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Dihar (archaeological site)

2023-10-03T22:23:53Z

Vijay6396: New article

{{Short description|Archaeological site in West Bengal, India}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Dihar
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = India West Bengal
|map_alt =
|relief = y
|map_size = 270
|coordinates = {{Coord|23|07|10|N|87|22|00|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=95}}
|location = [[Dihar]], [[West Bengal]], India
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built = 2700 BCE{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}}
|abandoned = [[Medieval India|Medieval]]/[[Medieval India#Late medieval period|Late Medieval]] (Malla)
|epochs =
|cultures = [[Neolithic]] and [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early village farming culture]]{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=96–97}}
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event = not known
|excavations = 1983–84, 1984–85, 1993–94, 2008–09 and 2012–13
|archaeologists =
|condition = Ruined
|ownership = Public
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website = 
|notes =
}}
'''Dihar''' is an [[archaeological site]] of Neolithic and [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early village farming culture]] located in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. Construction of the settlement is believed to have started around 2700 BC.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}} Dihar people developed a system of exploitation of natural resources and subsequent [[Commodification|commercialization of commodities]] (prehistoric exchange system). The financial security afforded by this system encouraged artistic excellence in [[Pottery|pottery]] making (which surely entails an appreciation of created forms) and bone-working.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=126–127}}

The prehistoric settlement at Dihar village was discovered in 1983 by the [[University of Calcutta]]'s Department of Archaeology.<ref name="asi1">{{cite web |title=Excavations – Since Independence – West Bengal « Archaeological Survey of India |url=https://asi.nic.in/excavations-since-independence-west-bengal/ |website=asi.nic.in |access-date=29 September 2023}}</ref> Excavations at Dihar were carried out in two phase, the first phase was conducted in 1983–84, 1984–85 and 1993–94<ref name="asi1"/> and the second phase in 2008–09 and 2012–13.{{sfn|Deshpande-Mukherjee|Chattopadhyay|2023|p=153}}

Bowls, black-red pottery and miniature vessels were discovered during the excavations. Human skeletal remains have also been found in the excavations.{{sfn|Majumder et al.|2017|p=606}}

==History==
In the early period (pre-metal phase) the people of Dihar were involved with agriculture. At this time they did not know the use of metals. They mainly used various tools made from stone. Animal husbandry existed alongside food production through agriculture. This change was achieved after the abandonment of the subsistence technique of prolonged [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting-gathering]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=126–127}}

It is estimated that they started using metal around 1500 BC. Evidence of the use of metal has been found in Dihar as early as 1300 BC.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=126–127}}

During the early historic period population and settlement characteristics, including area, increased rapidly. Apparently, settlement shifted along a north-south axis about 1000 BCE.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=130–131}}

By the end of [[Mallabhum kingdom|Malla period]] (10th to 17th centuries AD) the settlement had spread beyond their earlier boundaries, and developed into an emerging politico-religious consciousness. Two [[Shiva]] temples of Dihar were built on top of the structural mounds or remains of the earlier settlement to legitimise of the relationship between the ruling authority and the ruled.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=130–131}}

===Chronology===
According to the samples obtained, the Dihar period is divided into six cultural phases. Use of metals was absent in the first phase, but use of metals began in the second phase; in two phases, the [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early Agricultural Culture]] and the [[Black and red ware|Black-Red Pottery]] Culture developed. The third phase belonged to the early historic period. The Black-Red Pottery culture was present during this phase. The fourth phase belonged to the Early [[Medieval India|Indian Middle Ages]]. The fifth and sixth phases included the pre-Malla and the [[Mallabhum kingdom|Malla period]] of the medieval respectively.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=96–97}}{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|pp=242–243}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Stages
! Dates
! Events
|-
| Stage I
| 2700–1500 BCE
| [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early Agricultural Culture]] and [[Black and red ware|Black-Red Pottery]] Culture
|-
| Stage II
| 1500–500 BCE
| [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early Agricultural Culture]] and [[Black and red ware|Black-Red Pottery]] Culture
|-
| Stage III
|
| early historic period
|-
| Stage IV
|
| Indian Middle Ages
|-
| Stage V
| scope="row" rowspan="2" | 10th to 17th centuries AD
| pre-Malla period
|-
| Stage VI
| Malla period
|}

==Archaeology==
Four mounds have been standing in Dihar village since ancient times. The villagers were aware of the presence of mounds. Except the Hirapur mound, the remaining three mounds have temple.{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|pp=129–31}} Later the [[University of Calcutta]] undertook a program of survey exploration and excavation. This settlement was discovered while exploring the mounds. Dihar was first excavated in 1984 and last in 2013, which extending Bengal's [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|early village farming culture]] to 2700 BC.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}} The site is located 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) from [[Bishnupur, Bankura|Bishnupur]], the capital of the medieval [[Mallabhum kingdom|Mallabhum kingdom]], on the north bank of the [[Dwarakeswar River|Dwarakeswar]] river.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=95}}{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|p=128}}

Archaeologists claim that the settlement was a center of early village farming culture and the [[Black and red ware]] culture of [[West Bengal]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|pp=242–243}} According to the [[Radiocarbon dating|carbon 14 dating]] of samples from the Hirapur mound, Dihar is the oldest archaeological settlement of the early village farming culture discovered in modern [[West Bengal]]. Among the four mounds at Dihar, the oldest specimen is from the Hirapur mound, which is 4700 years old.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}} Early village farming culture in Dihar existed between 2700 BC and 1500 BC,{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}}{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|pp=242–243}} which was contemporary with the Pre-Harappan, Harappan and Post-Harappan periods.

==Civilization==
The people of Dihar contributed in settlement, [[Metallurgy|metallurgy]] and pottery to the civilization of [[Bengal]] and Lower Gangetic Valley. They also contributed to jewelery making; in the early period jewelery was made from bone and later from metal.

===Metallurgy and jewellery===
The people of Dihar first started using copper, and later iron. The plateau environment, and the forest dwellers and ancient metalworking traditions in the forest region must have influenced and dictated the situation at Dihar. The [[Chota Nagpur Plateau|Chota Nagpur plateau]] served as a potential metal source. Workers made [[Ring|rings]] and rods from copper. Perhaps these sticks were used for applying eye [[Collyrium|collyrium]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=121}}

A broken specimen was recovered from Mansatala Mound. It was probably identified as a tool used for gathering [[Aquatic plant|aquatic plants]] or for bush clearance. This eroded specimen has a considerable thickness with 5.6 cm. According to the weight and shape, it suggests to be classified as a "heavy-duty" tool. Only a skilled metalworker would be able to make such an elaborate tool, which making Dihar's metalworkers demonstrative of skilled craftsmanship.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=121–122}}
===Art===
[[Terracotta]] beads, various toys, discs and animal figurines have been found at Dihar. An unidentified animal figure of red color was found with two legs in a diagonal position at the back of the body. A few more fragmentary parts of animal figurines have been excavated. All these figurines bears witness to the technical skill of the Dihar's artists. All the excavated fragments are red in colour. Fragments of a human figure, red in color, were found.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=123–124}}

Dihar artists painted designs on red and black colored pottery. Both white and cream colors have been used. It was customary to fill the entire interior of ceramic dishes with two diagonally running designs with rows of straight and slanted parallel strokes painted in white. The exterior surface close to the rim is encircled by a band of petal-like motifs surmounted by a row of parallel strokes. In most cases the decorative elements were applied near the neck of the vessels and below the border line from where the slope towards the base begins. The ceramic art of Dihar is comparable to the [[Ganges |Ganges Valley]] archaeological sites such as the Raja Nal Mound (Raja Nal Ka Tila), Malhar, [[Lahuradewa]], [[Jhusi]], Narhan, Agiabir and Senuwar.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=116–17}}

===Cultivation and Diet===
Excavated mounds have revealed the existence of an early rural agricultural culture, which gives an indication of cultivation by the inhabitants of the settlement.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=97}} The bones of many animals including domestic and wild, indicate a wide food culture.{{sfn|Deshpande-Mukherjee|Chattopadhyay|2023|p=160}} In addition, [[Bone tool|bone tools]], [[Arrowhead|arrowheads]] and [[Spear|spears]] provide evidence of the [[Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle of the inhabitants.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=117–119}}

==Excavated Dihar==
The archaeological site was discovered by excavating four mounds at Dehar village, namely Maa Bhavanitala Dhibi, Hirapur Dhibi, Mansatala Dhibi and Kalbhairavatala Dhibi.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=95}} The Maa Bhavanitala ''Dhibi'' (mound) is spread over 300 square meters.{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|p=129}}

===Cut and worked bones===
Cut bone and bone tools, arrowheads, and spears have been found.{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|pp=133–34}} Industrial or manufacturing workshops (potters and metal workers) and furnaces are visible on the Mansatala mound.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=117–119}}{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|pp=133–34}}{{sfn|Tewari|2015b|p=184}}

===Human skeleton===
An almost completely preserved [[Human skeleton|human skeleton]] has been excavated from the Manasatala mound,{{sfn|Majumder et al.|2017|p=606}} which provides very good information about the age, sex and disease. The human skeleton was studied in November 2013, which probably belongs to the early historic period.{{sfn|Majumder et al.|2017|p=608}} According to the test results, the skeleton was that of a male, and was around 45 to 50 years old.{{sfn|Majumder et al.|2017|p=611}} On observation, lesions in teeth and bones, and pathological lesions were observed. Unfortunately the skeleton does not help to understand the population.{{sfn|Majumder et al.|2017|p=617}}

===Pottery===
Evidence of pottery begins from Period I. [[Black and red ware|Black and red pottery]], carinated vessels, basins, [[Tumbler (glass)|tumblers]] and miniature pots give evidence of [[Ceramic|ceramic industry]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|pp=111–117}}{{sfn|Tewari|2015a|p=133}}

===Wattle and daub structures===
Reed impressed clay have been found, which reflecting widespread use of [[Wattle and daub]] structures. Presumably, the structures were originally used for construction of house. According to the results obtained from sample tests, Wattle and daub structures were built during the Pre-Metallic and Metallic [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|early village farming culture]]. The tradition of building such structures to have continued for a much longer period. In excavation, mud or rammed floor and reed impressed chunks were found.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013|p=110}}

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal
|last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Rupendra Kumar
|last2=Acharya |first2=Dipsikha
|last3=Majumder |first3=Shubha
|last4=Sain |first4=Malay Kumar
|last5=Biswas |first5=Pampa
|last6=Mondal |first6=Bijan
| date = 2013
|title=Excavation at Dihar 2012-2013 : An Interim Report |url=https://www.academia.edu/36290222/Excavation_at_Dihar_2012_2013_An_Interim_Report
|access-date=27 September 2023
|ref = {{harvid|Chattopadhyay et al.|2013}} |journal=Pratna Samiksha |volume=1 |pages=9–33
}}
* {{cite journal |editor1-last=Tewari |editor1-first=Dr. Rakesh
|title=Indian Archeology 2008-09 - Review
|date=2015a
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|url=https://asi.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/iar_2008_09.pdf
|access-date=28 September 2023
|journal=Pratna Samiksha
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Rupendra Kumar
|last2=Bandyopadhyay |first2=KumKum
|date=1 December 2015
|title=Studies in South Asian Heritage: essays in memory of M Harunur Rashid | chapter=A Preliminary Study of the Worked Bone Industry in the Middle and Lower Ganga Valleys: From the Mesolithic to the Early Historic Periods
|publisher=Bangla Academy
|isbn=9789840753833
|ref={{harvid|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015}}
}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Tewari |editor1-first=Dr. Rakesh
|title=Indian Archeology 2012-13 - Review
|date=2015b
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India
|url=https://www.asihyderabadcircle.com/storage/files/V3aINVXeS0xswPnAJISMIqrfbdiWvN9J6UsMuFMm.pdf
|access-date=29 September 2023
}}
* {{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Majumder et al.|2017}} |last1=Majumder |first1=Shubha |last2=Mushrif-Tripathy |first2=Veena |last3=Acharya |first3=Dipsikha
|date=2017
|title=Preliminary Studies of Human Skeletal Remains Excavated from Dihar (2012 ‐ 13), District Bankura, West Bengal |url=https://www.academia.edu/36066121/Preliminary_Studies_of_Human_Skeletal_Remains_Excavated_from_Dihar_2012_13_District_Bankura_West_Bengal
|access-date=27 September 2023
|journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology
|volume=5
}}
* {{cite journal |first1=Arati | last1 = Deshpande-Mukherjee |last2=Chattopadhyay |first2=R.K.
|date=2023
|title=Animals in Archaeology: Integrating Landscapes, Environment and Humans in South Asia
|url=http://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/Publications/P1/7_Deshpande-Mukherjee%20and%20Chattopadhyay_PPJ_Updated_20230201.pdf
|access-date=29 September 2023
|journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology
|publisher=University of Kerala
|volume=1
}}

{{Ancient-Medieval sites in Bengal}}
{{Archaeological sites in India}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in West Bengal]]
[[Category:History of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Ancient Bengal]]

Kana, West Bengal

2023-10-02T22:33:30Z

Vijay6396: New article

{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Kana
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = India West Bengal
|map_alt =
|relief = y
|map_size = 270
|coordinates = {{Coord|23|07|42|N|86|12|45.5|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|location = Kana, [[West Bengal]], India
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built = 42,000 BCE
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures = [[Upper Paleolithic]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event = not known
|excavations = 1998–99 and 2012–13
|archaeologists =
|condition = Ruined
|ownership = Public
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website = 
|notes =
}}

'''Kana''' is an [[Upper Paleolithic]] [[Archaeological site|archaeological]] site located in [[Purulia district|Purulia]] district of Eastern [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] [[West Bengal]].<ref name="telegraphindia1"/> The archeological site containing the [[Microblade technology|microblade artefacts]] belongs to the Manbazar Formation of the Kumari Basin. It is situated about 500 meters northwest of Kana village at the foot of an [[Inselberg|inselberg]].

It is known for remains of [[Early modern human|anatomically modern humans]] from Upper Paleolithic era, before 42,000 years ago.<ref name="telegraphindia1">{{cite web |author1=Sebanti Saarkar |title=Bengal just got older by 22000 yrs |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/bengal-just-got-older-by-22000-yrs/cid/1288646 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |publisher=The Telegraph India |access-date=2 October 2023 |date=21 October 2014}}</ref>

==Archaeology==
The first phase of excavations at [[Ajodhya Hills]] was conducted in 1998–99 under the Center for Archaeological Studies and Training. In these excavations, the Upper Paleolithic archaeological site of Kana and [[Mahadebbera]] were discovered. The second phase of excavations was conducted in 2012–13.<ref name="Mahadebbera-Kana">{{cite journal |author1=Bishnupriya Basak |author2=Pradeep Srivastava |author3=Sujit Dasgupta |author4=Anil Kumar |author5=S. N. Rajaguru |title=Earliest dates and implications of Microlithic industries of Late Pleistocene from Mahadebbera and Kana, Purulia district, West Bengal |journal=Current Science |date=10 October 2014 |volume=107 |pages=1167–1171 |language=en}}</ref>

Archaeologists claim that this archaeological site was inhabited by [[Stone Age|Stone age]] people. According to the results of [[optically stimulated luminescence]] (OSL) dating of the samples obtained, Kana is the oldest archaeological settlement discovered in West Bengal. The oldest Upper Paleolithic specimen from West Bengal has been recovered from Kana, which is 42,000 years old.<ref name="eisamay1">{{cite web |author1=Gautam Basumallik |title=৪২০০০ বছর আগে অযোধ্যা পাহাড় অঞ্চলে জনবসবাসের নিদর্শন মিলেছে |url=https://eisamay.com/editorial/post-editorial/interview-of-bishnupriya-basak-by-goutam-basu-mallick/articleshow/46744177.cms |website=www.eisamay.com |publisher=Ei Samay |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=bn |trans-title=42,000 years ago, evidence of human habitation has been found in the Ayodhya Hills region |date=30 March 2015}}</ref>

==Excavated Kana==
The archaeological site is spread over 22,500 square meters at the foothills. A ~5–6 m thick reddish-brown soil-silt layer is seen in the archeological site. Archaeological remains are found in a layer of gravelly silty sand; below this layer a greenish-grey clayey silt layer is exposed. A portion of the archaeological site was excavated to a depth of 2.47 m, and artefacts were recovered from a depth of 1.34–1.63 m. Weapons found in excavations include various stone fragments and ferruginous or iron-manganese soft pellets. The main raw materials used to make artefacts are chert and felsic tuff, a small percentage of amphibolite and a type of black [[igneous rock]].<ref name="Mahadebbera-Kana"/>{{sfn|Basak|2013|pp=83–87}}

== References ==
{{reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last1=Basak |first1=Bishnupriya
|title=Excavation of a microlithic site and exploration in Ayodhya hills, Purulia, West Bengal: 2011-12 and 2012-13
|date=2013
|publisher=Centre for ArchaeologicalStudies & Training, Eastern India
|journal=Pratna Samiksha
}}
* [https://research.caluniv.ac.in/publication/earliest-dates-of-microlithic-industries-42a25-ka-from-west/pdf/publisher-pdf-fulltext-earliest-dates-of-microlithic-industries-42a25-ka-from-west.pdf Earliest Dates of Microlithic Industries (42–25 ka) from West Bengal, Eastern India: New Light on Modern Human Occupation in the Indian Subcontinent]

{{Ancient-Medieval sites in Bengal}}
{{Archaeological sites in India}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in West Bengal]]

Bharatpur (archaeological site)

2023-10-02T09:08:08Z

Vijay6396: New article

{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Bharatpur
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|map_type = India West Bengal
|map_alt =
|relief = y
|map_size = 270
|coordinates = {{Coord|23.4134|N|87.4578|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|location = Bharatpur, [[West Bengal]], India
|region =
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built = 1735–1417 BCE
|abandoned = 8th–9th centuries A.D.
|epochs =
|cultures = [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early village farming culture]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event = not known
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition = Ruined
|ownership = Public
|management =
|public_access = Yes
|website = 
|notes =
}}
'''Bharatpur''' is an [[archaeological site]] of [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|Early village farming culture]] located in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. Construction of the settlement is believed to have started around 1735–1417 BC.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|p=240}}

The prehistoric settlement at [[Bharatpur, Purba Bardhaman|Bharatpur]] village was discovered in 1971 by the Eastern Circle of [[Archaeological Survey of India]] and the [[University of Burdwan]]. Excavations were carried out at Bharatpur in 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74 and 1974–75.<ref name="asi1">{{cite web |title=Excavations – Since Independence – West Bengal |url=https://asi.nic.in/excavations-since-independence-west-bengal/ |website=asi.nic.in |access-date=1 October 2023}}</ref> [[Black and red ware|Black and red pottery]], [[Terracotta|terracotta]] objects and cut bone weapons were discovered during the excavations.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|p=240}}

==Archaeology==
The Eastern Circle of [[Archaeological Survey of India]] and the [[University of Burdwan]] jointly undertook a program of survey exploration and excavation in the 1970s. These excavations proved the presence of ancient settlement.<ref name="Gopbhumer-Swarup">{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Shibshankar |title=Gopbhumer Swarup, Aitijhya O Sanskriti |date=2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.265505/page/n45/mode/2up?q=101 |access-date=1 October 2023|pages=99–107}}</ref> Bharatpur was first excavated in 1971 and last in 1975, which establishing the archaeological site as a center of Bengal's [[Early Agricultural Communities in Bengal|early village farming culture]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|p=240}} This place is located 6 km (3.7 mi) from [[Panagarh]] on the north bank of [[Damodar River|Damodar river]].

Archaeologists claim that the settlement was a center of the early village farming and the [[Black and red ware|Black and Red Pottery]] culture of [[West Bengal]]. According to the [[Radiocarbon dating|carbon 14 dating]] of the samples obtained, Bharatpur is one of the archaeological settlements of early village farming culture discovered in West Bengal. More than 3700 years old specimens have been found from the archaeological site. Early village farming culture existed here from 1700 BCE, which was contemporary with the Pre-Harappan, Harappan and Post-Harappan periods.{{sfn|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015|p=240}}

==Excavated Bharatpur==
Buddhist [[Buddhist monasticism|monastery]] and [[Stupa|stupa]] have been discovered at Bharatpur during excavations.<ref name="thehindu1">{{cite web |last1=Singh |first1=Shiv Sahay |title=Of a bygone era: excavations reveal Buddhist monastery complex at Bharatpur of Bengal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/excavations-reveal-buddhist-monastery-complex-at-bharatpur-in-wb/article66416717.ece |website=www.thehindu.com |publisher=The Hindu |access-date=1 October 2023 |location=Kolkata |date=21 January 2023}}</ref> Also, evidence of early agricultural communities has been found in the recovered samples.

===Buddhist Stupa===
{{main|Bharatpur Stupa}}
[[File:Buddhist stupa at Bharatpur in Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal; 15.jpg|280px|thumb|left|alt= Buddhist stupa at Bharatpur in Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal.|Bharatpur Buddhist Stupa, which was built between the 7th and 9th centuries.]]

The stupa was built between the 7th and 9th centuries during the [[Pala Empire|Pala period]]. It was built in brick and stone in the ''[[Pancharatha]]'' style, with a base area of 13 square meters. Today, the base structure of the stupa survives, When the rest of the part was destroyed. Two different sizes of bricks are used in the construction, which are 30 x 8 x 7 cm and 48 x 21 x 6 cm respectively. The facades are embellished with corbelled courses, moldings and chaitya gavaksa motifs of floral designs. The niches of stupa were probably decorated with [[Buddha statue|Buddha statues]].<ref name="academia1">{{cite journal |last1=Majumdar |first1=Somreeta |title=Archaeological Landscape of the Buddhist Stupa of Bharatpur |journal=Arnava |date=1 January 2020 |pages=54-55 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44906403/Archaeological_Landscape_of_the_Buddhist_Stupa_of_Bharatpur |access-date=1 October 2023 |publisher=[[Visva-Bharati University]]}}</ref><ref name="anandabazar1">{{cite web |last1=Dutta |first1=Shrabani |title=পশ্চিম বর্ধমানের বৌদ্ধ প্রত্নস্থল |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/editorial/buddhist-archaeological-site-at-paschim-bardhaman-1.929262 |website=www.anandabazar.com |publisher=Anandabazar Patrika |access-date=1 October 2023 |language=bn |date=9 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="getbengal1">{{cite web |last1=Bhowmik |first1=Rupam |title=Unearthing Bharatpur Stupa: A treasure trove of historical and cultural artifacts |url=https://www.getbengal.com/details/unearthing-bharatpur-stupa-a-treasure-trove-of-historical-and-cultural-artifacts |website=Get Bengal |access-date=1 October 2023 |date=9 February 2023}}</ref> Eleven Buddha statues seated on Vajrasana in Bhumiparsha Mudras – all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground – were discovered in this ruined stupa.<ref name="anandabazar1"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book
|last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Rupendra Kumar
|last2=Bandyopadhyay |first2=KumKum
|date=1 December 2015
|title=Studies in South Asian Heritage: essays in memory of M Harunur Rashid | chapter=A Preliminary Study of the Worked Bone Industry in the Middle and Lower Ganga Valleys: From the Mesolithic to the Early Historic Periods
|publisher=Bangla Academy
|isbn=9789840753833
|ref={{harvid|Chattopadhyay et al.|2015}}
}}

{{Ancient-Medieval sites in Bengal}}
{{Archaeological sites in India}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in West Bengal]]

Malay language

2022-10-07T11:37:45Z

Vijay6396:

{{Short description|Austronesian language of Southeast Asia}}
{{About|the language on which Standard Indonesian and Malaysian are based|the vernacular varieties and dialects of Malay|Malayic languages|the standard Malay used in Malaysia|Malaysian Malay}}
{{Distinguish|Malayalam}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Malay
| altname = Malay/Indonesian<ref name=Blust>{{cite book |last=Blust |first=Robert |title=The Austronesian Languages |edition=revised|publisher=Australian National University|year=2013|isbn=978-1-922185-07-5|hdl=1885/10191}}</ref> Malay-Indonesian
| ethnicity = [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] (see also [[Malay world|Malayophones]])
| nativename = {{lang|ms|Bahasa Melayu}} {{lang|ms-Arab|{{Script|Arab|بهاس ملايو}}}} {{Script|Rjng|ꤷꥁꤼ ꤸꥍꤾꤿꥈ}}
| states = [[Brunei]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Philippines]] ([[Palawan]], [[Sulu Archipelago]], and the parts of [[Mindanao]]), [[South Thailand]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
| speakers = [[First language|L1]] – {{sigfig|76.9|2}} million
| date = 2007
| ref = ne2007
| speakers2 = Total (L1 and [[Second language|L2]]): 200–290 million (2009)<ref>{{cite web|last=Uli|first=Kozok|title=How many people speak Indonesian|url=http://ipll.manoa.hawaii.edu/indonesian/2012/03/10/how-many-people-speak-indonesian/|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|access-date=20 October 2012|quote=James T. Collins (''Bahasa Sanskerta dan Bahasa Melayu'', Jakarta: KPG 2009) gives a conservative estimate of approximately 200 million, and a maximum estimate of 250 million speakers of Malay (Collins 2009, p. 17).}}</ref>
| speakers_label = Speakers
| familycolor = Austronesian
| fam2 = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3 = [[Malayic languages|Malayic]]
| fam4 =
| fam5 =
| fam6 =
| ancestor = [[Old Malay]]
| ancestor2 = [[Classical Malay]]
| ancestor3 = [[Classical Malay|Pre-Modern Malay]]
| stand1 = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (as ''Bahasa Indonesia'')
| stand2 = [[Malaysian Malay]] (as ''Bahasa Melayu''){{refn|group=fn|term "Bahasa Malaysia" sometimes also used in Malaysia and term "Bahasa Malaysia" is very popular used by Indonesian citizen. But in Malaysian education is using term 'Bahasa Melayu' according constitution and as a language of knowledge.}}
| script = {{ubl|[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Malay orthography|Malay alphabet]])|[[Arabic script|Arabic]] ([[Jawi alphabet]])<ref>{{cite news|url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/8/26/nation/22168989&sec=nation|title=Kedah MB defends use of Jawi on signboards|date=26 August 2008|newspaper=[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029105406/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F8%2F26%2Fnation%2F22168989&sec=nation|archive-date=29 October 2012}}</ref>|Arabic ([[Pegon script]]) (In [[Indonesia]])<ref name="Kitabi">Dahlan, H. Abdullah Zaini. Kitabati, Practical Methods for Learning to Read & Write Pegon (Kitabati, Metode Praktis Belajar Membaca & Menulis Pegon). Zaini Press. Accessed April 19, 2023. [https://ia903106.us.archive.org/22/items/etaoin/Kitabati.pdf https://ia903106.us.archive.org/22/items/etaoin/Kitabati.pdf].</ref>|[[Thai script|Thai alphabet]] (in Thailand)|[[International uniformity of braille alphabets#Grade 1 braille|Malay Braille]] 
Historically [[Pallava script]], [[Kawi script]], [[Ulu scripts]], [[Rejang script]]}}
| nation = {{startplainlist|class=nowrap}}
* {{flag|Brunei}}
* {{flag|Indonesia}} (as [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]])
* {{flag|Malaysia}}
* {{flag|Singapore}}
{{endplainlist}}
| minority = {{ubl|
{{flag|Indonesia}} (beside the national standard of [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Malay Indonesians#Language|Local Malay]] enjoys the status of a regional language in [[Sumatra]] and [[Borneo|Kalimantan]] (Borneo))|{{flag|East Timor}} ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] used as a working language and a trade language with [[Indonesia]])<ref name="easttimorgovernment.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|title=East Timor Languages|website=www.easttimorgovernment.com|access-date=30 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130633/http://easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{flag|Thailand}} (as [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay|Pattani Malay]])
| agency = {{ubl|[[Language Development and Fostering Agency]] in Indonesia|[[Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka|Institute of Language and Literature]] in Malaysia|[[Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Brunei|Language and Literature Bureau]] in Brunei|[https://www.languagecouncils.sg/mbms/en Malay Language Council] in Singapore|[[Majlis Bahasa Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia|Brunei–Indonesia–Malaysia Language Council – MABBIM]] (a trilateral joint venture)}}
| iso1 = ms
| iso2b = may
| iso2t = msa
| iso3 = msa
| lc1 = zlm
| ld1 = Malay (individual language)
| lc2 = kxd
| ld2 = [[Brunei Malay]]
| lc3 = ind
| ld3 = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
| lc4 = zsm
| ld4 = [[Malaysian Malay|Standard Malay]]
| lc5 = jax
| ld5 = [[Jambi Malay]]
| lc6 = meo
| ld6 = [[Kedah Malay]]
| lc7 = kvr
| ld7 = [[Kerinci language|Kerinci]]
| lc8 = xmm
| ld8 = [[Manado Malay]]
| lc9 = min
| ld9 = [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]
| lc10 = mui
| ld10 = [[Musi language|Musi]]
| lc11 = zmi
| ld11 = [[Negeri Sembilan Malay|Negeri Sembilan]]
| lc12 = max
| ld12 = [[North Moluccan Malay]]
| lc13 = mfa
| ld13 = [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay]]
| lc14 = coa
| ld14 = [[Cocos Malay]]
| lc15 = bjn
| ld15 = [[Banjarese language|Banjarese]]
| lc16 = bew
| ld16 = [[Betawi language|Betawi]]
| lc17 = msi
| ld17 = [[Sabah Malay]]
| lc18 = mqg
| ld18 = Kota Bangun Kutai Malay
| lingua = 31-MFA-a
| sign = [[Manually Coded Malay]]
| glotto = indo1326
| glottoname = partial match
| glottorefname = Indonesian Archipelago Malay
| pronunciation = {{IPA-ms|ba.ha.sa mə.la.ju}}
| map = Malay language Spoken Area Map v1.png
| mapcaption = areas where Malay-Indonesian is spoken:
{{legend|#0000ff|Indonesia}}
{{legend|#00bc00|Malaysia}}
{{legend|#76f36b|Singapore and Brunei, where Standard Malay is an official language}}
{{legend|#88caff|East Timor, where Indonesian is a working language}}
{{legend|#f7f36b|Southern Thailand and the Cocos Isl., where other varieties of Malay are spoken}}
}}

[[File:WIKITONGUES- Senful speaking Malay.webm|thumb|A young man speaks Kedah Malay]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Nila speaking Indonesian.webm|thumb|An Indonesian speaker]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Zairul speaking Malay.webm|thumb|A Malay speaker]]

'''Malay''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ}};<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Linguistic Student's Handbook|last=Bauer|first=Laurie|publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh}}</ref> {{lang-ms|Bahasa Melayu|links=no}}, [[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]]: {{lang|ms-Arab|بهاس ملايو}}, [[Rejang script|Rejang]]: {{Script|Rjng|ꤷꥁꤼ ꤸꥍꤾꤿꥈ}}) is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] that is an [[official language]] of [[Brunei]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Singapore]], and that is also spoken in [[East Timor]] and parts of the [[Philippines]] and [[Thailand]]. Altogether, it is spoken by 290 million people<ref>10 million in Malaysia, 5 million in Indonesia as "Malay" plus 260 million as "[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]", etc.</ref> (around 260 million as "[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]")<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wardhana|first=Dian Eka Chandra|title= Indonesian as the Language of ASEAN During the New Life Behavior Change 2021|url= http://ejournal.karinosseff.org/index.php/jswse/article/view/114|journal= Journal of Social Work and Science Education|volume= 1|issue= 3|pages= 266–280|doi=10.52690/jswse.v1i3.114|access-date=29 January 2021|doi-access= free}}</ref> across [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].

As the {{lang|ms|bahasa kebangsaan}} or {{lang|ms|bahasa nasional}} ("national language") of several states, Standard Malay has various official names. In Malaysia, it is designated as either {{lang|ms|Bahasa Melayu Malaysia}} ("[[Malaysian Malay]]") or also {{lang|ms|Bahasa Melayu}} ("Malay language"). In Singapore and Brunei, it is called {{lang|ms|Bahasa Melayu}} ("Malay language"). In Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety called {{lang|id|Bahasa Indonesia}} ("[[Indonesian language]]") is designated the {{lang|id|bahasa persatuan/pemersatu}} ("unifying language" or [[lingua franca]]). Usage of the term "Malay" ({{lang|id|bahasa Melayu}}) is restricted in Indonesia to refer to vernacular varieties of Malay indigenous to areas of Central to Southern [[Sumatra]] and [[West Kalimantan]].{{efn|Since the standardized varieties of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore are structurally largely identical and mostly differ in lexicon and to a lesser degree in phonetic details, the umbrella terms "Malay/Indonesian"<ref name=Blust/> or "Malay-Indonesian"<ref>{{cite book |last=Tadmor |first=Uri |year=2009 |chapter=Malay-Indonesian |editor=Bernard Comrie |title=The World's Major Languages |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=791–818}}</ref> are often used in the linguistic literature when discussing the structure or history of the language.}}

''Malay'', also called Court Malay, was the literary standard of the pre-colonial [[Malacca Sultanate|Malacca]] and [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]] Sultanates and so the language is sometimes called Malacca, Johor or Riau Malay (or various combinations of those names) to distinguish it from the various other [[Malayic languages]]. According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'' 16, several of the Malayic varieties they currently list as separate languages, including the {{lang|ms|[[Orang Asli]]}} varieties of [[Malay Peninsula|Peninsular Malay]], are so closely related to standard Malay that they may prove to be dialects. There are also several [[Malay trade and creole languages]] based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay as well as [[Malay trade and creole languages#Macassar Malay|Macassar Malay]], which appears to be a [[mixed language]].

==Origin==
Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western [[Borneo]].<ref>{{harvp|Adelaar|2004}}</ref> A form known as Proto-Malay was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent [[Malayic languages]]. Its ancestor, [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]], a descendant of the [[Proto-Austronesian language]], began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of [[Austronesian peoples]] into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] from the island of [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andaya|first=Leonard Y.|title=The Search for the 'Origins' of Melayu|url=http://sabrizain.org/malaya/library/search.pdf|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=315–330|doi=10.1017/S0022463401000169|s2cid=62886471}}</ref>


==History==
{{Main|History of the Malay language}}
[[File: Srivijaya Empire.svg|thumb|For centuries, [[Srivijaya]], through its expansion, economic power and military prowess, was responsible for the widespread of [[Old Malay]] throughout the [[Malay Archipelago]]. It was the working language of traders and it was used in various ports, and marketplaces in the region.<ref>[http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html Southeast Asia Digital Library: About Malay] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20070616131617/http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html }}</ref>]]

The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods: Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Classical Malay, Late Modern Malay and Modern Malay. Old Malay is believed to be the actual ancestor of Classical Malay.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wurm|first1=Stephen|author-link1=Stephen Wurm|last2=Mühlhäusler|first2=Peter|author-link2=Peter Mühlhäusler|last3=Tryon|first3=Darrell T.|author-link3=Darrell T. Tryon|title=Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFW1BwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR19|year=1996|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081972-4|page=677}}</ref>

Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit, a classical language of [[India]]. Sanskrit loan words can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. The earliest known stone inscription in the Old Malay language was found in [[Sumatra]], Indonesia, written in the [[Pallava alphabet|Pallava variety]] of the [[Grantha alphabet]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bahasa-malaysia-simple-fun.com/bahasa-melayu-kuno.html |title=Bahasa Melayu Kuno |publisher=Bahasa-malaysia-simple-fun.com |access-date=22 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226183127/http://www.bahasa-malaysia-simple-fun.com/bahasa-melayu-kuno.html |archive-date=26 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and is dated 1 May 683. Known as the [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]], it was discovered by the [[Dutch people|Dutchman]] M. Batenburg on 29 November 1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South [[Sumatra]], on the banks of the Tatang, a tributary of the [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]]. It is a small stone of {{convert|45 by 80|cm}}.

Other evidence is the Tanjung Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpnbkepri/undang-undang-tanjung-tanah-naskah-melayu-tertua-di-dunia/|title=Undang-Undang Tanjung Tanah: Naskah Melayu Tertua di Dunia|last=Surakhman|first=M. Ali|website=kemdikbud.go.id|language=id}}</ref> This 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text was produced in the [[Adityawarman]] era (1345–1377) of [[Dharmasraya]], a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of [[Srivijaya]]n rule in [[Sumatra]]. The laws were for the [[Minangkabau people]], who today still live in the highlands of [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]].

[[Terengganu Inscription Stone]] (Malay: Batu Bersurat Terengganu; Jawi: باتو برسورت ترڠݢانو) is a granite stele carrying inscription in Jawi script that was found in Terengganu, Malaysia is the earliest evidence of classical Malay inscription. The inscription, dated possibly to 702 AH (corresponds to 1303 CE), constituted the earliest evidence of Jawi writing in the Malay world of Southeast Asia, and was one of the oldest testimonies to the advent of Islam as a state religion in the region. It contains the proclamation issued by a ruler of Terengganu known as Seri Paduka Tuan, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance.

The Malay language came into widespread use as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the region during the [[Malacca Sultanate]] era (1402–1511). It was the period the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature. The development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of [[Arabic]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] vocabularies, called ''Classical Malay''. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay. When the court moved to establish the Johor Sultanate, it continued using the classical language; it has become so associated with Dutch Riau and British Johor that it is often assumed that the Malay of Riau is close to the classical language. However, there is no closer connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sneddon|first=James N.|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9UjLYD9jVEC&pg=PA70|year=2003|publisher=UNSW Press|isbn=978-0-86840-598-8|page=70}}</ref>

Among the oldest surviving letters written in Malay are the letters from Sultan Abu Hayat of [[Ternate]], [[Maluku Islands]] in present-day [[Indonesia]], dated around 1521–1522. The text is addressed to the king of [[Portugal]], following contact with Portuguese explorer [[Francisco Serrão]].<ref name=sneddon/> The letters show sign of non-native usage; the Ternateans used (and still use) the unrelated [[Ternate language]], a [[West Papuan languages|West Papuan language]], as their [[first language]]. Malay was used solely as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' for inter-ethnic communications.<ref name=sneddon>{{cite book|last=Sneddon|first=James N.|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9UjLYD9jVEC&pg=PA62|year=2003|publisher=UNSW Press|isbn=978-0-86840-598-8|page=62}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{See also|Austronesian languages#Comparison charts}}
Malay is a member of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family of languages, which includes languages from [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]], with a smaller number in continental [[Asia]]. [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], a geographic outlier spoken in [[Madagascar]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, [[Proto-Austronesian language]]. There are many [[cognate]]s found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.

Within Austronesian, Malay is part of a cluster of numerous closely related [[variety (linguistics)|forms of speech]] known as the [[Malayic languages]], which were spread across Malaya and the Indonesian archipelago by Malay traders from Sumatra. There is disagreement as to which varieties of speech popularly called "Malay" should be considered dialects of this language, and which should be classified as distinct Malay languages. The [[vernacular]] of Brunei—[[Brunei Malay]]—for example, is not readily intelligible with the [[standard language]], and the same is true with some lects on the Malay Peninsula such as [[Kedah Malay]]. However, both Brunei and Kedah are quite close.<ref>''[[Ethnologue]]'' 16 classifies them as distinct languages, ISO3 ''kxd'' and ''meo'', but states that they "are so closely related that they may one day be included as dialects of Malay".</ref>

==Writing system==
{{Main|Malay alphabet}}
[[File:Kerinci MSS detail.jpg|thumb|The [[Rencong alphabet]], a native writing system found in central and [[South Sumatra]]. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): "haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: "I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come" (hitu adik sa- is the rest of 4th line.]]
[[File:KedukanBukit001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.04|[[Kedukan Bukit Inscription]], using [[Pallava alphabet]], is the oldest surviving specimen of the [[Old Malay]] language in [[South Sumatra]], Indonesia.]]
Malay is now written using the [[Latin script]], known as ''Rumi'' in Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore or ''Latin'' in Indonesia, although an [[Arabic script]] called ''Arab Melayu'' or [[Jawi alphabet|''Jawi'']] also exists. Latin script is official in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Malay uses [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]].
[[File:Final pages of the Taj al-Salatin, The Crown of Kings, a Malay mirror for princes.jpg|thumb|Final pages of the Taj al-Salatin, ''The Crown of Kings'', a Malay "[[Mirrors for princes|mirror for princes]]", copied by Muhammad bin Umar Syaikh Farid on 31 July 1824 CE in [[Penang]] in Jawi script. [[British Library]]]]
''Rumi'' (Latin) and ''Jawi'' are co-official in [[Brunei]] only. Names of institutions and organisations have to use Jawi and Rumi (Latin) scripts. Jawi is used fully in schools, especially the religious school, ''sekolah agama'', which is compulsory during the afternoon for Muslim students aged from around 6–7 up to 12–14.

Efforts are currently being undertaken to preserve Jawi in Malaysia, and students taking Malay language examinations in Malaysia have the option of answering questions using Jawi.

The Latin script, however, is the most commonly used in Brunei and Malaysia, both for official and informal purposes.

Historically, Malay has been written using various scripts. Before the introduction of Arabic script in the Malay region, Malay was written using the [[Pallava script|Pallava]], [[Kawi script|Kawi]] and [[Rencong script|Rencong]] scripts; these scripts are no longer frequently used, but similar scripts such as the [[Cham alphabet]] are used by the [[Chams]] of [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]]. Old Malay was written using Pallava and Kawi script, as evident from several inscription stones in the Malay region. Starting from the era of kingdom of Pasai and throughout the golden age of the Malacca Sultanate, ''Jawi'' gradually replaced these scripts as the most commonly used script in the Malay region. Starting from the 17th century, under [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and British influence, Jawi was gradually replaced by the [[Malay alphabet|Rumi]] script.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm |title=Malay (Bahasa Melayu) |website=Omniglot |access-date=30 August 2008}}</ref>

== Extent of use ==
{{See also|Malay trade and creole languages|Pluricentric language}}
[[File:Malaysia Traffic-signs Warning-and-regulatory-signs-02.jpg|thumb|right|A Malay traffic sign in Malaysia.]]
[[File:Sukarno hatta airport - Terminal - Jakarta - Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|Indonesian road signs in [[Jakarta]], Indonesia. The blue sign reads "''Lajur Khusus Menurunkan Penumpang''" which means "Lane for dropping passengers only" and the small no-parking sign on the left reads "''Sampai Rambu Berikutnya''" which means "until next sign" in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]]]
Malay is spoken in [[Brunei]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[East Timor]], [[Singapore]] and southern [[Thailand]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Malay Can Be 'Language of ASEAN' |url=http://www.brudirect.com/index.php/2010102331853/Local-News/malay-can-be-language-of-asean.html |publisher=brudirect.com |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> Indonesia regulates its own normative variety of Malay, while Malaysia and Singapore use a common standard.<ref name="Introduction">{{Cite book
| last = Salleh
| first = Haji
| author-link = Muhammad Haji Salleh
| title = An introduction to modern Malaysian literature
| publisher = Institut Terjemahan Negara Malaysia Berhad
| year = 2008
| location = Kuala Lumpur
| pages = xvi
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QTKtgVCUZ48C
| isbn = 978-983-068-307-2}}</ref> Brunei, in addition to Standard Malay, uses a distinct [[nonstandard dialect|vernacular dialect]] called [[Brunei Malay]]. In [[East Timor]], Indonesian is recognised by the constitution as one of two working languages (the other being [[English language|English]]), alongside the official languages of [[Tetum language|Tetum]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref name="easttimorgovernment.com"/> The extent to which Malay is used in these countries varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by [[Constitution of Malaysia#Article 152 – National Language and Other Languages|Article 152]] of the [[Constitution of Malaysia]], and became the sole official language in [[Peninsular Malaysia]] in 1968 and in [[East Malaysia]] gradually from 1974. [[English language|English]] continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that of Malaysia. In the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] is spoken by the overseas Indonesian community in [[Davao City]], and functional phrases are taught to members of the Philippine Armed Forces and to students.

==Phonology==
{{main|Malay phonology}}
Malay, like most Austronesian languages, is not a [[tonal language]].

===Consonants===
The consonants of Malaysian<ref name="Clynes and Deterding 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Clynes |first1=Adrian |last2=Deterding |first2=David |title=Standard Malay (Brunei) |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=259–268 |doi=10.1017/S002510031100017X |doi-access=free |df=dmy-all}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karim |first1=Nik Safiah |url=https://anyflip.com/itckx/dubr/basic |title=Tatabahasa Dewan |last2=M. Onn |first2=Farid |last3=Haji Musa |first3=Hashim |last4=Mahmood |first4=Abdul Hamid |publisher=[[Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-983-62-9484-5 |edition=3 |location=Kuala Lumpur |pages=297–303 |language=ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hassan |first=Abdullah |title=The Morphology of Malay |publisher=University of Edinburgh |year=1972}}</ref> and also Indonesian<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soderberg |first1=Craig D. |last2=Olson |first2=Kenneth S. |year=2008 |title=Indonesian |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |language=en |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=209–213 |doi=10.1017/S0025100308003320 |issn=1475-3502|doi-access=free }}</ref> are shown below. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in brackets.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Malay consonant phonemes
! colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Post-alveolar consonant|Post{{nbh}}alv.]]/ [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
| {{IPAlink|ɲ}}
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]/ [[Affricate]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| {{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| ({{IPAlink|ʔ}})
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| {{IPAlink|b}}
| {{IPAlink|d}}
| {{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Fricative]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
| ({{IPAlink|f}})
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| ({{IPAlink|ʃ}})
| ({{IPAlink|x}})
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| ({{IPAlink|v}})
| ({{IPAlink|z}})
|
| ({{IPAlink|ɣ}})
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Approximant]]
! [[semivowel]]
| {{IPAlink|w}}
|
| {{IPAlink|j}}
|
|
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPAlink|r}}
|
|
|
|}

'''Orthographic note''':
The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:

* {{IPAslink|ð}} is 'z', the same as the {{IPAslink|z}} sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the {{IPAslink|ð}} sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with {{IPAslink|z}} sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers).
* {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is 'ny'; 'n' before 'c' and 'j'
* {{IPAslink|ŋ}} is 'ng'
* {{IPAslink|θ}} is represented as 's', the same as the {{IPAslink|s}} sound (only occurs in Arabic loanwords originally containing the {{IPAslink|θ}} sound, but the writing is not distinguished from Arabic loanwords with {{IPAslink|s}} sound, and this sound must be learned separately by the speakers). Previously (before 1972), this sound was written 'th' in Standard Malay (not Indonesian)
* the glottal stop {{IPAslink|ʔ}} is final 'k' or an apostrophe ' (although some words have this glottal stop in the middle, such as ''rakyat'')
* {{IPAslink|tʃ}} is 'c'
* {{IPAslink|dʒ}} is 'j'
* {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is 'sy'
* {{IPAslink|x}} is 'kh'
* {{IPAslink|j}} is 'y'
* {{IPAslink|q}} is 'k'

'''Loans from Arabic''':
* Phonemes which occur only in Arabic loans may be pronounced distinctly by speakers who know Arabic. Otherwise they tend to be replaced with native sounds.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Table of borrowed Arabic consonants
|-
! Distinct !! Assimilated !! Example
|-
| {{IPAslink|x}} || {{IPAslink|k}}, {{IPAslink|h}} || ''khabar, kabar'' "news"
|-
| {{IPAslink|ð}} || {{IPAslink|d}}, {{IPAslink|l}} || ''redha, rela'' "good will"
|-
| {{IPA|/zˤ/}} || {{IPAslink|l}}, {{IPAslink|z}} || ''lohor, zuhur'' "noon (prayer)"
|-
| {{IPAslink|ɣ}} || {{IPAslink|ɡ}}, {{IPAslink|r}} || ''ghaib, raib'' "hidden"
|-
| {{IPAslink|ʕ}} || {{IPAslink|ʔ}} || ''saat, sa'at'' "second (time)"
|-
|{{IPAslink|θ}}
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|{{lang|ms|Selasa}} "Tuesday"
|-
|{{IPAslink|q}}
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|{{lang|ms|makam}} "grave"
|}

===Vowels===
Malay originally had four vowels, but in many dialects today, including Standard Malay, it has six, with {{IPA|/i/}} split into {{IPA|/i, e/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} split into {{IPA|/u, o/}}.<ref name="Clynes and Deterding 2011" /> Many words are commonly pronounced variably, with either {{IPA|[i, u]}} or {{IPA|[e, o]}}, and relatively few words require a mid vowel {{IPA|[e, o]}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Table of vowel phonemes of Standard Malay
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}}
|
|}
'''Orthographic note''': both {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} are written with {{angbr|e}}. Orthographic {{IPA|/e, o/}} are relatively rare, so the letter {{angbr|e}} usually represents {{IPA|/ə/}}. There are some homographs; for example, ''perang'' is used for both {{IPA|/pəraŋ/}} "war" and {{IPA|/peraŋ ~ piraŋ/}} "blond". (In Indonesia, "blond" may be written ''perang'' or ''pirang''.)

Some analyses regard {{IPA|/ai, au, oi/}} as diphthongs.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Susur galur bahasa Melayu |last=Asmah Haji |first=Omar |publisher=Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka |location=Kuala Lumpur}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ahmad|first1=Zaharani|title=Fonologi generatif: teori dan penerapan|publisher=Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka|location=Kuala Lumpur}}</ref> However, {{IPA|[ai]}} and {{IPA|[au]}} can only occur in open syllables, such as ''cukai'' ("tax") and ''pulau'' ("island"). Words with a phonetic diphthong in a closed syllable, such as ''baik'' ("good") and ''laut'' ("sea"), are actually two syllables. An alternative analysis therefore treats the phonetic diphthongs {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} and {{IPA|[oi]}} as a sequence of a monophthong plus an approximant: {{IPA|/aj/}}, {{IPA|/aw/}} and {{IPA|/oj/}} respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clynes |first=Adrian |title=On the Proto-Austronesian "Diphthongs" |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=347–361 |doi=10.2307/3622989 |jstor=3622989}}</ref>

There is a rule of [[vowel harmony]]: the non-open vowels {{IPA|/i, e, u, o/}} in bisyllabic words must agree in height, so ''hidung'' ("nose") is allowed but *''hedung'' is not.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-C119.pdf |title=Proto Malayic: the reconstruction of its phonology and parts of its lexicon and morphology |last=Adelaar |first=K. A. |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=0858834081 |location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/pl-c119 |oclc=26845189}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of several standard pronunciations of Malay<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abu Bakar |first=Mukhlis |title=Sebutan Johor-Riau dan Sebutan Baku dalam Konteks Identiti Masyarakat Melayu Singapura |url=http://publisher.unimas.my/ojs/index.php/ILS/article/view/1521 |journal=Issues in Language Studies |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.33736/ils.1521.2019 |s2cid=213343934 |issn=2180-2726|doi-access=free }}</ref>
!
! style=text-align:center | Johor-Riau
Pronunciation
! style=text-align:center | Northern
Pronunciation
! style=text-align:center| ''Baku'' & Indonesian
Pronunciation
|-
|⟨a⟩ in final open syllable
|/ə/
|/a/
|/a/
|-
|⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩
|/e/
|/i/
|/i/
|-
|⟨i⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants
|/e/
|/e/
|/i/
|-
|⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with final ⟨n⟩ and ⟨ng⟩
|/o/
|/u/
|/u/
|-
|⟨u⟩ in final closed syllable with other final consonants
|/o/
|/o/
|/u/
|-
|final ⟨r⟩
|silent
|/r/
|/r/
|}
Study by Uri Tadmor which was published in 2003 shows that mutation of ⟨a⟩ in final open syllable is an areal feature. Specifically, it is an areal feature of Western Austronesia. Uri Tadmor classify those types into four groups as below.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Uri |first=Tadmor |others=CRCL, CRCL, And/Or The Author(S) |title=Final /a/ mutation: a borrowed areal feature in Western Austronesia |url=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-550.15.pdf |journal=Issues in Austronesian Historical Phonology |language=en |publisher=Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University |issue=PL-550 |pages=15–36 |doi=10.15144/PL-550.15 |access-date=2022-11-05 |via=sealang.net/CRCL}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Final /a/ mutation in Malay-Indonesian dialects and nearby Austronesian languages
!Types
!Phonemes
!"Malay" provenance
!Native languages area
|-
|[a] (origin)
|[a]
|[[Kedah]], [[Brunei]]
|Arekan (eg. [[Tenggerese dialect|Tengger]]), [[Sarawak]], [[Sabah]], [[Kalimantan]] (except Pontianak), [[East Indonesian Malay|East Indonesia]]
|-
|Raised
|[ə], [ɨ]
|[[Johor]], [[Pontianak]], [[Tanah Abang]] ([[Jakarta]])
|[[Bali]]
|-
|Rounded
|[o], [ɔ]
|[[Pattani province|Pattani]], [[Palembang]]
|[[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]], Mataraman (eg. [[Yogyakarta]])
|-
|Fronted
|[ɛ], [e]
|[[Perak]], [[Jakarta]], [[Sambas Regency|Sambas]]
|
|}

==Grammar==
{{main|Malay grammar}}

Malay is an [[agglutinative language]], and new words are formed by three methods: attaching affixes onto a root word ([[affixation]]), formation of a [[compound word]] (composition), or repetition of words or portions of words ([[reduplication]]). Nouns and verbs may be basic roots, but frequently they are [[derivation (linguistics)|derived]] from other words by means of [[prefix]]es, [[suffix]]es and [[circumfix]]es.

Malay does not make use of [[grammatical gender]], and there are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word is used for 'he' and 'she' which is ''dia'' or for 'his' and 'her' which is ''dia punya''. There is no grammatical plural in Malay either; thus ''orang'' may mean either 'person' or 'people'. Verbs are not [[inflected language|inflected]] for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as 'yesterday') or by other tense indicators, such as ''sudah'' 'already' and ''belum'' 'not yet'. On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote [[voice (grammar)|voice]] or intentional and accidental [[grammatical mood|moods]].

Malay does not have a [[grammatical subject]] in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] and an [[object (grammar)|object]], these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.{{Citation needed}}

==Vocabulary and borrowed words==
{{Main|List of loanwords in Malay}}
{{Unreferenced section}}
{{Expand section|small=no}}

The Malay language has many words borrowed from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (in particular religious terms), [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], certain [[Sinitic languages]], [[Persian language|Persian]] (due to historical status of Malay Archipelago as a trading hub), and more recently, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[English language|English]] (in particular many scientific and technological terms).

==Varieties and related languages==
{{Main|Malayic languages}}
{{Unreferenced section}}
[[File:Betawi.jpg|thumb|[[Jakarta]]n [[Creole language|Creole]] Malay ([[Betawi language]])]]

There is a group of closely related languages spoken by [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] and related peoples across [[Brunei]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Southern Thailand]], [[Kampung Alor]] in [[East Timor]], and the far southern parts of the [[Philippines]]. They have traditionally been classified as Malay, Para-Malay, and Aboriginal Malay, but this reflects geography and ethnicity rather than a proper linguistic classification. The Malayan languages are [[mutually intelligible]] to varying extents, though the distinction between language and dialect is unclear in many cases.

Para-Malay includes the Malayan languages of [[Sumatra]]. They are: [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]], [[Central Malay]] (Bengkulu), [[Pekal language|Pekal]], [[Talang Mamak language|Talang Mamak]], [[Musi language|Musi]] (Palembang), [[Negeri Sembilan Malay|Negeri Sembilan]] (Malaysia), and [[Duano language|Duano’]].<ref>''Ethnologue'' 16 also lists Col, Haji, Kaur, Kerinci, Kubu, Lubu'.</ref>

Aboriginal Malay are the Malayan languages spoken by the [[Orang Asli]] ([[Proto-Malay]]) in [[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]. They are [[Jakun language|Jakun]], [[Orang Kanaq language|Orang Kanaq]], [[Orang Seletar language|Orang Seletar]], and [[Temuan language|Temuan]].

The other Malayan languages, included in neither of these groups, are associated with the expansion of the Malays across the archipelago. They include Malaccan Malay ([[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]), [[Kedah Malay]], [[Brunei Malay|Kedayan/Brunei Malay]], [[Berau Malay]], [[Bangka Malay]], [[Jambi Malay]], [[Kutai Malay]], [[Natuna Malay]], [[Riau Malay]], [[Orang Laut language|Loncong]], [[Pattani Malay]], and [[Banjar language|Banjarese]]. [[Menterap language|Menterap]] may belong here.

There are also several [[Malay-based creole languages]], such as [[Betawi language|Betawi]], [[Cocos Malay]], [[Dili Malay]], [[Kupang Malay]], [[Manado Malay]] and [[Sabah Malay]], which may be more or less distinct from standard (Malaccan) Malay.

Due to the early settlement of a [[Cape Malay]] community in [[Cape Town]], who are now known as [[Coloured]]s, numerous [[History of the Malay language#Classical Malay|Classical Malay]] words were brought into [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]].

===Usages===
{{Unreferenced section}}
[[File:Alamat lankapuri cover.png|upright=0.8|thumb|right|The [[Alamat Langkapuri]] from [[British Ceylon]] (present-day [[Sri Lanka]]). Initially published between 1869–1870 and written in [[Jawi script]], it is noted to be among the first Malay-language newspaper. The readership consist of the [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malay-diaspora in Ceylon]] as well as in the Malay archipelago.]]

The extent to which Malay and related Malayan languages are used in the countries where it is spoken varies depending on historical and cultural circumstances. Malay is the national language in Malaysia by [[Constitution of Malaysia#Article 152 – National Language and Other Languages|Article 152]] of the [[Constitution of Malaysia]], and became the sole official language in [[West Malaysia]] in 1968, and in [[East Malaysia]] gradually from 1974. [[English language|English]] continues, however, to be widely used in professional and commercial fields and in the superior courts. Other minority languages are also commonly used by the country's large ethnic minorities. The situation in Brunei is similar to that of Malaysia.

In Singapore, Malay was historically the ''[[lingua franca]]'' among people of different nationalities. Although this has largely given way to English, Malay still retains the status of national language and the [[national anthem]], [[Majulah Singapura]], is entirely in Malay. In addition, parade commands in the military, police and civil defence are given only in Malay.

Most residents of the five southernmost provinces of [[Thailand]]—a region that, for the most part, used to be part of an ancient Malay kingdom called [[Pattani kingdom|Pattani]]—speak a dialect of Malay called [[Yawi language|Yawi]] (not to be confused with Jawi), which is similar to Kelantanese Malay, but the language has no official status or recognition.

Owing to earlier contact with the [[Philippines]], Malay words—such as ''dalam hati'' (sympathy), ''luwalhati'' (glory), ''tengah hari'' (midday), ''sedap'' (delicious)—have evolved and been integrated into [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and other [[languages of the Philippines|Philippine languages]].

By contrast, Indonesian has successfully become the ''lingua franca'' for its disparate islands and ethnic groups, in part because the colonial language, Dutch, is no longer commonly spoken. (In [[East Timor]], which was governed as a province of Indonesia from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian is widely spoken and recognized under its [[Constitution]] as a 'working language'.)

Besides [[Indonesia language|Indonesian]], which developed from the [[Malacca sultanate|Malaccan]] dialect, there are many Malay varieties spoken in Indonesia; they are divided into western and eastern groups. Western Malay dialects are predominantly spoken in [[Sumatra]] and [[Borneo]], which itself is divided into Bornean and Sumatran Malay; some of the most widely spoken Sumatran Malay dialects are [[Riau|Riau Malay]], [[Langkat]], [[Musi language|Palembang Malay]] and [[Jambi Malay]]. [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Kerinci people|Kerinci]] and [[Bengkulu]] are believed to be Sumatran Malay descendants. Meanwhile, the [[Jakarta]] dialect (known as [[Betawi language|Betawi]]) also belongs to the western Malay group.

The eastern varieties, classified either as dialects or [[Malay trade and creole languages|creoles]], are spoken in the easternmost part of the Indonesian archipelago and include [[Manado Malay]], [[Ambonese Malay]], [[North Moluccan Malay]], and [[Papuan Malay]].

The differences among both groups are quite observable. For example, the word ''kita'' means 'we, us' in western, but means 'I, me' in Manado, whereas 'we, us" in Manado is ''torang'' and Ambon ''katong'' (originally abbreviated from Malay ''kita orang'' 'we people'). Another difference is the lack of possessive pronouns (and suffixes) in eastern dialects. Manado uses the verb ''pe'' and Ambon ''pu'' (from Malay ''punya'' 'to have') to mark possession. So 'my name' and 'our house" are translated in western Malay as ''namaku'' and ''rumah kita'' but ''kita pe nama'' and ''torang pe rumah'' in Manado and ''beta pu nama'', ''katong pu rumah'' in Ambon dialect.

The pronunciation may vary in western dialects, especially the pronunciation of words ending in the vowel 'a'. For example, in some parts of Malaysia and in Singapore, ''kita'' (inclusive 'we, us, our') is pronounced as {{IPA|/kitə/}}, in Kelantan and Southern Thailand as {{IPA|/kitɔ/}}, in Riau as {{IPA|/kita/}}, in Palembang as {{IPA|/kito/}}, in Betawi and Perak as {{IPA|/kitɛ/}} and in Kedah and Perlis as /kitɑ/.

Batavian and eastern dialects are sometimes regarded as Malay creole, because the speakers are not ethnically Malay.

==Examples==

All Malay speakers should be able to understand either of the translations below, which differ mostly in their choice of wording. The words for 'article', ''pasal'' and ''perkara'', and for 'declaration', ''pernyataan'' and ''perisytiharan'', are specific to the Indonesian and Malaysian standards, respectively, but otherwise all the words are found in both (and even those words may be found with slightly different meanings).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]
! rowspan="2" |English
! colspan="2" |Malay
|-
! Indonesian<ref>Standard named as stated in:
{{Cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=mli|access-date=17 March 2021|website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}}</ref>
!Standard "Malay"<ref>The other language standard aside from "Indonesian" is named simply as "Malay", as stated in:
{{Cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Bahasa Melayu (Malay))|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=mli|website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}}</ref>
|-
|'''Universal Declaration of Human Rights''' || '''Pernyataan Umum tentang Hak Asasi Manusia''' (General Declaration about Human Rights) || '''Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat''' (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
|-
|'''Article 1'''||'''Pasal 1'''||'''Perkara 1'''
|-
|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
| ''Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.'' 
(All human beings are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should get along with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.)
| ''Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan sama rata dari segi maruah dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.'' 
(All human beings are born free and are equal in dignity and rights. They have thoughts and feelings and should get along with a spirit of brotherhood.)
|}

==See also==
* [[Comparison of Standard Malay and Indonesian]]
* [[Indonesian language]]
* [[Jawi script]], an [[Arabic script|Arabic alphabet]] for Malay
* [[Languages of Indonesia]]
* [[List of English words of Malay origin]]
* [[Malajoe Batawi]]
* [[Malaysian English]], the English used formally in Malaysia
* [[Malaysian language]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|group=fn}}
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite journal |last=Adelaar |first=K. Alexander |title=Where does Malay come from? Twenty years of discussions about homeland, migrations and classifications |journal=[[Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde]] |volume=160 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003733 |doi-access=free |jstor=27868100 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=B. |first=C. O. |title=Corrigenda and Addenda: A Chinese Vocabulary of Malacca Malay Words and Phrases Collected between A.D. 1403 and 1511 (?) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London |volume=10 |issue=1 |jstor=607921 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Braginsky |editor-first=Vladimir |orig-year=First published 2002 |title=Classical Civilizations of South-East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366 |location=Oxford |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-84879-7}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=E. D. |last2=Blagden |first2=C. O. |title=A Chinese Vocabulary of Malacca Malay Words and Phrases Collected between A. D. 1403 and 1511 (?) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=715–749 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00093204 |jstor=607205 |s2cid=129174700 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Richard James |year=1901–1903 |title=A Malay-English Dictionary |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genpub/AEG2034.0001.001?rgn=main;view=toc |location=Singapore |publisher=Kelly & Walsh }}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ms}}
{{InterWiki|code=id}}
* [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Malay Swadesh list|Swadesh list of Malay words]]
* [http://www.sealang.net/malay/dictionary.htm Digital version of Wilkinson's 1926 Malay-English Dictionary]
* [http://prpm.dbp.gov.my Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu], online Malay language database provided by the [[Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111224121004/http://bahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/kbbi/ Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia dalam jaringan] (Online Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language published by Pusat Bahasa, in Indonesian only)
* [http://www.dbp.gov.my Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka] (Institute of Language and Literature Malaysia, in Malay only)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100706054017/http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j11/malay.php The Malay Spelling Reform], Asmah Haji Omar, (Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society, 1989-2 pp. 9–13 later designated J11)
* [http://www.ekamus.info Malay Chinese Dictionary]
* [https://archive.today/20140816074940/http://hablaa.com/english-malay/ Malay English Dictionary]
* [http://www.malaytranslate.com Malay English Translation]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Malay Language}}
[[Category:Malay language| ]]
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1987 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2022-09-27T16:07:30Z

Vijay6396: Shaped a unique article.

#REDIRECT [[1987 Rajya Sabha elections]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Sharia Law

2022-07-08T08:03:29Z

Vijay6396: Published a well-researched resource.

#Redirect [[Sharia]]

Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests

2021-05-25T21:58:07Z

Vijay6396:

{{Infobox person
| name = Pradyum Patidar
| image = Pradyum Patidar.jpg
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2002|11|13}}
| birth_place = Gawali Palasiya, Mhow, Indore
| nationality = India
| other_names =
| occupation = Entrepreneur and Youtuber
| years_active =
| known_for = ForeverHelps
| notable_works =
}}
'''Pradyum Patidar''' (born 13 November 2002) is an Indian entrepreneur, Youtuber and the founder of ForeverHelps a Indore-based digital marketing agency. <ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2021-04-24|title=Pradyum Patidar : Entrepreneurship And Advanced Business Techniques|url=https://gpindian.com/pradyum-patidar-very-talented-youtuber-digital-marketing-influencer/|date=22 March 2021|website=GP Indian}}</ref> He works as a YouTuber, blogger, social media advisor, and is a trade advisor. He has over 4.99K subscribers on his YouTube channel.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2021-04-24|title=Meet very talented Youtuber & Digital Marketing Influencer: Pradyum Patidar|url=https://formalfootage.com/meet-very-talented-youtuber-digital-marketing-influencer-pradyum-patidar/|website=Formal Footage}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Pradyum was born and brought up in Gawli Palasiya, Mhow, Indore on November 13, 2002. He is a Second-year student of B.com.<ref>{{cite web|first1=IMDB|last1=Desk|accessdate=2021-04-24|title=Pradyum Patidar|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm12086873/|date=22 November 2020|website=www.imdb.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2021-04-24|title=Meet Pradyum Patidar, Indore youngest entrepreneur and founder of TalkAmingo |url=https://disruptmagazine.in/meet-pradyum-patidar-indore-youngest-entrepreneur-and-founder-of-talkamingo/|website=Disrupt Magazine}}</ref> He is currently writing song lyrics for his debut single.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Youtube|c=UCHxyCVsZG9RDlZk_0JUh5WQ}}
*{{Facebook|pradyum.patidar.05}}
*{{Instagram|pradyum_patidar05}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurs]]

Draft:Pradyum Patidar

2021-05-25T21:54:08Z

Vijay6396: