[reptile]]s, about 30 species of [[amphibian]]s, 343 species of [[freshwater fish]] (high [[endemism]]), approximately 1,500 species of [[saltwater fish]]es, 9 species of [[cyclostomata]], and approximately 100–150,000 [[invertebrate]]s (high endemism).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/04-04-02.shtml|title=Species richness of Russia|work=[[Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe]]|access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> Approximately 1,100 of rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation|Russian Red Data Book]].<ref name="climate"/>

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.<ref name="climate"/> They include 45 [[UNESCO]] [[biosphere reserve]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/europe-north-america/russian-federation/|title=Russian Federation|work=[[UNESCO]]|date=June 2017|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> 64 [[National parks of Russia|national parks]], and 101 [[Zapovednik|nature reserves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/russia-nature-reserves-year-ecology|title=Look Inside Russia's Wildest Nature Reserves—Now Turning 100|work=[[National Geographic]]|quote="Russia's tumultuous history includes one legacy little known outside its borders—a vast system of protected lands that conservationists have fought for decades to study and protect. Some are so remote and guarded that few of Russia's own citizens have ever stepped foot in them."|date=11 January 2017|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> Russia still has many ecosystems which are still untouched by man—mainly in the northern taiga areas and the subarctic tundra of Siberia. Over time the country has been having improvement and application of environmental legislation, development and implementation of various federal and regional strategies and programmes, and study, inventory and protection of rare and endangered plants, animals, and other organisms, and including them in the Russian Red Data Book.<ref name="biodiversity"/>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Russia}}{{See also|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Taxation in Russia}}
[[File:Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow International Business Center|Moscow]] is a major [[financial centre|financial hub]] in Europe, and has one of the world's [[List of cities by GDP|largest urban economies]].]]
[[File:HDP PPP per capita Russia.jpg|thumb|Russia's GDP growth by purchasing power parity (PPP) during 1991–2019 in [[international dollars]]]]
Russia has a [[mixed economy]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mixed-economy|title=Mixed economy|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|quote="Mixed economies also arose in many countries that formerly had centrally planned and socialist economies. The mixed economies in modern China and Russia, for example, evolved from communist systems that were too inefficient to compete in the modern global economy."|access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> with enormous natural resources, particularly [[Russian oil industry|oil]] and [[Natural gas in Russia|natural gas]].<ref>Excerpted from {{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm|title=Russia - Natural Resources|editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998|publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|quote="Russia is one of the world's richest countries in raw materials, many of which are significant inputs for an industrial economy. Russia accounts for around 20 percent of the world's production of oil and natural gas and possesses large reserves of both fuels. This abundance has made Russia virtually self-sufficient in energy and a large-scale exporter of fuels."|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> It has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|eleventh-largest economy]] by nominal GDP and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|sixth-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity|PPP]]. In 2017, the large [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] contributed to 62% of the total GDP, the industrial sector 32%, and the small agricultural sector roughly 5%.<ref name="cia"/> Russia has a low [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] of 4.5%,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Russian Federation {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.NE.ZS?locations=RU|access-date=5 November 2020|website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> and a relatively low [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty|poverty rate]] of 12.6%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) – Russian Federation {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=RU|work=[[World Bank Group|The World Bank]]|access-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> More than 70% of its population is categorised as middle class officially,<ref>{{Cite news|date=18 March 2020|title=Putin highlights Russia's middle class as comprising more than 70% of population|work=[[TASS]]|url=https://tass.com/economy/1131615|access-date=6 November 2020}}</ref> which has been disputed by some experts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.zois-berlin.de/publications/in-search-of-russias-middle-class|title=In search of Russia's middle class|publisher=Centre for East European and International Studies|first=Bernhard|last=Braun|date=6 October 2020|access-date=6 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=26 March 2020|last=Alexandrov|first=Ivan|script-title=ru:Сколько в России среднего класса?|trans-title=How many middle class is there in Russia?|url=https://russian.eurasianet.org/%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B2-%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8-%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0|access-date=6 November 2020|publisher=[[Eurasianet]]|language=ru}}</ref> Russia foreign exchange reserves are worth $604 billion, and are world's [[List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves|fifth-largest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd_base/mrrf/mrrf_7d/|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period)|publisher=[[Central Bank of Russia]]|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's [[List of countries by labour force|sixth-largest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force/country-comparison/|title=Labor force - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> Russia's large [[Automotive industry in Russia|automotive industry]] ranks as the world's [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|tenth-largest by production]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2020-statistics/|title=2020 PRODUCTION STATISTICS|work=[[Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles|OICA]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref>

Russia is the world's [[List of countries by exports|fourteenth-largest exporter]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/exports/country-comparison/|title=Exports - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> In 2016, the oil-and-gas sector accounted for 36% of federal budget revenues.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web|url= https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/RUS|title= Russia – Analysis|publisher=[[U.S. Energy Information Administration|EIA]]|date=31 October 2017|access-date=17 February 2021}}</ref> In 2019, the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Russia)|Natural Resources and Environment Ministry]] estimated the value of natural resources to 60% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/14/russias-natural-resources-make-up-60-of-gdp-reports-a64800|title=Russia's Natural Resources Make Up 60% of GDP|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|quote="Russia's Natural Resources and Environment Ministry estimates that the combined worth of the country's oil, gas and other resources amounts to 60 percent of its gross domestic product, the RBC news website reported on Thursday... As one of the world's top producers of natural gas and oil, Russia's economy is heavily reliant on exports of its resources... These resources added up to a combined 55.2 trillion rubles ($844.58 billion) in value as of 2017..."|date=14 March 2019|access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref> Russia has one of the [[List of countries by external debt|lowest external debts]] among major developed countries,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/russia/external-debt|title=Russia External Debt|work=CEIC|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> and ranked high among the "very easy" countries in the 2019 [[ease of doing business index|Ease of Doing Business Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doingbusiness.org/en/rankings|title=Ease of Doing Business rankings|work=[[World Bank Group|The World Bank]]|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> It has a [[flat tax]] rate of 13%, and has the world's second-most attractive personal tax system for single managers after the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey–market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.htm?idContent=1287670|access-date=27 December 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref> However, extreme [[List of countries by income equality|inequality of household income and wealth]] in the country has also been noted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1250100/income-inequality-russia-and-the-us-are-now-equally-unequal/|title=On incomes, Russia and the US are now equally unequal|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|first=Gwynn|last=Guilford|date=12 April 2018|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://meduza.io/en/feature/2019/01/23/the-top-1-controls-a-third-of-the-wealth-and-the-poor-are-getting-poorer-how-russia-became-one-of-the-most-unequal-places-on-earth|title=The top 1% controls a third of the wealth, and the poor are getting poorer. How Russia became one of the most unequal places on Earth.|work=[[Meduza]]|first1=Dmitry|last1=Kuznets|first2=Nastya|last2=Grigorieva|first3=Kevin|last3=Rothrock|date=23 January 2019|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Infrastructure ===
{{Main|Transport in Russia|Energy in Russia}}
[[Rail transport in Russia|Railway transport in Russia]] is mostly under the control of the state-run [[Russian Railways]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ar2017.rzd.ru/pdf/ar/en/results-review_operational_passenger.pdf |title=Passenger transportation|publisher=[[Russian Railways]]|date=2017|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's [[List of countries by rail transport network size|third-longest]], and exceeds {{convert|87157|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison|title=Railways - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2016}}, Russia has [[Roads by country|1,452.2 thousand km of roads]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://government.ru/info/22865/|title=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры|trans-title=On the development of road infrastructure|work=[[Government of Russia]]|date=29 April 2016|access-date=14 January 2021}}</ref> and its road density is among the world's lowest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe-central-asia-continue-to-report-the-worlds-highest-road-network-density-followed-by-east-asia-and-pacific/|title=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific.|work=[[International Road Federation]]|date=16 December 2020|access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> Russia's inland waterways are the world's [[List of countries by waterways length|second-longest]], and total {{convert|102000|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison|title=Waterways - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Among [[List of airports in Russia|Russia's 1,218 airports]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/airports/country-comparison|title=Airports - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> the [[List of the busiest airports in Russia|busiest]] is [[Sheremetyevo International Airport]] in Moscow, which is also the [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|fifth-busiest airport]] in Europe.
[[File:VL 85-022 container train.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to [[Vladivostok]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7|title=I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world.|work=[[Business Insider]]|first=Katie|last=Warren|date=3 January 2020|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref>]]
Russia's largest post is the [[Port of Novorossiysk]] in [[Krasnodar Krai]] along the Black Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1023550/russia-cargo-throughput-by-port/|title=Cargo throughput volume in Russia in 2020, by port|work=[[Statista]]|author=D. Elagina|date=22 January 2021|quote="The Russian sea port Novorossiysk, located in the Azov-Black Sea basin, handled almost 142 million metric tons of cargo in 2020 and became the leading port in the country by the cargo throughput."|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref> It is the world's sole country to operate [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]]s, which advance the economic exploitation of the Arctic [[continental shelf of Russia]], and the development of sea trade through the [[Northern Sea Route]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://poseidonexpeditions.com/about/articles/nuclear-icebreakers-what-s-so-special-about-them/|title=Nuclear icebreakers – what's so special about them?|work=[[Poseidon Expeditions]]|quote="Russia is the only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers in the world. They were purposely built for the strategic importance of the Northern Sea Route and a more evident need to guarantee the safety of the Russian trade vessels in winter and Arctic settlements' dependency on supplies."|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref>

Russia has been widely described as an [[energy superpower]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2017/11/future-of-russia-as-energy-superpower-thane-gustafson.html|title=The Future of Russia as an Energy Superpower|work=[[Harvard University Press]]|date=20 November 2017|access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> as it has the world's largest [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/265329/countries-with-the-largest-natural-gas-reserves/|title=Natural gas - countries with the largest reserves 2009-2019|work=[[Statista]]|author=N. Sönnichsen|quote="Russia has the largest proved natural gas reserves in the world. As of 2019, it had 38 trillion cubic meters worth of the fossil fuel, four trillion cubic meters more than ten years prior."|date=15 June 2021|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the second-largest [[coal reserves]],<ref>{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition|url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=bp.com|publisher=[[BP]]|page=45}}</ref> the eighth-largest [[oil reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – proved reserves|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the largest [[oil shale reserves]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|year=2010|title=2010 Survey of Energy Resources|url=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser_2010_report_1.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=worldenergy.org|publisher=[[World Energy Council]]|page=102|isbn=978-0-946121-02-1}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of countries by natural gas exports|leading natural gas exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-exports/country-comparison|title=Natural gas – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the [[List of countries by natural gas production|second-largest natural gas producer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-production/country-comparison/|title=Natural gas – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the second-largest oil [[List of countries by oil exports|exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-exports/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and [[List of countries by oil production|producer]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-production/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> Fossil fuels cause most of the [[greenhouse gas emissions by Russia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia: greenhouse gas emissions by sector|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1048675/greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector-russia/|access-date=3 December 2020|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> The country is the world's fourth-largest [[electricity producer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/electricity-production/country-comparison|title=Electricity – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the ninth-largest [[renewable energy producer]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Whiteman|first1=Adrian|last2=Rueda|first2=Sonia|last3=Akande|first3=Dennis|last4=Elhassan|first4=Nazik|last5=Escamilla|first5=Gerardo|last6=Arkhipova|first6=Iana|date=March 2020|title=Renewable capacity statistics 2020|url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Mar/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2020.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=[[IRENA]]|publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]]|page=3|location=Abu Dhabi|isbn=978-92-9260-239-0}}</ref> Russia was also the world's first country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's [[Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant|first nuclear power plant]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/june-27-1954-worlds-first-nuclear-power-plant-opens/|title=June 27, 1954: World's First Nuclear Power Plant Opens|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|first=Tony|last=Long|quote="1954: The first nuclear power plant to be connected to an external grid goes operational in [[Obninsk]], outside of Moscow... The nuclear reactor, used to generate electricity, heralded Obninsk's new role as a major Soviet scientific city, a status it retains in the Russian Federation where it carries the sobriquet of First Russian Science City."|date=27 June 2012|access-date=8 June 2021}}</ref> In 2019, It was the world's fourth-largest [[Nuclear power by country|nuclear energy producer]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Nuclear Power Today |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|access-date=8 November 2020|website=www.world-nuclear.org|publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]}}</ref>

=== Agriculture and fishery ===
{{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}}
[[File:Rostov's region combain.jpg|thumb|A [[combine harvester]] in [[Rostov Oblast]]]]
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.<ref name="agriculturebritannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy|title=Russia - Economy|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> It has the world's [[Land use statistics by country|third-largest cultivated area]], at {{convert|1265267|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land is [[agricultural land|agricultural]],<ref name="cia"/> and only 7.4% of its land is [[arable land|arable]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS|title=Arable land (% of land area)|work=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> The main product of Russian farming has always been [[grain]], which occupies considerably more than half of the cropland.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Russia is the world's [[List of countries by wheat exports|largest exporter of wheat]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-22/russia-s-dominance-of-the-wheat-world-keeps-growing|title=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing|work=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|first1=Anatoly|last1=Medetsky|first2=Megan|last2=Durisin|date=23 September 2020|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> and is the largest producer of [[barley]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/272760/barley-harvest-forecast/|title=Global barley producers by country 2020/21|work=[[Statista]]|quote="This statistic provides a forecast of barley production volume worldwide in 2020/2021, by country. In that year, Russia produced about 20.63 million metric tons of barley."|date=8 July 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> [[buckwheat]], [[oats]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1073550/global-leading-oats-producers/|title=Global leading oats producers 2020|work=[[Statista]]|date=12 November 2020|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> and [[rye]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/190489/rye-production-in-specified-countries/|title=Top countries in rye production 2019/2020|work=[[Statista]]|date=10 February 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> and the second-largest producer of [[sunflower seed]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263928/production-of-sunflower-seed-since-2000-by-major-countries/|title=Sunflower seed production in major countries 2019/20|work=[[Statista]]|quote="Russia is also a major producer of sunflower seeds worldwide, with a production volume of 15.3 million metric tons in 2019/2020."|date=25 February 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> Various analysts of [[climate change adaptation]] foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.<ref name="climatechange">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html|title=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Abrahm|last=Lustgarten|date=16 December 2020|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref>

More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to [[Nonfood crop|industrial crop]]s, vegetables, and fruits.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Owing to its large coastline along three oceans, Russia maintains one of the world's [[Fishing industry by country|largest fishing fleets]], ranking sixth in the world in tonnage of fish caught; capturing 4,773,413 tons of fish in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf|title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|date=2018|access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref> It is also home to the world's finest caviar (the [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]]), and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|Science and technology in Russia|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}}
[[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711–1765), [[polymath]] scientist, inventor, poet and artist]]
Russia's [[research and development]] budget is the world's [[List of countries by research and development spending|ninth-highest]], with an expenditure of approximately 422 billion rubles on domestic research and development.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 February 2020|script-title=ru:Уровень финансирования российской науки недостаточен для обеспечения технологического прорыва|trans-title=The level of funding for Russian science is insufficient to ensure a technological breakthrough|url=https://ach.gov.ru/checks/9658|access-date=8 November 2020|website=ach.gov.ru|publisher=[[Accounts Chamber of Russia]]|language=ru}}</ref> In 2019, Russia was ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications.<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2020|title=SJR – International Science Ranking|url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2019&order=it&ord=desc|access-date=9 November 2020|website=www.scimagojr.com|publisher=SCImago Journal & Country Rank}}</ref> Since 1904, [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel Prize]] were awarded to twenty-six Soviets and Russians in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]], [[Nobel Prize in medicine|medicine]], [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|economy]], [[Nobel Prize in Literature|literature]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|peace]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 December 2019|script-title=ru:Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии|trans-title=Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate|url=https://tass.ru/info/7308739|access-date=8 November 2020|script-website=ru:ТАСС|publisher=[[TASS]]|language=ru}}</ref>

[[Mikhail Lomonosov]] proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the [[energy conservation law]].<ref name="mes">{{Cite web|title=Famous Russian Scientists and their Discoveries|url=http://studyinrussia.ru/en/why-russia/traditions-of-education/scientists-and-discoveries/|website=Official website about higher education in Russia for foreigners|publisher=[[Ministry of Education and Science (Russia)]]}}</ref> Since the time of [[Nikolay Lobachevsky]] (the "[[Copernicus]] of [[Geometry]]" who pioneered the [[non-Euclidean geometry]]) and a prominent tutor [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]], Russian [[List of Russian mathematicians|mathematicians]] became among the world's most influential.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFsnWXkqZaMC|title=Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-981-02-4390-6|editor-first=Yakov|editor-last=Sinai|location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> [[Dmitry Mendeleev]] invented the [[Periodic table]], the main framework of modern [[chemistry]].<ref name="mes" /> Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with the [[Fields Medal]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 August 2018|title=St Petersburg will host the International Congress of Mathematicians for the first time|url=https://english.spbu.ru/news/2109-st-petersburg-will-host-the-international-congress-of-mathematicians-for-the-first-time|access-date=|website=english.spbu.ru}}</ref> [[Grigori Perelman]] was offered the first ever Clay [[Millennium Prize Problems]] Award for his final proof of the [[Poincaré conjecture]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Poincaré Conjecture|url=http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428112451/http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html|archive-date=28 April 2013|access-date=4 May 2013|publisher=Claymath.org}}</ref> [[Alexander Stepanovich Popov|Alexander Popov]] was among the [[invention of radio|inventors of radio]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Marsh|first=Allison|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/dawn-of-electronics/who-invented-radio-guglielmo-marconi-or-aleksandr-popov|title=Who Invented Radio: Guglielmo Marconi or Aleksandr Popov?|work=[[IEEE Spectrum]]|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]|date=30 April 2020|access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> while [[Nikolai Basov]] and [[Alexander Prokhorov]] were co-inventors of [[laser]] and [[maser]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shampo|first1=Marc A.|last2=Kyle|first2=Robert A.|last3=Steensma|first3=David P.|title=Nikolay Basov—Nobel Prize for Lasers and Masers|journal=[[United States National Library of Medicine]]|date=January 2012|volume=87|issue=1|pages=e3|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.11.003|pmid=22212977|pmc=3498096}}</ref> Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were [[émigrés]], among them are [[Igor Sikorsky]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Delear|first=Frank J.|title=Igor Sikorsky, His Three Careers in Aviation|pages=290|publisher=[[Dodd, Mead & Co.]]|date=1976|isbn=978-0-396-07282-9}}</ref> and [[Vladimir Zworykin]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir-zworykin|title=Vladimir Zworykin|work=[[Lemelson–MIT Prize]]|access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> while many foreign ones lived and worked in Russia for a long time, such as [[Leonard Euler]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecmiindmath.org/2019/03/25/leonhard-euler-and-saint-petersburg/|title=Leonhard Euler and Saint Petersburg|work=ECMI|date=25 March 2019|access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> and [[Alfred Nobel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobel-st-petersburg-1842-1863/|title=Alfred Nobel – St. Petersburg, 1842-1863|work=The [[Nobel Prize]]|access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Russian discoveries and inventions include the [[transformer]], [[Incandescent light bulb|electric filament lamp]], the [[aircraft]], the safety [[parachute]], electrical [[microscope]], [[Color photography|colour photos]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 September 2020|title=Great Inventions by Russians|url=https://www.travelallrussia.com/blog/great-inventions-russians|access-date=30 December 2020|website=Travel All Russia|language=en}}</ref> caterpillar tracks, track assembly, electrically powered [[Railroad car|railway wagons]], [[Video tape recorder|videotape recorder]], the [[helicopter]], the [[solar cell]], [[yogurt]], the [[television]], petrol [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]], [[synthetic rubber]], and [[Combine harvester|grain harvester]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kuzmin|first=Viktor|date=16 March 2012|title=Russia's 12 top inventions that changed the world|url=https://www.rbth.com/articles/2012/03/16/russias_12_top_inventions_that_changed_the_world_15089.html|website=[[Russia Beyond]]|publisher=[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]}}</ref>
[[File:Russia& -39;s Mir space station is backdropped against Earth& -39;s horizon. Original from NASA . Digitally enhanced by rawpixel. - 41997987775.jpg|thumb|[[Mir]], Soviet and Russian [[space station]] that operated in [[low Earth orbit]] from 1986 to 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/mir/mir.htm|title=Mir Space Station|work=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref>]]
[[Roscosmos]] is Russia's national space agency;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gary Kitmacher|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station|work=Apogee Books Space Series|publisher=[[Apogee Books]]|year=2006|isbn=978-1-894959-34-6|location=Canada|pages=71–80|issn=1496-6921}}</ref> while Russian achievements in the field of [[space technology]] and [[space exploration]] are traced back to [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], the father of theoretical [[astronautics]], who's works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as [[Sergey Korolyov]], [[Valentin Glushko]], and many others who contributed to the success of the [[Soviet space program]] in the early stages of the [[Space Race]] and beyond.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shubin|first=Daniel H.|title=Tsiolkovski, The Cosmic Scientist and His Cosmic Philosophy|date=2016|isbn=978-1-365-25981-4}}</ref>

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik 1]]'', was launched.<ref name="sputnik"/> In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by [[Yuri Gagarin]].<ref name="gagarin"/> Many other Soviet and Russian [[space exploration records]] ensued, including the first [[spacewalk]] performed by [[Alexei Leonov]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html|title=The First Spacewalk|work=[[BBC]]|first=Paul|last=Rincon|date=13 October 2014|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> [[Vostok 6]] was the first human spaceflight to carry a woman into space ([[Valentina Tereshkova]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/who-was-first-woman-space|title=Who was the first woman in space?|work=[[Royal Museums Greenwich]]|access-date=8 June 2021}}</ref> [[Luna 9]] was the first spacecraft to land on the [[Moon]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-006A|title=Luna 9|work=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> [[Sputnik 2]] was the first spacecraft to carry an animal ([[Laika]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-was-first-animal-space|title=What was the first animal sent into space?|work=[[Royal Museums Greenwich]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> [[Zond 5]] brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/zond-5/in-depth/|title=Zond 5|work=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> [[Venera 7]] was the first spacecraft to land on another planet ([[Venus]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-060A|title=Venera 7|work=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> and [[Mars 3]] was the first spacecraft to land on [[Mars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-mars-shot-everyone-forgot-space-race/30759023.html|title=The Soviet Mars Shot That Almost Everyone Forgot|work=[[Radio Free Europe]]|first=Andy|last=Heil|date=31 July 2020|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> ''[[Lunokhod-1|Lunokhod 1]]'' was the first [[space exploration rover]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod-01/in-depth/|title=Lunokhod 01|work=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> and ''[[Salyut 1]]'' was the world's first [[space station]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station|title=50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station|work=[[NASA]]|date=19 April 2021|access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref>

Russia is among the world's largest satellite launchers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/russia-launches-38-satellites-for-18-countries/article34139029.ece|title=Russia launches 38 satellites for 18 countries|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=23 March 2021|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> and has completed the [[GLONASS]] [[satellite navigation system]]. It is developing its own fifth-generation jet fighter ([[Sukhoi Su-57]]),<ref name="Sukhoi"/> and has built the world's first [[Russian floating nuclear power station|floating nuclear power plant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49446235|title=Russia floating nuclear power station sets sail across Arctic|work=[[BBC]]|date=23 August 2019|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> [[Luna-Glob]] is a Russian Moon exploration programme, with its first mission scheduled to launch in October 2021 ([[Luna 25]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ria.ru/20200317/1568701598.html|title=Россия запустит космический аппарат на Луну 1 октября 2021 года|trans-title=Russia will launch a spacecraft to the moon on October 1, 2021|work=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=17 March 2020|access-date=28 June 2021|language=ru}}</ref> To replace the ageing [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]], Roscosmos is also developing the [[Orel (spacecraft)|Orel spacecraft]], which could conduct its first crewed fight in 2025.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tass.com/science/1087207|title=Russia to create Angara-A5P rocket for manned space launches by 2024|work=[[TASS]]|date=6 November 2019|access-date=30 June 2021}}</ref> In February 2019, it was announced that Russia is intending to conduct its first crewed mission to land on the Moon in 2031.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://ria.ru/20190209/1550625837.html|title=Российские космонавты высадятся на Луну в 2031 году|trans-title=Russian cosmonauts will land on the moon in 2031|work=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=9 February 2019|access-date=2 July 2021|language=ru}}</ref> In April 2021, Roscosmos declared that it is planning to quit the [[International Space Station|ISS]], and will create its own space station with the aim of launching it into orbit by 2030.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/russia-plans-launch-own-space-station-after-quitting-iss-2021-04-21/|title=Russia plans to launch own space station after quitting ISS|work=[[Reuters]]|date=21 April 2021|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> In June 2021, Roscosmos and [[China National Space Administration]] announced that they are jointly developing a [[International Lunar Research Station|lunar base]], which is planned to be utilized from 2036.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/25/russia-china-team-up-build-moon-base|title=Russia and China team up to build a moon base|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Stuark|last=Clark|date=25 June 2021|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Russia}}
[[File:Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg|thumb|[[Peterhof Palace]] in Saint Petersburg, a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].]]
According to the [[World Tourism Organization]], Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.<ref name="unwto">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.6|title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer|journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer English Version|publisher=[[World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO)|year=2020|volume=18|pages=18|language=en|doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng|issn=1728-9246|issue=6}}</ref> Russia was ranked 39th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Uppink Calderwood|first1=Lauren|last2=Soshkin|first2=Maksim|editor-last=Fisher|editor-first=Mike|title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_2019.pdf|access-date=11 November 2020|website=www3.weforum.org|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|location=Geneva|page=xiii|isbn=978-2-940631-01-8}}</ref> According to [[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)|Federal Agency for Tourism]], the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ru:Выборочная статистическая информация, рассчитанная в соответствии с Официальной статистической методологией оценки числа въездных и выездных туристских поездок – Ростуризм|trans-title=Selected statistical information calculated in accordance with the Official Statistical Methodology for Estimating the Number of Inbound and Outbound Tourist Trips – Rostourism|url=https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie-pokazateli-vzaimnykh-poezdok-grazhdan-rossiyskoy-federatsii-i-grazhdan-inostrannykh-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya-statisticheskaya-informatsiya-rasschitannaya-v-sootvetstvii-s-ofitsialnoy-statisticheskoy-metodologiey-otsenki-chisla-vezdnykh-i-vyezdnykh-turistskikh-poezdok/|access-date=11 November 2020|website=tourism.gov.ru|publisher=[[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)]]|language=ru}}</ref> Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.<ref name="unwto" /> In 2020, tourism accounted for about 4% of country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 September 2020|script-title=ru:Вице-премьер считает, что вклад туризма в ВВП России может вырасти в три раза за 10 лет|trans-title=Deputy Prime Minister believes that the contribution of tourism to Russia's GDP could triple in 10 years|url=https://tass.ru/ekonomika/9558261|access-date=11 November 2020|script-website=ru:ТАСС|publisher=[[TASS]]|language=ru}}</ref> Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the [[Golden Ring of Russia]], a [[theme route]] of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga, and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 January 2015|title=Tourism Highlights 2014|publisher=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization)|date=2014|access-date=20 January 2015}}</ref> Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include [[Red Square]], the [[Peterhof Palace]], the [[Kazan Kremlin]], the [[Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius]] and Lake Baikal.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vlasov|first=Artem|date=17 December 2018|script-title=ru:Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России|trans-title=The most popular sights of Russia are named|url=https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii|access-date=15 December 2020|website=[[Izvestia]]|language=ru}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians}}
[[File:Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people according to the 2010 Census.<ref name="ethnicgroups"/>]]
Russia is one of the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|most sparsely populated]] and [[Urbanization by country|urbanised]] countries,<ref name="cia"/> and had a population of 142.8 million according to the [[Russian Census (2010)|2010 census]],<ref name="2010Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref> which rose to 146.2 million as of 2021.<ref name="gks.ru-popul"/> It is the [[List of European countries by population|most populous country]] in Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/685846/population-of-selected-european-countries/|title=Population of selected European countries 2020|work=[[Statista]]|author=D. Clark|quote="In 2020, Russia had the largest population among European countries at 145.93 million people."|date=28 January 2021|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> and the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|ninth-most populous country]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/262879/countries-with-the-largest-population/|title=Countries with the largest population 2019|work=[[Statista]]|first=Aaron|last=O'Neill|date=31 March 2021|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> with a [[list of countries by population density|population density]] of 9 inhabitants per square kilometre (23 per square mile).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST|title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area)|work=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref>

Since the 1990s, Russia's [[death rate]] has exceeded its [[birth rate]], which has been called by analysts as a [[Demographic crisis of Russia|demographic crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Koehn|first=Jodi|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis|title=Russia's Demographic Crisis|work=[[Kennan Institute]]|publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> In 2018, the [[total fertility rate]] across Russia was estimated to be 1.6 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's [[List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate|lowest fertility rates]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/01/23/putins-demographic-revival-is-a-pipe-dream-a69005|title=Putin's Demographic Revival Is A Pipe Dream|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|first=Ilan|last=Berman|author-link=Ilan Berman|date=23 January 2020|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's [[List of countries by median age|oldest populations]], with a median age of 40.3 years.<ref name="cia"/> In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years; and since the 2010s, Russia has seen increased population growth due to declining [[death rates]], increased [[birth rates]] and increased [[immigration]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Foltynova|first=Kristyna|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html|title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners?|work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|quote="Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses."|date=19 June 2020|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> However, since 2020, due to excessive deaths from the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Russia|COVID-19 pandemic]], Russia's population has been decreasing considerably.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rogoża|first=Jadwiga|url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/analyses/2021-02-16/pandemic-takes-its-toll-russias-demographic-crisis|title=The pandemic takes its toll: Russia's demographic crisis|publisher=[[Centre for Eastern Studies]]|date=21 February 2021|quote="On February 8, the [[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]] (Rosstat) released demographic data for 2020, showing that Russia has experienced its largest population decrease since 2005. Its main cause is excess mortality – by 18% compared to 2019 – largely generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as a decrease in the level of immigration."|access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Staalesen|first=Atle|url=https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/life-and-public/2021/02/russian-population-has-biggest-decline-15-years|publisher=[[Norwegian Barents Secretariat|The Barents Observer]]|title=Russia sees population shrink by half a million in 2020|date=4 February 2021|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/13/russia-reports-record-high-covid-19-deaths|title=Russia reports record-high COVID-19 deaths|work=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=13 August 2021|quote="Russia, the fourth worst-hit country in the world in terms of cases, has since mid-June been hit by a new wave of infections driven by the highly transmissible [[SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant|Delta variant]]... The new figures bring Russia's total fatalities from COVID-19 to 168,864 – the highest toll in Europe."|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref>

Russia is a [[multinational state]], home to over [[Ethnic groups in Russia|193 ethnic groups nationwide]].<ref name="ethnicgroups">{{cite web|url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php|title=EAll- Russian population census 2010 - Population by nationality, sex and subjects of the Russian Federation|work=Demoscope Weekly|date=2010|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In the 2010 Census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic [[Russians]],<ref name="ethnicgroups"/> and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities,<ref name="perepis-2010.ru"/> and roughly 85% of Russia's population was of [[Ethnic groups of Europe|European descent]],<ref name="perepis-2010.ru"/> of which the vast majority were [[Slavs]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597|title=Russia - The Indo-European Group|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|quote="East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country."|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> with a substantial minority of [[Finno-Ugric peoples|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] peoples.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=[[New York City]]|date=2013|isbn=978-0-415-91977-7}}</ref><ref>Sabine Ipsen-Peitzmeier, Markus Kaiser (Hrsg.): ''Zuhause fremd – Russlanddeutsche zwischen Russland und Deutschland.'' [[Bielefeld]] 2006, {{ISBN|3-89942-308-9}}.</ref> According to the United Nations, Russia's [[Immigration to Russia|immigrant population]] is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;<ref>{{cite news|last=Kirk|first=Ashley|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/12111108/Mapped-Which-country-has-the-most-immigrants.html|title=Mapped: Which country has the most immigrants?|date=21 January 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=30 June 2021}}</ref> most of which are from [[post-Soviet states]], mainly [[Ukrainians in Russia|Ukrainians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-03/russia-and-ukraine-fight-but-their-people-want-reconciliation|title=Russia and Ukraine Fight, But Their People Seek Reconciliation|work=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|first=Leonid|last=Ragozin|date=3 April 2019|access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Russia}}

=== Language ===
{{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| align = right
| title = Minority languages across Russia
| image1 = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png|caption1={{font|size=100%|text=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], and [[Yukaghir languages]] spoken across Russia}}
| image2 = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|caption2={{font|size=100%|text=[[Languages of the Caucasus|Ethnolinguistic groups]] in the [[Caucasus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Polinksy|first=Maria|title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus|pages=1189|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ckQEAAAQBAJ|date=2020|isbn=978-0-19-069069-4}}</ref>}}
}}
[[Russian language|Russian]] is the [[official language|official]] and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.<ref name="Russian"/> It is the most spoken native language in Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandem.net/10-most-spoken-languages-europe|title=The 10 Most Spoken Languages in Europe|work=[[Tandem (app)|Tandem]]|date=12 September 2019|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia,<ref name="language">{{cite web|url=https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian|title=Russian|publisher=[[University of Toronto]]|quote="Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics."|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> as well as the world's most widely spoken [[Slavic languages|Slavic language]].<ref name="language"/> Russian is the second-most used language on the [[Internet]] after [[English language|English]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language|title=Usage statistics of content languages for websites|website=W3Techs|access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> and is one of two official languages aboard the [[International Space Station]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Wakata|first=Koichi|author-link=Koichi Wakata|url=https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html|title=My Long Mission in Space|publisher=[[JAXA]]|quote="The official languages on the ISS are English and Russian, and when I was speaking with the Flight Control Room at JAXA's Tsukuba Space Center during ISS systems and payload operations, I was required to speak in either English or Russian."|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> as well as one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/our-work/official-languages|title=Official Languages|publisher=[[United Nations]]|quote="There are six official languages of the UN. These are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. The correct interpretation and translation of these six languages, in both spoken and written form, is very important to the work of the Organization, because this enables clear and concise communication on issues of global importance."|access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref>

Besides Russian, approximately over 100 minority languages are spoken across Russia.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595|title=Russia - Ethnic groups and languages|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|quote="Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders."|access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref> According to the [[Russian Census (2002)|Russian Census of 2002]], 142.6 million across the country spoke Russian, 5.3 million spoke [[Tatar language|Tatar]], and 1.8 million spoke [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87 |title=Russian Census of 2002 |website=4.3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4.4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian) |publisher=[[Rosstat]]|access-date=16 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719233704/http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref> The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to [[Languages of Russia#Official languages|establish their own state languages]] in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|title=Chapter 3. The Federal Structure|publisher=[[Constitution of Russia]]|quote="2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development."|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Russia}}
[[File:Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in [[Red Square]] of Moscow is the most popular icon of Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/russia/moscow/attractions/st-basils-cathedral/a/poi-sig/373447/360429|title=St Basil's Cathedral|work=[[Lonely Planet]]|access-date=10 March 2021}}</ref>]]
Russia is a [[secular state]] by constitution, and its largest religion is [[Christianity in Russia|Christianity]]. It has the world's [[Eastern Orthodoxy by country|largest Orthodox population]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|date=10 May 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/08/orthodox-christianity-in-the-21st-century/|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|date=10 November 2017}}</ref> and according to different sociological surveys on religious adherence, between 41% to over 80% of Russia's population adhere to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012">There is no official census of religion in Russia, and estimates are based on surveys only. In August 2012, [http://sreda.org/arena ARENA] determined that about 46.8% of Russians are Christians (including Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant, and non-denominational), which is slightly less than an absolute 50%+ majority. However, later that year the [http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman Levada Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231020830/http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman |date=31 December 2012 }} determined that 76% of Russians are Christians, and in June 2013 the [http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953 Public Opinion Foundation] determined that 65% of Russians are Christians. These findings are in line with [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/ Pew]'s 2010 survey, which determined that 73.3% of Russians are Christians, with [http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365 VTSIOM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929201730/https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365%2F |date=29 September 2020 }}'s 2010 survey (~77% Christian), and with [http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf#page=40 Ipsos MORI] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013643/http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf |date=17 January 2013 }}'s 2011 survey (69%).</ref><ref name="Ogonek">[http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1997068 Верю — не верю]. "Ogonek", № 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religare.ru/2_42432.html|script-title=ru:Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше|language=ru|access-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202081009/http://www.religare.ru/2_42432.html|archive-date=2 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2017, a survey made by the [[Pew Research Center]] showed that 73% of Russians declared themselves as [[Christians]]—out of which 71% were [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]], 1% were [[Catholic]], and 2% were Other Christians, while 15% were [[Irreligion|unaffiliated]], 10% were [[Muslims]], and 1% followed other religions.<ref name="Pew2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe|date=10 May 2017|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref> According to various reports, the proportion of [[Atheism|Atheists]] in Russia is between 16% and 48% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism|last=Zuckerman|first=P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|editor-first=Michael|editor-last=Martin|chapter=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns}}</ref>

[[Islam in Russia|Islam]] is the second-largest religion in Russia, and it is the traditional religion amongst the bulk of the [[peoples of the Caucasus|peoples of the North Caucasus]], and amongst some [[Turkic peoples]] scattered along the [[Idel-Ural|Volga-Ural]] region.<ref name="re1">{{cite book|title=Europe: Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wm3w1oGCaEoC&pg=PA1387|series=World and Its Peoples|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=978-0-7614-7900-0|page=1387|chapter=Russian Federation}}</ref> [[Buddhism in Russia|Buddhists]] are home to a sizeable population in the three Siberian republics: [[Buryatia]], [[Tuva]], [[Zabaykalsky Krai]], and in [[Kalmykia]]; the only region in Europe where Buddhism is the most practised religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/01/russias-buddhist-republic/|title=Russia's Buddhist Republic|work=[[The Diplomat]]|quote="Kalmykia is Europe's only Buddhist Republic. The region's people are descended from the nomads who wandered the vast Central Asian steppes under [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol Empire|empire]]. When the empire began to collapse, the [[Kalmyks|Kalmykians]] migrated toward the Caspian Sea settling what is today called Kalmykia – Kalmyk means "remnant" in the local language."|first=Bradley|last=Jardine|date=4 January 2017|access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Russia}}
[[File:МГУ, вид с воздуха.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow State University]], the most prestigious educational institution in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university|title=Lomonosov Moscow State University|work=[[QS World University Rankings]]|access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]]
Russia has a [[free education]] system, which is guaranteed for all citizens by the constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|title=Chapter 2. Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen|work=[[Constitution of Russia]]|quote="1. Everyone shall have the right to education... 2. Guarantees shall be provided for general access to and free pre-school, secondary and high vocational education in state or municipal educational establishments and at enterprises.... 3. Everyone shall have the right to receive on a competitive basis a free higher education in a state or municipal educational establishment and at an enterprise... 4. The basic general education shall be free of charge. Parents or persons in law parents shall enable their children to receive a basic general education."|access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education of Russia]] is responsible for primary and secondary education, and vocational education; while the [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education and Science of Russia]] is responsible for science and higher education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf|title=Education System Russia|publisher=[[Nuffic]]|date=3 October 2019|access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia has the world's highest college-level or higher graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 54%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/countries-with-the-most-c_n_655393|title=Countries With The MOST College Graduates|quote="Russia is the world leader when it comes to graduating its citizens from college... Fifty-four percent of the Russian Federation’s population aged 25 to 64 has an associate’s degree or higher, data from the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|Organisation for Economic and Co-operative Development]] reveals."|work=[[Huffington Post]]|date=22 July 2010|access-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>

[[Pre-school]] education in Russia is highly developed, some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or [[kindergarten]]s. Schooling is compulsory for nine years. It starts from age 6 to 7 and leads to a basic general education certificate. An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russian students continue their education past this level. Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive: first-degree courses usually take five years.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625|title=Russia - Education|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> The oldest and largest [[List of institutions of higher education in Russia|universities]] in Russia are [[Moscow State University]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ridder-Symoens|first=Hilde de|title= History of the University in Europe: Volume 2, Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMjzvAxHF0C|date=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|series=[[A History of the University in Europe]]|pages=80–89|isbn=978-0-521-36106-4}}</ref> There are also ten highly prestigious [[Template:Federal universities of Russia|federal universities]] across the country. According to a UNESCO report in 2014, Russia is the world's sixth-leading destination for international students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/jul/17/top-20-countries-international-students|title=Top 20 countries for international students|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=17 July 2014|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Healthcare in Russia}}
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, [[universal health care]] for all Russian citizens,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|title=Chapter 2. Rights and Freedoms of Man And Citizen|publisher=[[Constitution of Russia]]|quote="1. Everyone shall have the right to health protection and medical aid. Medical aid in state and municipal health establishments shall be rendered to individuals gratis, at the expense of the corresponding budget, insurance contributions, and other proceeds."|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> through a compulsory state health insurance program. The [[Ministry of Health (Russia)|Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation]] oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.expatica.com/ru/healthcare/healthcare-basics/healthcare-in-russia-104030/|title=Healthcare in Russia: the Russian healthcare system explained|work=[[Expatica]]|date=8 January 2021|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

According to the [[World Bank]], Russia spent 5.32% of its GDP on healthcare in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP)|work=[[World Bank]]|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> It has one of the world's most female-biased [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]]s, with 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/> In 2019, the overall [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy in Russia]] at birth is 73.2 years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.688|title=Life expectancy and Healthy life expectancy, data by country|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=2020|access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> and it had a very low [[Infant mortality|infant mortality rate]] (5 per 1,000 [[live birth (human)|live birth]]s).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births)|work=[[World Bank]]|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> The principle cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lakunchykova|first1=Olena|last2=Averina|first2=Maria|last3=Wilsgaard|first3=Tom|last4=Watkins|first4=Hugh|last5=Malyutina|first5=Sofia|last6=Ragino|first6=Yulia|last7=Keogh|first7=Ruth H|last8=Kudryavtsev|first8=Alexander V|last9=Govorun|first9=Vadim|last10=Cook|first10=Sarah|last11=Schirmer|first11=Henrik|last12=Eggen|first12=Anne Elise|last13=Hopstock|first13=Laila Arnesdatter|last14=Leon|first14=David A|doi=10.1136/jech-2020-213885 |doi-access=free |title=Why does Russia have such high cardiovascular mortality rates? Comparisons of blood-based biomarkers with Norway implicate non-ischaemic cardiac damage |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |year=2020|volume=74 |issue=9|pages=698–704|pmid=32414935|pmc=7577103}}</ref> [[Obesity]] is a prevalent health issue in Russia. In 2016, 61.1% of Russian adults were overweight or obese.<ref name="RusObese">{{cite journal|url=https://ourworldindata.org/obesity|title=Obesity|journal=[[Our World in Data]]|first1=Hannah|last1=Ritchie|first2=Max|last2=Roser|date=11 August 2017|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> However, Russia's historically high [[Alcohol consumption in Russia|alcohol consumption rate]] is the biggest health issue in the country,<ref>{{cite journal|last=McKee|first=Martin|title=Alcohol in Russia|date=1 November 1999|pages=824–829|volume=34|issue=6|journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |doi=10.1093/alcalc/34.6.824 |pmid=10659717|doi-access=free}}</ref> as it remains [[List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita|one of the world's highest]], despite a stark decrease in the last decade.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(19)32265-2/fulltext|title=Russia's alcohol policy: a continuing success story|journal=[[The Lancet]]|quote="Russians are officially drinking less and, as a consequence, are living longer than ever before: life expectancies reached an historic peak in 2018—almost 68 years for men and 78 years for women—according to a WHO report examining the effects of alcohol control measures on mortality and life expectancy in Russia... Russians are still far from being teetotal: a pure ethanol per capita consumption of 11·7 L, reported in 2016, means consumption is still one of the highest worldwide, and efforts to reduce it further are required. "|date=5 October 2019|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32265-2|access-date=18 May 2021|last1=The Lancet|volume=394|issue=10205|page=1205|pmid=31591968|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Russian culture}}
[[Russian culture]] has been formed by the nation's history, its geographical location and its vast expanse, religious traditions, and [[Western culture|Western influence]].<ref name="culture1">{{cite book|last=Schultze|first=Sydney|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|title=Culture and Customs of Russia|date=2000|isbn=978-0-313-31101-7}}</ref> Russian [[Russian literature|writers]] and [[Russian philosophy|philosophers]] have played an important role in the development of European thought.<ref name="literature1">{{cite book|last1=Kahn|first1=Andrew|last2=Lipovetsky|first2=Mark|last3=Reyfman|first3=Irina|last4=Sandler|first4=Stephanie|title=A History of Russian Literature|date=2018|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-966394-1}}</ref><ref name="Idea">{{cite book|last=Berdyaev|first=Nikolai|author-link=Nikolay Berdyaev|title=The Russian Idea|date=1946|isbn=978-0-940262-49-2}}</ref> Russians have also greatly influenced [[classical music]],<ref name="Taruskin">{{cite book|last=Taruskin|first=Richard|title=On Russian Music|date=2010|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-26806-7}}</ref> [[Russian ballet|ballet]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Belova|first1=Evdokia|last2=Bocharnikova|first2=E|title=The Great History of Russian Ballet|date=1998|isbn=978-1-85995-175-0}}</ref> [[Sport in Russia|sport]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Riordan|first=James|title=Sport in Soviet Society|date=1980|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-28023-5}}</ref> [[Russian architecture|architecture]],<ref name="Brumfield">{{cite book|last=Brumfield|first=William Craft|title=A History of Russian Architecture|date=2004|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0-295-98393-6}}</ref> [[List of Russian artists|painting]],<ref name="painting">{{cite book|last=Leek|first=Peter|title=Russian Painting|date=2005|isbn=978-1-85995-939-8}}</ref> and [[Cinema of Russia|cinema]].<ref name="Beumers">{{cite book|last=Beumers|first=Birgit|title=A History of Russian Cinema|date=2009|isbn=978-1-84520-215-6}}</ref> The nation has made pioneering contributions to [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|science and technology]] and [[space exploration]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Graham|first=Loren R.|title=Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=1994|isbn=978-0-521-28789-0}}</ref> and is home to 30 [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s, 19 out of which are cultural.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru|title=Russian Federation|work=[[UNESCO]] World Heritage Centre|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> The large global [[Russian diaspora]] has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world.

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Russian artists|Russian architecture|List of Russian architects}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|width1=121
|image1=Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg
|caption1=[[Andrei Rublev]], ''[[Trinity (Andrei Rublev)|Trinity]]'' (1425)
|width2=215
|image2=Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg
|caption2=[[Karl Bryullov]], ''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1833)
}}
Early Russian painting is represented in [[Russian icons|icons]] and vibrant [[fresco]]s. In the early 15th-century, the master icon painter [[Andrei Rublev]] created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.<ref name="Art">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/46.htm|title=Russia - Architecture and Painting|editor=Glenn E. Curtis|year=1998|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|location=[[Washington D.C.]]|access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Russian Academy of Arts]], which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.<ref name="early"/> In the 18th century, academicians [[Ivan Argunov]], [[Dmitry Levitzky]], [[Vladimir Borovikovsky]] became influential. The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by [[Karl Briullov]] and [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov|Alexander Ivanov]], both of whom were known for [[Romanticism|Romantic]] historical canvases.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leontyeva|first=Galina|title=Karl Briullov: The Painter of Russian Romanticism|date=1997|pages=176|isbn=978-1-85995-298-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sibbald|first=Balb|title=If the soul is nourished ...|journal=Cmaj: Canadian Medical Association Journal|publisher=[[National Library of Medicine]]|date=5 February 2002|volume=166|number=3|pages=357–358|pmc=99322}}</ref> In the 1860s, a group of critical [[Realism (arts)|realists]] ([[Peredvizhniki]]), led by [[Ivan Kramskoy]], [[Ilya Repin]] and [[Vasiliy Perov]] broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.<ref name="Art"/> The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]]; represented by [[Mikhail Vrubel]] and [[Nicholas Roerich]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Guerman|first=Mikhail|title=Mikhail Vrubel: The Artist of the Eves|date=1996|pages=160|isbn=978-1-85995-153-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Decter|first=Jacqueline|title=Nicholas Roerich: The Life & Art of a Russian Master|date=1989|pages=224|isbn=978-0-89281-156-4}}</ref> The [[Russian avant-garde]] flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were [[El Lissitzky]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Tupitsyn|first=Margarita|title=El Lissitzky: Beyond the Abstract Cabinet|date=1999|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|pages=240|isbn=978-0-300-08170-1}}</ref> [[Kazimir Malevich]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Siegal|first=Nina|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/arts/international/rare-glimpse-of-the-elusive-kazimir-malevich.html|title=Rare Glimpse of the Elusive Kazimir Malevich|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=5 November 2013|access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> [[Natalia Goncharova]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharp|first=Jane Ashton|title=Russian Modernism between East and West: Natalia Goncharova and the Moscow Avant-garde|date=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=[[New York City]]|pages=360|isbn=978-0-521-83162-8}}</ref> [[Wassily Kandinsky]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lindsay|first1=Kenneth|first2=Peter|last2=Vergo|title=Kandinsky: Complete Writings on Art|location=[[New York City]]|publisher=[[Da Capo Press]]|year=1994|isbn=978-0-306-80570-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp59Urv9Qi4C}}</ref> and [[Marc Chagall]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Harshev|first=Benjamin|title=Marc Chagall and His Times: A Documentary Narrative|date=2003|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|pages=896|isbn=978-0-8047-4214-6}}</ref> Notable sculptures from the Soviet era include [[Vera Mukhina]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Güner|first=Fisun|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/jun/13/superwomen-soviet-art-women-work-build-dont-whine-revolution|title=From kitchen slaves to industrial workers - the superwomen of Soviet art|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=13 June 2016|access-date=3 August 2021}}</ref> [[Yevgeny Vuchetich]], and [[Ernst Neizvestny]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Leong|first=Albert|title=Centaur: The Life and Art of Ernst Neizvestny|date=2002|pages=480|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-2058-5}}</ref>
[[File:Winter Palace Panorama 3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Winter Palace]], which served as the [[official residence]] of the [[Emperor of all the Russias|Emperor of Russia]], is an architectural symbol of Saint Petersburg.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCaffray|first=Susan|title=The Winter Palace and the People: Staging and Consuming Russia's Monarchy, 1754-1917|date=2018|publisher=[[Northern Illinois University Press]]|isbn=9780875807928}}</ref>]]
The history of [[Russian architecture]] begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rem Koolhaas, James Westcott, Stephan Petermann|title=Elements of Architecture|date=2017|publisher=[[Taschen]]|isbn=978-3-8365-5614-9|page=102}}</ref> and the [[architecture of Kievan Rus']].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rappoport|first=Pavel A.|title=Building the Churches of Kievan Russia|date=1995|pages=248|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-86078-327-5}}</ref> Following the [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']], for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Voyce|first=Arthur|date=1957|title=National Elements in Russian Architecture|journal=[[Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians]]|volume=16|issue=2|pages=6–16|doi=10.2307/987741|issn=0037-9808|jstor=987741}}</ref> [[Aristotle Fioravanti]] and other Italian architects brought [[Renaissance]] trends into Russia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jarzombek|first1=Mark M.|last2=Prakash|first2=Vikramaditya|last3=Ching|first3=Frank|title=A Global History of Architecture 2nd Edition|date=2010|pages=544|isbn=978-0-470-40257-3}}</ref> The 16th-century saw the development of the unique [[tent-like church]]es; and the [[onion dome]] design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lidov|first=Alexei|title=The Canopy over the Holy Sepulchre. On the Origin of Onion-Shaped Domes|url=https://www.academia.edu/2694753|journal=[[Academia.edu]]|date=2005|pages=171–180}}</ref> In the 17th-century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and [[Yaroslavl]], gradually paving the way for the [[Naryshkin baroque]] of the 1690s.<ref name="Brumfield"/> After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.<ref name="Shvidkovsky">{{cite book|last=Shvidkovsky|first=Dmitry|title=Russian Architecture and the West|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|pages=480|date=2007|isbn=9780300109122}}</ref> The 18th-century taste for [[Rococo]] architecture led to the splendid works of [[Bartolomeo Rastrelli]] and his followers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul|title=Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA657|page=657|isbn=9781884964015}}</ref> During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of [[Neoclassical architecture]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Most Intentional City: St. Petersburg in the Reign of Catherine the Great|last=Munro|first=George|publisher=[[Farleigh Dickinson University]] Press|year=2008|isbn=9780838641460|location=[[Cranbury, New Jersey|Cranbury]]|page=233}}</ref> During [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]]'s rule, [[Empire style]] became the ''de facto'' architectural style, and [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] opened the gate of [[Eclecticism]] to Russia. The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the [[Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire|Neo-Byzantine]] and [[Russian Revival]] style.<ref name="Brumfield"/> In early 20th-century, [[Russian neoclassical revival]] became a trend.<ref name="Shvidkovsky"/> Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century were the [[Art Nouveau architecture in Russia|Art Noveau]],<ref name="Brumfield"/> [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Lodder|first=Christina|title=Russian Constructivism|date=1985|pages=328|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-03406-6}}</ref> and [[Stalinist architecture|Socialist Classicism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tarkhanov|first1=Alexei|last2=Kavtaradze|first2=Sergei|title=Architecture of the Stalin Era|date=1992|pages=192|isbn=9780847814732}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Russia}}
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] (1840–1893), composer]]
Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.<ref name="Music">{{cite web|last=Curtis|first=Glenn E.|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/44.htm|title=Russia - Music|year=1998|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|location=[[Washington D.C.]]|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer [[Mikhail Glinka]] along with other members of [[The Mighty Handful]], and the [[Russian Musical Society]] led by composers [[Anton Rubinstein|Anton]] and [[Nikolay Rubinstein]].<ref name="Taruskin"/> The later tradition of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], one of the greatest composers of the [[Romantic music|Romantic era]], was continued into the 20th century by [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Norris|first=Gregory|editor-last=Stanley|editor-first=Sadie|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition|publisher=Macmillan|year=1980|location=London|page=707|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1}}</ref> World-renowned composers of the 20th century include [[Alexander Scriabin]], [[Alexander Glazunov]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Sergei Prokofiev]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], [[Georgy Sviridov]] and [[Alfred Schnittke]].<ref name="Music"/>

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists [[David Oistrakh]] and [[Gidon Kremer]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Violin Virtuosos: From Paganini to the 21st Century|url=https://archive.org/details/violinvirtuososf0000roth|url-access=registration|last=Roth|first=Henry|year=1997|isbn=1-879395-15-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Charlotte|last=Higgins|title=Perfect isn't good enough|url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2000/nov/22/artsfeatures2|work=[[The Guardian]]|quote="Thirty years ago Gidon Kremer was rated as one of the world's outstanding violinists. Then he really started making waves..."|date=22 November 2000|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> cellist [[Mstislav Rostropovich]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Elizabeth|title=Mstislav Rostropovich: Cellist, Teacher, Legend|location=[[London]]|date=2007|publisher=[[Faber & Faber]]|isbn=978-0-571-22051-9}}</ref> pianists [[Vladimir Horowitz]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Dubal|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinghorow0000unse|title=Remembering Horowitz: 125 Pianists Recall a Legend|publisher=Schirmer Books|date=1993|isbn=0-02-870676-5}}</ref> [[Sviatoslav Richter]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=John|title=Sviatoslav Richter: Pianist of the Century: Discography|location=[[London]]|publisher=Travis & Emery|date=2009|isbn=978-1-901395-99-0}}</ref> and [[Emil Gilels]],<ref>{{cite web|first=Phil|last=Carrick|url=http://www.abc.net.au/classic/content/2013/09/21/3851467.htm|title=Emil Gilels: A True Giant of the Keyboard|work=[[ABC Classic]]|date=21 September 2013|access-date=7 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150126072651/http://www.abc.net.au/classic/content/2013/09/21/3851467.htm|archive-date=26 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> and vocalist [[Galina Vishnevskaya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://knightfoundation.org/articles/galina-vishnevskaya-the-russian-tigress-2/|title=Galina Vishnevskaya, the Russian tigress|work=[[Knight Foundation]]|first=Sebastian|last=Spreng|date=19 December 2012|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref>

During the Soviet times, [[popular music]] also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two [[Bard (Soviet Union)|balladeers]]—[[Vladimir Vysotsky]] and [[Bulat Okudzhava]],<ref name="music2">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music|title=Russia - Music|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> and performers such as [[Alla Pugacheva]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/28/nyregion/superstar-evokes-superpower-diva-s-voice-adoring-fans-hear-echoes-soviet-days.html?scp=5&sq=pugacheva&st=cse|title=A Superstar Evokes a Superpower; In Diva's Voice, Adoring Fans Hear Echoes of Soviet Days|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Alison|last=Smale|date=28 February 2000|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> [[Jazz]], even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.<ref name="music2"/> The [[Vyacheslav Ganelin|Ganelin Trio]] have been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in [[continental Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scaruffi.com/jazz/ganelin.html|title=Ganelin Trio|first=Piero|last=Scaruffi|author-link=Piero Scaruffi|quote="The Ganelin Trio was the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in continental Europe, namely in Russia. Like other European improvisers, pianist Vyacheslav Ganelin, woodwind player Vladimir Chekasin and percussionist Vladimir Tarasov too found a common ground between [[Free jazz|free-jazz]] and [[Dada]]ism. Their shows were as much music as they were provocative antics."|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> By the 1980s, [[Rock music in Russia|rock music]] became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as [[Aria (band)|Aria]], [[Aquarium (band)|Aquarium]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20141013-meet-the-bob-dylan-of-russia|title=Boris Grebenshikov: 'The Bob Dylan of Russia'|work=[[BBC]]|first=Sally|last=McGrane|date=21 October 2014|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> [[DDT (band)|DDT]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Pellegrinelli|first=Lara|url=https://www.npr.org/2008/02/06/18752518/ddt-notes-from-russias-rock-underground|title=DDT: Notes from Russia's Rock Underground|work=[[National Public Radio]]|quote="For the Russian band DDT, it was hard enough being a rock group under the Soviet regime. The band, which formed in 1981, gave secret concerts in apartments, bomb shelters, and even kindergarten classrooms to avoid the attention of authorities... Later, the policies of perestroika allowed bands to perform out in the open. DDT went on to become one of Russia's most popular acts..."|date=6 February 2008|access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref> and [[Kino (band)|Kino]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/leningrad-rock-club-scorpions-meine-soviet-union-wind-of-change-tsoi/31157285.html|title='Crazy Pirates': The Leningrad Rockers Who Rode A Wind Of Change Across The U.S.S.R.|work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|first=Coilin|last=O'Connor|date=23 March 2021|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-music-kino-tsoi/27185480.html|title=Musician, Songwriter, Cultural Force: Remembering Russia's Viktor Tsoi|work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|quote="Also in 1982, [[Viktor Tsoi|Tsoi]] formed the band Kino and the group recorded its first album, [[45 (Kino album)|45]]... Tsoi and Kino quickly became a sensation... In 1986, the band released [[Khochu peremen]] -- an anthem calling on the young generation to become more active and demand political change. The song made Kino's reputation across the Soviet Union..."|date=12 August 2015|access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> [[Russian pop|Pop music]] in Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as [[t.A.T.u.]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html|title=Tatu bad to be true|work=[[The Age]]|date=14 June 2003|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> In the recent times, [[Little Big (band)|Little Big]], a [[rave music|rave]] band, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@sabrinafaramarzi/a-review-of-russian-rave-band-little-big-in-berlin-9eb4e8e1b0db|title=Little Big: camp, outrageous Russian rave|work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]|first=Sabrina|last=Faramarzi|date=12 May 2019|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Literature and philosophy ===
{{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy|Russian poets|Russian playwrights|Russian novelists|Russian science fiction and fantasy}}
[[File:Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Leo Tolstoy]] is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as [[War and Peace]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Thirlwell|first=Adam|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy|title=A masterpiece in miniature|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=8 October 2005|access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>]]
[[Russian literature]] is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.<ref name="literature1"/> It can be traced to the [[Middle Ages]], when epics and chronicles in [[Old East Slavic]] were composed.<ref>Letopisi: Literature of Old Rus'. ''Biographical and Bibliographical Dictionary''. ed. by Oleg Tvorogov. Moscow: Prosvescheniye ("Enlightenment"), 1996. ({{lang-ru|[http://interpretive.ru/dictionary/1311/word/letopisi Летописи] // Литература Древней Руси. Биобиблиографический словарь / под ред. О.В. Творогова. – М.: Просвещение, 1996.}})</ref> By the [[Age of Enlightenment]], literature had grown in importance, with works from [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], [[Denis Fonvizin]], [[Gavrila Derzhavin]], and [[Nikolay Karamzin]].<ref name="literature1"/> From the early 1830s, during the [[Golden Age of Russian Poetry]], literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Prose|first1=Francine|last2=Moser|first2=Benjamin|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/30/books/review/what-makes-the-russian-literature-of-the-19th-century-so-distinctive.html|title=What Makes the Russian Literature of the 19th Century So Distinctive?|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=25 November 2014|access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> [[Romanticism]] permitted a flowering of poetic talent: [[Vasily Zhukovsky]] and later his protégé [[Alexander Pushkin]] came to the fore.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vinitsky|first=Ilya|title=Vasily Zhukovsky's Romanticism and the Emotional History of Russia|date=2015|pages=400|publisher=[[Northwestern University Press]]|isbn=978-0810131859}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Binyon|first=T.J.|title=Pushkin: A Biography|date=2004|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|pages=784|isbn=9781400076529}}</ref> Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including [[Mikhail Lermontov]], [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], [[Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy]], [[Fyodor Tyutchev]] and [[Afanasy Fet]].<ref name="literature">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/43.htm|title=Russia - Literature|editor=Glenn E. Curtis|year=1998|publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|location=[[Washington D.C.]]|access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref>

The first great Russian novelist was [[Nikolai Gogol]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Peace|first=Richard|title=The Enigma of Gogol: An Examination of the Writings of N. V. Gogol and Their Place in the Russian Literary Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thki88thwNgC|date=1981|pages=356|isbn=978-0521110235}}</ref> Then came [[Ivan Turgenev]], who mastered both short stories and novels.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schapiro|first=Leonard|title=Turgenev, His Life and Times|date=1982|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=9780674912977|page=416|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYLcP0IoYbEC&pg=PA18}}</ref> [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Fyodor Dostoevsky]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]] soon became internationally renowned.<ref>{{Cite book|last=McLean|first=Hugh|title=A Clash of Utopias:: Tolstoy and Gorky|chapter=A Clash of Utopias|date=2008|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1zxsjx2.15|work=In Quest of Tolstoy|pages=181–194|publisher=Academic Studies Press|jstor=j.ctt1zxsjx2.15|isbn=978-1-934843-02-4|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Dostoevsky the Thinker: A Philosophical Study|url=http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23116-dostoevsky-the-thinker/|last=Scanlan|first=James Patrick|publisher=[[Cornell University]] Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8014-3994-0}}</ref> [[Ivan Goncharov]] is remembered mainly for his novel [[Oblomov]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pritchett|first=V.S.|title=Saint of Inertia|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1974/03/07/saint-of-inertia/|work=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=7 March 1974|access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> [[Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin]] wrote prose satire,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Neuhäuser|first=Rudolf|title=The Early Prose of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Dostoevskii: Parallels and Echoes|journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]]|jstor=40867755|volume=22|number=3|date=1980|pages=372–387|doi=10.1080/00085006.1980.11091635}}</ref> while [[Nikolai Leskov]] is best remembered for his shorter fiction.<ref>{{cite book|last=McLean|first=Hugh|title=Nikolai Leskov: The Man and His Art|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|date=1977|pages=796|isbn=978-0674624719}}</ref> In the second half of the century [[Anton Chekhov]] excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rayfield|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Rayfield|title=Anton Chekhov: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Z_vTUUYxkgC|date=2000|publisher=[[Northwestern University Press]]|pages=674|isbn=978-0-8101-1795-2}}</ref> Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist [[Ivan Krylov]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pirie|first1=Gordon|last2=Chandler|first2=Robert|title=Eight Tales from Ivan Krylov|journal=[[Translation and Literature]]|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|jstor=40340118|volume=18|number=1|date=2009|pages=64–85|doi=10.3366/E096813610800037X}}</ref> non-fiction writers such as the critic [[Vissarion Belinsky]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gifford|first=Henry|title=Belinsky: One Aspect|journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]]|jstor=4204011|volume=27|number=68|date=1948|pages=250–258}}</ref> and playwrights such as [[Aleksandr Griboyedov]] and [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brintlinger|first=Angela|title=The Persian Frontier: Griboedov as Orientalist and Literary Hero|journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]]|jstor=40870888|volume=45|number=3/4|date=2003|pages=371–393|doi=10.1080/00085006.2003.11092333|s2cid=191370504}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Beasly|first=Ina|title=The Dramatic Art of Ostrovsky. (Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, 1823-86)|journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]]|jstor=4202212|volume=6|number=18|date=1928|pages=603–617}}</ref> The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the [[Silver Age of Russian Poetry]]. This era had poets such as [[Alexander Blok]], [[Anna Akhmatova]], [[Boris Pasternak]], [[Konstantin Balmont]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Markov|first=Vladimir|title=Balmont: A Reappraisal|jstor=2493225|journal=[[Slavic Review]]|volume=28|number=2|date=1969|pages=221–264|doi=10.2307/2493225}}</ref> [[Marina Tsvetaeva]], [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], and [[Osip Mandelshtam]].<ref name="literature"/> It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as [[Aleksandr Kuprin]], Nobel Prize winner [[Ivan Bunin]], [[Leonid Andreyev]], [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], [[Dmitry Merezhkovsky]] and [[Andrei Bely]].<ref name="literature"/>

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and [[white émigré]] parts. In the 1930s, [[Socialist realism]] became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was [[Maxim Gorky]], who laid the foundations of this style.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yedlin|first=Tovah|title=Maxim Gorky: A Political Biography|pages=280|date=1999|isbn=978-0275966058}}</ref> [[Mikhail Bulgakov]] was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite book|last=Milne|first=Lesley|title=Mikhail Bulgakov: A Critical Biography|date=2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=340|isbn=978-0521122467}}</ref> [[Nikolay Ostrovsky]]'s novel [[How the Steel Was Tempered]] has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Various émigré writers, such as novelist [[Vladimir Nabokov]] continued to write in exile.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyd Brian|title=Vladimir Nabokov: The Russian Years|date=1993|pages=619|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0691024707}}</ref> Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], who wrote about life in the gulag camps.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klimoff|first1=Alexis|last2=Ericson|first2=Edward E.|title=The Soul and Barbed Wire: An Introduction to Solzhenitsyn|date=2008|pages=289|isbn=978-1-933859-57-6}}</ref>

[[Russian philosophy]] has been greatly influential, with philosophers such as [[Alexander Herzen]], who is called the "father of Russian [[socialism]]"; [[Mikhail Bakunin]], who is referred to as the father of [[anarchism]]; [[Mikhail Bakhtin]], [[Helena Blavatsky]], [[Vladimir Lenin]], who is one of the world's most popular revolutionaries, and developed the political ideology of [[Leninism]]; [[Leon Trotsky]], who is the founder of [[Trotskyism]]; and [[Petr Chaadaev]], who influenced both the [[Westernizers]] and the [[Slavophiles]].<ref name="Idea"/> Notable Russian philosophers of the late 19th and 20th centuries including [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyov]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutton|first=Jonathan|title=The Religious Philosophy of Vladimir Solovyov: Towards a Reassessment|date=1988|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=247|isbn=978-0-312-01239-7}}</ref> [[Alexander Zinoviev]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kirkwood|first1=Michael|last2=Hanson|first2=Philip|title=Alexander Zinoviev As Writer and Thinker: An Assessment|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=207|date=1988|isbn=978-0-312-01542-8}}</ref> [[Sergei Bulgakov]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Slesinki|first=Robert|title=The Theology of Sergius Bulgakov|date=2017|pages=280|isbn=978-0881416015}}</ref> [[Pavel Florensky]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Pyman|first=Avril|title=Pavel Florensky: A Quiet Genius: The Tragic and Extraordinary Life of Russia's Unknown da Vinci|date=2010|pages=328|isbn=978-1441187000}}</ref> [[Lev Shestov]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shein|first=Louis J.|title=Lev Shestov: A Russian Existentialist|journal=[[The Russian Review]]|jstor=127090|volume=26|number=3|date=1967|pages=278–285|doi=10.2307/127090}}</ref> and [[Nikolai Berdyaev]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lowrie|first=Donald A.|title=Rebellious Prophet: A Life Of Nicolai Berdyaev|date=1960|pages=310|publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|Harper]]|isbn=978-0837170954}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{See also|Russian cuisine}}
[[File:Mint bread kvas.jpg|thumb|[[Kvass]] is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.]]
[[Russian cuisine]] has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares many similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries.<ref name="3culture">{{cite book|last1=Surina|first1=Asele|last2=Mack|first2=Glenn R.|title=Food Culture in Russia and Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7MTx_zcIR0C|date=2005|page=260|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0313327735}}</ref> Crops of [[rye]], wheat, [[barley]], and [[millet]] provide the ingredients for various breads, [[pancake]]s and cereals, as well as for many drinks.<ref name="Kachka">{{cite book|last1=Morales|first1=Brumkin Fonnie|last2=Prichep|first2=Deena|title=Kachka: A Return to Russian Cooking|date=2017|isbn=978-1250087607}}</ref> [[Bread in Europe#Finland and Russia|Bread]] is very popular in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thatcher|first=Gary|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html|title=When it comes to bread, Russians don't loaf|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=16 September 1985|access-date=7 August 2021}}</ref> Flavourful soups and stews include [[shchi]], [[borsch]], [[ukha]], [[solyanka]], and [[okroshka]]. [[Smetana (dairy product)|Smetana]] (a heavy [[sour cream]]) is often added to soups and salads.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909|title=Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|first=Jennifer|last=Eremeeva|date=15 May 2021|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> [[Pirozhki]], [[blini]], and [[syrniki]] are native types of pancakes. [[Beef Stroganoff]], [[Chicken Kiev]], [[pelmeni]], and [[shashlyk]] are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls ''([[golubtsy]])'' usually filled with meat. Salads include [[Olivier salad]], [[vinegret]], and [[dressed herring]].<ref name="Kachka"/>

Russia's [[List of national drinks|national non-alcoholic drink]] is [[Kvass]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784|title=Kvas: Russia's National Tipple|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|first=Jennifer|last=Eremeeva|date=4 July 2020|access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> and the national alcoholic drink is [[vodka]]; its creation in the nation dates back to the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian|title=How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian|work=[[Atlas Obscura]]|first=Dan|last=Nosowitz|date=7 April 2016|access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/179708/map-where-the-worlds-biggest-vodka-drinkers-are/|title=Map: Where the world's biggest vodka drinkers are|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|first=Roberto A.|last=Ferdman|date=23 February 2014|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> but [[Beer in Russia|beer]] is the most popular alcoholic beverage in Russia.<ref name="SCMP">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/3097011/fine-wines-russia-spiritual-home-vodka-country-sheds-its|title=Fine wines from Russia, spiritual home of vodka? Country sheds its Soviet-era reputation for plonk, hoping to become a major player|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|author=DPA|date=12 August 2020|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> [[Russian wine|Wine]] has become popular in Russia in the last decade,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/one-table-one-world/after-decades-of-being-a-wine-snob-i-turned-to-russian-wines-c0bc3a7f2897|title=After Decades of Being a Wine Snob, I Turned to Russian Wines|work=One Table, One World – [[Medium (website)|Medium]]|first=Eva|last=Sanders|date=13 May 2020|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://londonwinecompetition.com/en/blog/insights-1/the-evolution-of-the-russian-wine-landscape-267.htm|title=The Evolution of the Russian Wine Landscape|work=London Wine Competition|date=22 July 2019|access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> and the country is becoming one of the world's largest wine producers.<ref name="SCMP"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wineintelligence.com/russias-wine-revolution/|title=Russia's wine revolution|work=Wine Intelligence|first=Luis|last=Osorio|date=12 August 2020|access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref> [[Russian tea culture|Tea]] has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.<ref name="3culture"/>

=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of Russia|Cinema of Russia}}
[[File:Vintage Potemkin.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Poster of ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]'' (1925) by Sergei Eisenstein, which was named the [[List of films considered the best|greatest film of all time]] at the [[Expo 58|Brussels World's Fair]] in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hodgson|first=Jonathan|url=https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41|title=EISENSTEIN, Sergei - BATTLESHIP POTEMKIN - 1925 Russia|publisher=[[Middlesex University]]|date=4 December 2020|access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref>]]
Russia has almost 37 thousand media outlets, 35 thousand newspapers,<ref name="EJC">{{cite web|last=Vartanova|first=Elena|url=https://medialandscapes.org/country/russia/media/television|title=Russia|work=Media Landscapes|publisher=[[European Journalism Centre]]|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> and over 12 thousand magazines.<ref name="massmedia">{{cite web|url=https://www.rusemb.org.uk/massmediainrussia/|title=Mass Media in Russia|work=[[Embassy of Russia, London|The Embassy of the Russian Federation to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> The largest internationally operating news agencies in Russia are [[TASS]], [[RIA Novosti]], and [[Interfax]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312|title=Russia – Media Landscape|work=[[European Journalism Centre]]|first=Natalya|last=Krasnoboka|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320003807/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312|archive-date=20 March 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> [[Television in Russia|Television]] is the most popular media in Russia, as 99% of the Russian population receives at least one television channel,<ref name="EJC"/> and roughly 60% of Russians watch television on a daily basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1094478/russia-television-viewing-frequency/|title=Television watching frequency in Russia 2021|work=[[Statista]]|author=D. Elagina|date=15 February 2021|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> Popular nationwide radio stations in Russia include [[Radio Rossii]], [[Echo of Moscow]], [[Radio Mayak]], [[Radio Yunost]], and [[Russkoye Radio]].<ref name="massmedia"/> Some popular newspapers include [[Komsomolskaya Pravda]], [[Kommersant]], [[Novaya Gazeta]], [[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]], [[Izvestia]], and [[The Moscow Times]].<ref name="massmedia"/> Russia has the [[Video games in Russia|largest video gaming market]] in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newzoo.com/insights/infographics/russia-games-market-2018/|title=Russia Games Market 2018|work=Newzoo|date=11 July 2018|access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref>

Russian and later [[Soviet cinema]] was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Miller|first=Jamie|jstor=20451166|title=Soviet Cinema, 1929-41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=58|number=1|date=2006|pages=103–124|doi=10.1080/09668130500401715|s2cid=153570960}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle|title=Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema|work=[[Inverse (website)|Inverse]]|first=Mike|last=Brown|date=22 January 2018|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky|title=Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky|work=[[British Film Institute]]|quote="He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters. [[Sight & Sound Theatres|Sight & Sound]]'s 2012 poll of the best films of all time saw no less than three of his movies – [[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]] (1974), [[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]] (1966), and [[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]] (1979) – voted into the top 30 by critics and directors. [[Ingmar Bergman]] once said: "Tarkovsky is the greatest of them all. He moves with such naturalness in the room of dreams. He doesn't explain. What should he explain anyhow?"|first=Carmen|last=Gray|date=27 October 2015|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref> Eisenstein was a student of [[Lev Kuleshov]], who developed the groundbreaking [[Soviet montage theory]] of film editing at the world's first [[film school]], the [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography|All-Union Institute of Cinematography]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography|title=All-Union State Institute of Cinematography|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=29 June 2021}}</ref> [[Dziga Vertov]]'s "[[Kino-Eye]]" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera|title=Yale film scholar on Dziga Vertov, the enigma with a movie camera|work=[[Yale University]]|first=Kendall|last=Teare|date=12 August 2019|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including ''[[Chapaev (film)|Chapaev]]'', ''[[The Cranes Are Flying]]'', and ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]''.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.<ref name="Beumers"/> The comedies of [[Eldar Ryazanov]] and [[Leonid Gaidai]] of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html|title=Eldar Ryazanov And His Films|work=[[Radio Free Europe]]|quote="Eldar Ryazanov, a Russian film director whose iconic comedies captured the flavor of life and love in the Soviet Union while deftly skewering the absurdities of the communist system... His films ridiculed Soviet bureaucracy and trained a clear eye on the predicaments and peculiarities of daily life during the communist era, but the light touch of his satire helped him dodge government censorship."|date=30 November 2015|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>Prokhorova, Elena, "The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy", in Beumers, Birgit (2008) ''A History of Russian Cinema'', Berg Publishers, {{ISBN|978-1-84520-215-6}}, pp. 519–542</ref> In 1961–68 [[Sergey Bondarchuk]] directed an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[War and Peace (film series)|film adaptation]] of Leo Tolstoy's epic ''[[War and Peace]]'', which was [[the most expensive film]] made in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Beumers"/> In 1969, [[Vladimir Motyl]]'s ''[[White Sun of the Desert]]'' was released, a very popular film in a genre of [[ostern]]; the film is traditionally watched by [[cosmonauts]] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905102633/http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|archive-date=5 September 2008|publisher=[[Film at Lincoln Center]]|title=White Sun of the Desert|quote="...It is rumored that even today, Russian cosmonauts won’t take off without first watching White Sun of the Desert."|access-date=18 January 2008}}</ref> In 2002, ''[[Russian Ark]]'' became the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.michigandaily.com/uncategorized/russian-ark-history-one-shot/|title='Russian Ark' a history in one shot|work=[[The Michigan Daily]]|quote="[[Alexander Sokurov]]'s "Russian Ark" is a mesmerizing, flowing tour of Russia’s prized Hermitage museum in St. Petersburg that elegantly summarizes the last three centuries of Russian history. What makes "Russian Ark" such a triumph, however, is not its subject, but its style. The entire 96-minute-long trek through Russia’s past is composed of a single shot – making it the longest shot in the history of cinema."|first=Jeff|last=Dickerson|date=31 March 2003|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197|title=The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|first=Ben|last=Aris|date=18 January 2019|quote="Russia’s cinema business is growing three times faster than the real economy, but it's a bumpy ride. In 2018 Russian movie-goers set a new record with 56 million visits to a cinema to generate a box office take of 13.5 Bln rubles ($200mn)."|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Russia}}
[[File:Maria Sharapova (18405201199).jpg|thumb|[[Maria Sharapova]], former [[List of WTA number 1 ranked tennis players|world No. 1]] tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/03/08/how-maria-sharapova-earned-285-mill-during-her-tennis-career/|title=How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career|work=[[Forbes]]|first=Kurt|last=Badenhausen|quote="Sharapova, her sponsors and her team at [[IMG (company)|IMG]] built a compelling narrative that helped Sharapova earn $285 million during her career and cement her as the world’s highest-paid female athlete for 11 years running."|date=8 March 2016|access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>]]
[[Association football|Football]] is the most popular sport in Russia.<ref name="culture1"/> The [[Soviet Union national football team]] became the first European champions by winning [[Euro 1960]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/|title=EURO 1960: all you need to know|work=[[UEFA Champions League]]|date=13 February 2020|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and reached the finals of [[Euro 1988]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/|title=Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988|work=[[UEFA Champions League]]|date=29 May 2020|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the [[Football at the Summer Olympics#Men's results|Olympic football tournament]]. Russian clubs [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]] and [[Zenit Saint Petersburg]] won the [[UEFA Cup]] in 2005 and 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/0253-0d806e352f9f-e83f37a18d8b-1000--sporting-cska-moskva-watch-their-2005-final/|title=Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final|work=[[UEFA Champions League]]|date=7 August 2015|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/|title=How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008|work=[[These Football Times]]|first=Joe|last=Terry|date=18 November 2019|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> The [[Russian national football team]] reached the semi-finals of [[Euro 2008]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/jun/26/russiaspainlive|title=Euro 2008: Russia v Spain - as it happened|work=[[The Guardian]]|first=Sean|last=Ingle|date=26 June 2008|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Russia was the host nation for the [[2017 FIFA Confederations Cup]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/confederationscup/|title=2018 FIFA Confederations Cup Russia 2017|work=[[FIFA]]|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/russia2018/|title=2018 FIFA World Cup Russia™|work=[[FIFA]]|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>

[[Ice hockey in Russia|Ice hockey]] is very popular in Russia, and the [[Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team|Soviet national ice hockey team]] dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Lawrence|title=The Red Machine: the Soviet quest to dominate Canada's Game|date=1990|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]|isbn=978-0385252720}}</ref> [[Bandy]] is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html|title=Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport|work=[[Russia Beyond]]|first=Ilya|last=Trisvyatsky|date=14 February 2013|access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Russian national basketball team]] won the [[EuroBasket 2007]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007|title=EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007|work=[[EuroLeague]]|first=Javier|last=Gancedo|date=16 September 2007|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the Russian basketball club [[PBC CSKA Moscow]] is among the most successful European basketball teams.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Burks|first1=Tosten|last2=Woo|first2=Jeremy|url=http://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/|title=Follow the Bouncing Ball|work=[[Grantland]]|date=4 August 2015|access-date=13 August 2021}}</ref> The annual [[Formula One]] [[Russian Grand Prix]] is held at the [[Sochi Autodrom]] in the [[Sochi Olympic Park]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html|title=Russia - Sochi|work=[[Formula One]]|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>

Historically, [[Russia at the Olympics|Russian athletes]] have been one of the most successful contenders in the [[Olympic Games]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Jenifer|last=Parks|title=The Olympic Games, the Soviet Sports Bureaucracy, and the Cold War: Red Sport, Red Tape|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5apDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA178|year=2016|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-4119-0|pages=178–179}}</ref> ranking second in an [[All-time Olympic Games medal table|all-time Olympic Games medal count]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/262864/all-time-summer-olympics-medals-table/|title=All-time Summer Olympics medals table 1896-2016|work=[[Statista]]|date=22 August 2016|access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> Russia is the leading nation in [[rhythmic gymnastics]]; and Russian [[synchronized swimming]] is considered to be the world's best.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/olympics/2016/08/19/russian-mastery-in-synchronized-swimming-yields-double-gold/89000222/|title=Russian mastery in synchronized swimming yields double gold|work=[[USA Today]]|date=19 August 2016|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> [[Figure skating]] is another popular sport in Russia, especially [[pair skating]] and [[ice dancing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons|title=Figure skating is on thin ice. Here's how to fix it.|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|first=Rebecca|last=Jennings|date=18 February 2021|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Russia has produced a number of famous [[tennis]] players.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://petercioth.medium.com/roots-of-the-fall-and-rise-of-russian-tennis-9ba2e01635e8|title=Roots of The Fall And Rise of Russian Tennis.|work=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]|first=Peter|last=Cioth|date=9 February 2021|access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref> [[Chess]] is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/09/how-did-russians-get-so-good-at-chess.html|title=Why are the Russians so good at chess?|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|first=Christopher|last=Beam|date=25 September 2009|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> The [[1980 Summer Olympic Games]] were held in Moscow,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/moscow-1980|title=Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics - Athletes, Medals & Results|publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] and the [[2014 Winter Paralympics]] were hosted in Sochi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014|title=Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics - Athletes, Medals & Results|publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]]|date=23 April 2018|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014|title=Sochi 2014|publisher=[[International Paralympic Committee]]|access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Russia}}
* [[Outline of Russia]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=Note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}}
{{refbegin}}
* Bartlett, Roger P. ''A history of Russia'' (2005) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart online]
* Brown, Archie et al. eds. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union'' (2nd ed. 1994) 664 pages [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow online]
* Considine, Jennifer I. ''The Russian Oil Economy'' (Edward Elgar Pub, 2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Russian-Oil-Economy-Jennifer-Considine/dp/1840647582 online]
* Dutkiewicz, Piotr et al. ''The Social History of Post-Communist Russia'' (Routledge, 2016) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Post-Communist-Routledge-Contemporary-Eastern/dp/1138919209/ online]
* Florinsky, Michael T. ed. ''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961).
* Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465/ excerpt]
* Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Putin-v-People-Perilous-Politics/dp/0300238398/ excerpt]
* Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011) [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk online]
* Gill, Graeme and James Young, eds. ''Routledge Handbook of Russian Politics and Society'' (2008)
* Kort, Michael. ''A brief history of Russia'' (2008) [https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofru0000kort online]
* Lowe, Norman. ''Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Mastering-Twentieth-Century-Russian-History/dp/0333963075/ excerpt]
* Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol 2003). [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0001unse online]
* Paxton, John. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (1993) [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0000paxt online]
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias 9th edition 1993 online]
* Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ excerpt]
* Sakwa, Richard. ''Russian Politics and Society'' (4th ed. 2008).
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Russia-Tsarism-Twenty-First/dp/0674034937/ excerpt] _
* Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/ excerpt]; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
* Walker, Shauin. ''Long hangover: Putin's new Russia and the ghosts of the past'' (2018, Oxford UP) [https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246 excerpt]
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Russia}}
{{Wikisource portal|Russia}}
{{Z148}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.gov.ru/index_en.html Official Russian governmental portal]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/RS.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
* [http://en.rian.ru/ Russian News Agency "Ria Novosti"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110513104203/http://english.ruvr.ru/2010/09/24/22168374.html Russian radio "Voice of Russia"]

'''General information'''
* {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Russia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Russia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|60189}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ Russia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022164202/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/russia.htm Russia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 Russia] from the [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=RU Key Development Forecasts for Russia] from [[International Futures]]

'''Other'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070149/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552653 Post-Soviet Problems] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [http://rbth.ru/ Russia Beyond the Headlines] International news project about Russia
* [http://www.russia-travel.com/ Official Russia Travel Guide]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101111023616/http://russianconsulate.com/ Russian Consulate]

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