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Article 370 (film)

2026-05-06T13:30:39Z

Vedpsagar: redirect created

{{short description|2024 Indian Hindi political action thriller film by Aditya Suhas Jambhale}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Article 370
| image = Article 370 film poster.jpeg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Aditya Suhas Jambhale
| screenplay = {{ubl|[[Aditya Dhar]]|Aditya Suhas Jambhale|Arjun Dhawan|Monal Thaakar}}
| producer = {{ubl|[[Jyoti Deshpande]]|Aditya Dhar|Lokesh Dhar}}
| story = {{ubl|Aditya Dhar|Monal Thaakar}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Yami Gautam Dhar]]|[[Priyamani]]}}
| narrator = [[Ajay Devgn]]
| music = [[Shashwat Sachdev]]
| cinematography = Siddharth Deena Vasani
| editing = Shivkumar V. Panicker
| studio = {{ubl|
[[B62 Studios]]|[[Jio Studios]]}}
| distributor = [[PVR Inox Pictures]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2024|02|23}}
| runtime = 158 minutes<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/article-370-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmde5mdi1 |title=''Article 370'' (12A) |website=[[British Board of Film Classification]] |date=16 February 2024 |access-date=16 February 2024 |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723050731/https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/article-370-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmde5mdi1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|20}} crore<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 February 2024 |title=Article 370 Box Office Collection Day 1: Good Start To Yami Gautam-Priyamani's Political Drama |first1=Ridhi |last1=Suri |url=https://www.thedailyjagran.com/entertainment/article-370-box-office-collection-day-1-decent-start-to-yami-gautam-priyamani-political-drama-budget-stoyline-10135696 |access-date=24 February 2024 |work=[[Dainik Jagran|English Jagran]] |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224080459/https://english.jagran.com/entertainment/article-370-box-office-collection-day-1-decent-start-to-yami-gautam-priyamani-political-drama-budget-stoyline-10135696 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| gross = {{INR|110.57}} crore<ref name="Box Office">{{Cite web|title=Article 370 Box Office|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/article-370/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office|access-date=24 February 2024|website=Bollywood Hungama|date=23 February 2024|archive-date=25 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225065127/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/article-370/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

'''''Article 370''''' is a 2024 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Political fiction|political]] [[action thriller]] film directed by Aditya Suhas Jambhale, who co-wrote the film with [[Aditya Dhar]], Monal Thaakar and Arjun Dhawan. Produced by [[Jyoti Deshpande]], Aditya Dhar, and Lokesh Dhar, the film stars [[Yami Gautam Dhar]] and [[Priyamani]], alongside Skand Thakur, Ashwini Kaul, [[Vaibhav Tatwawadi]], [[Arun Govil]], and [[Kiran Karmarkar]]. It is based on the 2019 [[revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir|revocation]] of the special status to Jammu and Kashmir granted in [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India]].

The film was released worldwide on 23 February 2024. It grossed over {{INR|110}} crore at the box office against the budget of {{INR|20}} crore. Critics praised the direction, narrative style and Yami Gautam Dhar's performance. But they criticised the film for distortion of facts, depicting narratives favouring the ruling [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in the run-up to the [[2024 Indian general elections|2024 general elections]] and for ignoring the views of the [[Kashmiri people]].<ref name="Guardian"/><ref name="Andrabi"/><ref name="Langer"/><ref name="Anuj Kumar"/>

''Article 370'' received 8 nominations at the [[70th Filmfare Awards]] including [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]], [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] (Jambhale) and [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] (Gautam Dhar), winning the award for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Story|Best Story]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Nominations for The 70th Hyundai Filmfare Awards 2025 With Gujarat Tourism: Full List Out
|url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/nominations-for-the-70th-hyundai-filmfare-awards-2025-with-gujarat-tourism-full-list-out-78037.html|date=26 September 2025|website=Filmfare}}</ref>

==Plot==

This film is divided into six chapters.

=== Chapter 1: The Lover Boy of Tral ===
NIA officer Zooni Haskar poses as a manicurist to blackmail Sabia, the girlfriend of terrorist leader [[Burhan Wani]] into providing information about his whereabouts. Using this information, she leads an operation to eliminate him without authorization from her superiors. The operation is successful, and Wani is killed in a gunfight without any of the civilians present at the compound being harmed. This provides separatist leader Yakub Shiekh and his allies an opportunity to portray him as a martyr, and they launch an agitation across the state with covert political backing, as well as replacing Wani with another terrorist leader, Zakir Naikoo. The worsening law and order situation causes Zooni to be reprimanded and transferred to [[New Delhi]].

=== Chapter 2: A Knock on the Door ===
Rajeshwari Swaminathan, the Joint Secretary at the PMO (Prime Minister's Office) been questioned about the stability and security of the Kashmir Valley. She meets with Jagmohan Patil, former Governor of Kashmir, to discuss the possibility of abrogating Article 370. She brings the NIA into Kashmir in order to stabilise the situation, which has worsened after the elimination of Burhan Wani, to investigate all terror cases in the state. Later, Salahuddin Jalal (based on Omar Abdullah) arrives at Delhi, and is guarded by Zooni, who was originally based in Kashmir, but was demoted after the neutralisation of Wani. Meanwhile, Parveena Andrabi (Mehbooba Mufti) meets with Rajeshwari to discuss the situation in Kashmir, who criticises the Central Government's operations in Kashmir without the State's approval. Jalal, while going to meet the PM, talks to Zooni, mentioning her father, Kabir (a whistleblower who was framed in the J&K Bank scam), who was found dead in a lake in Kashmir by suicide, much to the frustration of Zooni. The Government of India was unable to investigate the scam due to Article 370. Rajeshwari meets with Zooni, trying to convince her to go back to Kashmir to try to abrogate Article 370. She refuses, but Rajeshwari asks her to sleep on it. After Rajeshwari tells Zooni that Kashmir is now under Governor's Rule, she accepts the offer under the condition that two more people can be on the team.

=== Chapter 3: Blindspot ===
Zooni meets her team in Srinagar which includes Namita Chaturvedi, an Assistan Enforcement Officer for the ED, Gaurang Sengupta, a Financial Crime Consultant for the CBI, Ashish Mattoo, and her two requested members. She discusses a stone-pelting incident in Anantnag, where youth were handed cash to throw stones. Shamsher Abdali was the primary suspect for the funding. They decide to investigate his dry fruit business if it has any leads, but it fails to obtain any evidence. Zooni, however, suggests that Abdali may be using a different method rather than cash. So they instead raid a dry fruit warehouse, and discover that the workers work for a contractor. After tapping his phone, they discover that code-names are used in phone conversations. All of the code-names used are names of arch-angels in Islam such as Azrael. Among them is one named Jibril, revealed to be Abdali, who is both an ISI agent and double agent working for Khawar, a former senior of Zooni, who reveals his location under pressure. Despite a planned mob placed to stop them by Andrabi, Zooni and the CRPF manage to secure Abdali, who injures himself in custody to stall them for time while Jalal and Andrabi try to form a coalition government and gain control of the Valley once the Governor’s rule is removed. However, the fax machine at the Indian ministry doesn’t work, and President’s rule is imposed on Kashmir, foiling their plans. Zooni learns from Rajeshwari that they plan on abrogating Article 370. Tragedy strikes on 14 February 2019 when her friend Chauhan is killed when [[2019 Pulwama attack | the bus carrying him and other Indian army soldiers is bombed by terrorists in revenge]].

=== Chapter 4: Save the Date ===
Grief-stricken and enraged, Zooni captures and interrogates Yakub Sheikh who reveals that the mastermind of the bombing was Naikoo and she also has Khawar removed from his position for once again, unwittingly aiding the separatists. The government decides to work on abrogating Article 370 as Zooni recovers a vital document hidden in a Kashmir library, integral in removing it. She finds out that a sub-clause 'd' is removed due to historical reasons.

=== Chapter 5: Sub-clause (d) ===
After Rajeshwari briefs the Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]], Zooni's team make preparations for handling the numerous problems that can occur in the valley while doing so such as suppressing all forms of social unrest that could be created, arresting all anti-Indian elements in the Valley including Sheikh’s fellow conspirators and separatist leaders as well as keeping the mission a secret from the media, whom they confuse with multiple fake stories, and even tricking the Pakistani military, something Khawar helps them with.

=== Chapter 6: It Was, It Is, and It Always Will Be ===
The PM and Home Minister work on passing the bill in the Rajya Sabha, where his party is in minority and faces challenges from the opposition party members while maintaining that Kashmir is a part of India and they have the power of removing the special status. Zooni and her team uncover Naikoo’s plan to kill Jalal as a way to discrediting the Indian Government, causing sanctions to be imposed on the country. As Gaurang poses as Jalal, they leave for a safe house in a convoy which is then attacked by Naikoo and his men, whom the CRPF forces engage with and defeat. The bill passes just as Zooni kills Naikoo, avenging her friend as Article 370 is abrogated.

The PM, Home Minister, Rajeshwari and the NIA team celebrate their victory and mourns those lost in the fight. Zooni finds peace as her father’s case file is reopened for investigation. The end credits show real-life photos of the peace and progress that has since taken place in Kashmir after the abrogation of Article 370.

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Yami Gautam Dhar]] as [[National Investigation Agency|NIA]] officer Zooni Haksar
* [[Priyamani]] as [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|PMO]] [[Joint Secretary to the Government of India|Joint Secretary]] Rajeshwari Swaminathan
* [[Raj Arjun]] as ID Station Chief of [[Srinagar]], Khawar Ali
* Shivam Khajuria as [[Burhan Wani]]
* [[Vaibhav Tatwawadi]] as Deputy Commandant [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]] Yash Chauhan
* [[Arun Govil]] as the [[Prime Minister of India]] (based on [[Narendra Modi]])
* [[Raj Zutshi]] as Former [[Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir]] Salahuddin Jalal (based on [[Omar Abdullah]])
* [[Divya Seth]] as [[Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir]] Parveena Andrabi (based on [[Mehbooba Mufti]])
* [[Kiran Karmarkar]] as the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Home Minister of India]] Madhav Patel (based on [[Amit Shah]])
* [[Sumit Kaul]] as Yakub Shaikh (based on [[Yasin Malik]])
* [[Iravati Harshe]] as Brinda Ghosh (based on [[Nidhi Razdan]])
* [[Mohan Agashe]] as Former [[Governor of Jammu and Kashmir]] Jagmohan Patil (based on [[Jagmohan]])
* Skand Sanjeev Thakur as Wasim Abbasi
* Ashwini Koul as Zakir Naikoo (based on [[Riyaz Naikoo]])
* Ashwini Kumar as Ashish Mattoo
* Asit Redij as Rohit Thappar (based on [[Gulam Nabi Azad]])
* Jaya Virlley as Pranjali
* Sanya Sagar as Namita Chaturvedi
* Rajiv Kumar as Shamsher Abdali
* Mithil Shah as Siddharth
* B. Shantanu as the [[Vice-President of India]] (based on [[Venkaiah Naidu]])
* Ajay Shankar as Gaurang Sengupta
* Toshir Nalwat as Pa Mohsin
* Sukhita Aiyar as Anuradha Pattnaik
* Sandeep Chatterjee as [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] Chief
{{div col end}}

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Article 370
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Shashwat Sachdev]]
| released = 19 February 2024
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 25:44
| language = Hindi
| label = [[Saregama]]
| prev_title = [[Tejas (film)|Tejas]]
| prev_year = 2023
| year = 2024
| next_title = [[Ulajh]]
| next_year = 2024
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio
| {{YouTube|5leX1xOJ8YM|Article 370 Full Album}}
}}
}}

The music of the film is composed by [[Shashwat Sachdev]] while lyrics are written by Osho Jain, [[Sudhanshu Saria]], [[Kumaar]] and Shashwat Sachdev.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=19 February 2024 |title=Article 370 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/ishq-tera/1731819652?i=1731819657 |publisher=Apple Music |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219115210/https://music.apple.com/us/album/ishq-tera/1731819652?i=1731819657 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length = 25:44
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ishq Tera
| extra1 = [[Sanjith Hegde]], [[Shashwat Sachdev]]
| lyrics1 = Osho Jain
| length1 = 3:45
| title2 = Main Hoon
| extra2 = [[Sanjith Hegde]], Shashwat Sachdev
| lyrics2 = [[Sudhanshu Saria]]
| length2 = 3:21
| title3 = Aandhi
| extra3 = [[Clinton Cerejo]], Shehzad Ali, Shashwat Sachdev
| lyrics3 = [[Kumaar]]
| length3 = 3:34
| title4 = Dua
| extra4 = [[Jubin Nautiyal]], Priyanshi Naidu, Shashwat Sachdev
| lyrics4 = Kumaar
| length4 = 4:38
| title5 = Main Tujhe Phir Miloongi
| extra5 = [[Vibha Saraf]], Shashwat Sachdev
| lyrics5 = Kumaar
| length5 = 5:32
| title6 = Najariya LoFi Cake Mix
| extra6 = Shashwat Sachdev
| lyrics6 = Shashwat Sachdev
| length6 = 2:36
| title7 = Masters Of The World
| extra7 = [[Shashwat Sachdev]]
| lyrics7 = Shashwat Sachdev
| length7 = 1:58
}}

==Release==
The film was released worldwide on 23 February 2024 and premiered on [[Netflix]] on 19 April 2024.<ref name="DNAIndia">{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Simran |title=Article 370 OTT release: Here's when and where you can enjoy Yami Gautam's political thriller |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-article-370-ott-release-when-where-you-can-enjoy-yami-gautam-political-thriller-priyamani-arun-govil-netflix-3085911 |access-date=26 August 2024 |publisher=DNA India |date=18 April 2024}}</ref>

== Box office ==
As of 11 April 2024, ''Article 370'' has grossed {{INRConvert|98.06|c}} in India, with a further {{INRConvert|12.51|c}} in overseas, for a worldwide total of {{INRConvert|110.57|c}}.<ref name="Box Office" />

==Reception==
{{Rotten Tomatoes prose|score=83|count=6|average=6.7|consensus=|ref=yes |access-date=8 March 2024}}<ref>{{cite Rotten Tomatoes|title=Article 370|id=article_370
|type=m|access-date=8 March 2024}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
Devesh Sharma of ''[[Filmfare]]'' gave 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "the film is a cracker of an action film and if one doesn't dwell on its political stance much, can be thoroughly enjoyed as an action thriller."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sharma |first1=Devesh |title=Article 370 Movie Review |url=https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/bollywood-movies/article-370-movie-review-64622.html |publisher=[[Filmfare]] |access-date=23 February 2024 |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223142133/https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/bollywood-movies/article-370-movie-review-64622.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Abhishek Srivastava of ''[[The Times of India]]'' also rated 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "''Article 370'' remains engaging for the most part" and that the film "proves to be a worthwhile watch, offering enough substance to keep viewers engaged and invested".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Srivastava |first1=Abhishek |title=Article 370 Movie Review : This intriguing drama sheds light on Kashmir's complex dynamics |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/article-370/movie-review/107922321.cms |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723050733/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/article-370/movie-review/107922321.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Monika Rawal Kukreja of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' wrote that "''Article 370'' underlines one of the most crucial chapters in our nation's history. With an impressive writing, simple narrative and outstanding direction, it effortlessly manages to send across the message it intends to".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kukreja |first1=Monika Rawal |title=Article 370 movie review: Yami Gautam, Priyamani steal the show in this impactful, engaging tale |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-priyamani-steal-the-show-chapter-101708656432240.html |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224191731/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-priyamani-steal-the-show-chapter-101708656432240.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mukund Setlur, writing for the [[Deccan Herald]] gave a rating of 2.5/5 and added that "While elements of drama and action are aplenty, the film lacks the intelligence and the genuineness needed to sustain a conversation."<ref name="Setlur">{{cite web |last=Setlur |first=Mukund |date=24 February 2024 |title='Article 370' movie review: Another thinly veiled propaganda film |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/article-370-movie-review-another-thinly-veiled-propaganda-film-2908141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224040759/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/article-370-movie-review-another-thinly-veiled-propaganda-film-2908141 |archive-date=24 February 2024 |access-date=27 March 2024 |website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

[[File:Yami Gautam at Lokmat Most Stylish Awards 2019 (7) (cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|Critics praised the performance of [[Yami Gautam Dhar]]]]

Calling it a "hard-hitting political drama", Titas Chowdhury of ''[[CNN-News18]]'' rated 3.5 out of 5 stars, and stated that "the makers waste no time and dive into the crux of the story in the first half and it makes for a fast-paced experience till the point of intermission. It's the second half of the film that appears stretched out".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Titas |title=Article 370 Review: Yami Gautam Delivers Stellar Performance in Hard-hitting Political Drama |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/article-370-review-yami-gautam-delivers-stellar-performance-in-hard-hitting-political-drama-8789305.html |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[CNN-News18]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723050733/https://www.news18.com/movies/article-370-review-yami-gautam-delivers-stellar-performance-in-hard-hitting-political-drama-8789305.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Lachmi Deb Roy of ''[[Firstpost]]'' awarded 3 out of 5, calling it a "compelling narrative that informs and engages without making it look like a history and civics lesson"<ref name="Firstpost">{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Lachmi Deb |title=Article 370 Movie Review: Yami Gautam's engaging film throws light on Kashmir's complex issues |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautams-engaging-film-throws-light-on-kashmirs-complex-issues-13740934.html |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[Firstpost]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723050731/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautams-engaging-film-throws-light-on-kashmirs-complex-issues-13740934.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Asmita Pant of ''[[CNBC TV18]]'' wrote that "the film offers a grounded perspective on the Kashmir issue. It delves deep into emotions but never interrupts the story's flow", and that "the filmmakers have eschewed sensationalism" and created a "narrative infused with cinematic flair".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pant |first1=Asmita |title=Article 370: A cinematic dive into the Kashmir conundrum backed with powerful performances |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/entertainment/review-article-370-a-cinematic-dive-into-the-kashmir-conundrum-backed-with-powerful-performances-19116141.htm |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[CNBC TV18]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223094258/https://www.cnbctv18.com/entertainment/review-article-370-a-cinematic-dive-into-the-kashmir-conundrum-backed-with-powerful-performances-19116141.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sana Farzeen of ''[[India Today]]'' rated 3 out of 5 stars and added that "''Article 370'' is a well-made film but will test your patience with its run-time of 2 hours and 40 minutes", also noted that the film is "tuned to the propaganda value" for the ruling government.<ref name="Farzeen">{{cite web |last=Farzeen |first=Sana |title='Article 370' Review: Yami Gautam, Priya Mani impress in film on Kashmir politics |website=India Today |date=23 February 2024 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/article-370-review-yami-gautam-priya-mani-kashmiri-politics-2506064-2024-02-23 |access-date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723051136/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/article-370-review-yami-gautam-priya-mani-kashmiri-politics-2506064-2024-02-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> Shalini Langer of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated 2.5/5 and added that the film "serves its politics unabashedly as it mixes facts with fiction".<ref name="Langer">{{cite web |last=Langer |first=Shalini |title=Article 370 movie review: Yami Gautam-starrer serves its politics unabashedly |website=The Indian Express |date=23 February 2024 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-starrer-serves-its-politics-unabashedly-9176508/ |access-date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223061931/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-starrer-serves-its-politics-unabashedly-9176508/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A critic from ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' gave 3.5 out of 5 stars and called it "a gripping tale that attempts to depict an important chapter of India’s history in an entertaining and simple manner."<ref name="Bollywood Hungama">{{cite web |author1=Bollywood Hungama News Network |title=Article 370 Movie Review: ARTICLE 370 is a gripping tale |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/article-370/critic-review/article-370-movie-review/article-370-is-a-gripping-tale/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=23 February 2024 |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223064941/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/article-370/critic-review/article-370-movie-review/article-370-is-a-gripping-tale/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Rohit Bhatnagar of ''[[The Free Press Journal]]'' rated 3 in a scale of 5, stating that "Yami Gautam’s film voices truth but in a textbook manner ... Away from the picking political sides or even having his own ideology in place, Aditya sheds light on what had happened and that’s like cherry on top".<ref name="freepress">{{cite news |last1=Bhatnagar |first1=Rohit |title=Article 370 Review: Yami Gautam's Film Voices Truth But In A Textbook Manner |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/movie-review/article-370-review-yami-gautams-film-voices-truth-but-in-a-textbook-manner |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[The Free Press Journal]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223164121/https://www.freepressjournal.in/movie-review/article-370-review-yami-gautams-film-voices-truth-but-in-a-textbook-manner |url-status=live }}</ref> Abhimanyu Mathur of ''[[Daily News and Analysis]]'' awarded 3.5 out of 5 stars, and said that "it is a technically well-made film, packed with great performances, seamless direction, and a solid background score"; it "excels when it is being a thriller", however, "the film falters when it tries to get political. Because at this point, it resorts to boring tropes, caricatures, and over-the-top acting".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mathur |first1=Abhimanyu |title=Article 370 movie review: Flawless Yami Gautam elevates this well-made but uneven thriller on Kashmir's special status |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-elevates-well-made-uneven-thriller-on-kashmir-priya-mani-aditya-dhar-jk-3079051 |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[DNA India]] |date=23 February 2024 |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223090934/https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-elevates-well-made-uneven-thriller-on-kashmir-priya-mani-aditya-dhar-jk-3079051 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Factual accuracy and political messaging ==

The film is focused on [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India]] which granted special autonomous status to the region of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. However, critics have described the movie as "factually incorrect" and a “distortion” of facts.<ref name="Andrabi">{{cite web | last=Andrabi | first=Kaisar | title=Modi-backed Article 370 film rankles as political jousting moves to cinema | website=South China Morning Post | date=28 February 2024 | url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3253529/indias-kashmir-residents-outraged-modi-backed-article-370-propaganda-film-over-historical-distortion | access-date=27 March 2024 | archive-date=23 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723051311/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3253529/indias-kashmir-residents-outraged-modi-backed-article-370-propaganda-film-over-historical-distortion | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite web | last=Ellis-Petersen | first=Hannah | title='Brazen propaganda': pro-Modi films flood Bollywood before India election | website=the Guardian | date=22 March 2024 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2024/mar/22/brazen-propaganda-pro-modi-films-flood-bollywood-before-india-election | access-date=27 March 2024 | archive-date=23 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723051140/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2024/mar/22/brazen-propaganda-pro-modi-films-flood-bollywood-before-india-election | url-status=live }}</ref>

Indian PM [[Narendra Modi]] had endorsed the movie<ref>{{cite news |last1=Saaliq |first1=Sheikh |title=From Article 370 to Savarkar biopic: How Bollywood is embracing Hindu nationalism to promote Narendra Modi |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/india/india-elections-modi-bollywood-article-370-savarkar-b2516879.html |access-date=26 November 2025 |publisher=The Independent |date=22 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ellis-Petersen |first1=Hannah |title=This article is more than 1 year old ‘Brazen propaganda’: pro-Modi films flood Bollywood before India election |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2024/mar/22/brazen-propaganda-pro-modi-films-flood-bollywood-before-india-election |access-date=26 November 2025 |publisher=The Guardian |date=22 March 2024}}</ref> and claimed it to be a source of "correct information",<ref>{{cite news |title=PM Modi says Article 370 movie ‘useful for people to get correct information’; actor Yami Gautam reacts |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/pm-modi-says-article-370-film-useful-for-people-to-get-correct-information-actor-yami-gautam-reacts-11708483395274.html |access-date=26 November 2025 |publisher=LiveMint |date=21 February 2024}}</ref> however, producer [[Aditya Dhar]] clarified that the movie is not a factual account but a work of fiction inspired by the actual events.<ref name="Sabrang"/> The movie is seen by some as a "thinly veiled propaganda film" that favours India's ruling [[Bharatiya Janta Party]] in order to bring political mileage for it during the upcoming [[2024 Indian general elections]].<ref name="AP">{{cite web | last=Saaliq | first=Sheikh | title=As India's election nears, some Bollywood films promote Modi politics by embracing Hindu nationalism | website=AP News | date=22 March 2024 | url=https://apnews.com/article/india-general-elections-2024-bollywood-modi-nationalism-2aea78fec4324d805d74ddc2bff9f633 | access-date=27 March 2024 | archive-date=28 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328054626/https://apnews.com/article/india-general-elections-2024-bollywood-modi-nationalism-2aea78fec4324d805d74ddc2bff9f633 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite web | last=Purohit | first=Kunal | title=Bollywood 'takeover': Pro-Modi films swamp Indian voters ahead of election | website=Al Jazeera | date=9 March 2024 | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2024/3/9/bollywood-take-over-pro-modi-films-swamp-indian-voters-ahead-of-election | access-date=27 March 2024 | archive-date=27 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327062707/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2024/3/9/bollywood-take-over-pro-modi-films-swamp-indian-voters-ahead-of-election | url-status=live }}</ref> The movie was made tax-free in two of the BJP governed states, [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Chhattisgarh]]. The film screening in different states was attended by the BJP leaders and in some instances they campaigned for the movie and the elections.<ref name="TheQuint">{{cite web | last=Aditya Menon | first=Himanshi Dahiya | title=2024 Lok Sabha Elections: Bollywood's Pre-Poll Hindutva Film Spree Is Being Funded and Promoted by BJP People | website=TheQuint | date=4 April 2024 | url=https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/bollywood-bjp-jnu-savarkar-godhra-article-370-2024-lok-sabha-elections#read-more | access-date=6 April 2024}}</ref>

The film has been noted for having numerous factual inaccuracies, and one-sided narrative.<ref name="Sabrang">{{cite web | title=Article 370: Calculated timing, one-sided narrative, unfounded justification of human rights violations | website=[[Sabrang India]] | date=5 March 2024 | first1=Kris | last1=Chudawala | first2=Tanya | last2=Arora | url=https://sabrangindia.in/article-370-calculated-timing-one-sided-narrative-unfounded-justification-of-human-rights-violations/ | access-date=27 March 2024 | archive-date=26 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326185424/https://sabrangindia.in/article-370-calculated-timing-one-sided-narrative-unfounded-justification-of-human-rights-violations/ | url-status=live }}</ref> It blames the Indian PM [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] for delaying the [[Kashmir conflict#Accession|accession of Jammu and Kashmir]] until [[Sheikh Abdullah]] was allowed power.<ref name="Anuj Kumar">{{cite web | last=Kumar | first=Anuj | title='Article 370' movie review: Yami Gautam steers this explainer on the government's Kashmir policy | website=The Hindu | date=23 February 2024 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-steers-this-explainer-on-the-governments-kashmir-policy/article67877818.ece | access-date=3 April 2024 | archive-date=25 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325210117/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/article-370-movie-review-yami-gautam-steers-this-explainer-on-the-governments-kashmir-policy/article67877818.ece | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ramnath">{{citation |last=Ramnath |first=Nandini |title=‘Article 370’ review: A puff piece about the decision to strip Jammu and Kashmir of special status |date=23 February 2024 |newspaper=Scroll.in |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1063700/article-370-review-a-puff-piece-about-the-decision-to-strip-jammu-and-kashmir-of-special-status}}</ref> At the same time, the film is silent on the BJP's coalition government with the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party]].<ref name="Anuj Kumar" /> Critics said the film's treatment of the Kashmiri movement for autonomy aligns with the ruling government's narrative<ref name="Ramnath" /> as it is depicted as being made up of corrupt, caricatured politicians, brainwashed militants, and paid stone-pelters, all controlled by Pakistan without any capacity for independent thought.<ref>{{citation |last=Das |first=Tina |title=Aditya Dhar’s ‘Article 370’ wins over Kashmir Files, Kerala Story. Focuses on entertainment |date=23 February 2024 |newspaper=The Print |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/aditya-dhars-article-370-wins-over-kashmir-files-kerala-story-focuses-on-entertainment/1976434/}}</ref> Some reviewers said that the film normalises custodial beating and torture by presenting it as a necessary act against those who are "deserving it"<ref name="Sabrang"/> and that it further shows contempt to the institutions of democracy including the opposition and the journalists.<ref name="Setlur"/>

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Nominee/Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
| rowspan="6" |2025
| rowspan="6" |[[25th IIFA Awards]]
|[[IIFA Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
|''Article 370''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="6" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Awasthi |first=Pragati |date=2025-03-07 |title=IIFA Awards 2025: Date, time, host, venue, nominees list and more |url=https://www.wionews.com/entertainment/iifa-awards-2025-date-time-host-venue-nominees-list-and-more-8831806 |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=Wion |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IIFA Awards 2025: Laapataa Ladies Sweeps 10 Awards. Kartik Aaryan Named Best Actor. Check Full List Of Winners |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/iifa-awards-2025-laapataa-ladies-sweeps-with-10-awards-kartik-aaryan-named-best-actor-check-full-list-of-winners-7888397 |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
|Aditya Suhas Jambhale
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|[[Yami Gautam]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|[[Priyamani]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]
|[[Jubin Nautiyal]] {{small|for "Dua"}}
|{{won}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Dialogue|Best Dialogue]]
|Arjun Dhawan, [[Aditya Dhar]], Aditya Suhas Jambhale, Monal Thaakar
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan="8" |2025
| rowspan="8" |[[70th Filmfare Awards]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
|''Article 370''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="8"|<ref>{{cite news |title=Nominations for The 70th Hyundai Filmfare Awards 2025 With Gujarat Tourism: Full List Out
|url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/nominations-for-the-70th-hyundai-filmfare-awards-2025-with-gujarat-tourism-full-list-out-78037.html|date=26 September 2025|website=Filmfare}}</ref>
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
|rowspan="2"|Aditya Suhas Jambhale
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Debut Director|Best Debut Director]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|[[Yami Gautam]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|[[Priyamani]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Story|Best Story]]
|[[Aditya Dhar]] and Monal Thaakar
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]]
|Aditya Dhar, Aditya Suhas Jambhale, Arjun Dhawan, Monal Thaakar
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]
|Veera Kapoor EE
|{{nom}}
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt30970235}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|id=article-370}}

[[Category:2024 action drama films]]
[[Category:2024 action thriller films]]
[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:Art works that caused riots]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of police departments in India]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Jammu Kashmir Police]]
[[Category:Films à clef]]
[[Category:Films about Islamic terrorism in India]]
[[Category:Films about religious violence in India]]
[[Category:Films set in 1990]]
[[Category:Films set in Delhi]]
[[Category:Films set in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Films set in Kashmir]]
[[Category:Films shot in Dehradun]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mussoorie]]
[[Category:Films shot in Srinagar]]
[[Category:Hindi-language action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian Army in films]]
[[Category:Indian nonlinear narrative films]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies in Asia]]
[[Category:Kashmir conflict in films]]
[[Category:Works about articles of the Constitution of India]]
[[Category:Political controversies in India]]
[[Category:2024 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of prime ministers of India]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Narendra Modi]]
[[Category:Indian films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Procedural films]]
[[Category:Techno-thriller films]]
[[Category:Films about torture]]
[[Category:Films set in the 2010s]]
[[Category:Films set in 2018]]
[[Category:Films set in 2019]]
[[Category:Political controversies in film]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Jawaharlal Nehru]]
[[Category:Films set in 2016]]
[[Category:Military of Pakistan in films]]
[[Category:Indian political thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian propaganda films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films distributed by PVR Inox Pictures]]
[[Category:B62 Studios films]]

Bashir Ahmad Dar

2026-05-02T14:57:44Z

Vedpsagar: Done

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1962)}}
'''Bashir Ahmad Dar''' (born 1962) is an Indian politician from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He was an MLA from [[Kupwara Assembly constituency]] in [[Kupwara district]]. He won the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Jammu & Kashmir People's Conference]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-24 |title=Huge Victory Margin for 14 of 25 Winning BJP Candidates |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2014/Dec/24/huge-victory-margin-for-14-of-25-winning-bjp-candidates-697913.html |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Bashir Ahmad Dar is from Jagerpora [[Handwara]], Kupwara district, Jammu and Kashmir. He is the son of Mohd. Mukhtar Dar. He completed his B.A. and L.L.B Honours in 1984 at Kashmir University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bashir Ahmad Dar(J&K Peoples Conference):Constituency- KUPWARA(KUPWARA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/jk2014/candidate.php?candidate_id=265 |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Bashir Ahmad Dar won from Kupwara Assembly constituency representing Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference in the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]]. He got 24,754 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Mir Mohd Fayaz of the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party|JKPDP]], by a margin of 151 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-23 |title=Jammu and Kashmir Assembly election winners list |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2015/jammu-and-kashmir/story/jammu-kashmir-election-winners-list-assembly-polls-results-bjp-congress-pdp-nc-232557-2014-12-23 |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mushtaq |first=Tasavur |date=2014-12-23 |title=PC’s Dar wins Kupwara |url=https://kashmirlife.net/pcs-dar-wins-kupwara-70503/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Kashmir Life |language=en-GB}}</ref> He lost from [[Trehgam Assembly constituency]] in the [[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]].

== Electoral performance ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election !! Constituency !! colspan="2"|Party !! Result !! Votes % !! Opposition Candidate !! colspan="2"|Opposition Party !! Opposition vote %|| Ref
|-
|[[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]||[[Kupwara Assembly constituency|Kupwara]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference}}||{{Won}}||34.47%||Mir Mohammed Fayaz||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||34.26%||<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Jammu & Kashmir 2014 - Jammu & Kashmir - Election Commission of India |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150235/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-date=2019-06-13 |access-date= |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>
|-
|[[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2024]]||[[Trehgam Assembly constituency|Trehgam]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference}}||{{Lost}}||26.95%||[[Saifullah Mir]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir National Conference}}||33.74%||<ref>{{cite news|last1=Election Commission of India|title=J&K Assembly Election Results 2024 - Bandipora|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-U0815.htm|access-date=10 October 2024|date=8 October 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241010072117/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-U0815.htm|archive-date=10 October 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bashir Ahmad, Dar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2014–2018]]
[[Category:People from Kupwara district]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference politicians]]

{{JammuKashmir-politician-stub}}

Kandagal

2026-04-30T21:17:39Z

Vedpsagar: put up a article

{{Short description|Village in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kandagal
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = Karnataka#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates = {{coord|14|15|52|N|75|58|1|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of taluks of Karnataka|Taluk]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Davanagere district|Davanagere]]
| subdivision_name3 = Davanagere
| elevation_m = 593
| population_total = 4512
| population_as_of = 2011
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Local
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 577514
| area_code = 08192
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in India|STD code]]
}}
'''Kandagal''', also known as '''Kandagallu''', is a village in Davangere taluk, Karnataka, South India. To the west of the village is a small lake with the historic Sri Kalleshwara Temple at the center. It is 30 kilometers from [[Davangere]] city, and there is bus service between the two towns. The population is 4,512 as of the year 2011.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302073337/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=2023-03-02 |access-date=2024-12-21 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

== Geography ==
Kandagal is located in the central part of Davangere district, covering an area of 1420 hectares.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/606/download/2072/DH_2011_2913_PART_A_DCHB_DAVANAGERE.pdf |title=Census of India 2011 Karnataka District Census Handbook Davanagere |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations Karnataka |pages=346}}</ref> Its average elevation is 593 meters above the sea level.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kandagallu topographic map, elevation, terrain |url=https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/map-gplbnx/Kandagallu/?center=14.26322,75.96385 |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=Topographic maps |language=en}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
According to [[2011 census of India]], Kandagal has a total population of 4,512. The total literacy rate was 67.18%, with 1,663 of the male residents and 1,368 of the female residents being literate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population finder {{!}} Government of India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/population-finder |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Davanagere district]]

Tarisappalli

2026-04-27T03:55:44Z

Vedpsagar: Made new article - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}

{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox religious building
| religious_affiliation = [[Christianity]] ([[Church of the East|Persian Church]])
| name = Church of the Tarisa People
| native_name = Kollam Tarisappalli
| image = "Coylang," or Quilon, from 'Gedenkweerdige Brasiliaense Zee en Lantreize ...' by Johan Nieuhof, published by Jacob van Meurs, Amsterdam, 1682. First and only Dutch edition. Later amended English edition published by Churchill in 1744.jpg
| caption = A Dutch (Nieuhof) depiction of the port of Kollam in 1682, with the Tarisappalli Church (4) also visible.
| map_type = Kerala
| map_size = 150
| map_relief = Sultan of Delhi (top) and King of Vijayanagar (bottom) in the Catalan Atlas of 1375.jpg
| location = [[Kollam|Kollam (Quilon)]]
| rite = [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]]
| sect = [[Saint Thomas Christians]]
| country = [[Venad kingdom|Venadu]], [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Medieval Chera Kingdom]]
| consecration_year = * 1st century AD (per tradition)
* Early 9th century AD
| functional_status = Defunct
| status =
| founded_by = * [[Thomas the Apostle|Saint Thomas]] (per tradition)
* Iso da Tapir (according to the Quilon Syian Copper Plates)
| facade_direction = West
}}
[[File:Mar Sabor and Mar Proth East Syriac Persian Saints of the Malabar Church.jpg|thumb|Mar Sapor (or Sabor) and his colleague Mar Proth, the Persian Syrian bishops, are believed to have arrived in Kerala in the early 9th century (modern depiction).]]

'''{{transliteration|ml|Tarisāppaḷḷi}}''' ({{langx|ml|തരിസാപ്പള്ളി}}) or '''{{transliteration|ml|Kollam Tarisāppaḷḷi}}''' ({{lang|ml|കൊല്ലം തരിസാപ്പള്ളി}}) was a [[Church of the East|Persian]]–[[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christian]] church in [[Kollam|Kollam (formerly Quilon)]] on the [[Malabar Coast]], southern India. Local tradition holds that this ancient church was among the Seven Churches founded by [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas]], one of the [[Twelve Apostles]], on the Malabar Coast. The earliest known epigraphical reference to this church appears in the medieval [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Tarisappalli Copper Plates]]. The original site of the church is identified with the present-day [[St Thomas Fort|Tangasseri Fort]] area in Kollam.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title=[[Jornada of Alexis de Menesis]]|last=Gouvea|first=Antonio|publisher=L. R. C. Publications|year=1606|isbn=9788188979004|editor-last=Malekandathil|editor-first=Pius|edition=2003|location=Kochi|language=en|translator-last=Malekandathil|translator-first=Pius}} p: 6, 20–21, Editor's note</ref>

The Tarisa church at Kollam is regarded as one of the most prominent among the {{transliteration|ml|[[Ēḻarappaḷḷikaḷ]]}} (the Seven and a Half Churches), which are traditionally believed to have been established by the Apostle Thomas in the 1st century AD on the Malabar Coast. The Ramban Pattu, the traditional Malayalam ballad that narrates the missionary journey of Apostle Thomas in India, notably identifies it as the second in the list of seven churches.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitehouse |first=Thomas |url=https://archive.org/details/lingeringsofligh00whit |title=Lingerings of light in a dark land: Researches into the Syrian church of Malabar. |publisher=William Brown and Co. |year=1873 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lingeringsofligh00whit/page/23 23]-42}} p. 25: "Though Cranganore and Quilon are always mentioned amongst their earliest and most important settlements, five other places are named in conjunction with them, viz., Palúr, North Parúr, South Pallipuram, Neranum, and Nellakkul. The whole group are traditionally styled the Seven Churches founded by St. Thomas the Apostle."</ref> However, as with most ancient churches on the Malabar Coast, its subsequent history remains unclear.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Cereti |first=Carlo G. |url=https://www.academia.edu/41997319 |title=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates |date=2009 |others=Nicholas Sims-Williams, Werner Sundermann, Almut Hintze, François de Blois |isbn=978-3-447-05937-4 |series=Exegisti monumenta : festschrift in honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |location=Wiesbaden |oclc=318871639}}</ref>

The medieval history of the church begins with the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Tarisappalli or Quilon Syian Copper Plates]], issued by the ruler of Venadu (Kollam; formerly Quilon) around 849 AD.<ref name=":1" /> According to long-standing tradition among the Saint Thomas Christians, the Persian saints [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth|Sabor and Aproth]], who arrived in Malabar at that time, rebuilt the then-ruined church.<ref name=":0" /> The church is also referenced in the accounts of Western missionaries and travelers who visited Kerala in later centuries.<ref name=":0" />

== Etymology ==
The hybrid term "Tarisappalli" literally means "the building or place of worship of the Tarisa people".<ref> {{cite book |last=William|first=Logan|author-link=William Logan (author)|editor=T.V. Krishnan|title=Malabar Manual|publisher=Mathrubhoomi|location=Kozhikode|language=ml|pages=440}} </ref> The word "Tarisa" is perhaps derived from the [[Pahlavi language|Pahlavi or Middle Persian]] term "Tarsa", one of the names used for Christians in the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian Persian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/christianity-i|title=CHRISTIANITY i. In Pre-Islamic Persia: Literary Sources|last=Russell|first=James R.|year=1991|series=Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=5|pages=327–28}}</ref>

== Early medieval history ==

=== Tarisappalli Copper Plates ===
The Tarisappalli or Quilon Syrian Copper Plates (c. 849 AD) were issued by Ayyan Adikal Tiruvadikal, the ruler of Venad or Kollam and a subordinate of the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|medieval Chera]] king Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara, who governed the Malabar Coast from [[Kodungallur|Kodungallur-Mahodayapuram]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Travancore Archeological Series|volume=2 (I)|pages=60–85|last=Rao|first=T. A. Gopinatha|publisher=|year=1986|url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.46989/page/n84/mode/1up}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Further Studies in the Jewish Copper Plates of Cochin".|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|year=2002|series=Indian Historical Review|volume=29 (1–2)|issue=1–2|pages=66–76|doi=10.1177/037698360202900204|s2cid=142756653}}</ref> The grant was made to a Persian merchant-magnate named Maruwān Sāpir Īśo. It was issued in the name of the church of the Tarsa community in Kollam—a church that had been "built and administered" by Īśo da Tāpir, who is also credited with "founding the trading city (nagara) of Kollam".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|publisher=CosmoBooks.|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=277, 278, 295, 435–37|orig-year=1972}}</ref>{{sfnp|Perczel|2018|p=665-671}} The grant conferred land, property, servants or slaves, the authority to collect taxes, and the right to self-government upon the Tarisappalli and its community in Kollam.<ref name=":2" />

The record is regarded as one of the most important historical documents discovered in Kerala and is also among the earliest indigenous records to provide information about the Christian community in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Devadevan |first=Manu വി. |title=The 'early medieval' origins of India |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-49457-1 |location=Cambridge |pages=126–27}}</ref>{{sfnp|Perczel|2018|p=665-671}}

Local tradition, supported by modern scholars, generally identifies "Īśo da Tāpir" in the record with "Maruwān Sāpir Īśo".<ref>{{cite book |last=Perczel |first=István |title=Syriac Christianity in India |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=9781317482116 |editor-last=King |editor-first=Daniel |series=The Syriac World |page=657}}</ref>{{sfnp|Perczel|2018|p=665-671}} There is, however, some debate regarding the origin of the term "Maruwān". One prominent view holds that it is derived from the Syriac honorific "Mar", a title used for bishops and saints in the [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christian]] tradition. Another interpretation suggests that the name reflects his association with a Christian trading community known as the "Marwanaye" in the Persian Gulf. This community is mentioned by the East Syriac Catholicos-Patriarch [[Ishoyahb III]] in his letter to [[Simeon of Rev Ardashir]], the [[Fars (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|Metropolitan of Pars]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fiey |first=Jean Maurice |title=Pour un Oriens Christianus novus: répertoire des diocèses Syriaques orientaux et occidentaux |date=1993 |publisher=Steiner |others=Orient-Institut |isbn=978-3-515-05718-9 |series=Beiruter Texte und Studien |location=Stuttgart |pages=125 |language=fr}}</ref> It is further speculated that the [[Malayalam calendar|Kollam Era]]—the traditional Kerala calendar—commemorates the founding of the port city (the nagara) of Kollam in 825 AD.<ref name=":2" />[[File:ഇന്ത്യൻ മഹാസമുദ്രത്തിലെ പൗരസ്ത്യ സുറിയാനി മെത്രാപ്പോലീത്തൻ പ്രവിശ്യകൾ, രൂപതകൾ.jpg|thumb|320px|right|The East Syriac metropolitan provinces, dioceses, and other centers on the maritime routes in the Indian Ocean]]
==Early European accounts==

=== Descriptions from the 13th and 14th Centuries ===
The earliest extant historical records concerning the Christian presence in Kollam and their church, following the Tarisappalli grant, date back to the 13th and 14th centuries AD. The first such account comes from the Venetian merchant and adventurer [[Marco Polo]]. Marco Polo arrived in Kollam in the latter half of the 13th century. In his observations, he noted the presence of significant Christian and Jewish communities in Kollam.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56vP6LiSUmQC|title=The Travels of Marco Polo|date=October 2007|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-60206-861-2|pages=301|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian|volume=2|editor=Henry Yule|year=1871|page=312language=en}}</ref> Subsequent references are found in the writings of [[Jordanus Catalani]] and [[Giovanni de' Marignolli|Giovanni de Marignoli]], both of whom recorded their encounters with the Nasrani, or Syriac Christians, during their visits to the port of Kollam.

Jordanus Catalani, a French Dominican missionary sent to the [[Middle East]] and Persia, was appointed Roman Catholic Bishop of Kollam in 1329 by [[Pope John XXII]]. His writings also document the existence of Syrian Christians in Kollam, with particular emphasis on their veneration of the Apostle Thomas.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Jordanus |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wQUVAAAAQAAJ/page/n52/mode/1up |title=Mirabilia descripta : the wonders of the East |publisher=the Hakluyt Society |year=1863 |editor1-last=Yule |editor1-first=Henry |location=London |editor2-last=Parr |editor2-first=Charles McKew donor |editor3-last=Ruth |editor3-first=Parr}} p: 23, paragraph 31</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liščák |first=Vladimír |url=https://www.proc-int-cartogr-assoc.net/1/69/2018/ica-proc-1-69-2018.pdf |title=Mapa mondi (Catalan Atlas of 1375), Majorcan cartographic school, and 14th century Asia |publisher=International Cartographic Association |year=2017 |pages=4–5}}</ref> In addition, Pope John XXII sent a letter to the leader of the Nasrani Christian community in Kollam on April 5, 1330, urging cooperation with the newly appointed bishop. These letters are preserved in Catalani's book [[Mirabilia Descripta]].{{sfnp|Jordanus|1863|page=vii}}

[[Giovanni de Marignolli]], a Franciscan friar, passed through Kollam in 1347 while returning to Europe after his mission in China. He recorded a detailed description of the Nasrani Christians of Kollam, noting their significant influence in Kollam. According to Marignolli, the Nasrani were primarily engaged in the cultivation and trade of pepper, and those of higher social status were referred to as Mothaliyal. He also recounts his personal experience living among them, describing how the Nasrani provided him with financial assistance and even transported him in a royal palanquin, reminiscent of the luxury associated with King Solomon.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KzEMAAAAIAAJ/page/n99/mode/1up |title=Cathay and the way thither |year=1864 |editor-last=Yule |editor-first=Henry |volume=2 |location=London |page=342-346}}</ref>

==Sixteenth Century==
The detailed recorded history of the Kollam Church is available from the 16th century.
===Early Sixteenth Century===
The next mention of the Syrian Christians in Kollam is found in the early 16th century, in a letter sent by [[Mar Yahbalaha]], Mar Thomas, [[Jacob Abuna|Mar Jacob]], [[Denha of India|Mar Denha]] to the East Syriac Catholicos [[Eliya V|Eliyah V]].<ref name=MacKenzie>{{cite book|last=MacKenzie|first=Gordon Thomson |year=1901|title= Christianity in Travancore |publisher=Travancore Government Press| page=11 |isbn =9781230341651|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQoAAAAYAAJ|language=en}}</ref> Along with Koṭungallur and [[Palayur|Pālayūr]], Kollam is recorded in it as one of three main centers of the Syrian Christians in Malabar. During the tenure of Mar Yahbalaha, who held the position of [[Metropolitan of All India|Metropolitan of India]], Mar Jacob and Mar Denaha worked based in Koṭungallur and Kollam, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|year=1984|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GEwvQEACAAJ|series=|last=Mundadan|first=Anthony Mathias|publisher=|isbn=|language=en|title=History of Christianity in India Vol 1: From the beginning up to the middle of the sixteenth century (up to 1542)|pages=321}}</ref>

The Nasranis of Kollam, who had mainly made a living from trade, were going through various crises. Since the traders from Arabia, Persia and China were mainly Muslims, they had stronger trade relations with the Muslim traders of Malabar and with the [[Zamorin|Zamorin of Kozhikode]], who sympathized with them. This hampered Kollam and its Jewish and Christian merchants in commercial and trade endeavours.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.peepultree.world/livehistoryindia/story/people/zheng-he|title=Zheng He: The Chinese at Calicut|access-date=2023-09-01|last=Manmadhan|first=Ullattil|date=2021-03-16|language=en}}</ref>

===Portuguese Interactions===
====Arrival of the Portuguese====
The Portuguese sailor [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], who arrived in Malabar in 1503, described the Kollam church and the Christians in detail in his writings. In the same year, he also obtained permission to establish a factory (warehouse) in Kollam to facilitate trade for the Portuguese.{{sfnp|Gouvea|1606|p=146, Editor's note}} He describes the Kollam church as one that is dedicated to 'Our Lady of Mercy' and has three altars and each one has a cross, one in the middle is made of Gold and there are one on each side, made of silver. He recorded the Christians told him that their church was built by two saints who had previously arrived in Malabar, and that they were buried in two chapels in the church.<ref name=alboquerque>{{cite book|title=The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4LpAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP15|pages=14–15 | last1=Albuquerque | first1=Afonso de | date=1875 }}</ref>{{sfnp|Whitehouse|1873|p=28-31}} These saints are Sapor and Proth, unique saints of the Syrian Christians of Malabar.{{sfnp|Nedungatt|2001|p=319}} Albuquerque explains that the Christians of Kollam have a number of special powers granted to them, and that they have their own autonomous legal system based on this. Along with this, the Christians who controlled the church also had the right to possess the town's seal and official weights and measures. However, Albuquerque adds that due to the displeasure of the local king, those rights were taken away at that time and they sought his help to have them restored.<ref name=alboquerque/><ref name=Gundert>{{cite book|title=Kerala Palama|year=1868|first=Hermann|last=Gundert|url=https://idb.ub.uni-tuebingen.de/opendigi/CiXIV125b|pages=44–46}}</ref>

Relations between the Portuguese and the Syrian Christians were initially very cordial. The Syrian Christians asked Albuquerque for help in regaining their lost rights and wished to present the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese King]] with the golden cross from their church. However, Albuquerque refused this and instead, upon returning home, took one of their silver crosses with him and presented it to the Portuguese king. Pleased with this, the king sent some chandeliers and decorations for the Kollam mosque to Albuquerque in return for the Christians. Albuquerque gave the Christians a gift of a picture and a bell of [[James the Great|Saint James the Apostle]], known as the Apostle of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref name=alboquerque/>{{sfnp|Vadakkekkara|2001|p=65}} He assigned Rodrigo, a Dominican friar, to assist the religious needs of the Christians in Kollam. Rodrigo administered baptism and other sacraments to the Syrian Christians in Kollam, and also spread the religion among the non-Christians of the area, converting many of them.<ref name=alboquerque/>{{sfnp|Whitehouse|1873|p=29}} It is also believed that he renovated and rebuilt the oldest church in Kollam.{{sfnp|Gundert|1868|p=46}} Giovanni d'Empoli, an Italian sailor and Albuquerque's companion, says that there are about 3,000 Christians in Kollam and they told him that their church dates back to the time of Thomas the Apostle.<ref name=Ramusio>{{cite book|title=Navigationi et viaggi|volume=1|first=Giovanni Battista |last=Ramusio|edition=2|year=1554|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MgYBRr0FG4C|page=159}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gouvea|1606|p=153–154 Editor's note}}

====Syrians losing control of the church====
The initial cooperation between the Portuguese and the indigenous Christians did not last long. The indigenous Christians, who had become alienated from the Portuguese for various reasons, gradually withdrew from the region and began to settle in more remote areas. Following this, the Portuguese took complete control of the old Syrian church in Kollam. There were several reasons for this. Francisco Roz, the first Latin Metropolitan of the Syrian Christians after the [[Synod of Diamper]] in 1599, gives a description in this regard.<ref>{{cite book| title=The Synod of Diamper Revisited| editor-first= George| editor-last= Nedungatt|year=2001|publisher=Pontificio Instituto|location= Rome| isbn =9788872103319|translator=Jacob Kollamparambil}} p: 319</ref> The Portuguese often engaged in conflicts with the local people. A dispute between some Portuguese and Muslim traders in the area became a major problem, after they killed a Muslim man. Following this, a number of Nairs and Muslims, led by local authorities, attacked and destroyed the Portuguese trading post in order to take revenge on them, and looted the market there.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280840/page/n113/mode/1up|title=Malabar and the Portuguese|first=K. M. |last=Panikkar|year=1929|pages=95–97}}</ref> Following this, six or seven Portuguese sought refuge in a Syrian Christian church. The attackers demanded the Syrian Christians to get them out of the church and allow the punitive measures against the Portuguese to be carried out. But not only did the Portuguese not flee the church, but the parishioners were not ready to expel them as they had sought refuge in the church. Unable to trespass into the church and capture them, the opponents arsoned the church from outside. Everyone in the church, including a deacon and some Syrian Christians along with the Portuguese, died in the fire.{{sfnp|Nedungatt|2001|p=317–321}} This incident probably happened sometime after 1505.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCVuAAAAMAAJ&q=Jacob|title=The Portuguese and the Socio-cultural Changes in India, 1500-1800|last1=Mathew|first1=K. S.|last2=de Souza|first2=Teotonio R. |last3=Malekandathil|first3=Pius|year=2001|publisher=Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, MESHAR|isbn=978-81-900166-6-7|pages=129|language=en}}</ref> After this, the Portuguese rebuilt the burnt-down church and it gradually came under the complete control of their Bishop of Cochin.{{sfnp|Nedungatt|2001|p=317–321}} After 1519, they built a [[Tangasseri Fort|a fort]], engulfing the area where the church was located.{{sfnp|Gouvea|1606|p=146 Editor's note}} They had already renamed the church after the Apostle Thomas. Hence, the fort also came to be known by the name of Thomas the Apostle. After this, the Syrian Christians left the church and the place and moved to the interior of Kollam and established a new church there. But there was other reasons that forced the Syrian Christians to abandon their old church. By this time, the Portuguese had begun to assert that the Syrian Christians were followers of the Nestorian heresy and false customs and that they needed to be Latinized, and had already initiated a wave of latinization campaign against the local christians and their traditions.{{sfnp|Gouvea|1606|p=378}}<ref>{{cite book|year=2001|location=Rome|publisher=Pontificio Instituto Orientale|title=The Synod of Diamper in Historical Perspective|series=The Synod of Diamper Revisited|first=Benedict|last=Vadakkekkara |editor-first=George|editor-last=Nedungattu|isbn=88-7210-331-2}} p: 61–64</ref>

Following these events, the Latin faithful in the area under the control of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Cochin|Cochin Bishop]] attempted to seize the rights granted in the Tarsappalli plates. However, the local ruler, who ruled that the rights in that edict belonged not to the church building but to the community represented by the church at the time of its granting, declared that those rights are to be enjoyed only by the Syrians in Kollam. Alexis de Menezes, the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa, visited in Kollam both the original Tarsappalli that was then occupied by the Portuguese and the new church in the interior that the Syrians had established, as part of his travels throughout Malabar following the Synod of Diamper. Gouvea also records that he visited the church in Thevalakkara, which was also under the rule of the Kollam ruler.{{sfnp|Gouvea|1606|p=153, 378-397}}

== Later history of Tarisappalli ==
In the 17th century, the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] gradually supplanted the Portuguese as the dominant power in the [[spice trade]] along the [[Malabar Coast]]. They seized control of [[Tangasseri Fort]] and its associated structures, including the church. The church is prominently depicted on a Dutch map of the fort and in their illustration of the port of Kollam, both dating from this period.{{sfnp|Whitehouse|1873|p=31}}

In the final decade of the 18th century, the [[East India Company|English Company]] took possession of the fort and its surrounding territory from the Dutch, and the fort was largely demolished. When British missionary Thomas Whitehouse visited Kollam in 1863, he became aware of the historical significance of the Tarisappalli Church. Upon visiting the location of the fort, however, he found no remnants of the church. Whitehouse hypothesized that the church had likely been "swept away by the encroaching sea".{{sfnp|Whitehouse|1873|p=31}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Churches in Kerala]]
[[Category:History of Kollam]]
[[Category:History of Christianity]]
[[Category:Ancient churches of the Saint Thomas Christians (pre-1606)]]
[[Category:9th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:9th-century churches]]
[[Category:Saint Thomas Christians]]

Chikungunya

2026-04-24T10:41:01Z

Vedpsagar:

{{Short description|Infection caused by the chikungunya virus}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{cs1 config |name-list-style=vanc |display-authors=6}}
{{Infobox medical condition
| name = Chikungunya
| image = 2012-01-09 Chikungunya on the right feet at The Philippines.jpeg
| caption = Rash from chikungunya
| field = [[Infectious disease (medical specialty)|Infectious disease]]
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|tʃ|ɪ|k|ən|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|n|j|ə}}<ref name="Oxford_Dictionary">{{cite web|title=chikungunya|url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/chikungunya|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104175820/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/chikungunya|archive-date=4 November 2014}}</ref> {{Respell|CHIK|ən|GUN|yə}}
| symptoms = [[Fever]], [[joint pain]], [[headache]], [[muscle pain]], [[joint swelling]], and [[rash]].<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms"/>
| complications = Long term joint pain<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms"/>
| onset = 2 to 14 days after exposure<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| duration = Usually less than a week<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms"/>
| types =
| causes = Chikungunya virus spread by [[mosquitoes]]<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| risks =
| diagnosis = Blood test for viral [[RNA]] or [[antibodies]]<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| differential = [[Dengue fever]], [[Zika fever]]<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| prevention = [[Chikungunya vaccine]], [[Mosquito control]], avoidance of bites<ref name="Caglioti-2013"/>
| treatment = [[Supportive care]]<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| medication =
| prognosis = [[mortality rate|Risk of death]] ~ 1 in 1,000<ref name="Caglioti-2013"/>
| frequency = > 1 million (2014)<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025"/>
| deaths =
}}

'''Chikungunya''' is an [[infection]] caused by the [[#Virology|chikungunya virus]].<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025">{{Cite web |date=14 April 2025 |title=Chikungunya Fact Sheet (2025)|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chikungunya |access-date=20 October 2025 |website=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) }}</ref> The most common symptoms are [[fever]] and [[arthralgia|joint pain]],<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=15 May 2024 |title=Symptoms, Diagnosis, & Treatment |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/symptoms-diagnosis-treatment/index.html |access-date=15 October 2025 |website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) }}</ref> typically occurring four to eight days after the bite of an infected mosquito.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /><ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /> The pain has been described as "excruciating"; however some people may be infected without showing any symptoms. Other symptoms may include [[headache]], [[muscle pain]], [[joint swelling]], and a [[rash]].<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms" /> Symptoms usually improve within a week; however, occasionally the joint pain may last for months or years.<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms" /><ref name="van Aalst-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=van Aalst |first1=Mariëlle |last2=Nelen |first2=Charlotte Marieke |last3=Goorhuis |first3=Abraham |last4=Stijnis |first4=Cornelis |last5=Grobusch |first5=Martin Peter |date=1 January 2017 |title=Long-term sequelae of chikungunya virus disease: A systematic review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893917300042 |journal=Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease |volume=15 |pages=8–22 |doi=10.1016/j.tmaid.2017.01.004 |pmid=28163198 |issn=1477-8939}}</ref> The very young, old, and those with other health problems are at risk of more severe disease.<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms" />

The [[virus]] is spread between people by two species of [[mosquito]] in the genus ''[[Aedes]]'': ''[[Aedes albopictus]]'' and ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'',<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> which mainly bite during the day,<ref name="Paixao-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Paixão |first1=Enny S. |last2=Teixeira |first2=Maria Gloria |last3=Rodrigues |first3=Laura C. |date=2018 |title=Zika, chikungunya and dengue: the causes and threats of new and re-emerging arboviral diseases |journal=BMJ Global Health |volume=3 |issue=Suppl 1 |article-number=e000530 |doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000530 |issn=2059-7908 |pmc=5759716 |pmid=29435366 |bibcode=2018BMJGH...300530P }}</ref><ref name="CDC-Prevent-2016">{{cite web|title=Preventing Chikungunya |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/prevention/index.html|website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|access-date=26 September 2016|date=26 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915205122/http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/prevention/index.html|archive-date=15 September 2016}}</ref> particularly around dawn and in the late afternoon.<ref name="AFP-2025">{{Cite web |last=AFP |date=23 July 2025 |title=Outbreak of Chikungunya Virus Poses Global Risk, Warns WHO |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/outbreak-of-chikungunya-virus-poses-global-risk-warns-who |access-date=24 July 2025 |website=ScienceAlert }}</ref> The [[Natural reservoir|virus may circulate within a number of animals]], including birds and [[rodent]]s.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> Diagnosis is done by testing the blood for either viral [[RNA]] or [[antibodies]] to the virus.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> The symptoms can be mistaken for those of [[dengue fever]] and [[Zika fever]], which are spread by the same mosquitoes.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> It is believed most people become [[immune]] after a single infection.<ref name="CDC_2024_Symptoms" />

The best means of prevention are overall [[mosquito control]] and the avoidance of bites in areas where the disease is common.<ref name="Caglioti-2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Caglioti C, Lalle E, Castilletti C, Carletti F, Capobianchi MR, Bordi L |date=July 2013 |title=Chikungunya virus infection: an overview |journal=The New Microbiologica |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=211–27 |pmid=23912863}}</ref> This may be partly achieved by decreasing mosquitoes' access to water, as well as the use of [[insect repellent]] and [[mosquito nets]]. [[Chikungunya vaccine]]s have been approved for use in the United States and in the European Union.<ref name="ECDC-Ixchiq-2024">{{cite web | title=Ixchiq EPAR | website=[[European Medicines Agency]] | date=30 May 2024 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/ixchiq | access-date=1 June 2024 | archive-date=1 June 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601040318/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/ixchiq | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="EMA-Vimkunya-2025a">{{cite web | title=Vimkunya EPAR | website=[[European Medicines Agency]] | date=30 January 2025 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/vimkunya | access-date=16 February 2025}}></ref><ref name="FDA Approval-2023">{{cite press release |title=FDA Approval |date=9 November 2023 |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-vaccine-prevent-disease-caused-chikungunya-virus |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111030959/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-vaccine-prevent-disease-caused-chikungunya-virus |archive-date=11 November 2023 |website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA)}}</ref> No specific treatment for chikungunya is available.<ref name="Caglioti-2013" />

The chikungunya virus is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions where warm climates and abundant populations of its mosquito vectors (''A. aegypti'' and ''A. albopictus'') facilitate its transmission.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> The disease was first identified in 1952 in [[Tanzania]] and named based on the [[Makonde language|Makonde]] words for "to become contorted".<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> The disease has spread widely since the 2000s with [[outbreak]]s reported in many tropical and some temperate areas. It is considered to be [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in many parts of the world,<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2017 |title=Information for travellers to areas with chikungunya transmission |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/chikungunya/threats-and-outbreaks/information-travellers |access-date=14 December 2025 |website=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control }}</ref> affecting millions of people every year.<ref name="Hyolim-2025" /><ref name="Ribeiro dos Santos-2025" /> Chikungunya has become a global health concern due to its rapid geographic expansion, recurrent outbreaks, the lack of effective antiviral treatments, and potential to cause severe symptoms and death.<ref name="Moizeis-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Moizéis |first1=Raíza Nara Cunha |last2=Fernandes |first2=Thales Allyrio Araújo de Medeiros |last3=Guedes |first3=Paulo Marcos da Matta |last4=Pereira |first4=Hannaly Wana Bezerra |last5=Lanza |first5=Daniel Carlos Ferreira |last6=Azevedo |first6=Judson Welber Veríssimo de |last7=Galvão |first7=Josélio Maria de Araújo |last8=Fernandes |first8=José Veríssimo |date=19 May 2018 |title=Chikungunya fever: a threat to global public health |journal=Pathogens and Global Health |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=182–94 |doi=10.1080/20477724.2018.1478777 |issn=2047-7724 |pmc=6147074 |pmid=29806537}}</ref>

==Signs and symptoms==
Chikungunya can be asymptomatic, with estimates of between 17% and 40% of infections showing no symptoms.<ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /> For those experiencing symptoms, they typically begin with a sudden high fever above {{convert|39|°C}} around 3 to 7 days after the bite of an infected mosquito.<ref name="Burt_2017" /><ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /> The fever is often accompanied by severe [[myalgia|muscle]] and [[arthralgia|joint pain]], which affects multiple joints in the arms and legs and is often symmetric – i.e. if one elbow is affected, the other is as well.<ref name="Vairo_2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Vairo |first1=F. |last2=Haider |first2=N. |last3=Kock |first3=R. A. |last4=Ntoumi |first4=F. |last5=Ippolito |first5=G. |last6=Zumla |first6=A. |date=25 October 2019 |title=Chikungunya: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Clinical Features, Management, and Prevention (Full text download) |url=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/output/1379997 |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=1003–1025 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2019.08.006 |pmid=31668189 |issn=0891-5520}}</ref><ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /> The pain has been described as "excruciating".<ref>{{cite news|last=Carrington|first=Damian|title=Excruciating tropical disease can now be transmitted in most of Europe, study finds|newspaper=The Guardian|date=18 February 2026|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2026/feb/18/tropical-disease-chikungunya-transmitted-europe-study}}</ref> People with chikungunya also frequently experience [[headache]]s, [[back pain]], [[nausea]], and [[fatigue (medical)|fatigue]].<ref name="Vairo_2019" /> Around half of those affected develop a [[rash]], with [[macular rash|reddening]] and sometimes [[maculopapular rash|small bumps]] on the palms, foot soles, torso, and face.<ref name="Vairo_2019" />

For some, the rash remains constrained to a small area of the body; for others, the rash can be extensive, covering more than 90% of the skin.<ref name="Burt_2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Burt |first1=Felicity J |last2=Chen |first2=Weiqiang |last3=Miner |first3=Jonathan J |last4=Lenschow |first4=Deborah J |last5=Merits |first5=Andres |last6=Schnettler |first6=Esther |last7=Kohl |first7=Alain |last8=Rudd |first8=Penny A |last9=Taylor |first9=Adam |last10=Herrero |first10=Lara J |last11=Zaid |first11=Ali |last12=Ng |first12=Lisa F P |last13=Mahalingam |first13=Suresh |date=1 April 2017 |title=Chikungunya virus: an update on the biology and pathogenesis of this emerging pathogen |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1473309916303851 |journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=e107–e117 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30385-1 |pmid=28159534 |issn=1473-3099}}</ref> Some people experience gastrointestinal issues, with [[abdominal pain]] and [[vomiting]]. Others experience eye problems, namely [[Photophobia|sensitivity to light]], [[conjunctivitis]], and pain behind the eye.<ref name="Vairo_2019" /> This first set of symptoms, termed the acute phase, lasts around a week, after which most symptoms resolve on their own.<ref name="Vairo_2019" />

For those with severe symptoms, approximately 30% to 40% continue to have symptoms after the acute phase resolves.<ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /><ref name="Vairo_2019" /> The lasting symptoms tend to be joint pains: [[arthritis]], [[tenosynovitis]], and/or [[bursitis]].<ref name="Vairo_2019" /> If the affected person has pre-existing joint issues, these tend to worsen.<ref name="Vairo_2019" /> Overuse of a joint can result in painful swelling, stiffness, [[nerve damage]], and [[neuropathic pain]].<ref name="Vairo_2019" /> Typically the joint pain improves with time; however, the chronic stage can last anywhere from a few months to several years.<ref name="Vairo_2019" />

Almost all symptomatic cases feature joint pain, generally in more than one joint.<ref name="Thiberville-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Thiberville |first1=Simon-Djamel |last2=Moyen |first2=Nanikaly |last3=Dupuis-Maguiraga |first3=Laurence |last4=Nougairede |first4=Antoine |last5=Gould |first5=Ernest A. |last6=Roques |first6=Pierre |last7=de Lamballerie |first7=Xavier |date=1 September 2013 |title=Chikungunya fever: Epidemiology, clinical syndrome, pathogenesis and therapy |journal=Antiviral Research |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=345–70 |doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.06.009 |issn=0166-3542 |pmc=7114207 |pmid=23811281}}</ref> Pain most commonly occurs in peripheral joints, such as the wrists, ankles, and joints of the [[phalanges|hands and feet]] as well as some of the larger joints, typically the shoulders, elbows and knees.<ref name="Thiberville-2013" /><ref name="Burt-2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burt FJ, Rolph MS, Rulli NE, Mahalingam S, Heise MT |date=February 2012 |title=Chikungunya: a re-emerging virus |journal=Lancet |volume=379 |issue=9816 |pages=662–71 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60281-X |pmid=22100854 |s2cid=33440699}}</ref> Joints are more likely to be affected if they have previously been damaged by disorders such as [[osteoarthritis|arthritis]].<ref name="Burt-2012" /> Pain may also occur in the [[myalgia|muscles]] or [[ligaments]]. In more than half of cases, normal activity is limited by significant fatigue and pain.<ref name="Thiberville-2013" /> Infrequently, inflammation of the eyes may occur in the form of [[iridocyclitis]], or [[uveitis]], and [[retina|retinal]] lesions may occur.<ref name="Mahendradas-2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahendradas P, Ranganna SK, Shetty R, Balu R, Narayana KM, Babu RB, Shetty BK | title = Ocular manifestations associated with chikungunya | journal = Ophthalmology | volume = 115 | issue = 2 | pages = 287–91 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17631967 | doi = 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.03.085 }}</ref> Temporary damage to the liver may occur.<ref name="Simon-2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon F, Javelle E, Oliver M, Leparc-Goffart I, Marimoutou C | title = Chikungunya virus infection | journal = Current Infectious Disease Reports | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 218–28 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21465340 | pmc = 3085104 | doi = 10.1007/s11908-011-0180-1 }}</ref>

People with chikungunya occasionally develop long-term neurologic disorders, most frequently [[encephalitis|swelling]] or [[encephalopathy|degeneration]] of the brain, [[myelitis|inflammation]] or [[myelopathy|degeneration]] of the [[myelin]] sheaths around neurons, [[Guillain–Barré syndrome]], [[acute disseminated encephalomyelitis]], [[hypotonia]] (in newborns), and issues with visual processing.<ref name="Vairo_2019" />

Newborns, the elderly, and those with [[diabetes]], [[heart disease]], liver and kidney diseases, and [[human immunodeficiency virus|HIV]] infection tend to have more severe cases of chikungunya. Fewer than 1 in 1,000 people with symptomatic chikungunya die of the disease; generally these are people with pre-existing health conditions.<ref name="Vairo_2019" /><ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" />

===Transmission===
Chikungunya is generally transmitted from mosquitoes to humans. Chikungunya is spread through bites from ''[[Aedes]]'' mosquitoes, specifically ''[[A. aegypti]]'' (Egyptian mosquito) and ''[[A. albopictus]]'' (Tiger mosquito).<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> Because large amounts of virus are present in the blood during the first few days of infection, the virus can spread from an infected human to a mosquito, where it replicates without harming the mosquito. Subsequently, a bite from the infected mosquito will transmit the virus back to a human.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /> The [[incubation period]] ranges from one to twelve days and is most typically three to seven days.<ref name="Thiberville-2013" />

Rarely, the disease can be transmitted from [[Vertically transmitted infection|mother to child]] during pregnancy or at birth, in women who become infected a few days before [[Childbirth|delivery]].<ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" />

==Mechanism==
Chikungunya virus is passed to humans when a bite from an infected mosquito breaks the skin and introduces the virus into the body. The virus initially replicates in cells near the location of the bite; from here it enters the [[lymphatic system]] and the [[Circulatory system|bloodstream]], enabling it to circulate to organs and tissues which become infected. Most frequently it reproduces in the lymphatic system and the [[spleen]], as well as peripheral joints, muscles and tendons where symptoms frequently occur; it appears that the virus is able to penetrate and replicate in many different types of cells.<ref name=Silva-2017a /> In severe cases it can infect the brain and liver.<ref name="Vu-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Vu |first1=David M. |last2=Jungkind |first2=Donald |last3=Angelle Desiree LaBeaud |date=1 June 2017 |title=Chikungunya Virus |journal=Clinics in Laboratory Medicine |series=Emerging Pathogens |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=371–382 |doi=10.1016/j.cll.2017.01.008 |issn=0272-2712 |pmc=5469677 |pmid=28457355}}</ref><ref name=Silva-2017a />

During the acute phase of infection, large numbers of infectious [[Virion|virus particles]] are [[Viral load|present in the bloodstream]], making it very likely that an uninfected mosquito will pick up the virus if it bites the human host.<ref name="Vu-2017" /><ref name=Silva-2017a />

During the first few days of infection, the host's [[innate immune system]] is activated, producing [[Interferon type I|type I interferons]] and [[inflammatory cytokine]]s to fight the infection. This generates the fever and localised inflammation which is characteristic of the disease.<ref name=Silva-2017a /><ref name="Srivastava-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Priyanshu |last2=Kumar |first2=Ankit |last3=Hasan |first3=Abdul |last4=Mehta |first4=Divya |last5=Kumar |first5=Ramesh |last6=Sharma |first6=Chetan |last7=Sunil |first7=Sujatha |date=28 April 2020 |title=Disease Resolution in Chikungunya—What Decides the Outcome? |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |volume=11 |article-number=695 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2020.00695 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |issn=1664-3224 |pmc=7198842 |pmid=32411133}}</ref> It takes about a week before the host's [[adaptive immune system]] begins to develop [[Antibody|antibodies]] which eventually clear the virus from the bloodstream.<ref name="CDC-Testing-2025">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=20 August 2025 |title=Clinical Testing and Diagnosis for Chikungunya Virus Disease |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html |access-date=27 October 2025 |website=Chikungunya Virus }}</ref> However the virus can persist within specific tissues, especially the joints, causing long term inflammation and pain in chronic cases.<ref name="Srivastava-2020" />

The virus has mechanisms which help it to evade the immune response. Within an infected cell, the viral nonstructural protein 2 (nsP2) interferes with the [[JAK-STAT signaling pathway|JAK-STAT]] signalling pathway to hinder it from triggering an antiviral response.<ref name="Fros-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Fros |first1=Jelke J. |last2=Liu |first2=Wen Jun |last3=Prow |first3=Natalie A. |last4=Geertsema |first4=Corinne |last5=Ligtenberg |first5=Maarten |last6=Vanlandingham |first6=Dana L. |last7=Schnettler |first7=Esther |last8=Vlak |first8=Just M. |last9=Suhrbier |first9=Andreas |last10=Khromykh |first10=Alexander A. |last11=Pijlman |first11=Gorben P. |date=15 October 2010 |title=Chikungunya Virus Nonstructural Protein 2 Inhibits Type I/II Interferon-Stimulated JAK-STAT Signaling |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=84 |issue=20 |pages=10877–10887 |doi=10.1128/jvi.00949-10 |pmid=20686047 |pmc=2950581 }}</ref> The virus can induce [[apoptosis]] (programmed cell death) in host cells; virus laden [[Bleb (cell biology)|debris from apoptosis]] is engulfed by [[macrophage]]s which in turn become infected.<ref name="Srivastava-2020"/> The virus also seems to be able to evade [[T cell|T lymphocytes]] which seek to target and destroy the virus particles.<ref name="Davenport-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Davenport |first1=Bennett J. |last2=Bullock |first2=Christopher |last3=McCarthy |first3=Mary K. |last4=Hawman |first4=David W. |last5=Murphy |first5=Kenneth M. |last6=Kedl |first6=Ross M. |last7=Diamond |first7=Michael S. |last8=Morrison |first8=Thomas E. |date=16 April 2020 |title=Chikungunya Virus Evades Antiviral CD8+ T Cell Responses To Establish Persistent Infection in Joint-Associated Tissues |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=10.1128/jvi.02036–19 |doi=10.1128/jvi.02036-19 |pmid=32102875 |pmc=7163133 }}</ref>

== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosing chikungunya can be difficult because its symptoms, such as sudden fever and joint pain, closely resemble other mosquito-borne illnesses like [[dengue fever]] and [[malaria]].<ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025">{{Citation |last1=Ojeda Rodriguez |first1=Jafet A. |title=Chikungunya Fever |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534224/ |access-date=30 October 2025 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=30480957 |last2=Haftel |first2=Anthony |last3=Walker |first3=I. I. I.}}</ref> Chikungunya should be suspected if a patient with these symptoms either lives in an area where the virus is endemic, or if they have recently traveled to such an area.<ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025" /><ref name="CDC_2024_About">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=15 May 2024 |title=About Chikungunya |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/about/index.html |access-date=15 October 2025 |website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) }}</ref>

During the first week of illness, when virus is present in the bloodstream, it is possible to detect viral RNA in a blood sample using techniques such as [[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction|reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction]] (RT-PCR) or [[viral culture]].<ref name="CDC_2024_About" /> After this time, the body develops antibodies and the virus is eliminated from the bloodstream. Antibodies in blood serum persist for between 3 and 12 months; they can be detected for up to a year after infection using [[ELISA|enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]] (ELISA) or [[Immunofluorescence|indirect fluorescent antibody]] (IFA).<ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025" /><ref name="Vairo_2019" /> All of these techniques are time consuming and costly, requiring sophisticated laboratory equipment which may not be available in [[Developing country|resource poor settings]].<ref name="Silva-2024" />

=== Differential diagnosis ===
The ''Aedes'' mosquitoes which carry chikungunya virus can also carry other viruses such as [[Dengue fever|dengue]], [[Zika fever|zika]], and [[yellow fever]].<ref name="Abbasi-2025">{{Cite journal |last=Abbasi |first=Ebrahim |date=1 March 2025 |title=Global expansion of Aedes mosquitoes and their role in the transboundary spread of emerging arboviral diseases: A comprehensive review |url=https://onehealth.ijidonline.org/article/S2949-9151(25)00006-X/fulltext |journal=IJID One Health |volume=6 |article-number=100058 |doi=10.1016/j.ijidoh.2025.100058 |issn=2949-9151}}</ref> Other infections which should be considered include [[malaria]], [[leptospirosis]], [[measles]], [[Infectious mononucleosis|mononucleosis]] and [[African tick bite fever]], which are often endemic in the same areas and can have similar symptoms. It is possible for a patient to be infected by [[Coinfection|more than one virus]] simultaneously.<ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025" />

==Prevention==
[[File:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg|thumb|''A. aegypti'' mosquito biting a person]]
Although an approved [[vaccine]] exists, the most effective means of prevention is to avoid or prevent mosquito bites. The main strategies for this are: controlling mosquito populations by limiting their [[habitat]]; and protection against contact with disease-carrying mosquitoes.<ref name="Caglioti-2013" /> On a large scale, [[mosquito control]] focuses on eliminating standing water where mosquitoes lay eggs and develop as larvae.<ref name="Weaver-2015a">{{cite journal |vauthors=Weaver SC, Lecuit M |date=March 2015 |title=Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=372 |issue=13 |pages=1231–39 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1406035 |pmid=25806915}}</ref> Individuals should use [[Insect repellent|mosquito repellent]], as well as barriers such as loose clothing that covers the arms and legs, [[mosquito net]]s and [[Window screen|window and door screens]].<ref name="UK-gov-mosquito-2023">{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Mosquito bite avoidance: advice for travellers |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mosquito-bite-avoidance-for-travellers/mosquito-bite-avoidance-advice-for-travellers--2 |access-date=11 November 2025 |website=UK Health Security Agency }}</ref>

Once immunity against chikungunya has been acquired, whether as a result of infection or vaccination, it endures long term and may be lifelong.<ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024" /><ref name="Cleveland">{{Cite web |title=What Is Chikungunya? |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25083-chikungunya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250914191436/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25083-chikungunya |archive-date=14 September 2025 |access-date=11 November 2025 |website=Cleveland Clinic |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Vaccination===
{{Excerpt|Chikungunya vaccine}}

==Treatment==
No specific treatment for chikungunya is available.<ref name="Caglioti-2013" /> [[Therapy#Supportive therapy|Supportive care]] is recommended, and symptomatic treatment of fever and joint swelling includes the use of [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), rest, and fluids.<ref name="Caglioti-2013" /><ref name="ECDC-factsheet-2024">{{cite web|url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/chikungunya/facts/factsheet|title=Chikungunya – Fact sheet|date=24 June 2024|publisher=[[European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control]] (ECDC)|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219030113/http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/chikungunya_fever/basic_facts/pages/factsheet_health_professionals.aspx|archive-date=19 December 2013}}</ref> [[Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug|Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]] (NSAIDs) such as [[aspirin]] or [[ibuprofen]] should not be used in the acute phase until dengue fever has been ruled out, as these can increase the risk of bleeding in dengue.<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" /><ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025" />

Chronic symptoms, especially joint pain, may persist for months after the infection has passed. The pain and swelling may be treated with NSAIDs or in more severe cases with [[corticosteroid]] drugs or [[disease-modifying antirheumatic drug]]s such as [[hydroxychloroquine]].<ref name="Ojeda Rodriguez-2025" /><ref name="Pathak-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=Himanshu |last2=Mohan |first2=Mithun C |last3=Ravindran |first3=Vinod |date=1 September 2019 |title=Chikungunya arthritis |journal=Clinical Medicine |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=381–385 |doi=10.7861/clinmed.2019-0035 |issn=1470-2118 |pmc=6771335 |pmid=31530685}}</ref>

==Prognosis==
The [[mortality rate]] of chikungunya is slightly less than 1 in 1000.<ref name="Mavalankar-2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mavalankar D, Shastri P, Bandyopadhyay T, Parmar J, Ramani KV | title = Increased mortality rate associated with chikungunya epidemic, Ahmedabad, India | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 412–15 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18325255 | pmc = 2570824 | doi = 10.3201/eid1403.070720 }}</ref> Those over the age of 65, [[neonate|infant]]s, and those with underlying chronic medical problems are most likely to have severe complications.<ref name="Morrison-2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morrison TE | title = Reemergence of chikungunya virus | journal = Journal of Virology | volume = 88 | issue = 20 | pages = 11644–47 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25078691 | pmc = 4178719 | doi = 10.1128/JVI.01432-14 }}</ref> Newborn infants are especially vulnerable as they lack fully developed [[immune system]]s, and may pick up the infection through vertical [[Vertically transmitted infection|transmission]] from their mother.<ref name="Morrison-2014" /> The likelihood of prolonged symptoms or chronic joint pain is increased with increased age and prior rheumatological disease.<ref name="Schilte-2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schilte C, Staikowsky F, Staikovsky F, Couderc T, Madec Y, Carpentier F, Kassab S, Albert ML, Lecuit M, Michault A | title = Chikungunya virus-associated long-term arthralgia: a 36-month prospective longitudinal study | journal = PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | article-number = e2137 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23556021 | pmc = 3605278 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002137 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref><ref name="Gérardin-2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gérardin P, Fianu A, Michault A, Mussard C, Boussaïd K, Rollot O, Grivard P, Kassab S, Bouquillard E, Borgherini G, Gaüzère BA, Malvy D, Bréart G, Favier F | title = Predictors of Chikungunya rheumatism: a prognostic survey ancillary to the TELECHIK cohort study | journal = Arthritis Research & Therapy | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | article-number = R9 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23302155 | pmc = 3672753 | doi = 10.1186/ar4137 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref>

==Epidemiology==

{{Main|Epidemiology of chikungunya}}

[[File:CHIK-World-Map-09-17-2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Dark green denotes countries with current or previous local transmission of chikungunya virus, per US [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) as of September 2019.]]
[[File:Global_Aedes_albopictus_distribution_2015.png|thumb|upright=1.3|''A. albopictus'' distribution as of 2015]]
[[File:Global Aedes aegypti distribution (e08347).png|thumb|upright=1.3|''A. aegypti'' distribution as of 2015]]
Chikungunya virus is transmitted by the bite of an infected mosquito of the genus ''Aedes'', specifically ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' and ''[[Aedes albopictus]].<ref name="WHO_FactSheet_2025" />'' ''A. aegypti'', the so-called Egyptian mosquito, is well adapted to urban settings in the [[tropics]] but has poor tolerance for low temperatures and is less able to [[Overwintering|overwinter]] in [[temperate climate]]s. ''A. albopictus'', the Asian Tiger mosquito, has a wider temperature tolerance and can overwinter as eggs in temperate regions. Both mosquitoes have spread from their ancestral ranges into tropical, sub-tropical, and some temperate regions of the Americas, Africa, [[Australasia]] and [[Eurasia]].<ref name="ECDC-Aedes-Aegypti-2017">{{Cite web|title=Aedes aegypti - Factsheet for experts|url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/disease-vectors/facts/mosquito-factsheets/aedes-aegypti|website=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control|date=9 June 2017|access-date=27 November 2025 }}</ref><ref name="ECDC-Aedes-Albopictus-2017">{{Cite web|title=Aedes albopictus - Factsheet for experts|url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/disease-vectors/facts/mosquito-factsheets/aedes-albopictus|website=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control|date=9 June 2017|access-date=27 November 2025 }}</ref>

In Africa, chikungunya virus is maintained by a [[sylvatic cycle]] in which the virus cycles between small mammals (principally non-human [[primate]]s), and mosquitos; humans can be infected by a mosquito bite but the virus does not rely on humans for survival.<ref name="Powers-2007" /> Elsewhere, chikungunya is maintained in an urban cycle in densely populated areas. In this, an infected mosquito bites a human, transmitting the virus which replicates in the human host; a few days later, large numbers of infective [[Virion|virus particles]] are [[Viremia|present in the host's bloodstream]]. When another mosquito bites the infected human, it picks up the virus, and this cycle continues.<ref name="Shoubeho-2025">{{Cite journal|title=Chikungunya virus: from genetic adaptation to pandemic risk and prevention|journal=Therapeutic Advances in Infectious Disease|date=1 November 2025|issn=2049-9361|pmc=12398651|pmid=40893869|article-number=20499361251371110|volume=12|doi=10.1177/20499361251371110 |first1=Shoubeho Sadique|last1=Shandhi|first2=Suprety|last2=Malaker|first3=Mohammad|last3=Shahriar|first4=Ramisa|last4=Anjum}}</ref>

{{As of|2024|December}}, 119 countries and territories, principally those in tropical and subtropical regions, have reported local transmission of chikungunya.<ref name="WHO-Epidemiology-2025">{{Cite web |date=11 June 2025|title=Chikungunya epidemiology update - June 2025 (pdf download)|url=https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/chikungunya-epidemiology-update-june-2025|access-date=16 November 2025|website=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)}}</ref> In some of these it is [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] (continually present). In some regions the disease tends to manifest as periodic epidemics which can be sudden and intense, as the virus spreads among a population with a low level of [[herd immunity]].<ref name="Ribeiro dos Santos-2025">{{Cite journal|title=Global burden of chikungunya virus infections and the potential benefit of vaccination campaigns|journal=Nature Medicine|date=July 2025|issn=1546-170X|pmc=12283390|pmid=40495015|pages=2342–2349|volume=31|issue=7|doi=10.1038/s41591-025-03703-w|first1=Gabriel|last1=Ribeiro dos Santos|first2=Fariha|last2=Jawed|first3=Christinah|last3=Mukandavire|first4=Arminder|last4=Deol|first5=Danny|last5=Scarponi|first6=Leonard E. G.|last6=Mboera|first7=Eric|last7=Seruyange|first8=Mathieu J. P.|last8=Poirier|first9=Samuel|last9=Bosomprah|first10=Augustine O.|last10=Udeze|first11=Koussay|last11=Dellagi|first12=Nathanael|last12=Hozé|first13=Jaffu|last13=Chilongola|first14=Gheyath K.|last14=Nasrallah|first15=Simon|last15=Cauchemez}}</ref><ref name=Silva-2017a>{{Cite journal |last1=Silva|first1=Laurie A.|last2=Dermody|first2=Terence S.|date=1 March 2017|title=Chikungunya virus: epidemiology, replication, disease mechanisms, and prospective intervention strategies|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=127|issue=3|pages=737–749|doi=10.1172/JCI84417|pmid=28248203 |pmc=5330729 |issn=0021-9738}}</ref> Because of the difficulty in reliably diagnosing chikungunya disease, especially in [[Developing country|resource poor contexts]], there are no reliable statistics on its incidence. However epidemiological modelling studies estimate between 14.4 million<ref name="Hyolim-2025">{{Cite journal|title=Global, regional and national burden of chikungunya: force of infection mapping and spatial modelling study|journal=BMJ Global Health|date=October 2025|issn=2059-7908|pmc=12506043|pmid=41033690|article-number=e018598|volume=10|issue=10|doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2024-018598|first1=Hyolim|last1=Kang|first2=Ahyoung|last2=Lim|first3=Megan|last3=Auzenbergs|first4=Andrew|last4=Clark|first5=Felipe J|last5=Colón-González|first6=Henrik|last6=Salje|first7=Hannah|last7=Clapham|first8=Jean Paul|last8=Carrera|first9=Jong-Hoon|last9=Kim|first10=Maya|last10=Malarski|first11=Sandra|last11=López-Vergès|first12=Zulma M|last12=Cucunubá|first13=Thiago|last13=Cerqueira-Silva|first14=William John|last14=Edmunds|first15=Sushant|last15=Sahastrabuddhe}}</ref> and 35 million people<ref name="Ribeiro dos Santos-2025" /> are infected annually. Up to 848,000 people experience [[Sequela|chronic long-term pain]]; annual mortality is estimated at up to 3,700 deaths.<ref name="Ribeiro dos Santos-2025" />

==History==
The term '''chikungunya''' is derived from the [[Makonde language|Makonde]] root verb ''kungunyala'', meaning to dry up or become contorted, descriptive of the posture of people with chronic symptoms.<ref name="Lumsden-19552">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lumsden WH |date=January 1955 |title=An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952–53. II. General description and epidemiology |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=33–57 |doi=10.1016/0035-9203(55)90081-X |pmid=14373835}}</ref> The disease was first clearly described by Marion Robinson<ref name="Robinson-19552">{{cite journal |vauthors=Robinson MC |date=January 1955 |title=An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952–53. I. Clinical features |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=28–32 |doi=10.1016/0035-9203(55)90080-8 |pmid=14373834}}</ref> and W.H.R. Lumsden<ref name="Lumsden-19552" /> in a pair of 1955 papers, following an outbreak in 1952 on the [[Geography of Mozambique|Makonde Plateau]], along the border between [[Mozambique]] and [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]] (the mainland part of modern-day [[Tanzania]]).<ref name="Lumsden-19552" /> The virus itself was isolated in 1955.<ref name="Ross-1956">{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=R. W. |date=June 1956 |title=The Newala epidemic: III. The virus: isolation, pathogenic properties and relationship to the epidemic |journal=Epidemiology & Infection |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=177–191 |doi=10.1017/S0022172400044442 |issn=0022-1724 |pmc=2218030 |pmid=13346078}}</ref> At that time, it was endemic to sub-saharan Africa, relying on ''A. aegypti'' to maintain its sylvatic cycle.<ref name="Powers-2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Powers AM, Logue CH |date=September 2007 |title=Changing patterns of chikungunya virus: re-emergence of a zoonotic arbovirus |journal=The Journal of General Virology |volume=88 |issue=Pt 9 |pages=2363–77 |doi=10.1099/vir.0.82858-0 |pmid=17698645 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi }}</ref> Prior to this, the disease may have caused sporadic epidemics in other regions, which had been incorrectly ascribed to [[Dengue fever|dengue]].<ref name="Mobeen-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Rathore |first1=Mobeen H. |last2=Runyon |first2=Jonathan |last3=Haque |first3=Tanveer-ul |date=1 August 2017 |title=Emerging Infectious Diseases |url=https://www.advancesinpediatrics.com/article/S0065-3101(17)30017-8/abstract |journal=Advances in Pediatrics |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=27–71 |doi=10.1016/j.yapd.2017.04.002 |issn=0065-3101 |pmid=28688593}}</ref><ref name="Carey-1971">{{cite journal |vauthors=Carey DE |date=July 1971 |title=Chikungunya and dengue: a case of mistaken identity? |journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=243–62 |doi=10.1093/jhmas/XXVI.3.243 |pmid=4938938}}</ref><ref name="David-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Morens |first1=David M. |last2=Fauci |first2=Anthony S. |date=4 September 2014 |title=Chikungunya at the Door — Déjà Vu All Over Again? |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMp1408509 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=371 |issue=10 |pages=885–887 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1408509 |pmid=25029435 |issn=0028-4793}}</ref>

The first direct evidence of chikungunya spreading outside of Africa came from [[Bangkok]], Thailand, in 1958, during an urban outbreak. It subsequently appeared in India and Cambodia in the early 1960s, associated with the spread of the ''A. aegypti'' mosquito to those regions.<ref name="Weaver-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=Scott C. |last2=Forrester |first2=Naomi L. |date=1 August 2015 |title=Chikungunya: Evolutionary history and recent epidemic spread |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166354215001084 |journal=Antiviral Research |volume=120 |pages=32–39 |doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2015.04.016 |pmid=25979669 |issn=0166-3542}}</ref>

An outbreak on the coast of Kenya in 2004 rapidly spread to the islands of the Indian Ocean (such as [[Réunion|La Réunion]]) in 2005, then to India and Southeast Asia where it caused explosive outbreaks affecting millions of people.<ref name="Soumaharo-2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Soumahoro |first1=Man-Koumba |last2=Boelle |first2=Pierre-Yves |last3=Gaüzere |first3=Bernard-Alex |last4=Atsou |first4=Kokuvi |last5=Pelat |first5=Camille |last6=Lambert |first6=Bruno |last7=Ruche |first7=Guy La |last8=Gastellu-Etchegorry |first8=Marc |last9=Renault |first9=Philippe |last10=Sarazin |first10=Marianne |last11=Yazdanpanah |first11=Yazdan |last12=Flahault |first12=Antoine |last13=Malvy |first13=Denis |last14=Hanslik |first14=Thomas |date=14 June 2011 |title=The Chikungunya Epidemic on La Réunion Island in 2005–2006: A Cost-of-Illness Study |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=5 |issue=6 |article-number=e1197 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001197 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |issn=1935-2735 |pmc=3114750 |pmid=21695162}}</ref> Infected air travelers carried the virus into areas where the population had not previously been exposed to the disease and had no immunity.<ref name="Weaver-2015a" />

An analysis of the genetic code of chikungunya virus suggests that the wider spread of the disease since 2004 may be due to a genetic change which altered the E1 segment of the virus' [[viral coat]] protein, a variant called E1-A226V. Prior to this mutation, spread of the virus was restricted by the relatively narrow geographical range of its principal vector, ''[[Aedes aegypti|A. aegypti]]''. The adaptive effect of this mutation is that the virus became able to use ''[[Aedes albopictus|A albopictus]]'' as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]], spreading within its wider geographical range.<ref name="Tsetsarkin-2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tsetsarkin KA, Vanlandingham DL, McGee CE, Higgs S |date=December 2007 |title=A single mutation in chikungunya virus affects vector specificity and epidemic potential |journal=PLOS Pathogens |volume=3 |issue=12 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.0030201 |pmc=2134949 |pmid=18069894 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |article-number=e201}} {{open access}}</ref><ref name="Schuffenecker-2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schuffenecker I, Iteman I, Michault A, Murri S, Frangeul L, Vaney MC, Lavenir R, Pardigon N, Reynes JM, Pettinelli F, Biscornet L, Diancourt L, Michel S, Duquerroy S, Guigon G, Frenkiel MP, Bréhin AC, Cubito N, Desprès P, Kunst F, Rey FA, Zeller H, Brisse S |date=July 2006 |title=Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak |journal=PLOS Medicine |volume=3 |issue=7 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030263 |pmc=1463904 |pmid=16700631 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |article-number=e263}}</ref> ''A. albopictus'' is an invasive species which since the 1960's has spread through parts of Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, Africa, and the Middle East.<ref name="IUCNSSC">{{Cite web |title=Global Invasive Species Database |url=https://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/100_worst.php |access-date=19 October 2025 |website=The International Union for Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission}}</ref>

Chikungunya was introduced to the [[Americas]] in 2013, first detected on the French island of [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]],<ref name="Charles-2014">{{cite news |last1=Charles |first1=Jacqueline |date=1 June 2014 |title=Mosquito-borne virus knocking on Fla.'s door |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/651097045 |access-date=22 February 2023 |work=Newspapers.com |publisher=The Miami Herald |page=A17}}</ref><ref name=Silva-2017a /> and over the next four years more than 2.6 million cases were recorded in this region.<ref name="CDC-Yellow-2025">{{Cite web |last1=Staples |first1=J. Erin |last2=Hills |first2=Susan L. |last3=Powers |first3=Ann M. |date=26 August 2025 |title=CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel: Chikungunya |url=https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/chikungunya.html |access-date=8 December 2025 |publisher=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) }}</ref>

==Research directions==
Chikungunya is recognised as a global threat; there are an estimated 35 million cases annually, with 2.8 billion people living in areas which are threatened by the disease.<ref name="CEPI-2025">{{Cite web |date=19 December 2024 |title=Chikungunya |url=https://cepi.net/chikungunya |access-date=10 December 2025 |website=Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations }}</ref> It is classed as a priority pathogen by the [[Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations]] (CEPI).<ref name="Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations-2023">{{Cite web |date=13 December 2023 |title=Priority pathogens |url=https://cepi.net/priority-pathogens |access-date=9 December 2025 |website=Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations }}</ref>

Research on chikungunya focuses on improving knowledge of the mechanism of the disease and developing tools for its prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

* Prevention of chikungunya is principally focused on the development and testing of vaccines. {{As of|2025}}, two vaccines are available; each of them gives long lasting protection after administration of a single dose.<ref name="CDC-Vaccine-2025">{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2 December 2025 |title=Chikungunya Vaccine Information for Healthcare Providers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/hcp/vaccines/index.html |access-date=10 December 2025 |website=Chikungunya Virus }}</ref> Other vaccine candidates are under development.<ref name="Maure-2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Maure |first1=Clara |last2=Khazhidinov |first2=Kanat |last3=Kang |first3=Hyolim |last4=Auzenbergs |first4=Megan |last5=Moyersoen |first5=Pascaline |last6=Abbas |first6=Kaja |last7=Santos |first7=Gustavo Mendes Lima |last8=Medina |first8=Libia Milena Hernandez |last9=Wartel |first9=T. Anh |last10=Kim |first10=Jerome H. |last11=Clemens |first11=John |last12=Sahastrabuddhe |first12=Sushant |date=2 December 2024 |title=Chikungunya vaccine development, challenges, and pathway toward public health impact |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X24011654 |journal=Vaccine |volume=42 |issue=26 |article-number=126483 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.126483 |pmid=39467413 |issn=0264-410X}}</ref>
* Reliable diagnosis of chikungunya is difficult, slow and expensive. Research is under way to develop diagnostic tools which are cheaper, quicker and easier to use.<ref name="Silva-2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Lívia do Carmo |last2=Costa |first2=Luiz Henrique Alves |last3=Dos Santos |first3=Isabela Cristina de Oliveira |last4=de Curcio |first4=Juliana Santana |last5=Barbosa |first5=Amanda Munik de Freitas |last6=Anunciação |first6=Carlos Eduardo |last7=Silveira-Lacerda |first7=Elisângela de Paula |date=1 February 2024 |title=Advancing Chikungunya Diagnosis: A Cost-Effective and Rapid Visual employing Loop-mediated isothermal reaction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732889323002201 |journal=Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease |volume=108 |issue=2 |article-number=116111 |doi=10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2023.116111 |pmid=38016385 |issn=0732-8893}}</ref><ref name="Reddy-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Reddy |first1=Ankita |last2=Bosch |first2=Irene |last3=Salcedo |first3=Nol |last4=Herrera |first4=Bobby Brooke |last5=de Puig |first5=Helena |last6=Narváez |first6=Carlos F. |last7=Caicedo-Borrero |first7=Diana María |last8=Lorenzana |first8=Ivette |last9=Parham |first9=Leda |last10=García |first10=Kimberly |last11=Mercado |first11=Marcela |last12=Turca |first12=Angélica María Rico |last13=Villar-Centeno |first13=Luis A. |last14=Gélvez-Ramírez |first14=Margarita |last15=Ríos |first15=Natalia Andrea Gómez |date=1 September 2020 |title=Development and Validation of a Rapid Lateral Flow E1/E2-Antigen Test and ELISA in Patients Infected with Emerging Asian Strain of Chikungunya Virus in the Americas |journal=Viruses |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=971 |doi=10.3390/v12090971 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |issn=1999-4915 |pmc=7552019 |pmid=32882998}}</ref>
* There is no effective [[Antiviral drug|antiviral]] treatment for chikungunya. Research directions include repurposing some existing licensed drugs<ref name="Kasabe-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Kasabe |first1=Bhagyashri |last2=Ahire |first2=Gunwant |last3=Patil |first3=Poonam |last4=Punekar |first4=Madhura |last5=Davuluri |first5=Kusuma Sai |last6=Kakade |first6=Mahadeo |last7=Alagarasu |first7=Kalichamy |last8=Parashar |first8=Deepti |last9=Cherian |first9=Sarah |date=27 April 2023 |title=Drug repurposing approach against chikungunya virus: an in vitro and in silico study |journal=Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology |volume=13 |article-number=1132538 |doi=10.3389/fcimb.2023.1132538 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |issn=2235-2988 |pmc=10174255 |pmid=37180434}}</ref> and modifying plant-derived compounds.<ref name="Cardoso-2025">{{Cite journal |last1=Reis |first1=Adriana Cotta Cardoso |last2=de Oliveira |first2=Camila Mendes |last3=Rangel |first3=Beatriz Carvalho |last4=de Carvalho |first4=Laura Vogas Bonsucesso |last5=Portruneli |first5=Camila |last6=Agostini |first6=Livia da Cunha |last7=Pereira |first7=Isadora Oliveira Ansaloni |last8=Silva |first8=Breno de Mello |last9=Magalhães |first9=Cíntia Lopes de Brito |last10=da Silva |first10=Glenda Nicioli |last11=Pereira |first11=Guilherme Rocha |last12=Brandão |first12=Geraldo Célio |date=2 July 2025 |title=Paulownin triazole-chloroquinoline derivative: a promising antiviral candidate against chikungunya virus |url=https://academic.oup.com/lambio/article/doi/10.1093/lambio/ovaf092/8185392 |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=78 |issue=7 |article-number=ovaf092 |doi=10.1093/lambio/ovaf092 |pmid=40608491 |issn=1472-765X}}</ref>
* For many, the [[sequela]]e of chikungunya can persist for month or years, and range from mild discomfort to severe and debilitating joint pain which severely affects their physical and mental well being. Research in to the underlying mechanism of long term pain, and its possible treatments, is ongoing.<ref name="Keele-2023">{{Cite web |date=13 April 2023 |title=New research will help patients suffering debilitating after-effects of tropical viral infection |url=https://www.keele.ac.uk/globalhealth/news/2023/april/new-research/chikungunya-virus-after-effects.php |access-date=14 December 2025 |website=Keele University }}</ref><ref name="Amaral-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Amaral |first1=J. Kennedy |last2=Bingham |first2=Clifton O. |last3=Taylor |first3=Peter C. |last4=Vilá |first4=Luis M. |last5=Weinblatt |first5=Michael E. |last6=Schoen |first6=Robert T. |date=1 March 2023 |title=Pathogenesis of chronic chikungunya arthritis: Resemblances and links with rheumatoid arthritis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1477893922002800 |journal=Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease |volume=52 |article-number=102534 |doi=10.1016/j.tmaid.2022.102534 |pmid=36549417 |issn=1477-8939}}</ref>

==Chikungunya virus==
{{Split|date=October 2025|Chikungunya virus|discuss=Talk:Chikungunya#Split proposal|section=section}}

===Virology===
{{Virusbox
| name = Chikungunya virus
| image = Chikungunya Virus.png
| image_caption = Chikungunya virus structure at atomic resolution. Bar = 100 Å<ref>{{Citation |last=Padilla-Sanchez |first=Victor |title=Chikungunya Virus |date=10 August 2025 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/16790088 |access-date=10 August 2025 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.16790088}}</ref>
| image_upright = 2.0
| image_alt = The Chikungunya virus structure at atomic resolution has been constructed utilising UCSF Chimera software
| parent = Alphavirus
| species = Alphavirus chikungunya
| synonyms =
| synonyms_ref =
| subdivision_ranks =
| subdivision =
}}

Chikungunya virus is a member of the genus ''[[Alphavirus]]'', and family ''[[Togaviridae]]''. Chikungunya virus features an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope, with a diameter ranging from 60 to 70 nm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rougeron |first1=Virginie |last2=Sam |first2=I-Ching |last3=Caron |first3=Mélanie |last4=Nkoghe |first4=Dieudonné |last5=Leroy |first5=Eric |last6=Roques |first6=Pierre |date=1 March 2015 |title=Chikungunya, a paradigm of neglected tropical disease that emerged to be a new health global risk |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1386653214003710 |journal=Journal of Clinical Virology |volume=64 |pages=144–52 |doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2014.08.032 |issn=1386-6532 |pmid=25453326 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> It was first isolated in 1953 in [[Tanzania]] and is an [[RNA virus]] with a [[RNA virus#Replication|positive-sense single-stranded]] genome of about 11.6kb.<ref name="Weaver-2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Weaver SC, Osorio JE, Livengood JA, Chen R, Stinchcomb DT |date=September 2012 |title=Chikungunya virus and prospects for a vaccine |journal=Expert Review of Vaccines |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=1087–101 |doi=10.1586/erv.12.84 |pmc=3562718 |pmid=23151166}}</ref> It is a member of the [[Semliki Forest virus complex]] and is closely related to [[Ross River virus]], [[O'nyong'nyong virus]], and [[Semliki Forest virus]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Powers AM, Brault AC, Shirako Y, Strauss EG, Kang W, Strauss JH, Weaver SC |date=November 2001 |title=Evolutionary relationships and systematics of the alphaviruses |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=75 |issue=21 |pages=10118–31 |doi=10.1128/JVI.75.21.10118-10131.2001 |pmc=114586 |pmid=11581380 |bibcode=2001JVir...7510118P }}</ref> Because it is transmitted by [[arthropod]]s, namely mosquitoes, it can also be referred to as an [[arbovirus]] ('''ar'''thropod-'''bo'''rne virus). In the United States, it is classified as a [[Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource|category B priority pathogen]],<ref>{{cite web |title=NIAID Category A, B, and C Priority Pathogens |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/research/niaid-biodefense-pathogens |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105051524/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/BiodefenseRelated/Biodefense/Pages/CatA.aspx |archive-date=5 January 2014 |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref> and work requires [[Biosafety level 3|biosafety level III]] precautions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) Fifth Edition |url=https://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/BMBL5_sect_VIII_f.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014111841/http://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/BMBL5_sect_VIII_f.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2014 |access-date=1 January 2014}}</ref>

Three genotypes of this virus have been described, each with a distinct [[genotype]] and [[antigenic]] character: West African, East/Central/South African, and Asian genotypes.<ref name="Powers-2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Powers AM, Brault AC, Tesh RB, Weaver SC |date=February 2000 |title=Re-emergence of Chikungunya and O'nyong-nyong viruses: evidence for distinct geographical lineages and distant evolutionary relationships |journal=The Journal of General Virology |volume=81 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=471–79 |doi=10.1099/0022-1317-81-2-471 |doi-broken-date=11 July 2025 |pmid=10644846 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi }}</ref> The Asian lineage originated in 1952 and has subsequently split into two lineages – India (Indian Ocean Lineage) and South East Asian clades. This virus was first reported in the Americas in 2014. Phylogenetic investigations have shown two strains in Brazil – the Asian and East/Central/South African types – and that the Asian strain arrived in the Caribbean (most likely from Oceania) in about March 2013.<ref name="Sahadeo-2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sahadeo NS, Allicock OM, De Salazar PM, Auguste AJ, Widen S, Olowokure B, Gutierrez C, Valadere AM, Polson-Edwards K, Weaver SC, Carrington CV |year=2017 |title=Understanding the evolution and spread of chikungunya virus in the Americas using complete genome sequences |journal=Virus Evol |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1093/ve/vex010 |pmc=5413804 |pmid=28480053 |doi-access=free | title-link = doi |article-number=vex010}}</ref> The rate of molecular evolution was estimated to have a mean rate of 5 × 10−4 substitutions per site per year (95% higher probability density 2.9–7.9 × 10−4).<ref name="Sahadeo-2017" />

The chikungunya virus genome encodes both structural and non-structural proteins as typical of alphavirus genomic organization.<ref name="Wang-2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Mengke |last2=Wang |first2=Lidong |last3=Leng |first3=Ping |last4=Guo |first4=Jinlin |last5=Zhou |first5=Hao |date=1 March 2024 |title=Drugs targeting structural and nonstructural proteins of the chikungunya virus: A review |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141813024007529 |journal=International Journal of Biological Macromolecules |volume=262 |issue=Pt 2 |doi=10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129949 |issn=0141-8130 |pmid=38311132 |url-access=subscription |article-number=129949}}</ref> The structural proteins, including the capsid, E3, E2, 6K and E1, are responsible for encapsulating the viral genome and assembling new viral particles. These proteins are critical for viral entry into host cells. Meanwhile, the non-structural proteins, nsP1, nsP2, nsP3, and nsP4, play essential roles in viral replication, translation, and immune evasion.<ref name="Wang-2024" />

==== Viral replication ====
[[File:Chikungunya virus particles-PHIL-17369.jpg|thumb|[[Transmission electron micrograph]] of chikungunya virus particles]]
The virus consists of four nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins.<ref name="Weaver-2015" /> The structural proteins are the [[capsid]] and two [[Viral envelope|envelope]] glycoproteins: E1 and E2, which form [[heterodimeric]] spikes on the viron surface. E2 binds to cellular receptors in order to enter the host cell through [[receptor-mediated endocytosis]]. E1 contains a [[fusion peptide]] which, when exposed to the acidity of the [[endosome]] in [[eukaryotic cell]]s, dissociates from E2 and initiates [[Lipid bilayer fusion|membrane fusion]] that allows the release of nucleocapsids into the host cytoplasm, promoting infection.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Voss JE, Vaney MC, Duquerroy S, Vonrhein C, Girard-Blanc C, Crublet E, Thompson A, Bricogne G, Rey FA |date=December 2010 |title=Glycoprotein organization of Chikungunya virus particles revealed by X-ray crystallography |journal=Nature |volume=468 |issue=7324 |pages=709–12 |bibcode=2010Natur.468..709V |doi=10.1038/nature09555 |pmid=21124458 |s2cid=4412764}}</ref> The mature virion contains 240 [[heterodimeric]] spikes of E2/E1, which after release, bud on the surface of the infected cell, where they are released by [[exocytosis]] to infect other cells.<ref name="Weaver-2012" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/chikungunya-virus-disease Chikungunya virus disease] [[European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control]]

{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 32213
| ICD11 = {{ICD11|1D40}}
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|92|0|a|90}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|065.4}}, {{ICD9|066.3}}
| OMIM =
| eMedicineSubj = article
| eMedicineTopic = 2225687
| MeshID = D018354
| Orphanet = 324625
}}
{{Zoonotic viral diseases}}
{{Vaccines}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q15794049}}
{{Portal bar | Medicine | Viruses}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chikungunya| ]]
[[Category:Biological agents]]
[[Category:Health disasters in India]]
[[Category:Tropical diseases]]
[[Category:Zoonotic viral diseases]]

Sunil Satpal Sangwan

2026-04-21T22:48:29Z

Vedpsagar: Made a page - done

{{Short description|Indian politician (1947–2025)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Haryana Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Dadri, Haryana Assembly constituency|Dadri]]
| term_start = 8 October 2002
| term_end = 3 March 2025
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Somveer Sangwan]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1947|05|09|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2025|03|03|1947|05|09|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Gurugram]], [[Haryana]], India
| parents = Sh.Satpal Sangwan
}}

'''Sunil Satpal Sangwan''' (9 May 1947 – 3 March 2025) was an Indian politician from Haryana. He was a [[Haryana Legislative Assembly|Member of the Haryana Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2024 |title=Haryana Election Results 2024 Seat Wise: Constituency-Wise Winners List {{!}} India News - Times of India |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/election-results-2024-winners-loser-candidates-list-from-haryana-assembly-elections/articleshow/114029115.cms |access-date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241009163250/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/election-results-2024-winners-loser-candidates-list-from-haryana-assembly-elections/articleshow/114029115.cms |archive-date=9 October 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2024 |title=Dadri Assembly Result: BJP's Sunil Sangwan Wins {{!}} TimelineDaily |url=https://timelinedaily.com/elections/dadri-assembly-result-bjps-sunil-sangwan-wins |access-date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241104051601/https://timelinedaily.com/elections/dadri-assembly-result-bjps-sunil-sangwan-wins |archive-date=4 November 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sunil Satpal Sangwan(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- DADRI(CHARKHI DADRI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Haryana2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=131 |access-date=4 March 2025 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref><ref name="A look at Haryana’s 40 first-time MLAs">{{cite news|title=A look at Haryana's 40 first-time MLAs|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/haryana-first-time-mlas-9702131/|accessdate=4 July 2025|publisher=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250704171938/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/haryana-first-time-mlas-9702131/|archivedate=4 July 2025|language=en}}</ref>

== Professional career ==
Sunil Sangwan was the son of Satpal Sangwan, who served as the Revenue and Cooperation Minister in the [[Haryana government]]. Sunil began his career in 2002 in the Haryana Prisons Department, serving as Deputy Superintendent of Jail at Bhondsi Jail. He later became the Superintendent of the same jail, before opting for voluntary retirement (VRS).

== Political career ==
After serving in the prisons department for over 22 years, Sangwan applied for voluntary retirement. His application was approved by the Haryana Home Department on 1 September 2024, and he officially joined the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on 3 September 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2024 |title=Dadri Election Result 2024 LIVE Update: Assembly Winner, Leading, MLA, Margin, Candidates |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/dadri-election-result-2024-live-update-9077343.html |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2024 |title=Dadri, Haryana Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: BJP's Sunil Satpal Sangwan wins Dadri with 65568 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/dadri-haryana-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-aelb-2612833-2024-10-08 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

He contested the [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]] [[Dadri, Haryana Assembly constituency]] as a [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] candidate, defeating his closest rival, Congress candidate Manisha Sangwan, by a margin of 1,957 votes. This victory marked his first tenure as an MLA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Election Commission of India |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-S0756.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212094400/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-S0756.htm |archive-date=12 December 2024 |access-date=4 March 2025 |website=results.eci.gov.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2024 |title=BJP's Sunil Sangwan, ex-jailer in whose tenure Ram Rahim got out 6 times, wins |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/bjps-sunil-sangwan-ex-jailer-in-whose-tenure-ram-rahim-got-out-6-times-wins-2613632-2024-10-08 |access-date=4 March 2025 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2024 |title=Sunil Sangwan: New BJP Haryana MLA - Ex-Jailer Who Gave Ram Rahim 6 Paroles {{!}} TimelineDaily |url=https://timelinedaily.com/elections/sunil-sangwan-new-bjp-haryana-mla-ex-jailer-who-gave-ram-rahim-6-paroles |access-date=4 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241104051507/https://timelinedaily.com/elections/sunil-sangwan-new-bjp-haryana-mla-ex-jailer-who-gave-ram-rahim-6-paroles |archive-date=4 November 2024 }}</ref>

== Death ==
Sangwan died from liver cancer on 3 March 2025, at the age of 77.<ref>[https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/former-haryana-minister-bjp-leader-satpal-sangwan-passes-away-9865407/ Former Haryana minister and BJP leader Satpal Sangwan passes away at 77]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]
* [[Haryana Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sangwan, Sunil Satpal}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Haryana MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Haryana]]
[[Category:Deaths from liver cancer in India]]

{{Haryana-BJP-politician-stub}}

Munda Rockstar

2026-04-20T19:02:15Z

Vedpsagar: made a info

{{Short description|2024 Indian Punjabi-language film}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Munda Rockstar
| image =
| caption =
| alt =
| director = [[Satyajeet Puri]]
| story = [[Satyajeet Puri]]
| screenplay = [[Satyajeet Puri]] [[Navdeep Moudgill]]
| based_on =
| producer = [[Sanjay Jalan]] 
[[Abhishek Jalan]]
| starring = {{ubl|[[Mohammad Nazim]]|[[Yuvraj Hans]] |Aditi Aarya}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/mohammad-nazim-to-headline-punjabi-film-munda-rockstar-%E2%80%A2-488541 |title=Mohammad Nazim to headline punjabi film Munda Rockstar |work=The Tribune |author=[[The Tribune India]] |access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>
| music =[[Jaidev Kumar]] [[Gopi Sidhu]] Lyricist
| cinematography =[[Parv Dandona]]
| editing =[[Prashant Singh Rathore]]
| studio =
| distributor =
| runtime =
| released = {{Film date|2024|01|12|df=yes}}
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Munda Rockstar''''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: ਮੁੰਡਾ ਰੌਕਸਟਾਰ)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movies/news/munda-rockstar-yuvraaj-hans-shares-the-first-look-of-his-upcoming-movie/articleshow/98272799.cms?from=mdr |title=Munda Rockstar Yuvraj Hans shares the first look of his upcoming movie |work=The Times of India |date=27 February 2023}}</ref> is an Indian Punjabi-language film directed by [[Satyajeet Puri]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/punjabi/punjab/state/faridkot/bollywood-actor-satyajit-puri-to-make-his-directorial-debut-with-punjabi-film-munda-rockstar/pb20230226141518719719001 |title=Bollywood actor Satyajeet Puri to make his directorial debut with punjabi film Munda Rockstar |work=etvbharat.com |author=ETV Bharat}}</ref> The film stars [[Mohammad Nazim]], [[Yuvraj Hans]] and Aditi Aarya.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/saath-nibhana-saathiya-actor-mohammad-nazim-comeback-punjabi-films-munda-rockstar/ |title=Saath Nibhana Saathiya actor Mohammad Nazim comeback Punjabi film Munda Rockstar |work=bollywoodhungama.com |author=Bollywood Hungama |date=14 March 2023}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
All lyrics were written by [[Gopi Sidhu]], and all music was composed by [[Jaidev Kumar]]

== Cast ==
* [[Mohammad Nazim]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/mohammad-nazim-reveals-why-he-took-7-years-for-a-comeback-in-punjabi-films/articleshow/98867558.cms |title=Mohammad Nazim reveals why he took 7 Years for a comeback in Punjabi films |work=The Times of India |date=21 March 2023 |accessdate=21 March 2023}}</ref> as Yuvi the Rockstar
* [[Yuvraj Hans]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/movies/news/munda-rockstar-yuvraaj-hans-shares-the-first-look-of-his-upcoming-movie/ar-AA17YZXg |title=Munda Rockstar Yuvraj Hans Shares the first look of his upcoming movie |publisher=MSN }}</ref> as Sunny Randhawa
* [[Gopi Sidhu]]
* [[Satyajeet Puri]]

==Filming==
The film is mostly shot in [[Punjab]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://punjabi.abplive.com/entertainment/pollywood/the-shooting-of-yuvraj-hans-munda-rockstar-is-over-saath-nibhana-saathiya-fame-mohammad-nazim-will-also-be-seen-715468 |title=The shooting of Yuvraj Hans Munda Rockstar is over Saath Nibhana Saathiya fame Mohammad Nazim will also be seen |work=abplive.com |author=[[ABP Live]] |date=23 April 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt27146888}}

[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2024 Punjabi-language films]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
{{2020s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Tumkur Rural Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:36:11Z

Vedpsagar: Made a page

{{Short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Tumkur Rural
|type= SLA
| constituency_no = 133
| map_image = 133-Tumkur Rural constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|state = [[Karnataka]]
|district = [[Tumkur district|Tumkur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tumkur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Tumkur]]
|established = 2008
|electors = {{formatnum:208826}} (2023)<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}
|reservation = None
|mla = [[B. Suresh Gowda]]
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|preceded_by = [[D. C. Gowri Shankar]]
}}
'''Tumkur Rural Assembly constituency''' is one of the 224 constituencies in the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] of [[Karnataka]], a southern state of [[India]]. It is also part of [[Tumkur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Tumkur Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= 9 October 2017}}</ref>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || rowspan="2" | [[B. Suresh Gowda]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || [[D. C. Gowri Shankar]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (Secular)}}
|-
| [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || [[B. Suresh Gowda]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tumkur Rural <ref name=election2023/><ref name="Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Tumkur Rural">{{cite news |title=Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Tumkur Rural |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10133.htm?ac=133 |access-date=5 May 2025 |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505111821/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10133.htm?ac=133 |archive-date=5 May 2025}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Suresh Gowda]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 89,191 |percentage = 48.90% |change = {{increase}}4.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = D. C. Gowrishankar Swamy |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 84,597 |percentage = 46.38% |change = {{decrease}}1.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. H. Shanmukhappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 4,066 |percentage = 2.23% |change = {{decrease}}2.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,200 |percentage = 0.66% |change = {{decrease}}0.23 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,594 |percentage = 2.52% |change = {{decrease}}0.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 183,039 |percentage = 87.65% |change = {{increase}}2.21 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 182,389}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 208,826 |ref = |change = {{increase}}3.50 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Janata Dal (Secular) |swing = {{increase}}0.89 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2018 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tumkur Rural }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. C. Gowri Shankar]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 82,740 |percentage = 48.01% |change = {{increase}}12.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Suresh Gowda]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 77,100 |percentage = 44.74% |change = {{increase}}8.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rayasandra Ravikumar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 7,633 |percentage = 4.43% |change = {{decrease}}1.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,530 |percentage = 0.89% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,640 |percentage = 3.27% |change = {{increase}}2.24 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 172,386 |percentage = 85.44% |change = {{increase}}1.73 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 172,332}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 201,767 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.05 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}11.86 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2013 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tumkur Rural <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Suresh Gowda]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 55,029 |percentage = 36.15% |change = {{decrease}}13.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[D. C. Gowri Shankar]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 53,457 |percentage = 35.11% |change = {{increase}}8.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. Ningappa |party = Karnataka Janata Paksha |votes = 22,709 |percentage = 14.92% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Auditor Nagaraju Yalachavadi |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 8,599 |percentage = 5.65% |change = {{decrease}}12.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. Gangaiah |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,060 |percentage = 0.70% |change = {{decrease}}0.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Siddaramegowda. T. B |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,041 |percentage = 0.68% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. H. Kalaiah |party = Janata Dal (United) |votes = 935 |percentage = 0.61% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,572 |percentage = 1.03% |change = {{decrease}}22.32 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 146,803 |percentage = 83.71% |change = {{increase}}5.64 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 152,242}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 175,376 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.46 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}13.93 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Tumkur Rural <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Suresh Gowda]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 60,904 |percentage = 50.08% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. Ningappa |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 32,512 |percentage = 26.73% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Arakere Rudresh |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 21,642 |percentage = 17.80% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Syed Imthiyaz Pasha |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,463 |percentage = 1.20% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Syed Mukbul Ahamed |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,419 |percentage = 1.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Siddaramegowda. T. B |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,111 |percentage = 0.91% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. V. Sreenivasaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,063 |percentage = 0.87% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 28,392 |percentage = 23.35% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 121,751 |percentage = 78.07% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 121,617}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 155,943 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Tumkur district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}
{{coord|13.31|76.95|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Tumakuru district]]
[[Category:Tumkur]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Pepe (2024 Indian film)

2026-04-19T05:50:21Z

Vedpsagar: Adding The Entry W/ Refs...

{{No plot|date=February 2025}}
{{short description|2024 Indian Kannada film}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pepe
| image = Pepe (2024 Indian film).jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Shreelesh S. Nair
| producer = {{Ubl| Uday Shankar S
| B.M. Sriram Kolar}}
| writer = Shreelesh S. Nair
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Vinay Rajkumar]]
* [[Mayur Patel]]
* Kaajal Kunder
}}
| music = [[Poornachandra Tejaswi (composer)|Poornachandra Tejaswi]]
| cinematography = Abhishek G. Kasaragod
| editing = Manu Shedgar
| studio = {{Ubl| Uday Cine Venture
| Deepa Films}}
| distributor = [[KRG Studios]]<ref name=":DIS" />
| released = {{film date|2024|8|30|df=yes}}
| runtime = 126 minutes<ref name=":THR" />
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget = 
| gross =
}}
'''''Pepe''''' is a 2024 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[action drama]] film written and directed by Shreelesh S. Nair in his directorial debut. The film stars [[Vinay Rajkumar]] in the titular role, alongside an ensemble cast including [[Mayur Patel]], [[Naveen D. Padil]], Yash Shetty, Kaajal Kunder, Medini Kelamane, Raviprasad Mandya, Kitty Sridhar, Shashidhar Bhat, [[Bala Rajwadi]], [[Aruna Balraj]], Sandya Arekere, and Shivu Kabbanahalli.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar's 'Pepe' trailer unveils a raw and riveting saga; release date announced |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/20/vinay-rajkumars-pepe-trailer-unveils-a-raw-and-riveting-saga-release-date-announced |work=The New Indian Express |date=9 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=25 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240825203807/https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/20/vinay-rajkumars-pepe-trailer-unveils-a-raw-and-riveting-saga-release-date-announced |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar's 'Pepe' Gets 'A' Certificate from Censor Board |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/kannada/vinay-rajkumar-s-pepe-gets-a-certificate-from-censor-board-article-112080612/amp |work=Times Now |date=28 July 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=23 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823104928/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/kannada/vinay-rajkumar-s-pepe-gets-a-certificate-from-censor-board-article-112080612/amp |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Vinay Rajkumar]] as Pepe aka Pradeep
* [[Mayur Patel]] as Guna
* [[Naveen D. Padil]] as Rayappa
* Yash Shetty
* Kaajal Kunder
* Medini Kelamane
* Raviprasad Mandya
* Kitty Sridhar
* Shashidhar Bhat
* [[Bala Rajwadi]]
* [[Aruna Balraj]] as Sunitha
* Sandya Arekere
* Shivu Kabbanahalli
* [[Raghavendra Rajkumar]] as Bagappa (Cameo appearance)

== Production ==
=== Development ===
Shreelesh S. Nair got the idea to approach [[Vinay Rajkumar]] for the lead role after watching the teaser of the film ''Gramayana'', in which the latter stars in the lead role.<ref name=":TNIE1">{{cite news |title=Every movie is a work of art and helps me grow as an actor, says Vinay Rajkumar |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/29/every-movie-is-a-work-of-art-and-helps-me-grow-as-an-actor-says-vinay-rajkumar |work=The New Indian Express |date=10 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=6 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906193233/https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/29/every-movie-is-a-work-of-art-and-helps-me-grow-as-an-actor-says-vinay-rajkumar |url-status=live}}</ref> Stunt master Chethan D'Souza also recommended Shreelesh to narrate the story to Vinay.<ref>{{cite news |title=I don't like to spoon-feed the audience: Shreelesh Nair |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/28/i-dont-like-to-spoon-feed-the-audience-shreelesh-nair |work=The New Indian Express |date=12 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=5 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240905154941/https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/kannada/2024/Aug/28/i-dont-like-to-spoon-feed-the-audience-shreelesh-nair |url-status=live}}</ref> Upon hearing the narration, Vinay was drawn to the film due to its touch on social themes, specifically communalism and women's abuse, so he agreed to do it. They finalized the story, after which Shreelesh requested specific shots, including lifting the [[Dhoti|panche]] and wiping the face. Despite expectations of a longer session, the photoshoot was completed in just 15 minutes.<ref name=":TNIE1" /> The film was announced in April 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title='Pepe' first look: Vinay Rajkumar shows his ominous side with machete in hand and a bloodied face |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/pepe-first-look-vinay-rajkumar-shows-his-ominous-side-with-machete-in-hand-and-blood-all-over-the-face/articleshow/82063861.cms |work=The Times of India |date=14 April 2021}}</ref> [[Mayur Patel]] was chosen to portray the role Guna.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mayur Patel: Cinema didn't love me as much as I loved it |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/interviews/2024/Aug/26/mayur-patel-cinema-didnt-love-me-as-much-as-i-loved-it |work=Cinema Express |date=11 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The film was produced by Uday Shankar S and B.M. Sriram Kolar under the banners of Uday Cine Venture and Deepa Films.<ref>{{cite news |title=Curious about Pepe - Bangalore Mirror |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/curious-about-pepe/articleshow/112088934.cms |work=The Times of India |date=29 July 2024}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
On 19 April 2021, Kaajal Kunder was reported to have joined the cast as the female lead,<ref>{{cite news |title=Kaajal Kunder to star opposite Vinay Rajkumar in Pepe |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/Apr/19/kaajal-kunder-to-star-opposite-vinay-rajkumar-in-pepe-24049.html |work=Cinema Express |date=9 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> with filming commencing in [[Coorg]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Kaajal Kunder to play the lead opposite Vinay Rajkumar in 'Pepe' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/kaajal-kunder-to-play-the-lead-opposite-vinay-rajkumar-in-pepe/articleshow/82175188.cms |work=The Times of India |date=21 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kaajal Kunder to star opposite Vinay Rajkumar in Pepe |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2021/Apr/20/kaajal-kunder-to-star-oppositevinay-rajkumar-in-pepe-2292097.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=4 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> As of 18 January 2022, the makers had finished sixty percent of shooting, and reportedly planned to complete the rest once the third wave of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] eased up.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharadhaa |first1=A. |title=Vinay Rajkumar's 'Pepe' is a gritty gangster drama |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2022/Jan/18/vinay-rajkumar-pepeis-a-gritty-gangster-drama-2407922.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=12 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The filming was wrapped up on 17 November 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar wraps up Pepe's climax with a gritty fight sequence |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2022/Nov/17/vinay-rajkumar-wraps-up-pepes-climax-with-a-gritty-fight-sequence-2518963.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=8 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The action sequences were choreographed by Ravi Verma, Chetan D'Souza, Different Danny, and Narsimha.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pepe Trailer: This Vinay Rajkumar-starrer Film Is Full Of Gore And Action |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/pepe-trailer-this-vinay-rajkumar-starrer-film-is-full-of-gore-and-action-9020940.html |work=News18 |date=20 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The cinematography was by Abhishek G Kasaragod, while the editing was handled by Manu Shedgar.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} The film received an A certificate from the [[Central Board of Film Certification]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar's 'Pepe' receives 'A' certification from Censor Board |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/vinay-rajkumars-pepe-receives-a-certification-from-censor-board-3124965 |work=Deccan Herald |date=27 July 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=30 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730132848/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/vinay-rajkumars-pepe-receives-a-certification-from-censor-board-3124965 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar's Pepe completes its censorship formalities |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2024/Jul/27/vinay-rajkumars-pepe-completes-its-censorship-formalities |work=Cinema Express |date=7 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Pepe
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Poornachandra Tejaswi (composer)|Poornachandra Tejaswi]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2024
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 3:30
| language = Kannada
| label = PRK audio
| producer =
| chronology = [[Poornachandra Tejaswi (composer)|Poornachandra Tejaswi]]
| prev_title = [[Matinee (2024 film)|Matinee]]
| prev_year = 2024
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{external music video| header = External music video
|{{YouTube|zSIcOeN3fDI|Pepe - Preset}}}}
}}
The soundtrack was composed by [[Poornachandra Tejaswi (composer)|Poornachandra Tejaswi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Pepe-Preset (From "PEPE") Song Kannada Song by Poornachandra Tejaswi |url=https://gaana.com/album/pepe-preset-from-pepe |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |access-date=10 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Song From Vinay Rajkumar-starrer Pepe Out |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/new-song-from-vinay-rajkumar-starrer-pepe-out-9011827.html |work=News18 |date=10 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=11 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811082045/https://www.news18.com/amp/movies/new-song-from-vinay-rajkumar-starrer-pepe-out-9011827.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Pepe - Preset
| length1 = 3:30
| lyrics1 = JG Kumara, Girijana Samagra Abhivruddhi Kala Samsthe
| extra1 = JG Kumara, Girijana Samagra Abhivruddhi Kala Samsthe
| total_length = 3:30
}}

== Release ==
=== Theatrical ===
The film was released theatrically on 30 August 2024.<ref name=":DIS">{{cite news |title=Vinay Rajkumar's 'Pepe' Set For Release, Distributed By KRG Studios |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/kannada/vinay-rajkumar-s-pepe-set-for-release-distributed-by-krg-studios-article-112445067/amp |work=Times Now |date=11 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=12 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812055754/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/kannada/vinay-rajkumar-s-pepe-set-for-release-distributed-by-krg-studios-article-112445067/amp |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The digital rights of the film were acquired by [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{cite news |title=ಒಟಿಟಿಗೆ ಬಂತು ವಿನಯ್‌ ರಾಜ್‌ಕುಮಾರ್‌ ಪೆಪೆ ಸಿನಿಮಾ; ಆದ್ರೆ ನಿಮಗೆ ನೋಡೋಕೆ ಆಗೋದಿಲ್ಲ! |url=https://kannada.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/vinay-rajkumar-pepe-kannada-cinema-in-ott-amazon-prime-yda-1881359-page-4.html |work=News18 ಕನ್ನಡ |date=6 October 2024 |language=kn}}</ref>

== Reception ==
A Sharadhaa of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' rated the film three out of five stars and wrote that "''Pepe'' demands full attention as it navigates a complex web of storylines with an uneven narrative. The film’s experimental editing and non-linear approach, including the black-and-white versus colour technique for past and present scenes, add flair but can disrupt the flow."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharadhaa |first1=A. |title='Pepe' sees Vinay Rajkumar in fresh light, stands out technically |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2024/Aug/31/pepe-sees-vinay-rajkumar-in-fresh-light-stands-out-technically |work=The New Indian Express |date=9 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=8 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240908214402/https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/review/2024/Aug/31/pepe-sees-vinay-rajkumar-in-fresh-light-stands-out-technically |url-status=live}}</ref> Y Maheswara Reddy of ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' gave it two-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote that "It is worth a watch only if you have the stomach for too much action."<ref>{{cite news |title=Kannada Movie Review-Pepe: Violent attack on the senses - Bangalore Mirror |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/kannada-movie-review-pepe-violent-attack-on-the-senses/articleshow/112937482.cms |work=The Times of India |date=31 August 2024}}</ref>

Sridevi S of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave it two-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote that "Shreelesh Nair has tried a very unconventional film in his debut attempt, but the movie keeps oscillating between an 'art film' that wants to be preachy and a commercial film that wants to entertain. However, it ends up being disappointing in both aspects."<ref>{{cite news |title=Pepe Movie Review : Pepe review: Shreelesh Nair serves too much blood and meat on a platter |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/pepe/movie-review/112930934.cms |work=The Times of India |date=30 August 2024 |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=5 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005130344/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/pepe/movie-review/112930934.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> Shashiprasad SM of ''[[Times Now]]'' gave it two out of five stars and wrote, "Beyond appreciating Vinay Rajkumar's performance, the background score and the work of the action choreographers, ''Pepe'' is not an ordinary commercial entertainer. Maybe a classic work of art that is way beyond the understanding of ordinary and sane minds."<ref>{{cite news |title=Pepe Movie Review: Minus Vinay Rajkumar, BGM And Action, Rest Is Just Bloodbath In The Name Of Creativity! |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/kannada/pepe-movie-review-minus-vinay-rajkumar-bgm-and-action-rest-is-just-bloodbath-in-the-name-of-creativity-review-112906343/amp |work=Times Now |date=30 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=21 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240921175047/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/kannada/pepe-movie-review-minus-vinay-rajkumar-bgm-and-action-rest-is-just-bloodbath-in-the-name-of-creativity-review-112906343/amp |url-status=live}}</ref>

Pranati A S of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' gave it two out of five stars and opined that "interesting visuals and powerful dialogues are diluted by blood and gore."<ref>{{cite news |last1=S |first1=Pranati A. |title='Pepe' movie review: Bogged down by blood and gore |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/pepe-movie-review-bogged-down-by-blood-and-gore-3171478 |work=Deccan Herald |date=30 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925115812/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/pepe-movie-review-bogged-down-by-blood-and-gore-3171478 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Vivek M. V. of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that "''Pepe'' is a violent film with plenty of action sequences. Some of the action scenes are choreographed creatively, yet, the gruesome fights don’t leave a lasting impact because of the sheer absence of drama in the second half. The blood-fest inevitably kills the intrigue in the movie."<ref name=":THR">{{cite news |last1=M.V |first1=Vivek |title='Pepe' movie review: Vinay Rajkumar's action drama is stylish yet shallow |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/pepe-movie-review-vinay-rajkumars-action-drama-is-stylish-yet-shallow/article68585575.ece/ |work=The Hindu |date=30 August 2024 |language=en-IN |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=6 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240906233356/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/pepe-movie-review-vinay-rajkumars-action-drama-is-stylish-yet-shallow/article68585575.ece/amp/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Sunayana Suresh of ''The South First'' gave it two-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote, "''Pepe'' is worth watching for those interested in seeing the Kannada film industry explore new territory and support innovative projects. The film offers a fresh style and unique content. However, be prepared for a less engaging narrative, as the emphasis on style does not translate into substantial storytelling."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Suresh |first1=Sunayana |title=Pepe review: All gore and style but little substance in this Vinay Rajkumar film |url=https://thesouthfirst.com/entertainment/kannada/pepe-movie-review/ |work=The South First |date=30 August 2024 |language=en |access-date=10 October 2024 |archive-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902122341/https://thesouthfirst.com/entertainment/kannada/pepe-movie-review/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt15516906}}

[[Category:2024 action drama films]]
[[Category:2024 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2024 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]

Pandharpur Vari

2026-04-16T13:23:43Z

Vedpsagar: Adding First Pg W/ Refs...

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Pandharpur Vari}}
{{Short description|Annual spiritual pilgrimage in Maharashtra, India}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name = Pandharpur Vari
| image = A procession Palkhi festival Hindu culture religion rites rituals sights.jpg
| caption = A procession of Palkhi to [[Pandharpur]]
| type = Hindu
| longtype = Spiritual
| observedby = [[Hindus|Hindu]]
| begins =
| ends =
| date2024 = 28 June - 16 July
| date2025 = 18 June - 6 July
| date2026 = 19 June - 7 July
| frequency = Annual
| nickname = Palkhi
| duration = 20 days
| date =
}}

[[File:Syayambhuvithoba.jpg|thumb|100px|right|The Vari is undertaken in honour of the god [[Vithoba]].]]
'''Pandharpur Vari''', or '''Vari''' is a ''[[yatra]]'' to [[Pandharpur]], [[Maharashtra]], to honor [[Vithoba]]. It involves carrying the ''[[paduka]]'' of a saint in a ''[[palkhi]]'', most notably of [[Dnyaneshwar]] and [[Tukaram]], from their respective [[Samadhi (shrine)|shrines]] to Pandharpur. Many pilgrims join this procession on foot. ''[[Warkari|Varkari]]'' is a Marathi term which means "one who performs the V''ari''". The tradition is more than 700 to 800 years old.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.punebuzz.com/pandharpur-yatra-ekadashi-pandharpur-wari/|title=Pandharpur Wari 2015, Schedule, Route and Pandharpur Yatra Videos|date=8 June 2015|website=Punebuzz.com|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-date=27 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727041100/http://www.punebuzz.com/pandharpur-yatra-ekadashi-pandharpur-wari/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/warkari-wave-sweeps-pune-city-pimpri-chinchwad/|title=Warkari wave sweeps Pune city, Pimpri-Chinchwad|date=22 June 2014|website=Indianexpress.com|access-date=11 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourismpune.com/2015/07/pandharpur-palkhi-wari.html|title=Pandharpur Palkhi Sohala 2015|website=Tourismpune.org|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-date=27 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927081946/http://www.tourismpune.com/2015/07/pandharpur-palkhi-wari.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Marches happen on foot from various locations in Maharashtra to [[Vithoba Temple]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://punemirror.indiatimes.com/pune/cover-story/this-years-wari-moves-towards-greener-pastures/articleshow/69624747.cms|title=This year's wari moves towards greener pastures; plantation drive to be undertaken on widened Mangalwedha-Pandharpur stretch|last1=Nitnaware|first1=Himanshu|date=June 3, 2019|website=Pune Mirror|language=en|access-date=2019-10-15|archive-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613112717/https://punemirror.indiatimes.com/pune/cover-story/this-years-wari-moves-towards-greener-pastures/articleshow/69624747.cms|url-status=dead}}</ref> This [[yatra]] takes 21 days. Along the way, many other ''palkis'' join the two most revered ''palkhis.'' Starting from their towns located in the [[Pune district]] of Maharashtra: Sant Dnyaneshwar's ''palkhi'' leaves from [[Alandi]], while Tukaram's begins at [[Dehu]]. The V''ari'' culminates at the Vithoba Temple on the holy occasion of [[Shayani Ekadashi]] (Ashadi Ekadashi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.incredibleindia.org/en/experience-india/fairs-and-festivals/49-july/16-ashadi-ekadashi-pandharpur|title=Ashadi Ekadashi, Pandharpur|website=Incredibleindia.org|access-date=11 August 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730022512/http://www.incredibleindia.org/en/experience-india/fairs-and-festivals/49-july/16-ashadi-ekadashi-pandharpur|archive-date=30 July 2015}}</ref> Devotees from across Maharashtra and nearby areas leave for Pandharpur, wearing [[Tulsi|holy basil]] beads and singing the glories of Vithoba and songs like "Dñyanbā Tukārām", commemorating the saints.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Elaborate-arrangements-for-Sant-Tukaram-Maharaj-palkhi-procession/articleshow/47974911.cms|title=Elaborate arrangements for Sant Tukaram Maharaj palkhi procession |newspaper=[[Times of India]]|access-date=11 August 2017}}</ref> When they reach Pandharpur on Shayani Ekadashi, the devotees bathe in the sacred [[Bhima River]] before visiting the temple.

==History==

===Beginnings===
Various views exist on the origins of the ''wari'' ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]: पंढरपूरची वारी or वारी). According to one theory, Vitthalpant, the father of the [[Varkari]] saint [[Dnyaneshwar]], began the ''wari'' to visit [[Pandharpur]] in the Hindu months of [[Ashadha]] and [[Kartik (month)|Kartik]]. The tradition of performing a Vari is generally regarded to have existed for more than 800 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|title=Pandharpur Wari|publisher=Parikramaholidays|access-date=29 July 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064739/http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsonair.com/PANDHARPUR-WARI.asp|title=PANDHARPUR WARI:PILGRIMAGE ON FOOT|publisher=[[All India Radio]]|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181005/http://www.newsonair.com/PANDHARPUR-WARI.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Another theory credits [[Dnyaneshwar]] and [[Tukaram]] to have started the pilgrimage. They used to take a journey to Pandharpur by foot for 15 days, reaching Pandharpur's [[Vithoba Temple]] on [[Shayani Ekadashi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/palkhi-festival.html|title=Palkhi Festival|website=Maharashtrattourism.net|access-date=2017-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gethe|first1=Subhash|title=Varkari Movement|url=https://www.academia.edu/4231089|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref> The tradition of carrying the ''[[paduka]]'' of the saints was started by the Tukaram's youngest son, Narayan Maharaj, in 1685.

===British era===
Changes were brought to the pilgrimage in the 1820s by Tukaram's descendants and a devotee of Dnyaneshwar named Haibatravbaba Arphalkar, who was a courtier of the [[Scindia]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=The wari tradition|url=http://www.warisantanchi.com/english/parampara2.html|website=Wari Santanchi|access-date=8 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908230750/http://www.warisantanchi.com/english/parampara2.html|archive-date=8 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Haibatravbaba is credited with the organization of the ''wari'' in use today. This involved carrying the ''paduka'' in a ''[[palkhi]]'', having horses involved in the procession, and organizing the devotees or varkaris in Dindis (Dindi stands for a specific group of varkaris).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mokashi |first1=Digambar Balkrishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5vIv4oxeh4C&pg=PA1 |title=Palkhi: An Indian Pilgrimage |date=1987 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=0-88706-461-2 |location=Albany |page=18 |translator-last=Engblom |translator-first=Phillip C.}}</ref>

==Palkhi route==
{{Location map+|Maharashtra |width=350 |float=right |caption= Location of Pandharpur and the starting place of important palkhis in [[Maharashtra]]|places=
{{Location map~ |Maharashtra |lat=17.4040 |long=75.1940 |label=[[Pandharpur]]|position=bottom }}
{{Location map~ |Maharashtra |lat=18.677062 |long=73.896600 |label=[[Alandi]]|position=bottom }}
{{Location map~ |Maharashtra |lat=18.72 |long=73.77 |label=[[Dehu]]|position=Top }}
{{Location map~ |Maharashtra |lat=19.48 |long=75.38 |label=[[Paithan]]|position=Top }}

}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Day
!Sant Tukaram Maharaj Palkhi
!Sant Dnyaneshwar Maharaj Palkhi
|-
|1
|[[Dehu]]
|
|-
|2
|[[Akurdi]]
|[[Alandi]]
|-
|3
|[[Nana Peth, Pune|Nana Peth]]
|[[Bhavani Peth, Pune|Bhavani Peth]]
|-
|4
|[[Hadapsar]]
|[[Pune]]
|-
|5
|[[Loni Kalbhor]]
|[[Saswad]]
|-
|6
|Yavat
|[[Saswad]]
|-
|7
|Varvand
|[[Jejuri]]
|-
|8
|[[Baramati]]
|Walhe
|-
|9
|[[Indapur]]
|Lonand
|-
|10
|[[Akluj]]
|Taradgaon
|-
|11
|[[Malshiras]]
|[[Phaltan]]
|-
|12
|Natepute
|Barad
|-
|13
|Velapur
|Natepute
|-
|14
|Pirachi Kuroli
|[[Malshiras]]
|-
|15
|Bhandishegaon
|Velapur
|-
|16
|Wakhari
|Bhandishegaon
|-
|17
|colspan=2|Wakhari
|-
|18
|colspan=2|[[Pandharpur]]
|-
|19
|colspan=2|[[Vithoba Temple]]
|}

==Wari in present times==
{{Infobox
| title = ''Pandharpur Wari'' in Hinduism
| image = {{image array|perrow=2|width=150|height=120
| image1 = Tukaram Maharaj palkhi (palanquin).jpg| caption1 = Tukaram Maharaj palakhi (palanquin)
| image2 = Tukaram Maharaj palkhi (palanquin) Rath.jpg| caption2 = Tukaram Maharaj palkhi (palanquin) Rath
| image3 = DnyaneshwarMaharajPalkhiFestival2ndCircularRingan.jpg| caption3 = Dnyaneshwar Maharaj Palkhi 2nd Circular ringan. Near, Khudus Phata, Malshiras.
| image4 = Dnyaneshwar Maharaj Palkhi 3rd Circular ringan program .jpg| caption4 = Dnyaneshwar Maharaj Palkhi 3rd Circular ringan. Near, Thakur buva samadhi, Velapur.
| image5 = Pilgrims 1 (2731600954).jpg| caption5 = Pilgrims bathing in the Chandrabhaga river at Pandharpur
| image6 = PHUGADI.jpg|caption6 = During the Palkhi the Warkaris play [[Fugdi|Phugadi]] games in the temple passage.
}}
}}

The Warkaris—whose patron deity is Vithoba—undertake the ''wari'' to Pandharpur, reaching there on a day before Shayani Ekadashi, the eleventh lunar day ([[Ekadashi]]) of the bright fortnight ([[Shukla paksha|Shukla Paksha]]) of [[Ashadha]] (June–July). Pilgrims carry palanquins of the saints from the places of their respective [[Samadhi (shrine)|samadhi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsonair.com/PANDHARPUR-WARI.asp|title=Pandarpur Yatra - Pandharpur Ashadhi Ekadasi Wari Pilgrimage, Palkhi Festival - Palki Festival Maharashtra, Palkhi Festival Pandharpur India|website=www.newsonair.com|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181005/http://www.newsonair.com/PANDHARPUR-WARI.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|title=The Pandharpur Wari|website=Parikramaholidays.com|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064739/http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|url-status=dead}}

The Wari begins on the 8th/9th lunar day of the waning moon in the [[Hindu calendar|Hindu month]] of [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]] and reaches a day before [[Ashadhi Ekadashi]] at Pandharpur. People from various castes and socio-economic backgrounds participate in the Wari, with the common goal to reach Pandharpur and worship the deity. Along the Way the procession passes cities, towns and villages. The local residents of place along the route come out to greet, feed and house the varkari pilgrims.</ref><ref name="Lele1989">{{cite book|author=Jayant K. Lele|title=Language and Society: Steps Towards an Integrated Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PLiAlGzLFQC&pg=PR7|date=1 January 1989|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-08789-3|page=26}}</ref>

===Dindi===
The concept of '''Dindi''' (Marathi: दिंडी procession) or troupes of warkari devotees was introduced by Haibatravbaba in the early 1800s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mokashi |first1=Digambar Balkrishna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5vIv4oxeh4C&pg=PA1 |title=Palkhi: An Indian Pilgrimage |date=1987 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=0-88706-461-2 |location=Albany |page=18 |translator-last=Engblom |translator-first=Phillip C.}}</ref> A diṇḍī is a group of Hindu devotees of one caste or village who are part of a larger [[palkhi]] going to a holy site on pilgrimage. Some religious institutions and temples also have their own Dindi. Accommodation, meals, and other facilities for warkaris are provided through their respective Dindi. The Managing members of a Dindi usually travel ahead to make arrangements for food and shelter at their next stop. All registered Dindis are numbered and assigned their place in the procession. Some walk in front of the ''palkhi,'' and others behind it. During their march, flag and banner-carrying members are at the front of the troupe, and the drummer is at the center of the Dindi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=J |title=Pilgrimage and Audience on the Maharashtrian Vārī. |journal=Yale Journal of Music & Religion |date=2016 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=115–132 |doi=10.17132/2377-231X.1063 |url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/yjmr/vol2/iss2/7/|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Along with the procession, [[sevā]] is performed for the poor and needy, like ''[[dāna]]''.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
The event is said to be one of the world's largest and oldest movement where people gather on one day each year and walk a distance of around 250 km. The Pandharpur Wari has been classified by the World Book of Records as "one of the most visited places in a day".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldbookofrecords.uk/records/record_detail/shri-vitthal-rukmini-mandir--pandharpur--india-216|title=World Book of Records|website=worldbookofrecords.uk|language=en|access-date=2018-06-20}}</ref>

== ''Wari'' management ==
The Dnyaneshwar ''palkhi'' is managed by Haibatraobua Arphalkar's descendants, the hereditary Chopdars, and the Alandi Devasthan Trust.<ref name="OlsenTrono2018">{{cite book |last=Shinde |first=Kiran A |title=Religious Pilgrimage Routes and Trails: Sustainable Development and Management |date=30 May 2018 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-78639-027-1 |editor-last=Olsen |editor-first=Daniel H |pages=150–165 |chapter=Chapter 13, Palkhi: A moving sacred town |editor-last2=Trono |editor-first2=Anna |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YtlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA150}}</ref>

The ''wari''{{'s}} schedule is published ahead of time and is strictly followed. It is detailed and minute details are made available, including starting location and the location of breaks, including lunch, rest and night stays. Every morning at early dawn, after worshiping the Saint's ‘Paadukaa/Paduka’(sacred footwear), the ''palkhi'' leaves at 6am for the next stretch of the route. A ''tutari'' (wind instrument) is blown thrice to alert all Warkaris. At the first signal, all warkaris get ready to leave. At the second signal, the Dindis stand in line and start walking at the third signal. After 4 to 5 km, they take a quick break for breakfast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|title=Wari|website=Parikramaholidays.com|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064739/http://www.parikramaholidays.com/pdf/The-Pandharpur-Wari.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Economic impact==
An estimated one million pilgrims, either varkaris traveling with the ''palkhi'' or independent travelers, travel to Pandharpur each year, who require accommodation provided by the [[Matha|''mathas'']] and temporary lodging houses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Baad|first1=D|title=IMPORTANTANCE OF WARI (YATRA) IN POINT OF ECONOMIC VIEW|date=2016|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781329943117|page=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCxmDAAAQBAJ&q=urus+jatra+maharashtra+village&pg=PA51}}</ref>

==Public health measures==
Because the ''wari'' brings many people on the way to Pandharpur through many localities, public health measures have been implemented since the early [[British raj|British colonial]] period. These included compulsory vaccinations for diseases, such as [[cholera]] and [[Plague (disease)|plague]], segregation of the infected, and restrictions on mobility.<ref name="Pandey2013">{{cite book |last=Das |first=Dilip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9uoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR3 |title=Subalternity and Difference: Investigations from the North and the South |date=March 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-70162-7 |editor-last=Pandey |editor-first=Gyanendra |pages=27–28}}</ref> According to Manjiri Kamat, the colonial administrators had other motivations, such as generating revenue by collecting pilgrim tax, or maintaining law and order for implementing public health measures.<ref>Kamat, M., 2001. The Palkhi as plague carrier’: The Pandharpur fair and the sanitary fixation of the colonial state; British India, 1908–1916. Health, medicine and empire: Perspectives on colonial India, pp.299-316.</ref> The colonial government's public health measures in the early part of the 20th century included attaching medical staff to different ''palkhis'', removing infected persons, modifying wells for drinking water, digging trenches, providing bins for waste collection, and employing sanitation staff.<ref name="PatiHarrison2018">{{cite book|author1=Biswamoy Pati|author2=Mark Harrison|title=Society, Medicine and Politics in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOFLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14|date=13 February 2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-26218-7|page=1279}}</ref> The requirement to be vaccinated against cholera and [[typhoid]] in order to join a dindi has continued in the present times.<ref>Koiso, C., Social Implications of Two Hindu Pilgrimages in Maharashtra. In Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border. Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia (pp. 99-109). Hokkaido Slavic-Eurasian Research Center.[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/rp/publications/no14/14-09_Koiso.pdf]</ref>

In 2020, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Maharashtra|COVID-19]] pandemic, the wari was reduced with fifty varkaris joining the march to Pandharpur. The ''Paduka'' of the saints were either driven to or flown to Pandharpur for Shayani Ekadashi on July 1, 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bengrut |first1=Dhiraj |title=Urban warkaris redraw wari plans due to Covid-19 pandemic, go online |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/pune-news/urban-warkaris-redraw-wari-plans-due-to-covid-19-pandemic-go-online/story-bekElxRRiP92ZzNDod69hL.html |access-date=8 September 2020 |work=Hindustan Times |issue=June 18, 2020 |date=2020}}</ref>

== Dindi ==
[[File:Ai dindi warkari group photo.jpg|thumb|Participants of Dindi walking with devotion during the Pune to Saswad stretch of the Vari]]
'''Dindi''' is a devotional and cultural initiative that blends tradition with technology to enhance participation in the annual Pandharpur Vari. Launched with the intention of offering a safer, more inclusive, and well-organized experience for Varkaris, Dindi aims to preserve the spiritual essence of the Vari while making it easier for people from diverse backgrounds to join the journey. It emphasizes disciplined coordination, safety practices, and community-driven values while supporting the traditional practices followed during the Vari.

To encourage wider participation, Dindi provides flexibility for devotees to join the Vari on any day from Pune to Pandharpur. Participants are offered support in transport, accommodation, meals, and guidance throughout the journey. The initiative has been facilitating this structure for over 18 years and continues to grow as a digitally supported Dindi. Registration and more information can be accessed through their official website, [https://aidindi.org/ https://aidindi.org].

==Goa Dindi festival==
The '''Dindi festival''' is an annual festival held in [[Margao]], [[Goa]]'s Vitthal Rakhumai temple, and the Damodar Temple in the month of November.<ref>Pran Nath Chopra Encyclopaedia of India: Goa, Daman & Diu 1992– Page 102 "A big festival attended by thousands of people known as 'Dindi' is held every year. A procession is taken out from this temple to Vitthal "</ref><ref>Robert Bradnock, Roma Bradnock ''Footprint Goa Handbook: The Travel Guide'' 1903471222 - 2002 -Page 173 The Damodar Temple, 2 km from Kadamba bus terminaL hosts the winter Dindi festivaL when there is a palanquin procession along with singing of devotional hynms.</ref><ref name="indianexpress">{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/palkhi-dindi-walk-facebook-save-water-crisis-swapnil-more-2884329/|publisher=The Indian Express|title=Palkhi procession: Virtual dindi walks for a noble cause this year — Save Water Campaign in Pune | The Indian Express|date=30 June 2016 |access-date=2016-11-27}}</ref><ref name="heraldgoa">{{cite web|url=http://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Dindi-euphoria-stems-demonetisation-anxiety/108381.html|publisher=heraldgoa.in|title=Herald: Dindi euphoria stems demonetisation anxiety|access-date=2016-11-27|archive-date=27 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127215426/http://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Dindi-euphoria-stems-demonetisation-anxiety/108381.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Dindi festival is dedicated to [[Hindu deities|Hindu deity]] [[Vithoba]], the festival dates back to 1909. It is one of the oldest festivals in [[Salcete]](Margao) taluka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.navhindtimes.in/dindi-festival-lights-up-margao-2/|title=Dindi festival lights up Margao|website=www.navhindtimes.in|date=22 November 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-25}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[:mr:आषाढी वारी (पंढरपूर)|आषाढी वारी (पंढरपूर)]] on Marathi Wikipedia
* [[:hi:आषाढी वारी (पंढरपूर)]] on Hindi Wikipedia
* [[Bhakti movement]]
* [[Dindi dance]]
* [[Sant Mat]]
* [[Yatra#Famous yatras|Famous Hindu yatras]]
* [[Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]
* [[List of Hindu festivals]]
* [[Padayatra]]
* [[Ratha Yatra]]
* [[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]
* [[Vitthal Temple, Pandharpur]] (section Dindi Yatra)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Pandharpur Wari}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandharpur Vari}}
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Festivals in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Pilgrimage in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Solapur district]]
[[Category:Warkari]]

Basantpur Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:53:52Z

Vedpsagar: Entry

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Basantpur
| type= SLA
|state = [[Bihar]]
|district = [[Siwan district|Siwan]]
| established = 1957
|loksabha_cons = [[Maharajganj (Bihar) Lok Sabha constituency|19. Maharajganj]]
|abolished = 2010
}}
'''Basantpur ''' was a [[Vidhan Sabha|Bihar Legislative Assembly]] [[Constituency]] in [[Siwan district]] in the Indian [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]]. This Constituency was till 2010. In 2010, two blocks of Basantpur constituency were merged with Goreyakothi block and a new constituency was formed. [[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]] was Mla from this constituency From 2000 to 2005 and Manik Chandra Ray became Mla in 2005.
From 1985 to 2010 the Main Contestors of this Constituency were [[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]] Of [[BJP]] and Manik Chandra Rai of [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]].

==Overview==
It was part of [[Siwan Lok Sabha constituency]].

As a consequence of the orders of the [[Delimitation Commission of India]], Basantpur Assembly constituency ceased to exist in 2010.<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref>

== Members of Vidhan Sabha ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1957 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Krishna Kant Singh{{efn|Basantpur West}}
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|Sabhapati Singh{{efn|Basantpur East}}
|style="background-color: {{party color|Praja Socialist Party}}" |
|[[Praja Socialist Party]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1962 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Jhulan Singh{{efn|Basantpur West}}
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|Sabhapati Singh{{efn|Basantpur East}}
|style="background-color: {{party color|Praja Socialist Party}}" |
|[[Praja Socialist Party]]
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''1967-77: Constituency defunct''}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Vidya Bhaushan Singh
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="4" |Manik Chand Rai
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party (Secular)}}" |
|[[Janata Party (Secular)]]
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal}}" |
|[[Janata Dal]]
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|[[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| [[Satyadeo Prasad Singh]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| Manik Chand Ray
| style="background-color: {{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}" |
| [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''2010 onwards: Constituency doesn't exist''}}
|}
{{notelist}}
<ref>{{cite web |url = http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/electionanalysis/AE/S04/partycomp27.htm |title = 27 - Basantpur Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher = Election Commission of India |access-date = 2011-02-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163423/http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/electionanalysis/AE/S04/partycomp27.htm |archive-date = 2011-07-21 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Saran Division topics}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Siwan district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2010]]
[[Category:2010 disestablishments in India]]
{{coord|26|15|12|N|84|36|27|E|region:IN-BR|display=inline,title}}

Sangagiri taluk

2026-04-12T07:14:56Z

Vedpsagar: Made a entry - done

{{coord|11.48|N|77.87|E|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''Sangagiri taluk''' is a [[taluk]] of [[Salem district]] of the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. The headquarters of the taluk is the town of [[Sangagiri]]. [[Sangagiri Fort]] is one of the tourist spots of this taluk

==Demographics==
According to the 2011 census, the taluk of [[Sangagiri]] had a population of 242,671 with 125,818 males and 116,853 females. There were 929 women for every 1000 men. The taluk had a literacy rate of 62.49. Child population in the age group below 6 was 10,862 Males and 9,433 Females.<ref>{{cite web|title=Provisional Population Totals - Tamil Nadu-Census 2011|url=http://www.census.tn.nic.in/census2011data/PPT_taluk_data_final.pdf|publisher=Census Tamil Nadu|accessdate=4 July 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617095215/http://www.census.tn.nic.in/census2011data/PPT_taluk_data_final.pdf|archivedate=17 June 2013}}</ref>

==Transportation==
The nearest railway station is Sangagiri Railway station (Sankari Durg, SGE), which is about 3 km from the center of Sangagiri town and Salem (SXV) airport is the nearest airport.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|title=Primary Census Abstract - Census 2001|url=http://www.census.tn.nic.in/pca2001.aspx|publisher=Directorate of Census Operations-Tamil Nadu|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806044705/http://www.census.tn.nic.in/pca2001.aspx|archivedate=2009-08-06}}

[[Category:Taluks of Salem district]]

{{Salem District}}

Nilam Sawhney

2026-04-11T11:18:41Z

Vedpsagar: Adding Some Details W/ Sources

{{Short description|Indian civil servant}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Nilam Sawhney
| image = Nilam Sawhney.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1960|06|2|df=yes}}
| occupation = [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS officer]]
| profession = [[Civil servant]]
| spouse = [[Ajay Prakash Sawhney]]<ref name="spouse">{{cite web |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/senior-ias-officer-nilam-sawhney-back-in-andhra-pradesh-to-be-appointed-chief-secretary-of-the-state/articleshow/72010633.cms|title=Nilam Sawhney |work=BangloreMirror |access-date=11 November 2019}}</ref>
| honorific_suffix = [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| office1 = [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start1 = November 2019
| term_end1 = 1 January 2021
| office = [[Chief secretary (India)|State Election Commissioner]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start = April 2021
| term_end = March 2026
| office2 = [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary]] of [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]]
| term_start2 = May 2018
| term_end2 = November 2019
| office3 = [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary]] of [[Central Vigilance Commission]]
| term_start3 = May 2015
| term_end3 = May 2018
}}
'''Nilam Sawhney''' (born 2 June 1960) is currently serving as chief election commissioner of Andhra Pradesh. She served as the first woman [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] of the newly formed state of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]], from November 2019 to January 2021. She is a 1984 batch [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS) officer of [[Andhra Pradesh]] cadre. She previously held the position of Secretary of Union [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] from 2018 to 2019 and before this served as the Secretary of [[Central Vigilance Commission]] in the [[Government of India]] from 2015 to 2018.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Supremo|url=https://supremo.nic.in/ERSheetHtml.aspx?OffIDErhtml=14485&PageId=#|access-date=2020-06-06|website=supremo.nic.in}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Sawhney hails from [[New Delhi|New Delhi, India]]. She earned her [[Master of Science|Masters of Science]] Physics degree with first division from [[University of Delhi]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=IAS Officers of Andhra Pradesh Cadre|url=https://www.gad.ap.gov.in/downloads/personnel/ias/ias-officers.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Senior IAS officer Nilam Sawhney appointed Andhra Pradesh Chief Secretary|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2019/nov/14/senior-ias-officer-nilam-sawhney-appointed-andhra-pradesh-chief-secretary-2061442.html|access-date=2020-06-06|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

== Career ==
Sawhney has served in various key positions for both the [[Government of India]] and the [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Chief Secretary of Andhra Pradesh ===
Sawhney assumed office as the first woman [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] in November, 2019. She has since been known for her proactive style of [[governance]] and rapid implementation of policies aimed at [[social change|social development]] of the [[States and union territories of India|state]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chief Secretary Nilam Sawhney interacts with beneficiaries in Gudavalli|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2019/nov/17/chief-secretary-nilam-sawhney-interacts-with--beneficiaries-in-gudavalli-2062906.html|access-date=2020-06-06|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> She has aided the creation of major initiatives such as large scale revamping of the [[Public health system in India|public health systems]], creation of institutional transparency for [[pension scheme]]s through [[e-governance]] and e-[[disbursement]] initiatives and creation of Rythu Bharosa Centres for agricultural amenities.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-05-10|title=27 IAS, other officers transferred as part of restructuring|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/27-ias-other-officers-transferred-as-part-of-restructuring/article31552665.ece|access-date=2020-06-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> As the [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] of the state during the [[COVID-19]] crisis, she has thus far managed to maintain one of the highest [[per capita]] testing in the country in the state and large scale [[surveillance]] of symptoms in the population through five rounds of statewide door to door surveys and significant decentralisation and expansion of testing facilities to keep the pandemic in check.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government of Andhra Pradesh abstract|url=https://nidm.gov.in/covid19/PDF/covid19/state/Andhra%20Pradesh/9.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Corona tests in PHCs soon|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2020/may/30/corona-tests-in-phcs-soon-2149933.html|access-date=2020-06-19|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

=== Secretary of Union Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment ===
Sawhney worked as secretary of [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] from May 2018 to November 2019.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Press Trust of India|title=Social Justice Secretary Nilam Sawhney sent back to Andhra Pradesh|language=en|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/social-justice-secretary-nilam-sawhney-sent-back-to-andhra-pradesh-119111101130_1.html|access-date=2020-06-19}}</ref> While in office, she headed the group of secretaries for welfare setup by the honorable [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister of India]] to drive policy framework creation towards focused goals on social welfare.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gupta|first=Moushumi Das|date=2019-06-18|title=These 10 groups of IAS officers and scientists will set the agenda for Modi's governance|url=https://theprint.in/india/governance/these-10-groups-of-ias-officers-and-scientists-will-set-the-agenda-for-modis-governance/251423/|access-date=2020-06-19|website=ThePrint|language=en-US}}</ref> She drafted policy aimed at ensuring basic human rights such as right to work with dignity and right to life for those economically and socially vulnerable classes who were pushed into or chose manual scavenging as a job, despite known dangers. Several programmes, policies and welfare measures, including the legislative and programmatic interventions, were introduced and implemented aimed at ending manual scavenging and providing alternate means of work during her tenure.<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 August 2019|first=Dipak K.|last=Dash|title=Not a single conviction in deaths of sewer cleaners: Govt |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/not-a-single-conviction-in-deaths-of-sewer-cleaners-govt/articleshow/70746688.cms|access-date=2020-06-19|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Curse on society that people still die cleaning sewage: NHRC chief|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/05/24/curse-society-that-people-still-die-cleaning-sewage-nhrc-chief.html|access-date=2020-06-19|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Govt prepares action plan to end manual scavenging|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/india/govt-prepares-action-plan--to-end-manual-scavenging.html|access-date=2023-01-04|newspaper=The Pioneer|date=20 August 2019|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=After Triple Talaq and Article 370 the next end could be of "manual scavenging"|url=https://english.webdunia.com/national-news/after-triple-talaq-article-370-the-next-end-could-be-of-manual-scavenging-119081900010_1.html|access-date=2020-06-19|website=english.webdunia.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment|url=http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Social%20Justice%20&%20Empowerment/17_Social_Justice_And_Empowerment_1.pdf}}</ref> During her stint as Secretary she also worked on policies aimed at eradicating [[AIDS]], [[drug abuse]] and [[human trafficking in India]] proactively over the next decade through massive education, de-[[stigmatisation]], drug [[Drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] and societal integration programs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-26|title=MoU Signed between Department of Social Justice & Empowerment and National AIDS Control Organization|url=https://orissadiary.com/mou-signed-department-social-justice-empowerment-national-aids-control-organization/|access-date=2020-06-19|website=OdishaDiary|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Government & Civil Society have an Onerous Responsibility to Ensure that Potential Victims are Made Aware of Perils of Drug Abuse – Vice President|url=http://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1575867|access-date=2020-06-19|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Union health ministry signs MoU with MoSJE to educate masses on HIV prevention|url=http://www.pharmabiz.com/NewsDetails.aspx?aid=117808&sid=2|access-date=2020-06-19|website=www.pharmabiz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Government of India|url=http://socialjustice.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/DO%20letter%20to%20Principal%20Secretaries.pdf}}</ref> During her term, the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] was also responsible for a paradigm shift in laws relating to reservation and preservation of equality in the country, with a shift in focus to economically weaker sections, pushing through a constitutional amendment to guarantee the reservation of 10% of public sector [[Quota in India|quotas]] for economically weaker sections of society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions Department of Personnel and Training|url=https://dopt.gov.in/sites/default/files/ewsf28fT.PDF}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-01-09|title=Parl approves 10 pc reservation for poor in general category|url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/parl-approves-10-pc-reservation-for-poor-in-general-category/|access-date=2020-06-20|website=Jammu Kashmir Latest News {{!}} Tourism {{!}} Breaking News J&K|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Special Correspondent|date=2019-01-12|title=10% quota Bill becomes law|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/10-quota-bill-becomes-law/article25980845.ece|access-date=2020-06-20|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-11|title=10% EWS quota for social equality: Centre|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/10-ews-quota-for-social-equality-centre/story-bbe8QGr7gBifhrnPBSurEJ.html|access-date=2020-06-20|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-12|title=10% EWS Quota for Social Equality, Equal Opportunities Irrespective of Caste, Govt Tells SC|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/10-ews-quota-for-social-equality-equal-opportunities-irrespective-of-caste-govt-tells-sc-2064589.html|access-date=2020-06-20|website=News18}}</ref>

=== Secretary of Central Vigilance Commission ===
Sawhney worked as Secretary of [[Central Vigilance Commission]] (CVC) from May 2015 to May 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nilam Sawhney appointed CVC secretary|url=https://www.cfo-india.in/cmsarticle/nilam-sawhney-appointed-cvc-secretary/|access-date=2020-06-20|website=CFO India|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-04-07|title=Nilam Sawhney appointed Central Vigilance Commission secretary|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/nilam-sawhney-appointed-central-vigilance-commission-secretary/articleshow/46841598.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref> As Secretary of CVC, she played a major role in streamlining the proceedings of graft and [[corruption]] charges, bringing down average times for pending cases to be completed by more than 2 years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-22|title=Over 3,500 babus under CVC probe for alleged graft|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/over-3500-babus-under-cvc-probe-for-alleged-graft-4717218/|access-date=2020-06-20|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> Of note, was her work in strengthening current strategies while also re-balancing them at the same time from largely punitive deterrence focused systems to ones that focused more on preventive [[Alertness|vigilance]], through dedicated institutional mechanisms to identify and punish the corrupt necessarily complemented by the need to deter wrongdoing and for the inculcation of ethical values in order to ensure that individuals as well as organisations act with integrity. During her term, there was notable increase in the [[Central Vigilance Commission|Commission]]'s emphasis on the importance of preventive vigilance in government organisations as well as the public outreach and awareness initiatives of the commission.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-10-26|title=Vigilance Awareness Week to be observed from 30th October to 4th November, 2017 with theme My ision-Corruption Free India|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/government-press-release/vigilance-awareness-week-to-be-observed-from-30th-october-to-4th-117102600983_1.html|access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Vigeye Vani|url=https://cvc.gov.in/sites/default/files/March%202018_18.06.2018%20CVC%20Vigeye%20Vani%20Newletter%20for%20web.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Central vigilance commission|url=https://cvc.gov.in/sites/default/files/gtacs17.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Suggestions for preventive vigilance and systematic improvement|url=https://cvc.gov.in/sites/default/files/gtacs17.pdf}}</ref>

=== Principal Secretary of Andhra Pradesh Department of Women & Child Development & Social Welfare ===
Sawhney joined the Department of Women & Child Development & Social Welfare, [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]] in February 2012 and served in this top post at the department till May 2015.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-06-05|title=Andhra Pradesh gives new postings to 22 IAS officers|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140605/nation-current-affairs/article/andhra-pradesh-gives-new-postings-22-ias-officers|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>

==== Child development and mothers` welfare ====
She focused on child health and emphasised the need to promote optimal infant and young child feeding practices in order to reduce malnutrition. She led awareness campaigns on the advantages of [[breastfeeding]], [[malnutrition]] and [[anemia]], leading to an improvement in infant and young child feeding indicators, as well as general health of women. Highlighting the issue of malnutrition among children during the first two years of life and permanence of the damage thus done, she led key interventions initiated at the state level under the integrated child development services which include addition of meaningful food models along with intensified health & [[nutrition education]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Department for Women, Children, Disabled & Senior Citizens|url=http://wcdsc.tg.nic.in/SNP/References/28022014WCDW_MS15.PDF}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=A New Approach to Fight Child Malnutrition in India |url=https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/child-malnutrition-in-india/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Knowledge@Wharton|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=National Thematic Workshop on Best Practices for Women and Child Development|url=https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/FinalBBBPReport06042015.pdf}}</ref>

The following schemes were run by her department during her tenure as principal secretary:

* Introduction of acceptable fortified Take Home Ration for the children of 7 months to 3 years
* Supervised feeding of malnourished children - identification of malnourished child is based on measurement of weight for age as well as weight for height along with medical check-up of [[malnourished children]].
* Introduction of one wholesome meal in the afternoon in place of Take Home Ration for pregnant and [[Lactation|lactating]] mothers. In addition to full meal, eggs, milk and extra oil are also provided. Regular weight monitoring and supervised administration of IFA are ensured for pregnant women. This effort also helped in increasing fetal weight and hence better outcome at birth.
* Capacity building on skilled infant and young child feeding counseling through counseling courses.
* In place of one Nutrition and Health Day per month, two are being conducted. One is exclusively for growth monitoring of children and pregnant women and the other is for other health services<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

Sawhney also pushed for India wide adoption of certain key recommendations which yielded good results in the State, such as organising two Nutrition and Health days and having convergence at the grass roots level and further emphasised on the institutionalisation of the convergence actions at the grassroots level during her tenure.<ref name=":1" />

=== Vice Chairman and Managing Director of Andhra Pradesh Industrial Development Cooperation ===
Sawhney served as the Vice Chairman And Managing Director of Andhra Pradesh Industrial Development Cooperation, Government of Andhra Pradesh from June 2011- February 2012.<ref name=":0" />

=== Joint Secretary of Union Ministry of Rural Development ===

Sawhney served as the Joint Secretary at Union Ministry of Rural Development for five years from August 2005 to August 2010.<ref name=":0" /> During this term she also had the opportunity to be a member of the committee in the working groups for the eleventh five-year plan (2007-2012) for Social Protection Policy and the National Social Assistance Programme and Associated Programme, setup by the planning commission of India.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Social Protection Policy -National Social Assistance Programme and Associated Programme|url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wrk11_15e.htm}}</ref> Of particular note was her role in guiding the world's largest public housing project (by number of houses built from 1985 to 2020) under the [[Indira Awaas Yojana]] (IAY) (later run as [[Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana]]), with more than 9 million houses (pukka) permanent settlements - modern houses built under IAY scheme from 2005 to 2010 alone during her tenure and more than 30 million built till 2020 (under IAY from 1985 to 2015 and PMAY from 2015 to 2020).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Working Group on Rural Housing|url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wg11_rdhou.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=PMAYG - Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana 2020 {{!}} Eligibility & Features|url=https://groww.in/p/savings-schemes/pradhan-mantri-gramin-awaas-yojana/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Groww|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban)-PMAY (U)|url=https://pmaymis.gov.in/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India Annual report|url=https://jalshakti-ddws.gov.in/sites/default/files/anualreport080911_eng.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Social protection for a changing India|url=http://164.100.94.191/niti/writereaddata/files/document_publication/ESP-Report_0.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Drivers and Challenges in India's Rural Housing Development Program|url=http://demo.ncaer.org/popuppages/EventDetails/E15Dec2008/summary.pdf}}</ref>

She also played a major role in kick-starting one of the largest direct social benefits schemes in the world under the umbrella of The National Social Assistance Programme divided into five parts—the [[Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme]], the Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme, the Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme, the National Family Benefit Scheme and the Annapurna scheme in which [[Below Poverty Line|below poverty line]] families without breadwinners get wheat and rice.<ref name=":2" /> During her term as [[Joint secretary to the Government of India|Joint Secretary]], successful running and expansion of these schemes while facing the twin challenges of wading through red tape in [[bureaucracy]] and lackluster implementation brought these schemes to international recognition as well as catapulting the stories of implementation hurdles and challenges in the [[Naxalite|naxalism]] affected areas across India into limelight.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-09-14|title=Rural schemes to be modified for Naxal-affected areas|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/rural-schemes-to-be-modified-for-naxal-affected-areas/articleshow/9974677.cms|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Outlook India Magazine|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/access-denied/266268|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tewari|first=Ruhi|date=2010-01-08|title=Housing targets in Naxal-affected areas still largely unmet|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/GYyvpYieHXhpJzHP94QUXM/Housing-targets-in-Naxalaffected-areas-still-largely-unmet.html|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Livemint|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Kumar|first=Devesh|date=2010-06-19|title=Indira Awaas Yojana scope to be widened, states to come in as partners|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/indira-awaas-yojana-scope-to-be-widened-states-to-come-in-as-partners/articleshow/6065821.cms|access-date=2020-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Evaluation of Rural Housing Programme (IAY) under Economic Stimulus Package (ESP) in Selected Naxal Affected Districts in Jharkhand, Bihar and Odisha|url=http://164.100.94.191/niti/writereaddata/files/document_publication/ESP-Report_0.pdf}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/all-set-for-launch-of-rythu-bharosa-kendras/article31698775.ece Rythu Bharosa Centres for agricultural amenities]
* [https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Vaziralli-2019-policy-brief-Cash-in-kind.pdf Take Home Ration]
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/infant-and-young-child-feeding Infant and Young Child Feeding]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sawhney, Nilam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:Indian government officials]]
[[Category:People from Delhi]]
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Chief secretaries of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]

Portuguese Negapatam

2026-04-03T21:09:52Z

Vedpsagar: Adding First Pg V1...

{{Short description|Former territory of the Kingdom of Portugal}}
{{Infobox country
| today = [[India]]
| map_caption =
| capital =
| s1 = Dutch Negapatam
| flag_p1 =
| p1 = Thanjavur Nayak kingdom
| title_representative = [[Captaincies of the Portuguese Empire|Captain]]
| year_representative1 =
| representative1 =
| year_representative2 =
| representative2 =
| event_start =
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event3 = [[Siege of Negaptam (1658)]]
| date_event3 = 1658
| religion = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]
| government_type = [[Colony|Colonial administration]]
| status = Territory of the [[Portuguese Empire]]
| common_name = Negapatão
| image_map =
| native_name = Negapatão Portuguesa
| image_flag = File:Flag of Portugal (1640).svg
| flag_caption = [[Flag of Portugal|Flag]]
| year_start = 1642
| title_leader = [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]]
| year_leader1 = 1642–1656 {{small|(first)}}
| leader1 = [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]]
| year_leader2 = 1656–1658 {{small|(last)}}
| leader2 = [[Afonso VI of Portugal|Afonso VI]]
| life_span = 1642–1658
| conventional_long_name = Portuguese Negapatam
| flag_s1 =
| era = [[Early modern period]]
}}

'''Portuguese Negapatam''' ({{langx|pt|Negapatão Portuguesa}}) refers to the time period in which the city of [[Nagapattinam]] was part of the [[Portuguese Empire]], between 1642 and 1658. It was captured by the [[Dutch East India Company]].

==History==
In 1498, the Portuguese established direct contact with Asia after [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] via the [[Cape Route]].

Portuguese merchants established at Negapatam found a major patron in [[Sevappa Nayak]], who protected them and allowed them to trade in his territory. They carried out major trade operations with Ceylon, while missionaries converted the [[Paravar]]s of the Fishery Coast.<ref name=Vriddhagirisan/>

Portuguese merchants settled in Negapatam in the early 16th century and by the early 1530s there were some forty-odd Portuguese households in the city.<ref name=Subrahmanyam>Sanjay Subrahmanyam (2002). ''The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500-1650'', Cambridge University Press, p. 105.</ref> Initially the Portuguese were engaged on one hand in the busy coastal commerce in rice to Jaffna and southern Malabar, bringing back areca, timber, cinnamon and pepper, on the other in the export of textiles.<ref name=Subrahmanyam/> In 1543, the Portuguese Crown nominated a captain to govern the city. Relations with local Indian officials were generally friendly.<ref name=lach-kley/> With the advent of the succession crisis in [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]], the Portuguese captain in Negapatam assumed virtually full authority.<ref name=lach-kley>Donald F. Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zZIvBwAAQBAJ&dq=negapatam%20portuguese&pg=PA1000 Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 2, South Asia]'', University of Chicago Press, 2015, p. 1000.</ref> Between 1543 and 1642 the status of Negapatam was ambiguous, with the Portuguese de facto controlling the city while considering the Nayak of Tanjore the nominal owner of the territory.

[[Cesare Federici]] wrote that Negapatam in 1567 was a "very great city and very populous of Christians of the country and partly gentile.<ref>Vriddhagirisan, 1995, p. 34.</ref> Negapatam was described as a flourishing centre of trade by 1586.<ref name=Vriddhagirisan>V. Vriddhagirisan: ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GD_6ka-aYuQC&dq=negapatam%20portuguese&pg=PA33 The Nayaks of Tanjore]'', Asian Educational Services, 1995, p. 33.</ref>

In 1577 the population of Portuguese Negapatam included 60 Portuguese ''casados'' ("married men"), 200 Eurasians and 300 Indian Christians.<ref name=Stephen/> In 1635 there 140 white ''casados'', 360 [[Topasses]] ''casados''' and 700 Indian Christians.<ref name=Stephen/>

By the early 1630 Negapatam had a larger Portuguese population than [[Portuguese Malacca]].<ref>Anthony Disney (2009). ''A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire: From Beginnings to 1807'', Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, p. 192.</ref> A Portuguese settler in Negapatam Domingos de Seixas first informed the viceroy Count of Linhares at Goa that Hughli had been taken by the Mughals in 1632.<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam (2012). ''The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History'', Wiley, p. 175.</ref> By 1630 resident Portuguese merchants established in Negapatam, São Tomé de Meliapor and the [[Coromandel Coast]] pioneered regular trade between the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref name=McPherson/> In 1646 they landed 300 bales of cloth at Makassar compared to the combined total of 400 bales landed by the [[Danish East India Company]] and the [[East India Company|English East India Company]].<ref name=McPherson/> Unable to compete with the Portuguese, the English shifted focus to Surat.<ref name=McPherson>McPherson, Kenneth: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=ggyl2FSzXvgC&dq=portuguese+nagapattinam&pg=PA81 Staying on: Reflection on the Survival of Portuguese Enterprise]" in Borschberg, Peter: ''Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century)'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004. p. 81.</ref>

On April 12, 1642, the Dutch East India Company attacked the city and extracted a heavy tribute. A naval battle between the Portuguese and the Dutch took place whereby the Dutch were forced to withdraw. Facing increasing attacks by the VOC, in 1642 the Portuguese Viceroy of India struck a deal with the Nayak of Tanjore whereby Negapatam was ceded to the Portuguese Empire and officially annexed. Only then was the city walled, a fort built and a garrison established.<ref name=lach-kley/> At this time it boasted 7000 inhabitants.<ref name=lach-kley/>

The city was sieged and captured by the Dutch VOC in 1658. Although a minor episode, it symbolized the ascendency of the Dutch in Coromandel.<ref>Raychaudhur, 2013, p. 57.</ref> In 1661, the Dutch VOC was granted the income of the ten villages formerly owned by the Portuguese in Negapatam.<ref>A.K. Raychaudhur: ''Jan Company in Coromandel'', 2013, p. 65.</ref>

After Negapatam was taken by the Dutch, the Portuguese moved to [[Parangipettai|Porto Novo]], or "New Port".<ref>M. N. Rajesh, Rila Mukherjee (2009). ''Locality, History, Memory. The Making of the Citizen in South Asia'', Cambridge Scholars Publishing, p. 165.</ref> In 1665, the Portuguese Viceroy wrote to the Danish established at [[Fort Dansborg]] in [[Tharangambadi|Tranquebar]] requesting that they provide shelter to the Portuguese fleeing from Negapatam after it was occupied by the Dutch.<ref name=Stephen>S. Jeyaseela Stephen (2008). ''Caste, Catholic Christianity, and the Language of Conversion: Social Change and Cultural Translation in Tamil Country, 1519-1774'', Gyan Publishing House, p. 192.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Portuguese India]]
*[[Dutch Coromandel]]
**[[Fort Vijf Sinnen]]
*[[Christianity in India]]
**[[Saint Thomas Christians]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Portuguese overseas empire}}
{{Forts and fortresses of the Portuguese empire |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:Portuguese colonisation in Asia]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Asia]]
[[Category:1642 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1658 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1642]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1658]]
[[Category:1640s establishments in Portuguese India]]

Mary Curzon, Baroness Curzon of Kedleston

2026-04-02T03:46:00Z

Vedpsagar: made stub

{{short description|American-born Vicereine of India (1870–1906)}}
{{About|the wife of Lord Curzon|their daughter, Mary Irene Curzon|Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name = The Lady Curzon of Kedleston
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CI}}
| image = Mary Victoria Leiter.jpg
| caption =
| office1 = [[Governor-General of India|Viceregal-Consort of India]]
| term_start1 = 6 January 1899
| term_end1 = 18 November 1905
| monarch1 = [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]] [[Edward VII]]
| 2blankname1 = {{nowrap|Governor- General}}
| 2namedata1 = [[The Lord Curzon of Kedleston]]
| predecessor1 = [[Constance Bruce, Countess of Elgin|The Countess of Elgin]]
| successor1 = [[Mary Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, Countess of Minto|The Countess of Minto]]
| birth_name = Mary Victoria Leiter
| birth_date = {{birth date|1870|5|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1906|7|18|1870|5|27|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Carlton House Terrace]], [[London]], England
| resting_place = [[Kedleston Hall]], [[Derbyshire]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|George Curzon, 1st Lord Curzon of Kedleston]] (later 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston)|1895}}
| children = {{plainlist|
*[[Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale]]
*[[Lady Cynthia Mosley]]
*[[Lady Alexandra Metcalfe]]
}}
| parents = {{plainlist|
*[[Levi Leiter]] (father)
*Mary Theresa Carver (mother)
}}
| relatives = [[Margaret Howard, Countess of Suffolk]] (sister)
}}

'''Mary Victoria Curzon, Baroness Curzon of Kedleston''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|CI}} (née '''Leiter'''; 27 May 1870 – 18 July 1906), was an American heiress who married [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|George Curzon]], the future [[Viceroy of India]].

==In America==
[[File:Alexandre Cabanel - Mary Victoria Leiter (1870–1906), Lady Curzon.jpg|thumb|left|Mary Victoria Leiter, 1887 by [[Alexandre Cabanel]] ]]
Mary Victoria Leiter was born in [[Chicago]], the eldest daughter of Mary Theresa (née Carver) and [[Levi Ziegler Leiter]], the wealthy co-founder of Field and Leiter [[dry goods]] business, and later partner in the [[Marshall Field]] retail empire. On her father's side, she was of [[Swiss people|Swiss-German]] descent.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OJmfAAAAMAAJ&q=Levi+Leiter |title=After the Victorians |first=A.N. |last=Wilson |year=2005 |publisher=Hutchinson |page=596|isbn=9780091794842 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdBAQAAIAAJ&q=levi+leiter |title=The Listener |date=1977 |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/lady-alexandra-metcalfe-1595421.html |title=Lady Alexandra Metcalfe |first=Sarah |last=Bradford |date=9 August 1995 |newspaper=The Independent |access-date=6 January 2015 |location=London}}</ref> Her family moved to [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1881 and entered the exclusive circle of official society there. They lived for several years in the former home of [[James G. Blaine]] on [[Dupont Circle]] before moving into the [[Leiter House]]. The family also spent time at [[Lake Geneva, Wisconsin|Lake Geneva]], earning her the sobriquet "''Lake Geneva Princess''."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lahey |first=Sarah T. |date=2020-02-26 |title=A Lake Geneva Princess |url=https://atthelakemagazine.com/a-lake-geneva-princess/ |website=At The Lake Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

She was taught dancing, singing, music, and art at home by tutors and learned the [[French language]] from her French governess. A [[Columbia University]] professor taught her history, arithmetic, and chemistry. Travel and prolonged residence abroad cultivated her powers of observation and breadth of mental vision at an early age. As stated in 1901, her education "gave her that poise and finish that made her so charming to men and women of mature and brilliant intellect."<ref name="Peacock1901">{{cite book |last=Peacock |first=Virginia Tatnall |url=https://www.accessgenealogy.com/illinois/mary-victoria-leiter-baroness-curzon-kedleston.htm |title=Famous American Belles of the Nineteenth Century |publisher=J.B. Lippincott |year=1901 |chapter=Mary Victoria Leiter (Baroness Curzon of Kedleston) |quote=For the second time within the century an American woman has risen to viceregal honors. . .Lady Wellesley had but to follow the leadership of a man of recognized ability and established fame, while Lady Curzon walks side by side with the man who is making that steep ascent |via=Access Genealogy}}</ref> She was {{convert|5|ft|7|in|m|}} tall. Her appearance was described at her wedding: "a face of unusual beauty, oval in shape, with dark grey eyes, straight black brows, a sweet, sensitive mouth, a prettily shaped nose, and a low forehead with fine black hair brushed simply away from it and emphasising its whiteness."<ref name=Peacock1901 />

Her [[Debutante|debut]] was in winter of 1888. She was regarded an equal in beauty and breeding, and, frequently, superior in manner and intellect of daughters of better known and longer established families in eastern U.S. society. Prior to her marriage, her closest friend was [[Frances Folsom Cleveland]], six years her senior and the wife of a much older President [[Grover Cleveland]].<ref>{{cite book |last=De Courcy |first=Anne |year=2003 |title=The Viceroy's Daughters: The Lives of the Curzon Sisters |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-06-093557-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju0AEj7kUegC&q=peacock+dress+curzon&pg=PA11 |page=61 |access-date=14 March 2007}}</ref>

==In England==
[[File:Mary Leiter, Lady Curzon, wearing a 1903 gown by Jean-Philippe Worth - William Logsdail 1909 portrait.jpg|thumb| Lady Curzon in her [[Delhi Durbar]] dress, oil on canvas, 1903 by [[William Logsdail]] ]]
Mary was introduced to London society in 1890. She met a young man, [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|George Curzon]], a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] Member of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] who was thirty-five years old, had been representing Southport for eight years, and was heir to the [[Viscount Scarsdale|Barony of Scarsdale]]. The position he had made for himself through his own talents was of more interest to her than his eventual inheritance, and his high reputation as a writer on the political questions in the East particularly attracted her admiration. Mary Leiter and George Curzon were married on 22 April 1895 at [[St. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square]], Washington, D.C., by [[Ethelbert Talbot|Bishop Talbot]], assisted by the Rev. Dr. Mackay Smith, the pastor of the church.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdBAQAAIAAJ&q=protestant+swiss |magazine=[[The Listener (magazine)|The Listener]] |title=Cobbold's Diary |first=Denis |last=Thomas |date=1977 |volume=98 |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |language=en}}</ref>

She played an important role in the reelection of her husband to Parliament that autumn and many thought that his success was due more to the winning smiles and irresistible charm of his wife than to his own speeches. They had three daughters, [[Mary Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale|Mary Irene]] (later [[Lady Ravensdale]]), in 1896, [[Lady Cynthia Mosley|Cynthia]] (first wife of [[Sir Oswald Mosley]]), on 23 August 1898, lastly, [[Lady Alexandra Metcalfe|Alexandra]], on 20 April 1904 (wife of [[Edward Dudley Metcalfe|Edward "Fruity" Metcalfe]], the best friend, best man, and equerry of [[Edward VIII]]); best known as ''Baba'' Metcalfe.

==In India==
[[File:Franz von Lenbach Portrait Lady Curzon.jpg|thumb|upright|Lady Curzon of Kedleston, Vicereine of India, c. 1902 by [[Franz von Lenbach]] ]]
Her husband accepted the position of [[Viceroy of India]] and was elevated to the [[Peerage of Ireland]] as Baron Curzon of Kedleston in the summer of 1898 at age thirty-nine. As Vicereine of India, his wife held the highest official title in the Indian Empire that a woman could hold, as did Lady Wellesley, also an American wife of a prominent British man.<ref name=Peacock1901 /> On 30 December they arrived in [[Bombay]] to the greetings of royal salutes and great excitement. She instantly made an impression of beauty and respect that soon spread all over India. She gained the title vicereine, as wife of the viceroy, a title of the British aristocracy. They were greeted in [[Calcutta]] a few days later with great enthusiasm. It was estimated that over one hundred thousand people witnessed the magnificent spectacle of their reception at [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Government House]]. The Indian poet [[Ram Sharma]] referred to her in his welcome address to Lord Curzon of Kedleston, as:
{{center|<blockquote>
"A rose of roses bright 
A vision of embodied light."
</blockquote>}}

Another declared her to be:
{{center|<blockquote>
"Like a diamond set in gold the full moon in a clear autumnal sky."<ref>Virginia Tatnall Peacock. ''Famous American Belles of the Nineteenth Century''. J.B. Lippincott, New York, 1901., pp.264 - 287.[https://archive.org/details/famousamericanb00peacgoog/page/n312  Full text]</ref>
</blockquote>}}

In 1901 Charles Turner first raised the "''Lady Curzon''" rose in her honor, which was a hybrid (''R. macrantha x R. rugosa Rubra''). It has a soft iridescent pink/violet shade, 10 cm flowers, and a sweet scent.<ref>Pro artists, Roses/Lady Curzon [http://www.proartists.com/roses/A-UUDET%20SIVUT/UUDET%20RUGOSAT-K-M/ladycurzon-pieni.html Roses/Lady Curzon]</ref>
[[File:George Curzon and Mary Curzon on the elephant Lakshman Prasad 1902-12-29 in Delhi.jpg|thumb|left|Lord and Lady Curzon on the elephant Lakshman Prasad, 29 December 1902]]
In 1902 Lord Curzon organized the [[Delhi Durbar]] to celebrate the coronation of [[Edward VII]], "''the grandest pageant in history''", which created a tremendous sensation. At the state ball Mary wore an extravagant coronation gown, by the [[House of Worth]] of [[Paris]], known as [[Lady Curzon's peacock dress]], stitched of gold cloth embroidered with peacock feathers with a blue/green beetle wing in each eye, which many mistook for emeralds, tapping into their own fantasies about the wealth of millionaire heiresses, Indian potentates and European royalty.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Nicola J. |last=Thomas |title=Embodying Imperial Spectacle: Dressing Lady Curzon, Vicereine of India 1899-1905 |page=391 |date=1 July 2007 |journal=Cultural Geographies |volume=14:369-400 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/1474474007078205|bibcode=2007CuGeo..14..369T |s2cid=143628645 }}</ref> The skirt was trimmed with white roses and the bodice with lace.<ref name=":2">{{CiteQ|Q126672688}}</ref> She wore a huge diamond necklace and a large brooch of diamonds and pearls. She wore a tiara crown with a pearl tipping each of its high diamond points. It was reported that as she walked through the hall the crowd was breathless.<ref name="time">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,720617,00.html?promoid=googlep |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523234643/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,720617,00.html?promoid=googlep |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 May 2011 |title= Curzon's Will |date=3 August 1925 |magazine=Time Magazine |access-date=12 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>Finding Aids to Official Records of the Smithsonian Institution, Accession 87-156, National Portrait Gallery, Office of Exhibitions, Exhibition Records, 1975–1979, Mary, Lady Curzon: Portrait of Mary Victoria Leiter, Baroness Curzon of Kedelston (Lady A. Metcalf), Once a Proconsul, Always a Proconsul, M. Beerbohm (All Souls' College), Silver Medallion Commemorating Curzon's Viceroyalty of India (Viscount Scarsdale), Badge of the Order of the Crown of India (Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth) '''Peacock Dress of Mary Curzon''' (Mus. of London), Lady Curzon's Ball Costume by Jean Worth (Museum of Costume, Bath)
two Photos: Viceregal Lodge at Simla ([[India Office Records]]), Five Photos of Procession of Rajahs and Maharajas through Delhi (India Off. Library), Photograph of Lady Curzon wearing Peacock Dress (Lady Alexandra Metcalfe)
Film Clip: Lord and Lady Arriving at Great Delhi Durbar [http://siarchives.si.edu/findingaids/FA87-156.htm]</ref> This dress is now on display at the Curzon estate, [[Kedleston Hall#Interior|Kedleston Hall]].

Lady Curzon contributed to the design of the exquisitely rich and beautiful coronation robe of [[Queen Alexandra]] of the United Kingdom,<ref>{{cite journal |first=Nicola J. |last=Thomas |title=Embodying Imperial Spectacle: Dressing Lady Curzon, Vicereine of India 1899-1905 |page=388 |date=1 July 2007 |journal=Cultural Geographies |volume=14:369-400 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/1474474007078205|bibcode=2007CuGeo..14..369T |s2cid=143628645 }}</ref> made from gold fabric woven and embroidered in the same factory in [[Chandni Chauk]] Delhi where she ordered all the materials for her own state gowns. The factory owner said that she had the rarest taste of any woman he knew, and that she was the best dressed woman in the world—an opinion shared by others.

Lady Curzon was an invaluable commercial agent for the manufacturers of the higher class of fabrics and art objects in India. She wore Indian fabrics, and as a result many of them became fashionable in Calcutta and other Indian cities as well as in London, Paris, and the capitals of Europe. She placed orders for her friends and strangers. She assisted the silk weavers, embroiderers, and other artists to adapt their designs, patterns, and fabrics to the requirements of modern fashions.

She kept several of the best artists in India busy with orders and soon saw the results of her efforts, reviving skilled arts that almost had been forgotten. Lady Curzon was tutored in [[Urdu]] by the [[Mohyal]] patriarch Bakhshi Ram Dass Chhibber.<ref>General Mohyal Sabha, 2005-06, A-9, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi-110067, "''MEMBERS OF MOHYALS''"
[http://www.mohyal.com/gms/m_member.htm#chibberb] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517065922/http://www.mohyal.com/gms/m_member.htm|date=17 May 2007}}</ref>

[[File:Bangalore LadyCurzonHospital.jpg|thumb|The Lady Curzon Hospital in Bangalore, now known as Bowring and Lady Curzon Hospital]]
Progressive medical reforms were initiated by English women in India under the leadership of the [[Hariot Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, Marchioness of Dufferin and Ava|Marchioness of Dufferin]] and Lady Curzon by supplying women doctors and hospitals for women. There is a Lady Curzon Hospital in [[Bangalore]], shown to the right.

[[William Eleroy Curtis]], Chicago journalist and author, dedicated his book ''Modern India'' thus: "To Lady Curzon, An ideal American woman".<ref>{{cite book |last=Curtis |first=William Eleroy |year=1904 |title=Modern India |publisher=Project Gutenberg EBook |access-date=18 March 2007 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11212/11212-h/11212-h.htm }}</ref>

On 4 November 1902 Lady Curzon wrote from Viceroy's Camp, Simla, to [[Lady Randolph Churchill]] advising her on the appropriate headgear to wear in Delhi, saying that she is looking forward to seeing her and that she will not need an ayah in addition to her maid.<ref>Churchill College, CHURCHILL ARCHIVES CENTRE, CHAR 28/66/36 retrieved 23 March 2007 [http://www-archives.chu.cam.ac.uk/perl/search?text=%22lady+curzon%22&text_class=smart&text_kw0_sel=UKAT%3A%3APersonnel&text_kw0_must=on&text_kw1_sel=&text_kw1_must=on&text_kw2_sel=&text_kw2_must=on&text_kw3_sel=&text_kw3_must=on&text_kw4_sel=&text_kw4_must=on&start_date_day=&start_date_month=&start_date_year=&end_date_day=&end_date_month=&end_date_year=&Submit=Submit]</ref>

In 1903 she sailed on a yacht from [[Karachi]] for a tour of the [[Persian Gulf]] with Lord Curzon, [[Ignatius Valentine Chirol]], young [[Winston Churchill]] and other notable guests.

In 1904, Lady Curzon traveled by train with Lord Curzon to [[Dhaka]] and toured the [[Shahbagh]] area in a fleet of Dechamp Tonneau-model 1902 automobiles.

Lady Curzon learned about the [[Indian rhinoceros|great one-horned rhinoceroses]] of Kaziranga from her tea-plantation friends and wanted to see them. In the winter of 1904 she visited the Kaziranga area,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaziranga100.com/ |title=100 Years of Kazaringa National Park |access-date=23 February 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214193300/http://www.kaziranga100.com/ |archive-date=14 February 2008}}</ref> and saw some of their [[hoof]] marks, but was disappointed by not having seen a single rhinoceros. It was reported that the noted [[Assam]]ese animal tracker, [[Balaram Hazarika]], showed Lady Curzon around Kaziranga and impressed upon her the urgent need for its [[conservation ethic|conservation]].<ref name = "bbc">{{cite news |first=Subir |last=Bhaumik |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4274927.stm |title=Kaziranga's centenary celebrations |newspaper=BBC News, South Asia |date=18 February 2005}}</ref> Concerned about the dwindling numbers of rhinoceros, she asked her husband to take the necessary action to save the rhinoceros, which he did. The Kaziranga Proposed [[Reserved forests of India|Reserve Forest]] thus was created. Later it was developed into the [[Kaziranga National Park]].

== Private life ==

[[File:Royal Society 20040420.jpg|thumb|The Curzons' home in London, 1 Carlton House Terrace]]
The Curzons had three daughters but no son, as much as Lord Curzon wished for one.<ref name=":2" /> Lady Curzon's demanding social responsibilities, the tropical climate, a prolonged near-fatal infection following a [[miscarriage]], and [[Gynaecology|fertility]]-related [[surgery]] eroded her health. Despite several trips to England to convalesce, her health continued to decline.<ref name=":2" /> Following their return to England after Curzon's resignation in August 1905, her health was rapidly failing. She died on 18 July 1906 at home at [[Carlton House Terrace|1 Carlton House Terrace]], Westminster, [[London]], at age thirty-six.<ref name="f9">{{cite web|url=http://www.peterwestern.f9.co.uk/maximilia/pafg1237.htm|title=Maximilian Genealogy Master Database, Mary Victoria LEITER, 2000|publisher=peterwestern.f9.co.uk|access-date=12 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306052857/http://www.peterwestern.f9.co.uk/maximilia/pafg1237.htm|archive-date=6 March 2008}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

It is said that Lady Curzon, after having seen the [[Taj Mahal]] on a moonlit night, exclaimed in her bewilderment that she was ready to embrace an immediate death if someone promised to erect such a memorial on her grave.<ref>SR Shaheed DOHS Banani (25 October 2004) "''Lady Curzon's wish''", The Daily Star, Vol. 5 Num 153, Dhaka [http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/10/25/d41025110693.htm]</ref>

Following Lady Curzon's death, in 1906, Lord Curzon had a memorial chapel built in his late wife's honour, attached to [[All Saints Church, Kedleston|All Saints]], the parish church at Kedleston Hall. Lady Curzon is buried, with her husband, in the family vault beneath it. The design of the chapel, by [[G. F. Bodley]], does not resemble the Taj Mahal, but is in the [[decorated Gothic]] style. It was completed in 1913.<ref>*[[The National Trust]] (1988; repr. 1997). ''Kedleston Hall''. page 60.</ref>

In the chapel Curzon expressed his grief at his wife's premature death by charging the sculptor, [[Sir Bertram Mackennal]], to create a marble effigy for her tomb which: "''expressed as might be possible in marble, the pathos of his wife's premature death and to make the sculpture emblematic of the deepest emotion.''"<ref>*[[The National Trust]] (1988; repr. 1997). ''Kedleston Hall''. page 61.</ref> Later, Curzon's own effigy was added to lie beside that of his wife's, as his remains do in the vault beneath. Curzon's second wife chose to be buried in the churchyard outside.

The Curzons' youngest daughter, [[Lady Alexandra Metcalfe|Alexandra Naldera]], was conceived in July 1903 at [[Shimla|Naldehra]], 25 km from [[Shimla]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Cory, Charlotte |date=29 December 2002 |newspaper=Sunday Times |access-date=14 March 2007 |title=The Delhi Durbar 1903 Revisited |url=http://www.charlottecory.com/travel/delhi_durbar.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930132626/http://www.charlottecory.com/travel/delhi_durbar.htm |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> perhaps after a high altitude game of golf.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oberoihotels.com/hotels-in-shimla-wfh/ |title=Wildflower Hall, Shimla in the Himalayas |quote=The former abode of Lord Kitchener, Wildflower Hall exudes the ambience of a colonial Hill Station home, with luxurious rooms, a welcoming lounge, a bridge room and a library. |access-date=31 July 2015}}</ref> She was born on 20 March 1904.<ref>{{cite web |work=Royal Genealogy Database at Hull |editor=Tompsett, Brian C |url=http://www.hull.ac.uk/php/cssbct/cgi-bin/gedlkup.php/n=royal?royal57972 |title=Alexandra Naldera Curzon |access-date=31 July 2015}}</ref> and became best known as "''Baba''", an Indian name for ''baby'' or ''little one''. In 1925 she married Major [[Edward Dudley Metcalfe]], the best friend and [[equerry]] of [[Edward VIII]].<ref name="time2">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723219,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524002909/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723219,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 May 2011 |title=Milestones: June 8, 1925 - TIME |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=12 June 2015 |date=8 June 1925}}</ref> Lord Curzon's second wife and stepmother to the daughters, [[Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston|Grace Curzon]] wrote a book of Reminiscences.<ref>{{cite web |author=Davies, Matt |date=18 March 2002 |title=John Singer Sargent's Grace Elvina |quote=Daughter of J. Monroe Hinds, United States Minister to Brazil, Grace Elvina was married firstly to Alfred Duggan of Buenos Aires. Widowed by Duggan, she then married secondly on 2 January 1917 to George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston (1859 -1925). Grace was the author of a book of Reminiscences. |access-date=18 March 2007 |url=http://jssgallery.org/Paintings/Grace_Elvina.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=John Singer Sargent's George Nathaniel, Marquess Curzon of Kedleston |url=http://jssgallery.org/Paintings/George_Nathaniel.htm}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
Mary Curzon and her three daughters are considered to be part of the inspiration for the fictional characters Lady Grantham and her three daughters, particularly in respect to the inability to produce a male heir, and the importance of a woman's virtue in the ''[[Downton Abbey]]'' television series written by [[Julian Fellowes]] and produced by [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]].<ref name=Shattuck2015>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/12/31/arts/television/12312015_DowntonAbbey-timeline.html?_r=0#/#time357_10705 |title='Downton Abbey' and History: A Look Back |first1=Katherine |last1=Shattuck |first2=Hubert |last2=Mandeville |date=5 January 2015 |access-date=5 January 2015 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

Lady Curzon Soup, a [[curry]]-flavored [[turtle soup]], was named after her. In 1977 a food article in ''The New York Times'' noted its popularity in Germany and, according to a letter to the columnist, that Lady Curzon always had sherry added to it.<ref name=Claiborne1977>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/09/19/archives/de-gustibus-more-on-lady-curzons-turtle-soup.html |title=De Gustibus: More on Lady Curzon's Turtle Soup |newspaper=The New York Times |date=19 September 1977 |last=Claiborne |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Claiborne |page=58 |access-date=28 July 2020 }}</ref>

During the 2014-2015 exhibition at London's National Portrait Gallery, she was featured among the high-profile American heiresses to marry into British aristocracy.<ref name="MacColl2012">{{cite book |last1=MacColl |first1=Gail |last2=Wallace |first2=Carol McD |title=To Marry an English Lord: Tales of Wealth and Marriage, Sex and Snobbery |date=2012 |publisher=Workman Publishing |isbn=9780761171959 |pages=77, 249, 302, 309, 340 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGSE4B506MMC&pg=PA357 |access-date=24 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> Also included in the exhibition were [[Margaret Howard, Countess of Suffolk|Margaret Leiter]] (married to the [[Henry Howard, 19th Earl of Suffolk|19th Earl of Suffolk)]], [[Jennie Jerome]] (married to [[Lord Randolph Churchill]]), [[May Cuyler]] (married to [[Sir Philip Grey Egerton, 12th Baronet|Sir Philip Grey Egerton, 12th Bt]]), [[Consuelo Yznaga]] (married to the [[George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|8th Duke of Manchester]]), [[Consuelo Vanderbilt]] (married to the [[9th Duke of Marlborough]] and to [[Jacques Balsan]]), [[Laura Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough|Laura Charteris]] (married to the [[John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough|10th Duke of Marlborough]]) and [[Cornelia Craven, Countess of Craven|Cornelia Martin]] (married to the [[William Craven, 4th Earl of Craven|4th Earl of Craven]]).<ref name="OldTitlesNewMoney">{{cite web |title=Old Titles and New Money: American Heiresses and the British Aristocracy |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/display/2014/old-titles-and-new-money-american-heiresses-and-the-british-aristocracy.php |website=www.npg.org.uk |publisher=[[National Portrait Gallery, London]] |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref>

==Biographies==

*{{citation |author=de Courcy, Anne |author-link=Anne de Courcy |title=The Viceroy's Daughters, The Lives of the Curzon Sisters |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=0-06-093557-X}}
*{{citation |editor=Bradley, John |year=1986 |title=Lady Curzon's India: Letters of a Vicereine |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=0-297-78701-2}}
*{{citation |author=Nicolson, Nigel |title=Lady Curzon |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |year=1977 |isbn=0-297-77390-9 |access-date=14 March 2007 |url=http://www.tomfolio.com/bookdetailssu.asp?b=35313&m=40}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Thomas, Nicola J. (2004) "Broadening the Boundaries of Biography and Geography: Lady Curzon, Vicereine of India 1898–1905", ''Journal of Historical Geography''
*{{citation |first=Nicola J.|last= Thomas |chapter=American Vicereine of India |editor-first1=David |editor-last1=Lambert |editor-first2=Alan |editor-last2=Lester |title=Imperial Lives across the Empire |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-84770-4}}

==External links==
*"[[s:On the Death of Lady Curzon|On the Death of Lady Curzon]]" — poem by [[Florence Earle Coates]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Curzon of Kedleston, Mary Curzon, Baroness}}
[[Category:British baronesses by marriage]]
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1906 deaths]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Crown of India]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal]]
[[Category:Curzon family|Mary]]
[[Category:American emigrants to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:English people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:British philanthropists]]
[[Category:Viceregal consorts of India]]
[[Category:People from Chicago]]
[[Category:People from Dupont Circle]]
[[Category:1900s in British India]]
[[Category:George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston]]

Abdul Jaleel Faridi

2026-04-01T02:37:59Z

Vedpsagar: New

{{Short description|Indian socialist politician (1913 – 1974)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mohammad Abdul Jaleel Faridi
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
| term_end = 1964
| term_start = 1952
| birth_date = {{birth date|1913|12|14|df=yes}}
| birth_name = Mohammad Abdul Jaleel
| birth_place = [[Lucknow]]
| party = [[All India Muslim Majlis (Dr. Faridi)]] [[All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat]]
| other_party = [[Praja Socialist Party]] [[Samyukta Vidhayak Dal]]
}}
'''Mohammad Abdul Jaleel Faridi''' (14 December 1913 – 19 May 1974)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sabha |first=Haryana (India) Vidhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bi0iAQAAIAAJ&q=abdul%20jalil%20faridi |title=Debates |date=1974 |publisher=Vidhan Sabha. |pages=100 |language=hi}}</ref> popularly known as '''Dr. Faridi''' was an Indian physician, freedom fighter, socialist, politician and social worker.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGxDAAAAYAAJ |title=Link |date=1979 |publisher=United India Periodicals |pages=10–11 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHYMAQAAMAAJ |title=Muslim India |date=2007 |publisher=Muslim India |pages=19–20 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Faridi Memorial Lecture |url=https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2005/01-15July05-Print-Edition/011507200523.htm |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.milligazette.com}}</ref> He was the founder of ''[[Qaed]]'', an Urdu daily.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ansari |first=N. A. |title=Dr Faridi - a forgotten giant |url=https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/01072002/0107200270.htm |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.milligazette.com}}</ref> He was the founder of [[All India Muslim Majlis (Dr. Faridi)]], a political party founded in 1968 following a split in [[Samyukta Vidhayak Dal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alavi |first=Shams Ur Rehman |author-link=Shams Ur Rehman Alavi |title=Role of Dr Abdul Jaleel Faridi and his Muslim Majlis in Uttar Pradesh, Muslim politics of North India |url=http://www.anindianmuslim.com/2021/05/role-of-dr-abdul-jaleel-faridi-and-his.html?m=1 |access-date=2024-11-22 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Farooqui |first=Ather |author-link=Ather Farouqui |title=Dr. Abdul Jalil Faridi: A Lost Chapter in the History of the Ruthless, Obscurantist Urdu Politics of North India {{!}} Ather Farouqui |url=https://www.newageislam.com/islam-politics/ather-farouqui/dr-abdul-jalil-faridi-lost-chapter-history-ruthless-obscurantist-urdu-politics-north-india/d/3718 |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.newageislam.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Noorani |first=A. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCwpDwAAQBAJ&dq=Abdul+Jaleel+Faridi&pg=PT210 |title=The Muslims of India: A Documentary Record |date=2004-05-21 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-908774-7 |language=en}}</ref>

Faridi, along with [[Syed Mahmud]], a [[Indian National Congress|congress]]-man from Bihar founded the [[All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat]], an umbrella body of Muslim organisations in 1964 after being attracted to [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'s policy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Partha S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XxaDwAAQBAJ&dq=Abdul+Jaleel+Faridi&pg=PT130 |title=The Politics of Personal Law in South Asia: Identity, Nationalism and the Uniform Civil Code |date=2018-05-11 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-01547-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-02 |title=A.J. Faridi {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/aj-faridi.html |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.sciencespo.fr |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
Faridi was a medical practitioner who turned into the freedom struggle and then politics. He joined Praja Socialist Party in 1951, later he left the party in 1960s after serving as the leader of legislative council for the party.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Saquib |first=Salim |title=Abdul Jalil Faridi was the forerunner of Kanshi Ram |url=https://www.awazthevoice.in/culture-news/abdul-jalil-faridi-was-the-forerunner-of-kanshi-ram-7913.html |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.awazthevoice.in |language=en}}</ref>

He left [[Praja Socialist Party]] and joined hands with [[Syed Mahmud|Dr. Syed Mahmud]] to form [[All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat]] in 1968. He also led a meeting of Dalit and Muslim in the same year, which was attended by [[Periyar]] and other Dalit leaders.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ansari |first=Yousuf |date=2021-12-16 |title=यूपी विधानसभा चुनाव 2022 : असदुद्दीन ओवैसी को क्यों याद आए डॉ. जलील फरीदी? |url=https://www.tv9hindi.com/opinion/up-assembly-election-2022-why-asaduddin-owaisi-remembered-dr-jalil-faridi-961481.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=TV9 Bharatvarsh |language=hi}}</ref> He also led the All-India Muslim Political Convention at New Delhi in December 1971.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmood |first=Tahir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAhbAAAAIAAJ&q=abdul%20jalil%20faridi |title=Muslim Personal Law: Role of the State in the Subcontinent |date=1977 |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=978-0-7069-0532-8 |pages=132 |language=en}}</ref>

== Awards ==

* Lifetime Achievement Award by All India Majlis-e-Mushawarat (2022)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vice-President Inaugurates Mushawarat Golden Jubilee Celebrations |url=https://radianceweekly.net/vice-president-inaugurates-mushawarat-golden-jubilee-celebrations/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Radiance Weekly |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
United Muslim of India and Urdu Development Organization gives the Award namely Dr. Abdul Jaleel Faridi Lifetime Achievement Award singe 1997 on Urdu Day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-08 |title=Dr. Zafarul Islam Khan to get Dr. Abdul Jaleel Faridi Lifetime Achievement Award |url=https://muslimmirror.com/dr-zafarul-islam-khan-to-get-dr-abdul-jaleel-faridi-lifetime-achievement-award/ |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=Muslim Mirror |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite book |last=Sabir |first=Khalid |title=Qaid-e-Millat Dr. Abdul Jalil Faridi: Hayat Wa Khidmat |publisher=Muslim Majlis Publications |year=2003 |location=Lucknow |language=ur}}
* {{Cite book |last=Habeeb |first=Javed |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/dr-fareedi-tufan-se-sahil-tak-javed-habeeb-ebooks/ |title=Dr. Faridi: Toofan Se Sahil Tak |publisher=Muslim Majlis Publications |year=2003 |location=New Delhi |language=ur}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Faridi, Abdul Jaleel}}
[[Category:1913 births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:Praja Socialist Party politicians]]
[[Category:Indian Muslim activists]]
[[Category:Members of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
{{Authority control}}

Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996

2026-03-26T11:06:26Z

Vedpsagar:

{{Short description|Act of the Parliament of India}}{{more citations needed|date=October 2019}}{{Cleanup rewrite|date=February 2026}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox legislation
| short_title = Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
| legislature = [[Parliament of India]]
| long_title = An Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to domestic arbitration, international commercial arbitration and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards as also to define the law relating to conciliation and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
| citation = [https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1978/3/a1996-26.pdf Act No. 26 of 1996]
| territorial_extent = whole of India
| enacted_by = [[Parliament of India]]
| date_enacted = 16 August 1996
| date_commenced = 22 August 1996
| repeals = {{ubl|Arbitration (Protocol and Convention) Act, 1937 (6 of 1937)|Arbitration Act, 1940 (10 of 1940)|Foreign Awards (Recognition and Enforcement) Act, 1961 (45 of 1961)| Arbitration and Conciliation (Third) Ordinance, 1996 (Ord.27 of
1996)}}
| amended_by = {{ubl|Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2015
(Act 3 of 2016)|Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2019 (Act 33 of 2019)|Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2021 (Act 3 of 2021)}}
| status = in force amended
}}

The '''Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996''' is an Act that regulates domestic [[arbitration]] in [[India]].<ref name=A>{{cite web|url=http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/448666/Arbitration+Dispute+Resolution/Highlights+Of+Amendment+To+The+Arbitration+And+Conciliation+Act+1996+Via+Arbitration+Ordinance+2015|title=India: Highlights Of Amendment To The Arbitration And Conciliation Act 1996 Via Arbitration Ordinance 2015|publisher=Mondaq|accessdate=28 September 2016}}</ref> It was amended in 2015 and 2019.<ref name=A />

The Government of India decided to amend the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 by introducing the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Bill, 2015 in the Parliament. In an attempt to make arbitration a preferred mode of settlement of commercial disputes and making India a hub of international commercial arbitration, the President of India on 23 October 2015 promulgated an Ordinance (Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Ordinance, 2015) amending the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996. The [[Union Cabinet]] chaired by the Prime Minister, had given its approval for amendments to the Arbitration and Conciliation Bill, 2015

==2015 Amendment==

The following are the salient features of the new ordinance, introduced in 2015:
:The first and foremost amendment introduced by the ordinance, is with respect to definition of expression ' '''Court''' '. The amended law makes a clear distinction between an international commercial arbitration and domestic arbitration with regard to the definition of 'Court'. In so far as domestic arbitration is concerned, the definition of "Court" is the same as was in the 1996 Act, however, for the purpose of international commercial arbitration, 'Court' has been defined to mean only High Court of competent jurisdiction. Accordingly, in an international commercial arbitration, as per the new law, district court will have no jurisdiction and the parties can expect speedier and efficacious determination of any issue directly by the High court which is better equipped in terms of handling commercial disputes.
:Through the amendment, a proviso to '''Section 2(2)''' has been added which envisages that subject to the agreement to the contrary, Section 9 (interim measures), Section 27(taking of evidence), and Section 37(1)(a), 37(3) shall also apply to international commercial arbitration, even if the seat of arbitration is outside India, meaning thereby that the new law has tried to strike a kind of balance between the situations created by the judgments of Bhatia International and Balco v. Kaiser. Now Section 2(2) envisages that Part-I shall apply where the place of arbitration is in India and that provisions of Sections 9, 27, 37(1) (a) and 37 (3) shall also apply to international commercial arbitration even if the seat of arbitration is outside India unless parties to the arbitration agreement have agreed to the contrary.
:'''Section 8''', which deals with 'Reference of parties to the dispute to arbitration', was amended. In Section 8, which mandates any judicial authority to refer the parties to arbitration in respect of an action brought before it, which is subject matter of arbitration agreement . The sub-section(1) has been amended envisaging that notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of the Supreme Court or any court, the judicial authority shall refer the parties to the arbitration unless it finds that prima facie no valid arbitration agreement exists. A provision has also been made enabling the party, who applies for reference of the matter to arbitration, to apply to the Court for a direction of production of the arbitration agreement or certified copy thereof in the event the parties applying for reference of the disputes to arbitration is not in the possession of the arbitration agreement and the opposite party has the same.
:Lastly '''Section 9''', dealing with 'Interim Measures' was also amended. The amended section envisages that if the Court passes an interim measure of protection under the section before commencement of arbitral proceedings, then the arbitral proceedings shall have to commence within a period of 90 days from the date of such order or within such time as the Court may determine. Also, that the Court shall not entertain any application under section 9 unless it finds that circumstances exist which may not render the remedy under Section 17 efficacious.
.

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of India 1996]]
[[Category:Arbitration law]]

Naan Aanaiyittal

2026-03-18T16:00:17Z

Vedpsagar:

{{Short description|1966 film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Naan Aanaiyittal
| image = Naan Aanaiyittal poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Tapi Chanakya|Chanakya]]
| screenplay = [[R. M. Veerappan]]
| story = Manjula Nedumaran
| producer = R. M. Veerappan
| starring = [[M. G. Ramachandran]] [[B. Sarojadevi]] [[K. R. Vijaya]]
| cinematography = [[P. N. Sundaram]]
| editing = C. P. Jambulingam
| music = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
| studio = Sathya Movies
| released = {{Film date|1966|2|4|df=y}}
| runtime = 182 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Naan Aanaiyittal''''' ({{translation|If I Order}}) is a 1966 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by [[Tapi Chanakya]] and produced by [[R. M. Veerappan]]. The film stars [[M. G. Ramachandran]], [[B. Saroja Devi]] and [[K. R. Vijaya]]. It was released on 4 February 1966.

== Plot ==
{{more plot|date=May 2023}}
Pandiyan, a member of a notorious robber gang, wishes to bring about a change in his gang and turn them towards a righteous path. Velaiya, a member of that gang, commits a murder and frames Pandiyan. To escape the law, Pandiyan disguises himself as a rich man's long-lost son and stays in his house, while Velaiya and the rich man's manager, Kumar, try to out him.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[M. G. Ramachandran]] as Pandiyan/Sundaram/Basha/Selvanayagam
* [[B. Saroja Devi]] as Kannagi / Kaveri
* [[K. R. Vijaya]] as Mala
* [[M. N. Nambiar]] as Velaiya
* [[R. S. Manohar]] as Kumar
* [[S. A. Ashokan]] as Chezhiyan
* [[Nagesh]] as Appu the Great
* [[Karikol Raju]] as Mala's relation
* [[C. R. Parthiban]] as IG
* [[O. A. K. Thevar]] as Muthuveeran
* Sedhupathy as Kanagarathnam
}}

== Production ==
''Naan Aanaiyittal'' was directed by Tapi Chanakya and produced under Sathya Films by [[R. M. Veerappan]], who also wrote the screenplay. The dialogue was written by Vidwan Lakshmanan and N. Pandurangan. Cinematography was handled by P. N. Sundaram, with editing by Jambulingam.<ref name="poster">{{Cite news |date=4 February 1966 |title=Naan Anai Ittaal |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19660204&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=3 May 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The film's title was derived from a song from ''[[Enga Veettu Pillai]]'' (1965).<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2021 |title=ஒரே பாடலில் இரு படங்கள்… பாடலில் பிறந்த படங்களின் வரலாறு |url=https://cinereporters.com/latest-news-two-films-in-one-song-history-of-films-born-in-the-song-cid3335806-htm/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514073050/https://cinereporters.com/latest-news-two-films-in-one-song-history-of-films-born-in-the-song-cid3335806-htm/ |archive-date=14 May 2023 |access-date=18 May 2023 |website=CineReporters |language=ta}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[M. S. Viswanathan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Naan Aanaiyittal (1966) |url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=t0001451 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140615103542/http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=t0001451 |archive-date=15 June 2014 |access-date=14 June 2014 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Naan Aanaiyittal - Oli Vilakku Tamil Film LP VInyl Record by M S Viswanathan |url=https://macsendisk.com/product/naan-aanaiyittal-oli-vilakku-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswanathan/ |access-date=25 May 2022 |website=Macsendisk |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525113837/https://macsendisk.com/product/naan-aanaiyittal-oli-vilakku-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswanathan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:100%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Thaaimel Aanai" || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || 03:32
|-
| "Pirandha Idam" || [[L. R. Eswari]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] || 02:52 / 02:37 (film version)
|-
| "Pattu Varum" || T. M. Soundararajan, [[P. Susheela]] || rowspan="2" |Vaali || 03:46 / 04:46 (film version)
|-
| "Nalla Velai" || T. M. Soundararajan || 04:11 / 04:12 (film version)
|-
| "Megangal Irundu" (Odi Vanthu) || [[Sirkazhi Govindarajan]], P. Susheela || Alangudi Somu || 03:35 / 04:17 (film version)
|-
| "Naan Uyara" || T. M. Soundararajan, P. Susheela ||Vaali || 03:43 / 05:39 (film version)
|-
| "Kodukka Kodukka" || P. Susheela, [[M. S. Viswanathan]]|| Vidwan V. Lakshmanan || 03:11
|-
| "Thaaimel Aanai" (film version) || T. M. Soundararajan & chorus || Vaali || 05:29
|}

== Release and reception ==

''Naan Aanaiyittal'' was released on 4 February 1966.<ref name="poster" /> It was initially scheduled to release on 14 January 1966, during [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]], but was pushed back to allow the release of another Ramachandran film, ''[[Anbe Vaa (1966 film)|Anbe Vaa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri Kantha |first=Sachi |author-link=Sachi Sri Kantha |date=15 August 2015 |title=MGR Remembered – Part 29 {{!}} Salary and 'Black Money' |url=https://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-29/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505185109/http://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-29/ |archive-date=5 May 2016 |access-date=6 April 2021 |website=[[Ilankai Tamil Sangam]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=ஏவிஎம்முக்காக தன் பட வெளியீட்டை தள்ளி வைத்த எம்ஜிஆர் |url=https://tamil.news18.com/news/entertainment/cinema-interesting-details-about-mgr-naan-aaanayittal-anbe-va-886501.html |access-date=22 March 2024 |website=[[News18]] |language=ta |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331072750/https://tamil.news18.com/news/entertainment/cinema-interesting-details-about-mgr-naan-aaanayittal-anbe-va-886501.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Indian Express]]'' wrote that the film "has all the ingredients to make it appealing to the masses" and praised the performances of Ramachandran and Saroja Devi.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 February 1966 |title='Anai Ittal' entertains |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19660212&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=3 May 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> T. M. Ramachandran of ''[[Sport and Pastime]]'' gave a positive review appreciating the film's message, also praising Vidwan Lakshman's dialogue as "sparkling" and M. S. Viswanathan's music as "pleasing," although still being critical of Chanakya's direction, saying it "could have been more inspiring".<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ramachandran |first=T. M. |date=26 February 1966 |title=A Purposeful Film |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20950/page/n443/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230310152745/https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.20950/page/n443/mode/2up |archive-date=10 March 2023 |access-date=10 March 2023 |magazine=[[Sport and Pastime]] |page=51 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{Tapi Chanakya}}

[[Category:1966 Indian films]]
[[Category:1966 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Tapi Chanakya]]
[[Category:Films scored by M. S. Viswanathan]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Karna

2026-03-16T14:33:26Z

Vedpsagar: minor update

{{short description|Warrior in the epic Mahabharata}}
{{about|the figure in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox character
| image = Karna in Kurukshetra.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt = Karna
| info-hdr = Information
| caption = Karna seated on a chariot during [[Kurukshetra War]], [[Pahari painting]], c. 1820
| children = [[Vrishasena]], Sushena, [[Vrishaketu]] and [[Characters in the Mahabharata#Sons of Karna|other sons]]
| relatives = {{unbulleted list|[[Adhiratha]] (adoptive father)|[[Radha (Mahabharata)|Radha]] (adoptive mother)|[[Surya]] (father)|[[Kunti]] (mother)| [[Yudhishthira]], [[Bhima]], [[Arjuna]], [[Nakula]] and [[Sahadeva]] (half-brothers)|Possibly some [[Foster brothers of Karna|adoptive brothers]]{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=132}}}}
| aliases = Vasusena, Angaraja, Radheya
| title = King of Anga
| gender = Male
| weapon = [[Vijaya (bow)]] and arrows
| spouses = [[Wife of Karna|Unnamed Sūta women]]{{efn|In the Mahabharata, Karna's marital life is hardly attested and his wives are unnamed. Karna's marital details vary across adaptations of the Mahabharata, with different works assigning him different wives, like Ponnuruvi, Padmavati, Vrushali, and Supriya.
}}
}}

'''Karna''' ([[Sanskrit]]: कर्ण, [[IAST]]: ''Karṇa''), also known as '''Vasusena''', '''Anga-Raja''', '''Sutaputra''' and '''Radheya''',{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2013|pp=262-263}} is one of the major characters in the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] epic ''[[Mahābhārata]]''.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=1-3}}{{sfn|Lemming|2005}} He is the spiritual son of [[Surya]] (the solar deity) and princess [[Kunti]] (later the Pandava queen). His birth occurred after Kunti invoked a divine boon to test its power in her youth; fearing societal stigma over her premarital motherhood, she is forced to abandon the infant in a basket on the [[Ganges]].{{sfn|Shulman|2014|pp=381-382}} He is discovered and fostered by Radha and Adhiratha Nandana,{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2013|pp=262-263}} the ''sūta'' (charioteer) of King [[Dhritarashtra]].{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=1-3}} Karna grows up to be an accomplished warrior of extraordinary abilities, and a gifted speaker. He becomes a loyal friend of [[Duryodhana]]{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=1-3}}{{sfn|Johnson|2009}}, and is appointed the king of [[Anga]] ([[Bihar]]-[[Bengal]]){{sfn|Klostermaier|1998|pp=95-96}} by the prince.{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2013|pp=262-263}} Karna joins the [[Kaurava]] side of the [[Kurukshetra War]], and is ultimately slain by [[Arjuna]].{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=1-3}}{{sfn|Lemming|2005}}

He is a tragic hero in the ''Mahabharata'', in a manner similar to Aristotle's literary category of "flawed good man".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|p=457}} He meets his biological mother late in the epic then discovers that he is the older half-brother of those he is fighting against.{{sfn|Johnson|2009}} Karna is a symbol of someone who is rejected by those who should love him but do not given the circumstances, yet becomes a man of exceptional abilities willing to give his love and life as a loyal friend. His character is developed in the epic to raise and discuss major emotional and ''[[dharma]]'' (duty, ethics, moral) dilemmas.{{sfn|Shulman|2014|pp=380-389}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2005|pp=119-228, context: chapter 9}}{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=90-118}} His story has inspired many secondary works, poetry and dramatic plays in the Hindu arts tradition, both in India and in southeast Asia.{{sfn|Shulman|2014|pp=380-389}}{{sfn|de Bruin|Brakel-Papenyzen|1992|pp=38-39, 47-49, 53-54}}{{sfn|Terrence|1995|pp=134-135}}

A regional tradition believes that Karna founded the city of [[Karnal]], in contemporary [[Haryana]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Karnal|url=http://www.karnal.gov.in/|publisher=District of Karnal|accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>

== Nomenclature and epithets ==
Karṇa (कर्ण) is a word found in the Vedic literature, where it means "the ear", "chaff or husk of a grain" or the "helm or rudder".<ref name=mmwkarna/> In another context, it refers to a [[spondee]] in [[Sanskrit]] prosody.<ref name=mmwkarna>Monier Monier-Williams (2008 update), [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0256-karkakhaNDa.jpg कर्ण, Karna], Oxford University Press (Updated, Harvard University), page 256</ref>

In the ''Mahabharata'' and the Puranas, it is the name of a warrior character.<ref name=mmwkarna/> Called Vasusena as a child by his foster parents, he became known by the name Karna because of the golden earrings of Surya he used to wear, according to the Sanskrit epics scholar David Slavitt.{{sfn|Slavitt|2015|pp=231–234}}

The word Karna, states the Indologist Kevin McGrath, signifies "eared, or the ear-ringed one".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=31}} In section 3.290.5 of the ''Mahabharata'', Karna is described as a baby born with the ear-rings and armoured breastplate, like his father Surya.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=31–32 with footnotes}}

[[File:Karna Ghatotkacha fight sculpture, Kota Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Karna inside the chariot fighting [[Ghatotkacha]] standing over horses, Kota, [[Rajasthan]]. This artwork – as ''Patung Satria Gatotkaca'' – is also found near the [[Denpasar]] airport, [[Bali]], Indonesia.]]
The second meaning of Karna as "rudder and helm" is also an apt metaphor given Karna's role in steering the war in Book 8 of the epic, where the good Karna confronts the good Arjuna, one of the climax scenes wherein the Mahabharata authors repeatedly deploy the allegories of ocean and boat to embed layers of meanings in the poem.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=39–41 with footnotes}} For example, his first entry into the Kurukshetra battlefield is presented as the ''Makara'' movement (an arrangement of soldiers in the sea-monster pattern).{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=39–41 with footnotes}} As Duryodhana's army crumbles each day, the sea and vessel metaphor repeatedly appears in the epic, particularly when Karna is mentioned. As a newborn, Karna's life begins in a basket without a rudder on a river, in circumstances that he neither chose nor had a say. In Book 1, again in the context of Karna, Duryodhana remarks, "the origins of heroes and rivers are indeed difficult to understand".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=39–43 with footnotes}}{{refn|group=note|The Karna legend in the ''Mahabharata'' is overlaid with metaphors such as "the worlds stand in water, every taste is made of water, all the world is made of water", later that "no one perceives this world sinking in a deep sea of time, where sharks of death and age awaits".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=39–43 with footnotes}}}}

The name Karna is also symbolically connected to the central aspect of Karna's character as the one who is intensely preoccupied with what others hear and think about him, about his fame, a weakness that others exploit to manipulate him. This "hearing" and "that which is heard", states McGrath makes "Karna" an apt name and subtle reminder of Karna's driving motivation.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=2–3, 31–32 with footnote 19}}{{refn|group=note|Surya, his father, tries to persuade him to not worry about what others think and avoid getting gullibly exploited, Karna declines.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Amrita|last1=Narlikar|first2=Aruna|last2=Narlikar|title=Bargaining with a Rising India: Lessons from the Mahabharata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8r6AgAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969838-7|pages=57–58}}</ref>}}

Karna was also called with many names.{{sfn|Mani|1975}} Some of them are:

* Vasusena – Original name of Karna, means "born with wealth" as he was born with natural armour and earrings.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pratap Chandra Roy|url=https://holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/Mahabharata-VOL-1.pdf|title=The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, Vol. 1 – Adi Parva |publisher=Oriental Publishing Co. |pages=264|access-date=February 21, 2021}}</ref>
* Suryaputra – Son of [[Surya]]
* Radheya – son of Radha (Karna's adopted mother).
* Sutaputra – son of charioteer.
* Angaraja – king of [[Anga]].
* Daanaveera – one of charitable nature or one who is exceptionally munificent (generous)<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kotru|first1=Umesh|title=Karna The Unsung Hero of the Mahabharata|last2=Zutshi |first2=Ashutosh |date=March 2015 |publisher=Leadstart Publishing|isbn=978-93-5201-304-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBMfCAAAQBAJ&q=Daanaveera|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>
* Vijayadhari – holder of a bow named [[Vijaya (bow)|Vijaya]] which was gifted by Lord [[Parashurama]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Kotru|first1=Umesh|title=Karna The Unsung Hero of the Mahabharata |last2=Zutshi |first2=Ashutosh |date=March 2015 |publisher=Leadstart Publishing|isbn=978-93-5201-304-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBMfCAAAQBAJ&q=vijaya+karna+google+book&pg=PT73 |access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>
* Vaikartana – one who belongs to solar race (related to Surya).
* Vrisha – one who is truthful in speech and kept his vows.

== Mythology and sources: Mahābhārata ==
The story of Karna is told in the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', one of the [[Sanskrit]] epics from the Indian subcontinent. The work is written in Classical Sanskrit and is a composite work of revisions, editing and interpolations over many centuries. The oldest parts in the surviving version of the text probably date to about 400 BCE.<ref name="Brockington98">{{harvnb|Brockington|1998|p=26}}</ref> Within Mahabharata, which follows the [[story within a story]] style of narration, the account of Karna's birth has been narrated four times.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=2}}

Karna appears for the first time in the ''Mahabharata'' in the verse 1.1.65 of ''Adi Parvan'' (first book) where he is briefly mentioned through the metaphor of a tree, as someone who is refusing to fight or help in the capture of Krishna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=25–26}} He is presented again in sections 1.2.127–148, and chapter 1.57 of the ''Adi Parvan''. It is here that his earrings "that make his face shine", as well as the divine breastplate (body armor) he was born with, are mentioned for the first time. This sets him apart as someone special, with gifts no ordinary mortal has.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=26–27}} However, later in the epic, the generous Karna gives the "earrings and breastplate" away in charity, thereby becomes a mortal and later dies in a battle with Arjuna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=31–32 with footnotes}}{{sfn|van Buitenen|Fitzgerald|1973 |pp= 142–145}}

The story of his unmarried mother getting the child due to her curiosity, his divine connection to the Hindu god [[Surya]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=John Garrett |title=Torah and Nondualism: Diversity, Conflict, and Synthesis |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |page=320 |edition=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6paBoEtkUt0C&q=birth+of+karna&pg=PA321 |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref> then his birth appears for the first time in the epic in section 1.104.7. The epic uses glowing words to describe Karna, but the presentation here is compressed in 21 ''shlokas'' unlike the later books which expand the details.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=27–28 with footnotes}} These later sections with more details on Karna's birth and childhood include 3.287, 5.142 and 15.38.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=27–28 with footnotes}} According to McGrath, the early presentation of Karna in the ''Mahabharata'' is such as if the poets expect the audience to already know the story and love the character of Karna. The text does not belabour the details about Karna in the early sections, rather uses [[metaphor]]s and [[metonym]]s to colourfully remind the audience of the fabric of a character they already are assumed to be aware of.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=27–28 with footnotes}} The complete narrative of his life appears for the first time in chapter 1.125.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=29}}

===Manuscripts, many versions===
The ''Mahabharata'' manuscripts exist in numerous versions, wherein the specifics and details of major characters and episodes vary, often significantly. Except for the sections containing the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' which is remarkably consistent between the numerous manuscripts, the rest of the epic exists in many versions.<ref>{{cite book|first= Robert N.|last= Minor|title= Bhagavad Gita: An Exegetical Commentary|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ru_RjwEACAAJ|year =1982|publisher= South Asia Books|isbn= 978-0-8364-0862-1|pages=L-LI}}; Quote: "The current text of the Bhagavad gita is well-preserved with relatively few variant readings and none quite serious. This is especially remarkable in the light of the numerous variants for the remainder of the Mahabharata, some of which are quite serious. Secondary insertions are found in individual manuscripts of the Gita, but these are clearly secondary. The number of stanzas in the Gita is 700, a number confirmed by Shankara, and possibly deliberately chosen in order to prevent interpolations."</ref> The differences between the Northern and Southern recensions are particularly significant, with the Southern manuscripts more profuse and longer.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=19–21 with footnotes}} The legends of Karna too appear in many versions, including some versions that have no support in surviving manuscripts. The manuscripts found in the [[North India|North]] and [[South India]] for the ''[[Karna Parva|Karna parvan]]'' book have "great divergence" in details, though the thematic essence is similar.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=21–22}} Scholars have attempted to construct a [[critical edition]], relying mostly on a study of the Bombay edition, the Poona edition, the Calcutta edition and the south Indian editions of the ''Mahabharata'' manuscripts. The most accepted version is one prepared by scholars led by Vishnu Sukthankar at the [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]], preserved at the [[Kyoto University]], the [[Cambridge University]] and various Indian universities.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=21–26 with footnotes}}<ref>[https://sanskritdocuments.org/mirrors/mahabharata/mahabharata-bori.html Critical Edition Prepared by Scholars at Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute BORI], Muneo Tokunaga, Kyoto University (1998)</ref>

==Biography==
=== Birth and early life ===
[[File:Sury gives boon to Kunti.jpg|thumb|left|[[Surya]] gives boon to [[Kunti]]]]
According to the legend, there was a king of the [[Yadava|Yadava dynasty]] named [[Shurasena]] who had a beautiful young daughter named Pritha (later [[Kunti]]). A ''[[rishi]]'' (Vedic scholar and seer) named [[Durvasa]] visited the king for a lengthy stay and was housed as his palace guest. Shurasena asked Pritha to ensure that Durvasa's stay was comfortable. On leaving, having been delighted with his stay and her diligent services, Durvasa thanked her and gave her the ''Siddha [[mantra]]'', telling her that if she ever wants, she can invoke any deity to give her a child.{{sfn|Donaldson|1987|pp=130–131, 198}}{{refn|group=note|She used the same mantra later in the Mahabharata, after Kunti is unable to have any children with her human husband, and he agrees to her using the mantra to have children. Kunti calls on god Dharma to have son [[Yudhishthira]], then god Vayu to have [[Bhima]] and finally Indra to have [[Arjuna]].{{sfn|Donaldson|1987|pp=130–131, 198}}}}

Teenage Pritha became curious, wondered if the mantra would really work and, as the sun rose one morning, she initiated the mantra through which she could invoke any divine God being to provide her a son. She called the sun god Surya. He came with a golden glow, dressed up in jewellery and breastplate, and provided her with her first son.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=31–32}}{{refn|group=note|This story appears in various forms, with different level of details in many sections of the ''Mahabharata''. A detailed version, for example, is found in sections 3.290–291 of the [[critical edition]]. The Sun-God gave her a child that came from her ear, and therefore the child was known as Karṇa.}} Pritha felt confused and ashamed, worried what everyone will think and how she will embarrass her family. At that time, according to Vedic civilization, if a girl gave birth to a child before her marriage, she would be less likely to be married. So, she put the newborn baby in a padded basket, and set it adrift in the small river Ashvanadi by the palace.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Later Kunti got blessed with children Yudhishtra, Bhima, and Arjuna, using this mantra. The same mantra was used by Kunti to allow her co-wife, Madri, to conceive Nakula and Sahdeva. The Spiritual "fathers" of the five Pandavas were [[Yama|Dharma]], [[Vayu]], [[Indra]] and the twin [[Ashwini Kumaras]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Joshi |first1=Nikul |title=Pandavas |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Pandavas/ |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref>

As the adolescent mother abandons her unwanted child on the river, she laments and the epic verses describe her emotions with heartbreaking poetry, according to the Indologist Patricia Greer.{{sfn|Greer|2002|pp=209–210}}

The basket floats, reaches the river [[Charmanwati]], which carries it to the [[Yamuna River]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=197–198}} The basket floats on and reaches the [[Ganges River]] and on it into the kingdom of Anga (ancient Bengal). There, it is found by a charioteer's wife Radha, who takes the baby Karna to her husband Adhiratha Nandana. They adopt him right away and name him Vasushena.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=197–198}} They love him and raise him just like their own son.{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=4–5}} While he was growing up, his adopting parents let Karna know that they had found and adopted him. This knowledge affects Karna, he feels ashamed that he was abandoned, and this frames his sense of self-identity through the epic.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=78–79}}

Karna attends school in [[Hastinapur|Hastinapura]], where he studies martial arts under the sages [[Drona]] and [[Kripa]]. When Drona declines to teach him the knowledge of the Brahmastra weapon, Karna disguises himself as a [[Brahmin]] to become a student of [[Parashurama]], an incarnation of the god [[Vishnu]]. Upon discovering Karna's deception, Parashurama curses him, declaring that he will forget the secret of the Brahmastra at the critical moment when he wishes to use it against his enemy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Mani |first=Vettam |url=http://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft |title=Puranic encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |date=1975 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9780842608220 |place=Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/346/mode/2up 346]}}</ref>

The third Pandava prince Arjuna was Karna's peer and equal. At school and in episodes where his character appears, he is repeatedly rejected, subjected to ridicule and bullied for being the son of a poor family, and particularly for his low birth. The boy Karna came to be known for his solitary habits, hard work, pious yoga before Surya every day, compassion and eager generosity to help anyone in need particularly Brahmins, his gift of speech, and for the pursuit of excellence in whatever he did.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=218–222 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=197–198}}{{sfn|Greer|2002|pp=210–212}} Karna is also known as someone who craves for respect, love and attention, who is overly sensitive to criticism, who habitually brags about his skills and martial capabilities, yet is deeply thoughtful and [[dharmic]] in critical moments of the epic.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=67–68, 165–166 with footnotes}}

=== Relationship with Duryodhana ===
Karna meets Duryodhana for the first time in Hastinapura during archery lessons from Drona, an event described in section 3.293 of the ''Mahabharata''.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=114–116}} They become close friends not long after, when Karna and Arjuna are at a weapons trial competition. Duryodhana sees in Karna a man who is an equal of Arjuna in martial abilities, and someone to befriend to balance out Arjuna and thereby "diminish the Pandavas".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=114–116}}{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=xxiii–xxx}}

Before the competition starts, the contestants must announce theirs lineage so that men of equal ranks are placed together. After Arjuna announces his royal lineage, it is time for Karna to present his lineage.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=114–116}} If Karna were to announce his charioteer lineage, it would disqualify him from competing against Arjuna. Duryodhana steps in and says Karna is an ''Arajna'' (a non-king, but also a word play on Arjuna) but announces that he is offering to anoint Karna as the king of Angas (Bengal{{sfn|Klostermaier|1998|pp=95–96}}). Once Karna is a king, states Duryodhana, Arjuna would not have the excuse to avoid Karna and not compete with the able warrior. Karna accepts the anointment, becomes a king that day. It also transforms him into a loyal friend to Duryodhana, with an eagerness to reciprocate the favour. Karna asks Duryodhana what he would want in return for the kingdom he just gave out of his empire, Duryodhana replies, "I want your endless friendship Karna".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=114–116 with footnotes}}

For the consecration ceremony, Karna's father arrives. Bhima, one of the Pandavas, ridicules him for his low status and calls him dog-like. The public insult of his father makes Karna hate the Pandavas.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=114–116 with footnotes}} At the end of the competition, while everyone rejects Karna, Duryodhana expresses amity to Karna by "taking Karna by his hand". Karna feels Duryodhana is that friend who stood by him when everyone rejected him. Duryodhana becomes Karna's lifelong close friend. In Karna, Duryodhana finds an able man and talented commander who can help him gain and retain power over an empire. In Duryodhana, Karna finds a caring friend and resourceful supporter when almost everyone is bent on ridiculing and disowning him.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=115–117 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=xxiii–xxx}}

Karna evolves into a character who shares Duryodhana's view that Pandavas are bad and enemies, though for different reasons. Karna participates with Duryodhana in schemes to effect the downfall of the Pandavas.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=115–117 with footnotes}} Duryodhana provides the goals, Karna conspires the means to get there.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=116–118 with footnotes}}

In the final year of the exile of the Pandavas, Duryodhana plans to sow dissension and keep the entire empire to himself. In contrast, [[Bhisma]] and Drona suggest a conciliation and dividing the kingdom into two, half for Kauravas and other for Pandavas.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=116–119 with footnotes}} Karna, in contrast, adopts the hawkish approach and becomes the first to suggest a direct confrontation in the form of the Kurukshetra war. He calls for "together we should slay the Pandavas" as the final solution. Karna persistently recommends violence and an all-out war, to settle things once and for all, by good brave warriors. Karna also accuses Bhisma and Drona as covetous materialists and dishonest in counselling Duryodhana with non-violent strategies.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=116–120 with footnotes}} Duryodhana has evil intentions and is a bad king, but it is Karna who fuels Duryodhana's ambitions and fights his battles.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=116–120 with footnotes}}

With Duryodhana, Karna is a key participant in insulting the Pandavas and [[Draupadi]].{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=119–121 with footnotes}}{{sfn|van Buitenen| Fitzgerald|1975 |pp= 313–314}} He humiliates the Pandavas with his gift of speech and mocks Draupadi, then calls her a "whore" and asks Duhshasana to strip her off her clothes.{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=xxviii–xxix, xxxvi–xxxvii}} It is Karna's language and insults that hurt the Pandavas and Draupadi the most, a sentiment that is noted in numerous verses of the ''Mahabharata'' such as 3.13.113 and 5.93.11.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=119–121 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=xxvi–xxx, xxxv–xxxvii}} Yet, states the ''Mahabharata'' scholar [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], "remarkably, Karna regrets his harsh words to Draupadi and Pandavas", in verse 5.139.45, where he confesses he spoke so to please Duryodhana.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel |2011|pp=458–460}}

===Conquests and defeats===
Karna is portrayed in the ''Mahabharata'' as a skilled and valiant warrior, achieving several notable victories. One of his key successes was his defeat of [[Jarasandha]], the powerful king of [[Magadha]], during the [[Svayamvara|s''wayamvara'']] of the princess of [[Kalinga (Mahabharata)|Kalinga]]. Despite Jarasandha’s strength and reputation, Karna prevailed and, as a mark of respect, was gifted the territory of Malini by the defeated ruler. Additionally, Karna played a critical role during Duryodhana’s military campaigns, successfully defeating various kings like [[Drupada]] and [[Bhagadatta|Bhaggadatta]] and expanding the Kaurava domain.<ref name=":1" />

Karna also faced significant defeats that revealed his limitations. During the campaign against Drupada, launched as ''Gurudakshina'' for [[Drona]], Karna and the Kauravas were unable to overcome Drupada’s forces. It was Arjuna who ultimately succeeded in capturing Drupada.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mahabharata, Book 1: Adi Parva: Sambhava Parva: Section CXL |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01141.htm |access-date=2018-01-15 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive |translator=Kisari Mohan Ganguli}}</ref> Another notable loss occurred during the Pandavas’ [[Rajasuya]] Yajna, when Karna refused an alliance with [[Bhima]], leading to a direct confrontation. Although Karna resisted fiercely, Bhima ultimately defeated him, with Karna’s divine armor (''Kavacha'') and earrings (''Kundala'') preventing his death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva: Jarasandhta-badha Parva: Section XXIX |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02029.htm |access-date=2018-01-15 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive |translator=Kisari Mohan Ganguli}}</ref> In the Gandharva episode during the Pandavas' exile, Karna fled from battle after Kauravas were captured by [[List of characters in the Mahabharata|Chitrasena]], the [[Gandharva]] king, after being defeated in battle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mahabharata, Book 3: Vana Parva: Ghosha-yatra Parva: Section CCXXXIX |url=https://sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03239.htm |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=sacred-texts.com}}</ref>

=== Hostilities with the Pandavas ===
The relationship between Karna and the Pandavas, particularly Arjuna, were hostile.{{sfn|Nandy|2008|pp=131–134}} The ''Mahabharata'' mentions Karna as the main challenger of Arjuna at sporting and skills competitions.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=75–79}} At martial sporting events, Arjuna and Karna were often equal,{{sfn|Winternitz|1996|pp=309–310}} though in his self-bragging style Karna once announced, states McGrath, that "he will perform any feat that Arjuna has accomplished and do it better".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=76}}{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Lemming|2005}}

At the ''[[svayamvara]]'' competition of Draupadi, where she is expected to choose her husband, both Arjuna and Karna are present. Arjuna and his brothers, however, are disguised as mendicant Brahmins.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=78–79}} They use this false identity in exile because Duryodhana had attempted to kill them using various schemes, including burning the lacquer house – custom built for the Pandavas by Duryodhana – along with the forest while they were sleeping.{{sfn|Greer|2002|pp=160–161}} There are some variations regarding Karna's participation. Some renditions show Draupadi refusing to marry Karna on account of being a ''[[Sūta]]'', while some other versions describe him failing to string the bow by the "breadth of a hair".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/mahabharatha015693mbp|title=The Mahabharatha |author=Vishnu S. Sukthankar|year=1942|publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |place=Poona |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Interpolations in the Mahabharata|author=M. A. Mehendale |date=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/InterpolationsInTheMahabharata|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> In the end, [[Arjuna]] succeeds in the task, However Karna objects that the competition is only meant for ''Kshatriyas'', and Brahmins such as "the mendicant who just strung the bow" should not be competing for the hand of Draupadi, a Kshatriya bride. Duryodhana supports him. The gathered Kshatriyas too angrily support Karna, for they against the mixing of [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] (here, Brahmin-Kshatriya marriage). Arjuna maintains his calm, continues to hide his true identity, insists that he is a "Brahmin who fight". Arjuna's accomplishments and calmness win Draupadi's heart. Draupadi picks Arjuna and awards the garland to him, signify that she chooses to marry the disguised-Brahmin Arjuna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=78–82}}{{sfn|Greer|2002|pp=162–164}}{{refn|group=note|This story appears in many versions in different manuscripts and later secondary literature. In some versions, such as one published by Ramesh Chandra Dutt, Draupadi openly rejects Karna because he is the son of a charioteer (''suta''), something that angers Karna. In another version, found in South Indian texts, Krishna takes the form of a rat and severs the string and thereby prevents Karna from equaling Arjuna's feat. However, all such versions are relatively modern, and according to McGrath who quotes Vishnu Suthankar, appear in "late and inferior or conflated manuscripts". The older critical edition version shows Karna simply failed, just like he and his army ultimately fails in other battles against the Pandavas.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=78–79 with footnote 15, 86–89 with footnotes}} For another version of this story in a non-critical edition of the epic, see the summary by Moriz Winternitz.{{sfn|Winternitz|1996|pp=314–316}}}}{{refn|group=note|According to the Indologist and ''Mahabharata'' scholar Mehendale, the story that Draupadi rejected Karna for being a son of "Suta" "does not occur at all in the entire Southern recension, and among the versions of the Northern recension, it does not occur in the Kashmiri, Maithili and Bengali versions". Further, even in Nepali and Devanagari Northern manuscript versions where it is found, it occurs only in a minority of them. It has therefore not been included in the critical edition of the epic that is deemed to more accurately reflect the original.{{sfn|Mehendale|2001|pp=196–197 with footnotes}}}} The varna-based discrimination and verbal insults on Arjuna, for lovely Draupadi's hand, one that Karna initiates at the time of Draupadi's ''svayamvara'' competition comes back to haunt him many times through angry Bhima and others who remind Karna that he is merely a ''suta-putra'' (son of a charioteer). Draupadi too never likes Karna thereafter.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=79–81 with footnotes}}

Karna fights and berates the Pandavas at the legendary gambling match during the royal consecration ritual. There, Karna uses the choicest words to insult Draupadi that takes the bitterness of Pandava for Karna to much more emotional level from what previously was a dispute about respective martial prowess.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=81–83 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel |2011|pp=458–459}} These are the sections of the epic when the Pandavas, Arjuna in particular, openly pledge to kill Karna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=82–85 with footnotes}} Karna retaliates with words too, stating that Arjuna's death is so near that he will "not wash his feet until Arjuna is slain".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=85–86 with footnotes}}

Karna is not proud of his anger and outbursts. Later, in a quieter moment with Krishna such as in section 5.139.45, and to his lifelong friend Duryodhana in section 8.1.7, Karna confides he was wrong in insulting Draupadi and the Pandavas, it is his past karma that haunts him and is a source of his private suffering.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=458–459}}

=== Discovery of his biological mother ===
Book 5 of the ''Mahabharata'' describes two meetings where Karna discovers information about his birth. The first meeting is with Krishna, the second where his biological mother Kunti comes to meet him for the first time.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=40–41, 142–145 with footnotes}}

Krishna approaches Karna as an ambassador seeking to prevent violence and the war. Krishna starts by complimenting Karna for knowing "the ''Vedas'' and the subtlety of the ''dharmasastras''". He then requests his support to end the cascading cycle of violence and war. Krishna tells Karna that Kunti is his biological mother and Pandavas are his half-brothers.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=79–80}} In section 5.138 of the epic, according to McGrath, Krishna states, "by law, Karna should be considered as the eldest born of Pandavas", that he can use this information to become the king. Through his relationship to his mother Kunti, all Vrishnis on Krishna's side will also recognize him and be his tributary, he can be the emperor with power over everyone. Yudhisthira will hold the fan for him as he sits in the throne, Bhima his umbrella, and the common wife of the Pandavas – Draupadi too – says Krishna, may marry to him.{{refn|group=note|Draupadi is the common wife of all five Pandava brothers, including Arjuna. Krishna's suggestion is that if Karna were to declare himself as the sixth Pandava brother, Draupadi would, in time, consider him as her sixth husband.{{sfn|Falk|1977|pp=89–102}}}} after some time, were Karna to press his status as the eldest biological Pandava brother, end the war and rule the world.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=79–80}}

Karna declines the offer. Karna replies that though he was born from Kunti, it was the wife of a charioteer "Radha who gave him love and sustenance", and that makes her his real mother.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=79–80}} Similarly, it is from the love and affection and "not scripture" that he knows Adhiratha to be his real father. He is already married, says Karna, he has two sons and now grandsons, all because his father Adhiratha helped him settle into his married life.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}} What matters most in life are the "bonds of love", according to Karna, and not power over the world. He shall betray no one, remain loyal to those who love him, including his friend Duryodhana, with whom he has been in allegiance for thirteen years. It is not "blood ties" that matter, but how someone treats you over a period of time that does. He made a promise to Duryodhana and he will keep it. It is his duty to fight Arjuna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=79–80}}

Krishna then went to Kunti and asked her to meet Karna and tell him that he is her first born son and the Pandavas were his brothers. Krishna left it to her to choose between Karna and her five other sons. Kunti then went to meet Karna, finds him praying. She waits. After he finished his prayers to Surya, Karna meets Kunti for the first time in his adult life. He greets her (he now already knows her to be his biological mother).{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=80–81}}{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=154–156 with footnotes}} With [[Namaste|folded hands]], he introduces himself as the son of Radha and Adhiratha, and inquires about the purpose of her visit. Kunti then confesses that he is her firstborn. Surya also appears and confirms Kunti's story, and suggests that he follow her.{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=80–81}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |chapter=Mahabaratha |publisher=MacMillan |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |year=2005}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael |last=Witzel |author-link=Michael Witzel |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–26 |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611142934/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Karna says that though he may have been the firstborn, he never received the affection or care from her as the firstborn. "You discarded me", says Karna to Kunti, "you destroyed me in a way that no enemy could ever do to him".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=154–156 with footnotes}} It is too late. He reiterates that he loves the parents who raised him, they love him, and he will remain loyal to his lifelong relationships. No one should abandon those who give respect and affection, says Karna in these ''Mahabharata'' verses. The war momentum shall continue and he aims to kill Arjuna. Karna promised to Kunti that he will not kill any of his other four half-brothers, but either "Arjuna or I" shall die and she can still say she has five sons just as she did all her life.{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=80–81}}{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=154–158 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Chakravarti|2007}}

After these developments and pondering on Karna's life choices, the divine Krishna, as well as a host of ''Mahabharata'' heroes, in private and after his death, honour Karna as a ''satpurusha'' (lit. "a true, honest, good man") and "the best among those who understand and uphold the ''dharma''".{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=457–459 with footnotes}}

===Role in Kurukshetra War===
[[File:Karan offering an old poor man, bent with age and destitution, a Kavach that is embedded in his arms and is retrieved by culling with a knife.jpg|thumb|Karna offering an old poor man, bent with age and destitution, a Kavacha that is embedded in his arms and is retrieved by culling with a knife]]Karna was born with aspects of his divine father Surya – the earrings and armour breastplate – that made him an immortal at birth. However, despite being warned, Karna prefers to lose these natural gifts in order to uphold his reputation as the one who always gives ''[[dāna]]'' (charity), particularly to Brahmins, as being more important than his own life.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=31–32, 37 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Greer|2002|pp=209–210}}{{sfn|van Buitenen| Fitzgerald|1973 |pp= 142–145}}

As the battle-to-death between Karna and Arjuna becomes certain, Kunti – the mother of both, faints and later weeps in sorrow that her boys are bent on killing each other. In parallel, Arjuna's brothers and [[Indra]] – the father of Arjuna and a major Vedic deity – plan ways to make Karna mortal.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=432–433}} Surya meets Karna and warns him of Indra's plan to appear disguised as a Brahmin to divest him of his earrings and breastplate, and thereby his immortality. Karna disregards this warning and says that if the king of gods Indra comes to beg before him, and if he charitably gives to Indra, it will bring him "renown and fame", then argues that "fame is more important to him than anything else".{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=33–35 with footnotes}} Indra appears as predicted, and Karna cuts his birthmarks of immortality with a knife, and gives the blood-soaked donation to disguised-as-a-Brahmin Indra. The leader of gods in return praises him and gives him a missile that can only be used once and will kill any mortal or immortal.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=30–31, 33–35 with footnotes}}

Karna keeps the Indra's missile in reserve since it could only be used once, and aims to kill Arjuna with it. By the thirteenth day of the ''Mahabharata'' war, numerous soldiers, kings, brothers and sons of Kauravas (Karna's side) and Pandavas (Arjuna's side) had been killed, many by foul means.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=33–36}}{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–36 with footnotes}} The war had entered a brutal stage, according to the ''Mahabharata'' verses in sections 7.150–156. On the fourteenth day, Arjuna took revenge of his own son's death, while Bhima and his son [[Ghatotkacha]] wreaked havoc on numerous Kaurava battalions. The war that previously started after sunrise and stopped at sunset, did not stop on the fourteenth day's sunset as both armies continued a ferocious war to kill each other.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=33–36}}{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–36 with footnotes}} Bhima's son Ghatotkacha had a ''rakshasha'' lineage, and his powers of illusion to confuse the enemies grew to enormous proportions as the war dragged deeper into the fifteenth night.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–37, 129–130 with footnotes}} Duryodhana and Karna's Kaurava friends plead that they are finished unless Karna does whatever it takes to kill Ghatotkacha. Karna hurls the "Indra missile" to kill Ghatotkacha. Karna thus saves his reputation among his soldiers, launches the missile and kills Ghatotkacha. Duryodhana and Kaurava army rejoice with the death of Bhima's son Ghatotkacha, but now Karna had exhausted the weapon that gave him an advantage over Arjuna.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=33–36}}{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–38 with footnotes}}

===Death===
[[File:Arjuna Karna final battle, Kurukshetra war, 12th-century Mahabharata relief, Hoysalesvara temple Halebidu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.9|The Karna-Arjuna final battle scene is a relief included in ''Mahabharata'' panels in many historic [[Hindu temple]]s in India and in southeast Asia such as at the [[Angkor Wat]]. Above is the scene at the 12th-century [[Hoysaleswara Temple]], Karnataka.{{sfn|Bharne|Krusche|2014|p=57}}{{refn|group=note|For a discussion of the Angkor Wat reliefs related to the ''Mahabharata'', see Silva-Vigier and Simson.{{sfn|de Silva-Vigier|von Simson|1964|pp=32–35}}}}]]
As the second last day of the war and Karna's day of death dawns, Karna asks Duryodhana to convince king [[Shalya]] to be his charioteer since he plans to kill Arjuna that day. The South Indian king considers it below his dignity to be a mere charioteer and starts insulting Karna, who retaliates with words. Duryodhana intervenes, praises both, presses Shalya to guide the chariot for the critical battle.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=91–94, 130–131 with footnotes}} Ultimately Shalya agrees. Since all previous commanders of Duryodhana had been killed, he anoints Karna as the ''[[senapati]]'' (commander of all his forces) for the first time. Karna and Shalya head into the battlefield together, though they keep insulting each other's abilities and intent, lack mutual devotion and teamwork.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=65–66, 93, 167–171 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=5–6, 203}} Together they reach Arjuna with Krishna. They battle that day, each showing his martial skills of attack as well as his ability to neutralize all weapons that reach their chariot.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–38, 81, 92–97 with footnotes}} Then, the wheel of Karna's chariot gets stuck in the ground. Karna steps out of his chariot and is distracted while trying to unstick it. Arjuna – whose own son was killed by the Kauravas a day ago while he was trying to unstick his chariot's wheel – takes this moment to launch the fatal attack. Karna dies.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=35–38, 81, 92, 98–99 with footnotes}}{{refn|group=note|The verses in sections 8.66–67 of the epic provide more details. For example, when the wheel gets stuck, Karna demands that Arjuna wait and fight the battle per the ''dharma'' code (rules of a "[[just war]]"). However, Arjuna reminds Karna about the time Karna did not consider the ''dharma'' code when he abused and called for an assault on the helpless Draupadi by asking Dushasana to publicly disrobe her. Arjuna refuses Karna's request, claiming Karna should not be using double standards for others and for himself.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=97–98, 153 with footnotes}}}}
[[File:Death_of_Karna.jpg|thumb|Death of Karna]]

===Marital life===
{{Main|Wives of Karna}}

The ''Mahabharata'' provides scarce information on Karna's marital life. In the ''[[Udyoga Parva]]'', it is mentioned that he married a [[Karna's wife|Suta woman]] chosen by Adhiratha. She is later referenced in the ''[[Stri Parva]]'' as the mother of [[Vrishasena]] and Sushena, the two most prominent sons of Karna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=114}} Marital details of Karna's life are expanded and reimagined in later adaptations of the ''Mahabharata''.

In the modern day version of the ''Mahabharata'', nine sons of Karna are mentioned—[[Vrishasena]], Chitrasena, Satyasena, Sushena, Shatrunjaya, Dvipata, Banasena, Prasena and [[Vrishaketu]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OrpZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA491|title=The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. Translated Into English Prose |date=1886|publisher=Bhārata Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Valmiki|Vyasa|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qj9bDwAAQBAJ&q=Sushena&pg=PT5921]|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}{{sfn|Valmiki|Vyasa|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qj9bDwAAQBAJ&q=Satyasena+Karna&pg=PT5921]|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}{{sfn|Valmiki|Vyasa|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qj9bDwAAQBAJ&q=Vrishaketu&pg=PT5921]|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}

== Themes and symbolism ==
===Vedic and Indo-European parallelism===
The Karna-Arjuna story has parallels in the Vedic literature and may have emerged from these more ancient themes. According to McGrath, the Vedic mythology is loaded with the legendary and symbolism-filled conflict between Surya (sun) and Indra (clouds, thunder, rain).{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=16–17 with footnote 59, pp. 64–65}} Indra cripples Surya in the Vedic mythology by detaching his wheel, while Arjuna kills Karna while he tries to fix the wheel that is stuck in the ground.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=16–17 with footnote 59}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=32–34}} As another example of parallels, Surya too has a birth mother (Night) who abandons him in the Vedic texts and he too considers his adoptive mother (Dawn) who raises him to his bright self as the true mother just like Karna.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=16–17 with footnote 59}} This idea was first discussed by the philologist [[Georges Dumézil]], who remarked that similar mythology and details are found in other ancient Indo-European stories.{{sfn|Brockington|1998|p=70}}{{sfn|Allen|1999|pp=19–27}}

Karna resembles various famous characters found in Hindu texts. The attributed author of Mahabharata, the sage [[Vyasa]], was also born from an unwed union of [[Satyavati]] and sage [[Parashara]].{{sfn|Brockington|1998|p=23}} German Indologist Georg von Simson states that Karna of the ''Mahabharata'' resembles [[Kumbhakarna]] of the ''Ramayana'', the demon brother of the main antagonist [[Ravana]] of the epic ''[[Ramayana]]'' in their powers to sway the war. Both Karna and Kumbhakarna did not take part in the great wars of their respective epics at the start.{{sfn|Brockington|1998|p=71}}

Scholars internationally have also drawn parallels with various European mythologies. Karna's ''kavacha'' (breastplate armour) has been compared with that of [[Achilles]]'s [[Styx]]-coated body and with Irish warrior [[Ferdiad]]'s skin that could not be pierced. He has been compared to the Greek mythological part divine, part human character Achilles on various occasions as they both have divine powers but lack corresponding status.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|p=4}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006}}

===Dharma-ethics===
[[Dharma]] is a complex concept in the Indian religions. It is not an atomistic or compartmentalized concept, rather incorporates "ways of living, ways of seeing and ways of relating to life's ultimate issues", according to Matilal.{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=36–37}} Of those issues, ones relating to right or wrong behaviour, duties, rights, and expectations from others are the domain of ''dharma-ethics''.{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=36–39, 44–46}} Karna's story raises the ''dharma-ethics'' questions both while Karna acts in the epic as well as after his death.{{sfn|Bowles|2007|pp=136–139, 393 with footnote 90}}{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=101–102, 109–112, 209–210}} These questions arise with the circumstances related to his birth and through his death. Karna chooses loyalty to his lifelong friend and "good policy based on his heart" to be of higher value than accepting Krishna's recommendation that he switch sides and become the king as the eldest son of Kunti based on ''[[dharmasastras]]''.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=142–145 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|pp=622–623}}{{sfn|Manikutty|2012}} According to [[Gurcharan Das]], the character of Karna in the ancient Hindu epic suggests a social debate between "inherited status" and "deserved status", a debate that remains relevant to the contemporary times.{{sfn|Das|2010|pp=180–182}} Das writes,

{{Blockquote|
Karna, like the other heroes in the Mahabharata, forces us to look at ourselves and at our frailties. When Karna is not allowed to train in weaponry because he is a suta, it makes one ask, ’What if my child had been denied entry into college because of her birth?’ [...] We want them [our children] to feel secure and confident about their position. We want them to be treated with respect as equals. The ''Mahabharata'' is not content simply to point out the weaknesses of human beings. It criticizes society's flaws. It raises the question whether a person's social position should be defined by birth or by some other criterion, such as accomplishment of some sort. [...] Karna challenges their traditional understanding of dharma – as inherited status – and offers a new notion of dharma as deserved status. 
Karna has to be 'the wrong person in the wrong place' – this is what Karna symbolizes to many minds today. Life may have been unfair to Karna but he rises above pity. Despite his flaws we admire him.
|Gurcharan Das, ''The Difficulty of Being Good: On the Subtle Art of Dharma''{{sfn|Das|2010|pp=180–182}} (abridged)}}

===Circumstances and subjective morality===
As the Karna story unfolds, similar to other stories in epic,{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=19–35}} it raises moral dilemmas. With each dilemma, the ''Mahabharata'' presents various sides and shades of answers through the characters. According to [[Bimal Matilal]], the characters face a "choice between irreconcilable obligations", between two good or two poor choices, where complex circumstances must be considered. These circumstances make the evaluation of the choices complicated and a decision difficult, subjective.{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=24–26}} When circumstances lead to a conflict between two choices that are both right in their own premises, then following one duty becomes "contrary to the duty according to the other". Under these circumstances, there is an inherent subjective weighing of one moral duty against another.{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=24–26}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|1992|pp=26–34}}

According to the ''Mahabharata'', human conflicts such as those illustrated through Karna-Arjuna conflict are inherently complicated and come with circumstantial depth. During violence and war, where all sides are motivated in part by their own beliefs in what constitutes righteousness, coupled with anger, frustration, and fear, the circumstances are ever more complex, actions irreversible, choices difficult. The choices made by Karna and his opponents must then be reflected upon both in terms of the circumstances and the mesh of multiple relative goods or bads, by characters each with different combinations of human strengths and weaknesses.{{sfn|Matilal|2002|pp=92–98, 115–119}}{{sfn|Johnson|1998|pp=91–104}}

According to the Indologist Adam Bowles, while the Hindu ''[[Arthashastra]]'' text presents an objective analysis of situations, its ''[[dharmasutras]]'', ''dharmasastras'' and the epics attempt to deal with the more complex, subjective scenarios of life.{{sfn|Bowles|2007|pp=54–57, with footnote 57 on p. 55, 77–78, 136–140, 349–358}} The ''[[dharma]]'', according to the ''Mahabharata'' and as Karna's story illustrates, is ''sukshma'' (subtle) and subjective to circumstances.{{sfn|Das|2010|pp=124, 211–212, 248}} According to Julian Woods, these stories suggest that the difficulty is not really between "''dharma'' and ''[[adharma]]''", but rather "conflict between different ''dharmas''". No act, states Woods, on this earth "is wholly good or wholly bad".{{sfn|Woods|2014|pp=43–46, 130–132}}

===Human behaviour===
Karna and other characters in the ''Mahabharata'', like all human beings, combine a spectrum of good and bad behaviour, intentions and deeds. According to Das, all of the epic's characters including Karna do good deeds, foul deeds, and they are "ineradicable mixture of good and evil".{{sfn|Das|2010|pp=211–212}} With the assistance of Karna, Duryodhana plotted many evil plans against the Pandavas.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bowker|first=John|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2000|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001|isbn=9780192800947}} {{ODNBsub}}</ref> Similarly, the Pandavas use foul means in an attempt to win a war, and Arjuna sets aside the Hindu behavioural code for "just war" when Karna becomes defenceless and distracted by his chariot's stuck wheel.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|1992|pp=77–82}}{{sfn|Das|2010|pp=175–177}}

According to the ''Mahabharata'' scholar Sukthankur, as quoted by Indologist Adarkar, there are apparent contradictions in Karna's character.{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=49–50}} His behaviour reflects a "frustration complex" that makes sense in light of the circumstances of his birth and early life. Karna is a mirror with "insights into human nature" and how circumstances have the ability to shape human behaviour and one's personality. Karna is not evil, just a misfit or a rebel, an inspiring character if viewed from one set of values and an abnormal character from another set of values. Other characters in the epic, on both sides, present behaviour conflicted hues of human behaviour in difficult circumstances.{{sfn|Adarkar|2001 |pp=49–50, 108–110, 198–199}} Karna is cruel in some situations such as against Draupadi, a behaviour he himself regrets in the pages of the ''Mahabharata''.{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=24–25}} To the victim Draupadi, it was a violence she would never forget nor live with, and Karna's personal regrets did not balance out her sexual humiliation in public. The reader and epic's audience can empathize with his psychology, as well as the psychology and the counter-behaviour of his victims.{{sfn|Bowles|2008|pp=24–29}}

According to Adarkar, the Karna story also illustrates a different paradigm, one that transcends the Oedipal theories and evolutionary models of human behaviour.{{sfn|Adarkar|2008|pp=121–122, 138–142}} The Karna narrative resonates deeply with some in part because of his "heroic steadfastness" (''dhirata''), being comfortable with who he is, his beliefs and acting according to his ''dharma'' rather than being someone who evolves and changes as he studies martial arts, or because of Krishna's advice, or Kunti's confession that Karna is her firstborn. He refuses to wear "Emperor's New Clothes", states Adarkar, and thus "being revealed as a fraud" and ever-adapting to new psychological garb.{{sfn|Adarkar|2008|pp=121–122, 138–142}} He loves the parents who adopted him, he loves his friends and heritage. Karna exemplifies a personality that does not "discard identity after identity, but rather one who thrives by accepting and steadfastly hanging on to a meaningful identity".{{sfn|Adarkar|2008|pp=140–142}} A more modern era example of Karna-like human behaviour was in [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who "after getting well-educated in a British law school and gaining international experience", steadfastly felt more empowered to embrace his heritage and culture rather than abandon or transcend it.{{sfn|Adarkar|2008|pp=140–142}}

===Flawed, tragic hero===
Karna is the flawed tragic hero of the Mahabharata.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2011|p=457 with footnote 109}} He is martially adept and equal to Arjuna as a warrior, a gifted speaker who embeds provocative insults for his opponents in front of an audience.{{sfn|McGrath|2004|pp=29–30 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Bowles|2006|pp=24–27}} He does the right thing (''dharma'') yet is cruel and mean (''adharma''). He never questions the ethics of his lifelong friend Duryodhana rather conspires and abets in Duryodhana's quest for power through the abuse of his opponents.{{sfn|Winternitz|1996|pp=310–311}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2001|pp=249–250}} He complains of "''dharma'' failed him" on the day of his death, yet in his abuse of Draupadi, he himself ignores the ''dharma''. He is a victim of his circumstances beyond his choosing, as much as the cause of circumstances that victimize other flawed heroes of the epic. His life story raises compassion, sorrow with an impending sense of destruction and fear (''[[Phobos (mythology)|phobos]]'' and ''[[eleos]]'') in the audience, as any good tragic drama.{{sfn|Shulman|2014|pp=380–381}}{{sfn|Bowles|2006|pp=20–23}} According to the Indologist [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]], the Karna character refutes the "''bon mot'' that Indian poets knew no tragedy" before the colonial British introduced European literature to the Indians. Karna, and many Rajput ballads, are clearly tragedies in the [[Aristotlean]] and [[Elizabethan]] sense, states Ingalls.{{sfn|Ingalls|1965|pp=16–17}}

According to Julian Woods, Karna is a "tragic antihero" of the epic. He is both generous to the Brahmins yet arrogant and cruel to the Pandavas. He bitterly opposes the Pandavas and is the pillar of support to the Kauravas, yet as he nears his fatal battle, he is also willing to accept his mistakes and recognize the good in Yudhisthira and the Pandavas he opposes.{{sfn|Woods|2014|pp=45–46}}

== Secondary literature ==
The Karna story has been retold and adapted into drama, plays and dance performances in India and southeast Asia. These versions vary significantly from each other as well as the ''Mahabharata'' manuscript.{{sfn|de Bruin|Brakel-Papenyzen|1992|pp=38–40, 52–54, 59–62}}{{sfn|Zarrilli|2002|pp=100–102}}{{sfn|Miller|1985|pp=47–56}}

=== Literature ===
[[Rabindranath Tagore]] wrote a poem, "Karna Kunti Sangbad" based on the meeting of Karna and Kunti before the war.{{sfn|Trikha|2006|pp=134–140}} Karna also has been topic of various contemporary literary works. The Marathi books of ''Radheya'' (1973) authored by [[Ranjit Desai]] and ''Mrityunjay'' (1967) authored by [[Shivaji Sawant]] bring forth a fictionalized account of Karna's private and personal life.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian Literature, Issues 225–227 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=2005 |page=132}}</ref> Sawant also received [[Moortidevi Award]], instituted by [[Bharatiya Jnanpith]], for his work<ref>{{cite news |title=Moortidevi Awards for two writers |place=New Delhi |date=24 February 2003 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Moortidevi-Awards-for-two-writers/articleshow/38495816.cms |url-status=live |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203023959/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-02-24/delhi/27267518_1_moortidevi-award-sanskriti-kannada-writer |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> and was translated into nine languages.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shivaji Sawant's historical novels are a separate class |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/mumbai/Shivaji-Sawants-historical-novels-are-a-separate-class/articleshow/23001104.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024054420/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-09-23/mumbai/27319292_1_novel-vasant-bapat-shivaji-sawant |archive-date=24 October 2012 |author=Date, Vidyadhar |date=23 September 2002 |place=Mumbai |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> [[Ramdhari Singh Dinkar]] in 1978 published an epic poem ''[[Rashmirathi]]'' (translation: One who rides the Chariot of light, 1952) which narrates Karna's life. The poem has later also been adapted as a play.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://dnasyndication.com/showarticle.aspx?nid=DNAHM38523 |title='Rashmirathi' takes audienc to another plane of thoughts |newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=14 December 2010 |access-date=3 June 2014 |last=Chaturvedi |first=Devika}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
*[[Shyam Benegal]]'s 1981 film ''[[Kalyug (1981 film)|Kalyug]]'' adapted the ''[[Mahabharat]]'' as a conflict between rival business houses with [[Shashi Kapoor]] playing Karan, the character based on Karna.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vote! The Best Shashi Kapoor Film|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/vote-the-best-shashi-kapoor-film/20150323.htm|access-date=18 February 2016|work=rediff.com}}</ref>
*[[Rajinikanth]] played a character based on Karna in the 1991 [[Kollywood]] film ''[[Thalapathi]]''. The theme of the film is based on the friendship between Karna and [[Duryodhana]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=R|first1=Narendran|title=Vintage Movie Review: A Review on Thalapathi|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-fans-Column/vintage-movie-review-a-review-on-thalapathi-thalpathi-visitor-review.html|access-date=18 February 2016|website=Behindwoods.com|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016015343/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-fans-column/vintage-movie-review-a-review-on-thalapathi-thalpathi-visitor-review.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Ajay Devgan]] played a character based on Karna in the 2010 [[Bollywood]] film ''[[Raajneeti]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-06-04/news/27611875_1_ajay-devgan-raajneeti-rajneeti | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103185800/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-06-04/news/27611875_1_ajay-devgan-raajneeti-rajneeti | url-status=dead | archive-date=3 November 2013 | title=Ajay Devgan had doubts about his role in 'Raajneeti' | newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |place=New Delhi | date=4 June 2010 | access-date=17 July 2013}}</ref>
*South Indian film actor [[Mohanlal]] performed Karna on the stage in ''[[Karnabharam]]'', a [[Sanskrit]] play that was premiered in [[New Delhi]] in 2001 as part of the [[Bharat Rang Mahotsav]] directed by [[Kavalam Narayana Panicker]]. The play depicts Karna's mental agony a day before the [[Kurukshetra War]], as he thinks about his past and his faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/mar/13mohan.htm |title=Mohanlal's new obsession |work=[[rediff.com]] |date=13 March 2001 |access-date=3 December 2011}}</ref>
*[[Bala Devi Chandrashekar]] plays the character of Karna in the 2015 [[Bharatanatyam]] production ''Karna – Destiny's Child''.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

=== Film and television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Name !! Played by!! Channel
|-
|1922
|''Karna''
|[[Shree Nath Patankar]]
|N/A
|-
| 1964 || ''[[Karnan (1964 film)|Karnan]]'' ||[[Sivaji Ganesan]]|| N/A
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1977 || ''[[Daana Veera Soora Karna]]'' ||[[N. T. Rama Rao]]|| N/A
|-
|''[[Kurukshetram (1977 film)|Kurukshetram]]'' ||[[Krishnam Raju]]|| N/A
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1988 || rowspan="2" | ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]]''||[[Pankaj Dheer]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Its-a-scary-scenario-Pankaj-Dheer/articleshow/6232424.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104043227/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-30/news-interviews/28273471_1_writers-tv-industry-channels | url-status=live | archive-date=4 November 2013 | title=It's a scary scenario: Pankaj Dheer | date=30 July 2010 | access-date=17 July 2013 | newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | author=Olivera, Roshni K.}}</ref>|| rowspan="2" |[[DD National]]
|-
|Harendra Paintal
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1989 || rowspan="2" |''[[The Mahabharata (1989 film)|The Mahabharata]]''||[[Jeffrey Kissoon]]|| rowspan="2" | N/A
|-
|Lou Bihler
|-
| 1993 ||''[[Krishna (TV series)|Shri Krishna]]''|| Govind Khatri||[[DD Metro]]
|-
| rowspan="3" |1997
|''[[Ek Aur Mahabharat]]''
|[[Samar Jai Singh]]
|[[Zee TV]]
|-
|''[[Mahabharat Katha]]''
|[[Pankaj Dheer]]
|[[DD National]]
|-
|[[Jai Hanuman (1997 TV series)|''Jai Hanuman'']]
|Praphulla Pandey
|[[DD Metro]]
|-
|2001
|[[Draupadi (2001 TV series)|''Draupadi'']]
|[[Shahbaz Khan (actor)|Shahbaz Khan]]
|[[Sahara One]]
|-
|2002
|''Maharathi Karna''
|Praphulla Pandey
|[[DD National]]
|-
|2008
|''[[Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki]]''
|[[Hiten Tejwani]]
|[[9X (TV channel)|9X]]
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2013 || rowspan="3" |''[[Mahabharat (2013 TV series)|Mahabharat]]''||[[Aham Sharma]]<ref>{{cite web|last1=River|first1=Trending|title=13th Indian Telly Awards 2014– Nominees & Winners List Gallery|url=http://trendingriver.com/13th-indian-telly-awards-2014-nominees-winners-list-gallery/|access-date=15 October 2014}}</ref>|| rowspan="3" |[[STAR Plus]]
|-
|Vidyut Xavier
|-
|Gananay Shukla
|-
|[[Mahabharat (2013 film)|''Mahabharat'']]
|[[Anil Kapoor]] (voice)
|N/A
|-
|2014
|[[Dharmakshetra]]
|Aarya DharmChand Kumar
|[[Epic TV|Epic]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2015 || rowspan="3" |''[[Suryaputra Karn]]''||[[Gautam Rode]]|| rowspan="3" |[[Sony Entertainment Television]]
|-
|[[Vishesh Bansal]]
|-
|Vasant Bhatt
|-
| 2018 ||''[[Karn Sangini]]''||[[Aashim Gulati]]||[[STAR Plus]]
|-
|2019
|[[Kurukshetra (2019 film)|''Kurukshetra'']]
|[[Arjun Sarja]]
|N/A
|-
|2024
|''[[Kalki 2898 AD]]''
|[[Prabhas]]
|N/A
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Adarkar |first=Aditya |title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons |chapter=Psychological Growth and Heroic Steadfastness in the Mahābhārata |editor1-first=Rita |editor1-last=Sherma |editor2-first=Arvind |editor2-last=Sharma |publisher=Springer Netherlands |year=2008 |pages=121–150 |isbn=978-1-4020-8191-0 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-8192-7_7}}
* {{cite book |first=Aditya |last=Adarkar |editor=T. S. Rukmani |editor-link=T. S. Rukmani |title=The Mahabharata: What Is Not Here Is Nowhere Else |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=978-8-1215-1130-8 |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |first=Aditya |last=Adarkar |title=Karna in the Mahabharata |year=2001 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |oclc=255075356 |url=https://archive.org/details/KarnaInMahabarataAdityaAdkarThesis/page/n13}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Johannes |editor1-last=Bronkhorst |editor2-first=Madhav |editor2-last=Deshpande |first=Nicholas |last=Allen |title=Aryan and non-Aryan in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOdtAAAAMAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-1-888789-04-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=Vinayak |last1=Bharne |first2=Krupali |last2=Krusche |title=Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CGukBgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6734-4}}
* {{cite book |first=Abheda Nanda |last=Bhattacharya |title=Dharma-Adharma and Morality in Mahābhārata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHcpAAAAYAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=S.S. Publishers |isbn=978-81-85396-05-7}}
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* {{cite book |first=Alf |last=Hiltebeitel |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |title=Dharma: Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUaeAgAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987524-5}}
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|commonscat=|n=no|s=no|b=no|voy=no|v=no}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|The Mahabharata}}

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Mahabharata}}

[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:People related to Krishna]]
[[Category:Mythological kings of Anga]]
[[Category:People of the Kurukshetra War]]
[[Category:Children of Surya]]

Garam Masala (2005 film)

2026-03-12T16:35:17Z

Vedpsagar: corrected details and added references for accuracy

{{Short description|Indian comedy film}}
{{For|the 1972 film with the same title|Garam Masala (1972 film)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Garam Masala
| image = GaramMasala movieposter.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Priyadarshan]]
| producer = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ganesh Jain]]
* Ratan Jain
}}
| writer = Priyadarshan {{Infobox | decat=yes | child=yes | label1=Dialogues by | data1= [[Neeraj Vora]]}}
| based_on = {{based on|''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]]''|[[Priyadarshan]]}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Akshay Kumar]]
* [[John Abraham]]
* [[Paresh Rawal]]
* [[Rimi Sen]]
* [[Neha Dhupia]]
* [[Daisy Bopanna]]
* [[Neetu Chandra]]
* [[Nargis Bagheri]]
* [[Rajpal Yadav]]
* [[Manoj Joshi (actor)|Manoj Joshi]]
* [[Asrani]]
}}
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Pritam]] '''Score:''' [[D. Imman]]
| cinematography = [[Tirru]]
| editing = N. Gopalakrishnan [[Arun Kumar Aravind|Arun Kumar]]
| studio = [[Venus Records & Tapes|Venus Movies]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2005|11|02|df=yes}}
| runtime = 142 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}17 crore<ref name="Box">{{cite web|title=Garam Masala|url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/garam_masala|website=Box Office India|access-date=21 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805010129/http://boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/garam_masala#.V0AiieRn2W4|archive-date=5 August 2015}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}54.65 crore<ref name="Box"/>
}}

'''''Garam Masala''''' ({{translation|Hot spices}}) is a 2005 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[comedy film]] written and directed by [[Priyadarshan]]. The film stars [[Akshay Kumar]], [[John Abraham (actor)|John Abraham]], [[Paresh Rawal]], [[Rimi Sen]], [[Neha Dhupia]] and [[Rajpal Yadav]]. The story revolves around Makarand "Mac" Deendayal Chatpatiya (Kumar) and Shyam "Sam" Salgaonkar (Abraham), two photographer friends, who like to flirt with women constantly. After a trip abroad, Shyam decides to disrupt Makarand's life when he sees him enjoying the company of three ladies. The film is a remake of Priyadarshan's own 1985 Malayalam comedy ''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]]'' which was a remake of 1965 English movie [[Boeing Boeing (1965 film)|of the same name]]<ref name="latestly">{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/entertainment/bollywood/did-garam-masala-copy-boeing-boeing-video-clip-comparing-comic-scenes-from-akshay-kumar-john-abrahams-movie-with-1965-american-comedy-is-going-viral-6418384.html|title=Did ‘Garam Masala’ Copy ‘Boeing Boeing’? Video Clip Comparing Comic Scenes From Akshay Kumar-John Abraham’s Movie With 1965 American Comedy Is Going Viral – Here's the Truth!|website=latestly.com|author=Sreeju Sudhakaran|date=15 November 2024}}</ref> which in turn was based on the 1960 French play [[Boeing-Boeing (play)|of the same name]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Happy Birthday Mohanlal: Bollywood films you probably didn't know were remakes of Malayalam flicks starring him |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/photo-gallery-happy-birthday-mohanlal-bollywood-films-remakes-of-malayalam-flicks-starring-the-complete-actor-bhool-bhulaiyaa-manichitratazhu-drishyam-garam-masala-boeing-boeing-gardish-kireedam-hungama-poochakkoru-mookkuthi-khatta-meetha-2 |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=21 May 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613014802/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/photo-gallery-happy-birthday-mohanlal-bollywood-films-remakes-of-malayalam-flicks-starring-the-complete-actor-bhool-bhulaiyaa-manichitratazhu-drishyam-garam-masala-boeing-boeing-gardish-kireedam-hungama-poochakkoru-mookkuthi-khatta-meetha-2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=After comedy, Priyadarshan-Mohanlal team up for horror|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/regional/after-comedy-priyadarshan-mohanlal-team-up-for-horror_139624.html|publisher=[[Zee News]]|date=23 July 2013|access-date=14 December 2014|archive-date=14 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214115140/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/regional/after-comedy-priyadarshan-mohanlal-team-up-for-horror_139624.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Never a dull moment: Three decades of cinema with Priyadharshan |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/never-dull-moment-three-decades-cinema-priyadharshan-55137 |access-date=11 July 2021 |publisher=[[The News Minute]] |date=2 January 2017 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613014802/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/never-dull-moment-three-decades-cinema-priyadharshan-55137 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Akshay Kumar & Priyadarshan: The unlikely hitmakers |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/akshay-kumar--priyadarshan-the-unlikely-hitmakers-imagegallery-2-bollywood-khvpcuabihgsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002180942/http://www.sify.com/movies/akshay-kumar--priyadarshan-the-unlikely-hitmakers-imagegallery-2-bollywood-khvpcuabihgsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 October 2018 |access-date=11 July 2021 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref name='Thanda Masala'>{{cite web|title=Thanda masala?|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-thanda-masala-5891|website=DNA|access-date=21 May 2016|date=16 October 2005|archive-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201125851/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-thanda-masala-5891|url-status=live}}</ref> A famous hotel comedy sequence from this movie was based on [[Priyadarshan]]'s another 1985 Malayalam movie ''[[Aram + Aram = Kinnaram]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DaeXBKigDwg|title = Best Malayalam comedy aram + aram kinnaram reg 15915|website = [[YouTube]]| date=11 August 2012 }}</ref>

''Garam Masala'' was released during Diwali in 2005 and received mixed reviews from the critics and was a commercial success. However, Kumar was appreciated for his performance<ref name=GMR/> which also won him the ''Best Actor in a Comic Role'' award at the [[Filmfare Awards]].<ref name=Filmfare>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards/winners|title=Filmfare Awards Winners From 1953 to 2022|website=filmfare.com|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204095338/https://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards/winners|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2024, Akshay Kumar called this movie "the toughest film of his career".<ref>"https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/akshay-kumar-calls-garam-masala-the-toughest-film-of-his-career-says-there-were-single-take-shots-for-10-minutes-101720766742032.html#google_vignette</ref>

==Plot==
The film starts off when two photographers, Makarand "Mac" Deendayal Chatpatiya and Shyam "Sam" Salgaonkar, are doing a photo shoot. While Mac is shooting the models in exposing poses, his fiancée Anjali leaves in disgust due to Mac's closeness to the models. Their boss calls them into his office and tells them that they are good-for-nothing photographers. He threatens to reduce their pay if they don't get some good pictures for the world photography competition to make his magazine ''Garam Masala'' famous.

Both Mac and Sam ask Maggie, the boss's secretary, on a date on the same day, at the same restaurant at the same time. As all three meet up at the restaurant, a pickpocket takes Mac's and Sam's wallets. After the meal, the competition to impress Maggie heightens, thus evoking humorous events, after which Sam and Mac leave Maggie to pay the bill.

Sam visits a famous photographer, praising him and asking for a few outstanding shots. These stolen shots help Sam win the world photography competition. He gets promoted, is given ten percent of the prize money, and has his pay doubled, while Mac receives a demotion to assistant. Sam flies off to the US to enjoy his holiday, leaving Mac fuming in [[Mauritius]].

The chief editor persuades Mac to show up Sam by getting three women to be his fiancées, getting a very expensive flat, and driving very expensive, imported cars. Following his promise, Mac gets a high-quality flat and gets access to three beautiful air hostesses. His driver, Babban, is his key to the high life. Not only does Babban get Mac access to the flat, he delivers very high-end cars to impress his fiancées. He drives Mac's cars and does all his services for a small amount of liquor every day. Lastly, Babban gets Mac a housekeeper, Mambo, who has an attitude problem and doesn't care what goes on in his flat so long as his demands are met.

He has affairs with each of the three women — Deepti, Puja, and Sweety — and creates chaos. Sam returns from America, only to find his friend turned rival, playing around with three women at once. He tries to help his friend and tries out his own luck with the girls.

The story turns into mayhem when it's hard for the two boys to maintain the three girls simultaneously. Mac's original fiancée Anjali learns about Mac's acts, and it creates a bigger mess. When their cook Mambo leaves, they begin to realise their mistakes, and Mac attempts reuniting with Anjali. In the end, Mac tries to climb on the car which Anjali and Sam are in while being chased by the three air hostesses he was dating along with a battalion of others, now that they realised the truth.

==Cast==
* [[Akshay Kumar]] as Makrand "Mac" Godbhole
* [[John Abraham (actor)|John Abraham]] as Shyam "Sam" Salgaonkar
* [[Paresh Rawal]] as Mambo Rana
* [[Rimi Sen]] as Anjali Bhatnagar, Mac's real fiancée and to-be wife
* [[Neha Dhupia]] as Maggie Chaudhary
* [[Daisy Bopanna]] as Deepti Sinha, an airhostess, Mac's fake fiancée
* [[Neetu Chandra]] as Sweety Nair, an airhostess, Mac's fake fiancée
* [[Nargis Bagheri]] as Puja Dhawan, an airhostess, Mac's fake fiancée
* [[Rajpal Yadav]] as Babban Sharma
* [[Manoj Joshi (actor)|Manoj Joshi]] as Nageshwar Kapoor
* [[Asrani]] as Mamu Singh, Mac's maternal uncle
* [[Viju Khote]] as Chote Lal Yadav, Mac & Sam's Boss
* [[Prithvi Zutshi]] as Landlord Daksh Padgaonkar

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Garam Masala
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Pritam Chakraborty]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2005|09|15}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature Film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=40|s=06}}
| label = [[Venus Records & Tapes]]
| producer = Pritam Chakraborty
| prev_title = [[Chocolate (2005 film)|Chocolate]]
| prev_year = 2005
| next_title = [[Ek Khiladi Ek Haseena (film)|Ek Khiladi Ek Haseena]]
| next_year = 2005
}}
The music is composed by [[Pritam Chakraborty|Pritam]] while the lyrics were written by [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]] and [[Mayur Puri]]. All the remixes were mixed by [[DJ Suketu]]. [[D. Imman]] composed by the background score.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/sep/26garam.htm|title=Garam Masala: Spicy!|website=Rediff.com|last=Verma|first=Sukanya|author-link=Sukanya Verma|date=26 September 2005|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117041919/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/sep/26garam.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Track listing===
{{track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_music = Pritam
| title1 = Ada (Quote From [[Amr Diab]])
| extra1 = [[Sonu Nigam]]
| lyrics1 = [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]]
| length1 = 4:45
| title2 = Chori Chori
| extra2 = [[Sukhwinder Singh]], [[Hema Sardesai]]
| lyrics2 = Sameer
| length2 = 4:35
| title3 = Kiss Me Baby
| extra3 = [[Adnan Sami]]
| lyrics3 = Sameer
| length3 = 3:39
| title4 = Falak Dekhun (Quote From [[Amr Diab]])
| extra4 = Sonu Nigam
| lyrics4 = [[Mayur Puri]]
| length4 = 5:10
| title5 = Dil Samandar
| extra5 = [[KK (singer)|KK]], [[Sunidhi Chauhan]]
| lyrics5 = Sameer
| length5 = 5:14
| title6 = Chori Chori
| note6 = II
| extra6 = [[Labh Janjua]]
| lyrics6 = Sameer
| length6 = 4:07
| title7 = Falak Dekhun (Quote From [[Amr Diab]])
| note7 = II
| extra7 = [[Udit Narayan]]
| lyrics7 = Mayur Puri
| length7 = 5:10
| title8 = Ada
| note8 = Remix (Quote From [[Amr Diab]])
| extra8 = Sonu Nigam
| lyrics8 = Sameer
| length8 = 3:46
| title9 = Kiss Me Baby
| note9 = Remix by DJ Akbar Sami
| extra9 = Adnan Sami
| lyrics9 = Sameer
| length9 = 3:40
}}

==Release ==
The film was theatrically released on 2 November 2005 coinciding with [[Diwali]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Garam Masala Movie: Showtimes, Review, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes |newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/garam-masala/movieshow/61268366.cms |access-date=2022-12-03 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203190722/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/garam-masala/movieshow/61268366.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Reception==
===Box office===
Made on a budget of {{INR}}170 million, the film grossed {{INR}}546.5 million in its theatrical run.<ref name="Box"/>

===Critical response===
Raja Sen of [[Rediff.com]] called the film ″funniest film of the year″, writing ″Akshay Kumar rocks the film. In a commandingly restrained performance, the actor shows off topnotch comic timing to hilarious effect. Balancing subtle shifts of tone with wildly over-the-top slapstick, he manages to always get a laugh, even when the script falters. There's a self-deprecating aspect visible in Akshay's comedy that adds warmth to the film. And he counters his goofy grin with a terrific display of deadpan dialogue delivery. This is his film, and he's having a ball.″<ref name=GMR>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/nov/02garam.htm|title=Akshay rocks in Garam Masala|website=[[Rediff.com]]|last=Sen|first=Raja|date=2 November 2005|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117040735/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/nov/02garam.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Conversely, [[Namrata Joshi]] of [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook Magazine]] gave the film 2 stars out of 5, writing ″Priyadarshan again shows a spirit for mirth and mania but the film is not quite a laugh riot.″<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/garam-masala/229229|title=Garam Masala|date=5 February 2022|website=[[Outlook India]]|last=Joshi|first=Namrata|author-link=Namrata Joshi|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117040734/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/garam-masala/229229|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Kaveree Bamzai]] of [[India Today]] wrote ″The lines are suited to the revolving-door kind of sex comedy. So there are many jibes about thighs, eyes and undies, which are ridiculous enough to elicit laughter from the devotees of films like [[No Entry]].″<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/your-week/story/20051114-movie-review-of-garam-masala-directed-by-priyadarshan-786655-2005-11-13|title=Film review: 'Garam Masala' starring Akshay Kumar, John Abraham|website=[[India Today]]|last=Bamzai|first=Kaveree|date=14 November 2005|author-link=Kaveree Bamzai|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117040734/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/your-week/story/20051114-movie-review-of-garam-masala-directed-by-priyadarshan-786655-2005-11-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Accolades ==

=== Won ===
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Comic Role|Filmfare Awards for Best Comedian]] – [[Akshay Kumar]]<ref name=Filmfare/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0453671|Garam Masala}}
* {{Mojo title|garammasala|Garam Masala}}

{{Priyadarshan}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Garam Masala (Film)}}
[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:2005 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2000s buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of English films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Malayalam films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Priyadarshan]]
[[Category:Films scored by Pritam]]
[[Category:Films involved in plagiarism controversies]]
[[Category:2005 comedy films]]

Baa Nanna Preethisu

2026-03-03T22:02:23Z

Vedpsagar: update page per sources per standard format

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Baa Nanna Preethisu
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Siddalingaiah]]
| producer = Siddalingaiah
| writer = B. A. Madhu
| screenplay = Siddalingaiah
| starring = [[Shashikumar]] [[Soundarya]] Madhuri Aravind
| music = [[Rajan–Nagendra]]
| cinematography = B. S. Basavaraj
| editing = Shyam Yadav
| studio = Vijayashree Productions
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1992|04|20|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = [[Kannada]]
}}

'''''Baa Nanna Preethisu''''' (Kannada: ಬಾ ನನ್ನ ಪ್ರೀತಿಸು) is a [[Kannada films of 1992|1992]] Indian [[Kannada]] film, directed and produced by [[Siddalingaiah]]. The film stars [[Shashikumar]], [[Soundarya]], Madhuri, and Aravind in the lead roles. The film's musical score was composed by [[Rajan–Nagendra]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharatmovies.com/kannada/info/baa-nanna-preethisu.htm|title=Baa Nanna Preethisu|accessdate=2014-12-22|publisher=bharatmovies.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nthwall.com/ka/Baa-Nanna-Preethisu-1982/9219800616 |title=Baa Nanna Preethisu |accessdate=2014-12-22 |publisher=nthwall.com |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222195820/http://www.nthwall.com/ka/Baa-Nanna-Preethisu-1982/9219800616 |archivedate=22 December 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>

==Cast==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Shashikumar]]
*[[Soundarya]]
*Madhuri
*Aravind
*Rajaram
*Kalabhairava Gangadhar
*Girija Lokesh
*[[Lokesh]]
*Sanatani
{{div col end}}

==Soundtrack ==
*"Andu Ninna Kandaagale" - [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Manjula Gururaj]]
*"Manadaase Nooru" - S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Manjula Gururaj
*"Ondu Beku Eradu Saaku" - S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Manjula Gururaj
*"Baaro Baaro Maleraaya" - S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
*"Kempegowdre" - S. P. Balasubrahmanyam

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|10197746}}
{{Siddalingaiah}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:1992 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:1992 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Rajan–Nagendra]]

{{1990s-Kannada-film-stub}}

Sankashta Kara Ganapathi

2026-03-03T21:33:41Z

Vedpsagar: Made new article

{{Short description|2018 Kannada romantic comedy film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sankashta Kara Ganapathi
| image = Sankashta Kara Ganapathi.jpg
| alt = Film poster
| caption =
| director = Arjun Kumar S
| producer = Rajesh Babu, Faizan Khan
| writer = Arjun Kumar S
| starring = {{startplainlist}}
* [[Likith Shetty]]
* Shruthi
* [[Achyuth Kumar]]
{{endplainlist}}
| music = Ritvik Murlidhar 
| cinematography = Uday Leela
| editing = Vijeth Chandra, Madhu Kumar
| studio = DYNAMITE FILMS
| released = {{Film date|2018|07|27|df=y}}
| runtime = 117 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}
'''''Sankashta Kara Ganapathi''''' is a 2018 Indian [[Kannada language|Kannada-language]] [[romantic comedy]] film directed by Arjun Kumar S.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://vijaykarnataka.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gossip/sankastakara-Ganapathi/articleshow/60001881.cms|title=ಸಂಕಷ್ಟಕರ ಗಣಪತಿ ಹಿಂದೆ ಹೊರಟ ಅರ್ಜುನ್‌ - Vijaykarnataka|date=2017-08-11|work=Vijaykarnataka|access-date=2018-01-03|language=kn}}</ref> Faizan Khan and Rajesh Babu produced it under Dynamite Films Private Limited's banner. The film features Likith Shetty and Shruti Goradia in the lead roles, with [[Achyuth Kumar]], Manjunath Hegde, Mandeep Rai, [[Nagabhushana]], and Chandu B. Gowda in supporting roles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/likhit-shetty/articleshow/61782037.cms|title=Likhit Shetty - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-01-03}}</ref> The film's score and the album were composed by Ritvik Muralidhar, Uday Leela did the cinematography, and Vijeth Chandra and Madhu Kumar did film editing.

The [[principal photography]] for the project began on 22 June 2017. The film was released all across [[Karnataka]] on 27 July 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vijaykarnatakaepaper.com/Details.aspx?id=33455&boxid=463875|title=Vijaya Karnataka , Theater List published as on 27th|last=|first=|date=|website=www.vijaykarnatakaepaper.com|access-date=2018-08-04}}</ref> The [[Telugu language|Telugu]] remake rights of the film were sold just a few days after the film was released.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/sankashta-kara-ganapathi-to-be-remade-in-telugu/articleshow/65198636.cms|title=Sankashta Kara Ganapathi to be remade in Telugu|date=30 July 2018|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=8 January 2020}}</ref> As of August 2021, the Hindi remake titled ''Baayein Haath Ka Khel'' is in pre-production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.cinemaexpress.com/hindi/news/2021/aug/14/akarsh-khurana-to-direct-hindi-remake-of-sankashta-kara-ganapathi-26058.amp|title=Akarsh Khurana to direct Hindi remake of Sankashta Kara Ganapathi | Cinemaexpress|website=[[Cinema Express]]|access-date=16 August 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816152838/https://m.cinemaexpress.com/hindi/news/2021/aug/14/akarsh-khurana-to-direct-hindi-remake-of-sankashta-kara-ganapathi-26058.amp|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/likith-shettys-sankashta-kara-ganapathi-gets-a-hindi-remake/articleshow/85324484.cms|title = Likith Shetty's Sankashta Kara Ganapathi gets a Hindi remake - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]] | date=14 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/mobile/news/bollywood/akarsh-khurana-sunny-khanna-vikas-sharma-acquire-hindi-remake-rights-kannada-film-sankashta-kara-ganapathi/|title=Akarsh Khurana, Sunny Khanna and Vikas Sharma acquire Hindi remake rights of Kannada film Sankashta Kara Ganapathi|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref>

==Plot==

Ganapati is a young man who lives with his retired father. Despite his father's opposition, he quits his job and becomes a cartoonist at a newspaper publishing house. At this new place of work, he meets Shruti, who was a former classmate on whom he had a crush. Shruti works as a sales and marketing manager at the publishing house.

Ganapati's friend advises him to propose to Shruti. When he approaches her for the same, he has a panic attack and faints as a result. Shruti takes him to the hospital, where he reveals to her that he liked her in college. Shruti reveals that her marriage has already been fixed with Raghu.

An operational mistake during treatment causes Ganapati to develop Alien Hand Syndrome. His left hand moves involuntarily, leading to a series of comedic errors.

He draws a controversial cartoon of a politician, resulting in a fierce backlash from the politician's goons and the termination of his job. Shruti supports him and is sympathetic to his illness.

Ganapathi attends Shruti's wedding but inadvertently disrupts the ceremony when his left hand grabs hers. This causes a scandal and the wedding is called off. Ganapathi and Shruti secretly meet but her father finds out and chases after them. Ganapathi's hand turns the steering wheel resulting in an accident that leaves Shruti badly injured. Shruti's father requests that Ganapathi stay out of her life.

Ganapathi moves on and becomes a successful cartoonist at a comic publishing company. Shruti's father cannot find a suitable groom for his daughter and eventually agrees to her marriage with Ganapathi.

==Cast==
* [[Likith Shetty]] as Ganapathi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://olpa.in/entertainment_inner.php?eid=likith-shetty-sandalwood-coastalwood|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917171701/https://olpa.in/entertainment_inner.php?eid=likith-shetty-sandalwood-coastalwood|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-09-17|title=Meet Mangalorean Likith Shetty who Designed this Beautiful Lounge in Bengaluru! Story of Actor turned Interior designer|website=olpa.in|access-date=2018-01-03}}</ref>
* Shruti as Shruti
* [[Achyuth Kumar]] as Sudhakar
* Mandeep Rai as Doctor Ashok
* Vijay Kaundinya as Newspaper Editor
* Manjunath Hegde as Shruti's Father
* Rekha Sagar as Shruti's Mother
* Chandu Gowda as Shruti's fiance
* [[Nagabhushana]] as Ganapathi's Friend

== Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Sankashta Kara Ganapathi
| type = soundtrack
| artist = Rithvik Murlidhar
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2018
| recorded = 2018
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 21:04
| language = [[Kannada]]
| label = PRK Audio
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

Rithvik Muralidhar composed the score and songs for the film.<ref>{{Citation|last=PRK Audio|title=Sankashta Kara Ganapathi - Jukebox {{!}} Likith Shetty, Shruti {{!}} Arjun Kumar S {{!}} Ritvik Muralidhar|date=2018-06-11|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KXK7axpoV8|access-date=2018-08-04}}</ref>

{{tracklist
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| lyrics_Credits = yes
| total_length =
| title1 = Sankashta Kara Ganapathi
| lyrics1 = Nischal S Dambekodi
| extra1 = [[Raghu Dixit]]
| length1 =3:31
| title2 = Nooru Choorina
| lyrics2 = Nischal S Dambekodi
| extra2 = [[Sanjith Hegde]], Rakshitha Rao
| length2 =4:24
| title3 = Modamodalaagiye
| lyrics3 = Nischal S Dambekodi and Madan Bellisalu
| extra3 = Deepak Doddera, Eesha Suchi
| length3 =4:01
| title4 = Jeevanada
| lyrics4 = Nithin Jai
| extra4 = Mehboob Saab
| length4 =4:57
| title5 = Nanaghelade
| lyrics5 = Nischal S Dambekodi
| extra5 = [[Gurukiran]], [[Ananya Bhat]]
| length5 =4:14
| title6 =
| lyrics6 =
| length6 =
| title7 =
| length7 =
| title8 =
| length8 =
|all_writing=|title9=|length9=|title10=|length10=|title11=|length11=|title12=|length12=|title13=|length13=|title14=|length14=|title15=|length15=|title16=|length16=|title17=|length17=|title18=|length18=|title19=|length19=|title20=|length20=|all_music=Ritvik Muralidhar}}

==Reception==

[[The Times of India]] rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and stated: "Go ahead, watch Sankashta Kara Ganapathi, it is definitely that one-time watch and the laughs and novelty factor are the added bonus".<ref>{{Citation|title=Sankashta Kara Ganapathi Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Sankashta Kara Ganapathi by Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/sankashta-kara-ganapathi/movie-review/65158956.cms|access-date=2018-08-04}}</ref> [[The New Indian Express|The new Indian Express]] rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and commented: "Debutant director, Arjun Kumar’s Sankashta Kara Ganapathi, a romantic comedy, steers itself with ease into the minuscule league of watchable movies. This, while keeping the entertainment quotient high throughout.".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2018/jul/27/sankashta-kara-ganapathi-movie-review-a-romcom-with-a-unique-premise-that-gets-most-things-right-1849555.html|title='Sankashta Kara Ganapathi' movie review: A romcom with a unique premise that gets most things right|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-08-04}}</ref> [[Kannada Prabha]] rated the film 3 out of 5.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|8610794}}

[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2018 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian coming-of-age comedy films]]
[[Category:2018 films]]
[[Category:2018 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2010s coming-of-age comedy films]]
[[Category:Kannada films remade in other languages]]

Magalir Mattum (1994 film)

2026-03-03T04:54:47Z

Vedpsagar: made new biography

{{short description|1994 film by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Magalir Mattum 1994 poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Singeetam Srinivasa Rao]]
| screenplay = [[Crazy Mohan]]
| story = [[Kamal Haasan]]
| producer = Kamal Haasan
| starring =
{{plainlist|
*[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]]
*[[Revathi]]
*[[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]]
*[[Rohini (actress)|Rohini]]
}}
| cinematography = [[Tirru|Thirunavukarasu]]
| editing = N. P. Sathish
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = [[Raaj Kamal Films International]]
| distributor = Raaj Kamal Films International
| released = {{film date|1994|2|25|df=yes}}
| runtime = 132 minutes{{sfn |Rajadhyaksha |Willemen |1998 |p=520}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Magalir Mattum''''' ({{translation|Ladies Only}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Female buddy film|female buddy]] [[comedy film]] directed by [[Singeetam Srinivasa Rao]], produced by [[Kamal Haasan]], and written by [[Crazy Mohan]]. The film stars [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]], [[Revathi]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]] and [[Rohini (actress)|Rohini]]. It revolves around three women deciding to gang up on their lecherous office boss who constantly harasses them.

Haasan wrote a story inspired by the 1980 American film ''[[9 to 5 (film)|9 to 5]]'' which Mohan then expanded into the screenplay of ''Magalir Mattum''. The film was [[Tirru|Thirunavukarasu]]'s first as an independent cinematographer and P. N. Satish worked as the editor. [[Ilaiyaraaja]] composed the music while [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] wrote the lyrics.

''Magalir Mattum'' was released on 25 February 1994 and became a commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres. For her performance, Urvashi won the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize]] for Best Actress. The film became a milestone in Tamil cinema for the topics it addressed, such as [[workplace harassment]] and [[male gaze]], and is regarded as an early example of the [[MeToo movement in India]].

== Plot ==
Janaki and Pappamma are employees at a fashion export company. Janaki is a shy [[Brahmin]] woman who works as a typist to support her family after her husband lost his factory job. Pappamma, who lives with her drunkard [[rickshaw]]-puller husband and earns a living for both of them and her husband's drinking expense, is a housekeeper there. The women in the company face a common threat from their manager, G. K. Pandian. Although married, he is a [[Promiscuity#Male promiscuity|womaniser]], and [[Workplace harassment|harasses]] his female employees regularly. The women tolerate his behaviour because of their family circumstances.

Sathya, a computer graduate, joins the company as a designer. Noting her intelligence and beauty, Pandian attempts to get closer to her. Initially believing his overtures are strictly platonic, Sathya accepts an invitation to dine with him. This is noticed by the other employees who misread the situation and shun her. When Pandian presents her with a silk sari, Sathya understands his actual intentions and rebukes him, gaining the respect and friendship of Janaki and Pappamma, who are fed up with their manager's antics. As their friendship blossoms, Janaki becomes increasingly courageous and speaks up when treated unfairly, a point noted sourly by Pandian's sidekick, Madhavi.

One day Pandian asks Janaki to work late. Asked to prepare him a coffee, she unknowingly mixes rat poison in his coffee instead of sugar and gives it to him. Pandian falls from his chair and becomes unconscious. Sathya finds him and he is admitted to the hospital. Janaki realises what she did, thinks Pandian drank the coffee and tells Pappamma. Both rush to the hospital and tell Sathya. The trio are unaware that Pandian fainted because of a minor injury and has recovered. They overhear that a patient (a terrorist) is dead from consuming "poison" (cyanide). They steal the covered corpse, assuming it is Pandian, and take it to Sathya's room, only to find that they have taken the terrorist's corpse. Panicking, they decide to return the body to the hospital. After several mishaps, the police take the body away.

Pandian returns to work. On learning what happened from Madhavi, he blackmails the trio into spending three nights with him in his office guesthouse. He tells them if they refuse, he will have them arrested. The trio appear to agree, but once they reach the house, they overpower him, tie him up and imprison him in a room. Sathya takes charge as acting manager in the office and, with the help of Janaki, Pappamma and the other employees, brings about many changes there. Sathya soon receives information from the head office about the boss's visit. The trio is in a quandary since Pandian is still in their custody. The trio decide to come clean about what happened and rush to the airport to pick up the boss who they have never seen. However, Madhavi overhears them and rescues Pandian, and they head to the airport. The trio arrives at the airport but misses the boss who leaves with Pandian. They rush to the office.

On reaching the office, the boss sees the radical changes. A flustered Pandian says that he is not responsible for this, and blames Sathya, Janaki and Pappamma. However, the boss appreciates the trio for their innovative ideas, and tells Pandian he is aware of his misogynistic behaviour and harassment towards his employees, relayed to him by a spy he had planted in the office. He leaves the trio in charge of the office and transfers Pandian and Madhavi to [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]]. He offers Janaki's husband a job in his friend's factory and Pappamma's husband a job as a watchman in their school, delighting them. When he inquires about Sathya's marriage, Janaki says that she has an artistic rendition of her dream husband drawn in her computer. Sathya shows him her rendition, and they are all surprised to see that her dream husband looks exactly like their boss. The boss asks Sathya to marry him, and she accepts his proposal.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as G. K. Pandian
* [[Revathi]] as Sathya
* [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]] as Janaki
* [[Rohini (actress)|Rohini]] as Pappamma
* [[Nagesh]] as the corpse
* [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] as Pappamma's husband<ref name="bollywoodhungama" />
* [[Kalaipuli S. Thanu]] as Thamizhavan
* [[V. S. Raghavan]] as a doctor<ref name="Ramji" />
* [[R. S. Shivaji]] as a [[Hemorrhoid|piles]] patient<ref name="bollywoodhungama" />
* [[Crazy Mohan]] as a doctor<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rajendran |first=Sowmya |date=10 June 2019 |title=10 times Kamal Haasan and Crazy Mohan gave us a belly-ache with their humour |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/10-times-kamal-haasan-and-crazy-mohan-gave-us-belly-ache-their-humour-103374 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200518132153/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/theatres-shut-anushka-madhavan-starrer-nishabdham-release-amazon-prime-124789 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |access-date=24 April 2020 |work=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>

* A. S. Nagarajan as the "deaf" employee/spy<ref name="ti" />
* [[C. R. Parthiban|Parthiban]] as a doctor<ref name="Ramji" />
* [[Pasi Sathya|Sathya]] as Madhavi
* M. Vasanthakumari as the bus driver{{sfn |Dhananjayan |2011 |p=163}}
* [[Kamal Haasan]] as the office boss (cameo)
* [[Renuka (actress)|Renuka]] as Pandian's wife (uncredited)<ref name="Ramji" />
}}

== Production ==
=== Development ===
After being inspired by the American film ''[[9 to 5 (film)|9 to 5]]'' (1980), [[Kamal Haasan]] wrote a story, narrated it to [[Crazy Mohan]], and asked him to develop it into a screenplay. Haasan was not sure "if we could turn it into a two-hour film", so a [[subplot]] featuring a terrorist's corpse was one thing Mohan included to expand the screenplay.<ref name="ti" /> This subplot was inspired by a TV series in which one of his troupe members acted as a corpse.<ref name="dead body" /> Mohan's wife wrote the screenplay while he explained every scene. Mohan suggested the title ''Magalir Mattum'', which translates to "Ladies Only" because buses displaying this text "were quite popular then and people would instantly connect to the subject of the film".<ref name="ti" />

[[Singeetam Srinivasa Rao]] was hired to direct,<ref name="ti" /> while Haasan produced the film under his banner [[Raaj Kamal Films International]].<ref name="wcc" /> Haasan wanted [[P. C. Sreeram]] to be the cinematographer, but since he was busy with ''[[Thiruda Thiruda]]'' (1993), his assistant Thirunavukarasu, who later became known as [[Tirru]], was recruited instead.<ref name="ti" /> The film was Thirunavukarasu's first as an independent cinematographer; he previously assisted Sreeram with Haasan's ''[[Thevar Magan]]'' (1992).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sangeeta |date=6 July 2007 |title=Realistic frames |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/realistic-frames/article2272961.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226102606/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/realistic-frames/article2272961.ece |archive-date=26 February 2018 |access-date=8 May 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Thirunavukarasu has said that Rao "almost summarily dismissed" him because he rarely worked with novices, "but I was able to prove my technical worth in the opening shots, with a lot of help from Kamal, who had immense faith in my capabilities".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raghavan |first=Nikhil |date=30 April 2016 |title=24 Frames |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/24-frames/article8541369.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314072949/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/24-frames/article8541369.ece |archive-date=14 March 2019 |access-date=13 March 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[R. Velraj]] worked as an assistant cinematographer on the film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Saravanan |first=T. |date=1 August 2014 |title=Cinema cinema! |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/cinema-cinema/article6267935.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190311085209/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/cinema-cinema/article6267935.ece |archive-date=11 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> P. N. Satish worked as the editor,{{sfn |Dhananjayan |2011 |p=162}} and Haasan's then-wife [[Sarika]] designed the costumes.<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=Magalir Mattum |type=motion picture |language=ta |publisher=[[Raaj Kamal Films International]] |year=1994 |time=6:59 |time-caption=Opening credits, at}}</ref>

=== Casting ===
For the three female leads, Rao wanted actresses who were good friends in real life.<ref name="silverscreen" /> [[Revathi]], who was cast as Sathya,{{sfn |Rajadhyaksha |Willemen |1998 |p=520}} agreed to act in the film without second thoughts.<ref name="wcc" /> [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]] recalled Haasan asked her to choose the character who interested her; she liked Pappamma because of the "rawness that stems from her family situation", but chose Janaki because she felt audiences could relate to the character.<ref name="hi" /> Though Rao had no difficulty in finding actresses to play Sathya and Janaki, the casting for Pappamma was troubled; many actresses were hesitant to play her after Rao described the plot because they believed Urvashi's performance would eclipse theirs, and the character of Pappamma had to de-glamorised. The role eventually went to [[Rohini (actress)|Rohini]]; she recalled she agreed to do it "without a second thought" and since she grew up in [[Chennai|Madras]], she "didn't have to work on [[Madras Bashai|the slang]]".<ref name="ti" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=3 September 2011 |title=Roles of a lifetime |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/roles-of-a-lifetime/article2419420.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811102650/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/roles-of-a-lifetime/article2419420.ece |archive-date=11 August 2018 |access-date=8 May 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] was chosen to portray G. K. Pandian, his first humorous role.<ref name="ti" /> Mohan was initially apprehensive about casting Nassar in a comical role as he was known mainly for playing serious roles, but Haasan remained adamant.<ref name="dead body" /> Director [[Bharathiraja]] and poet [[Vairamuthu]] were initially approached for the character of the office supervisor Thamizhavan; however producer [[Kalaipuli S. Thanu]] appeared in that role—''Magalir Mattum'' was his only film as an actor.<ref name="ti" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 October 2013 |title=கமலஹாசன் நடித்த 'ஆளவந்தான்' உருவான கதை |trans-title=How the Kamal Haasan-starrer ''Aalavandhan'' was born |url=http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2013/10/17224553/Kamal-Hassan-starring-Aalavand.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206182018/http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2013/10/17224553/Kamal-Hassan-starring-Aalavand.html |archive-date=6 February 2015 |access-date=30 September 2015 |work=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=ta}}</ref> Haasan cast [[Nagesh]] as the terrorist corpse; Mohan felt he was the "best choice".<ref name="dead body" /> Though the character of the office boss was originally written as a woman, the cast wanted Haasan to play that role and he agreed.<ref name="hi" /> [[Pasi Sathya|Sathya]], then known mainly for playing servant roles, was cast [[against type]] as Pandian's sidekick Madhavi.<ref name="NST review" />

=== Filming ===
''Magalir Mattum'' entered production in the first half of 1993, one of the few films to do so during a period when distributors' associations had imposed a ban on film production in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ramnarayan |first=Gowri |date=30 July 1993 |title=Kleig lights again in Tamil film industry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z6JKAQAAIAAJ&q=%22distributors%27+associations%22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115061923/https://books.google.com/books?id=z6JKAQAAIAAJ&dq=Magalir+Mattum&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22distributors%27+associations%22 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |access-date=16 August 2019 |magazine=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |location=Madras |pages=105–106 |volume=10}}</ref> The set of the office was established on the second floor of a building that was being constructed at the then [[Vauhini Studios]].<ref name="ti" /> While filming the scene where the corpse is being carried by the protagonists, Rao asked Nagesh to keep a smirk on his face throughout the sequence. Rao told him to let his body go totally limp; this proved difficult for both him and the three female leads, as they had to carry his entire weight.<ref name="wcc" />

The stunt scene involving Nagesh was filmed on a set erected at [[Campa Cola]]. The team waited for three months to film the song "Karavai Maadu" as all three lead actresses had to be in it. It was ultimately decided to film the portions separately with Nassar depending on the availability of an actress on that day. [[Raghuram]], who choreographed the song, completed it in such a way that "the shots could later be edited and made to look like they [were] all shot together".<ref name="ti" /> The final length of the film was {{convert|3612|metres|feet}}.{{sfn |Dhananjayan |2011 |p=162}}

== Themes ==
''Magalir Mattum'' revolves around the themes of [[workplace harassment]] and the [[male gaze]].<ref name="hi" /><ref name="thenewsminute" /> Writing for ''[[Sify]]'', [[Sowmya Rajendran]] said the film addresses many issues that women employees face, such as "[[feminization of poverty]], the problems of a middle-class, new mother who has to get back to work to make a living" and the "anger of a single, talented woman who has to keep her temper in check if she's to retain her job".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajendran |first=Sowmya |author-link=Sowmya Rajendran |date=26 November 2013 |title=Magalir Mattum: When sleazy bosses meet their nemeses |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/magalir-mattum-when-sleazy-bosses-meet-their-nemeses-news-kollywood-nlzqc1gcidisi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200526153211/https://www.sify.com/movies/magalir-mattum-when-sleazy-bosses-meet-their-nemeses-news-kollywood-nlzqc1gcidisi.html |archive-date=26 May 2020 |access-date=3 June 2020 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The protagonists—Sathya, Janaki and Pappamma—represent three different classes of society.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Venkatraman |first1=Janane |last2=Purkayastha |first2=Debasree |date=31 March 2016 |title=Getting into a gender-bender |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies-that-upended-gender-stereotypes/article8418713.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191003104023/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies-that-upended-gender-stereotypes/article8418713.ece |archive-date=3 October 2019 |access-date=26 May 2020 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Urvashi has said the film's purpose was to show that "women, irrespective of class difference, face the same problems in a patriarchal society". She described Janaki as exhibiting "a typical middle-class mentality", Pappamma as her opposite who "carries a bold and brazen attitude", and Sathya as "an independent woman who's very precise about things".<ref name="hi" /> Rao said the film represents his personal views of being against male chauvinism, and that women should be in control of their own lives.<ref name="silverscreen" />

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], while the lyrics for all the songs were written by [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]. It was released under the label AVM Audio in December 1993.<ref name="avdigital" /> Ilaiyaraaja, using the technique of [[M. B. Sreenivasan]], composed the title track as a [[choir]] song.<ref name="ti" /> Urvashi was initially displeased with "Karavai Maadu" because it contained lyrics she considered were degrading, but after Vaali explained to her why he wrote those words, she was convinced.<ref name="hi" />

{{Track listing
| headline = Tamil tracklist<ref name="avdigital" />
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Magalir Mattum
| lyrics1 = [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
| extra1 = Chorus
| length1 = 5:58
| title2 = Karavai Maadu
| lyrics2 = Vaali
| extra2 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
| length2 = 6:06
| title3 = Mothu Mothuunnu
| lyrics3 = Vaali
| extra3 = S. Janaki
| length3 = 6:38
| title4 = Veettai Thaandi
| lyrics4 = Vaali
| extra4 = S. Janaki
| length4 = 4:57
| total_length = 23:39 
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = Malayalam tracklist<ref name="malayalasangeetham" />
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Veettil Ninne
| note1 =
| writer1 =
| lyrics1 = [[Mankombu Gopalakrishnan]]
| music1 =
| extra1 = [[S. Janaki]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Thattaanam Muttile
| note2 =
| writer2 =
| lyrics2 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music2 =
| extra2 = S. Janaki
| length2 =
| title3 = Sthreejanamennum
| note3 =
| writer3 =
| lyrics3 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music3 =
| extra3 = Chorus
| length3 =
| title4 = Cricket Ball Onnu
| note4 =
| writer4 =
| lyrics4 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music4 =
| extra4 = [[M. G. Sreekumar]], S. Janaki
| length4 =
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = Telugu tracklist<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aadavaalku Maathrame |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/aadavaalku-maathrame/BEYtGOT9Sdg_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115061944/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/aadavaalku-maathrame/BEYtGOT9Sdg_ |archive-date=15 January 2021 |access-date=2 January 2021 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Bandakesi
| lyrics1 = [[Rajasri (writer)|Rajasri]]
| extra1 = [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Chakkani Chilakalu
| lyrics2 = Rajasri
| extra2 = K. S. Chithra, [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length2 =
| title3 = Udyogaalu
| lyrics3 = Rajasri
| extra3 = K. S. Chithra
| length3 =
| title4 = Aadadhi Ante
| lyrics4 = Rajasri
| extra4 = K. S. Chithra
| length4 =
}}

== Release ==
''Magalir Mattum'' was released on 25 February 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2019 |title=Kamal Haasan's Magalir Mattum celebrates its silver jubilee anniversary today! |url=https://www.in.com/entertainment/regional/kamal-haasans-magalir-mattum-celebrates-its-silver-jubilee-anniversary-today-324175.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226172737/https://www.in.com/entertainment/regional/kamal-haasans-magalir-mattum-celebrates-its-silver-jubilee-anniversary-today-324175.htm |archive-date=26 February 2019 |access-date=25 February 2019 |website=[[In.com]]}}</ref> No distributor was willing to buy the film since it featured no romance or a hero; as a result, Haasan had to distribute it himself.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Kamat |first=Vatsala |date=July 2008 |title=Man Behind The Masks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6RaAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Magalir+Mattum%22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103080809/https://books.google.com/books?id=l6RaAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Magalir+Mattum%22 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |access-date=16 August 2019 |magazine=[[Businessworld]] |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |page=253 |issue=1–7}}</ref> Despite this, the film was a commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres,<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 October 2017 |title=சாதனை புரிந்த தமிழ் படங்கள் – 315 – எஸ்.கணேஷ் |trans-title=Tamil films which achieved milestones – 315 – S. Ganesh |url=http://www.dinamalarnellai.com/web/news/36451 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190314035222/http://www.dinamalarnellai.com/web/news/36451 |archive-date=14 March 2019 |access-date=14 March 2019 |work=[[Dinamalar]] |location=Nellai |language=ta}}</ref> and becoming a [[silver jubilee film]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Selvaraj |first=N. |date=20 March 2017 |title=வெள்ளி விழா கண்ட தமிழ் திரைப்படங்கள் |trans-title=Tamil films that completed silver jubilees |url=http://puthu.thinnai.com/?p=34587 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170329085911/http://puthu.thinnai.com/?p=34587 |archive-date=29 March 2017 |access-date=14 March 2019 |website=Thinnai |language=Tamil}}</ref> Urvashi attributed the film's success to the fact that it "told the sufferings through comedy", and felt it might have been rejected by audiences if it had been a serious film.<ref name="hi" /> For her performance, she won the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize]] for Best Actress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sitaraman |first=Sandya |date=22 October 1996 |title=Tamil Movie News--Pudhu Edition 1 |url=https://groups.google.com/g/soc.culture.tamil/c/BCnIDKAkH6Y |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230804092758/https://groups.google.com/g/soc.culture.tamil/c/BCnIDKAkH6Y |archive-date=4 August 2023 |access-date=4 August 2023 |website=[[Google Groups]]}}</ref>

== Reception ==
On 25 February 1994, Malini Mannath of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' called the film "a welcome breath of fresh air". She went on to praise Nassar's performance, saying that "his expressions are a treat to watch [...] he can do comedy too with ease". She also praised the performances of Revathi and Rohini and complimented Urvashi "with her sense of comedy who come out the best the humour and punchlines coming naturally".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=25 February 1994 |title=What fun! Such good fun! |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iYZlAAAAIBAJ&pg=1805%2C2794758 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820230044/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iYZlAAAAIBAJ&pg=1805,2794758 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |access-date=25 February 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=6 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref> On 12 March, K. Vijiyan of the ''[[New Straits Times]]'' praised Haasan and Mohan's writing, the performances of the lead actors, and concluded, "Ladies, Kamalhassan has made this movie just for you. Make that man in your life take you away for this one and he will probably also enjoy it too."<ref name="NST review" />

On 13 March, R. P. R. of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' appreciated the film for Mohan's writing, Urvashi's performance and Ilaiyaraaja's music, but felt the post-[[Intermission|interval]] scenes were unnecessarily stretched, and criticised Haasan for overacting.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஆர். பி. ஆர். |date=13 March 1994 |title=மகளிர் மட்டும் |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1994/mar/13-03-1994/p45.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220726073814/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1994/mar/13-03-1994/p45.jpg |archive-date=26 July 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=45 |language=ta}}</ref> The review board of the magazine ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'' said the filmmakers must be appreciated for presenting a high-class comedy entertainer without any vulgarity or [[double entendre]] dialogues and becoming a benchmark for humour. They said that among the three female leads, Urvashi had lived through the character of a Brahmin woman and made them laugh throughout the film. The review board praised the cinematography and wrote that the filmmakers certainly moved a few steps ahead in their effort to present a neat and entertaining comedy film, and gave ''Magalir Mattum'' a rating of 44 marks out of 100.{{sfn |Dhananjayan |2011 |p=163}}

== Other versions ==
[[File:Ladies Only.jpg|thumbnail|right|A still from ''Ladies Only''.]]
''Magalir Mattum'' was dubbed in [[Malayalam]] as ''Ladies Only'',<ref name="malayalasangeetham" /> and in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''Adavallaku Matrame''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nyayapati |first=Neeshita |date=28 December 2017 |title=Singeetam Srinivasa Rao to talk about his film 'Aadavallaku Mathrame' on his show 'Pushpaka Vimanam' this Sunday |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/singeetam-srinivasa-rao-to-talk-about-his-film-aadavallaku-mathrame-on-his-show-pushpaka-vimanam-this-sunday/articleshow/62283238.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190313093009/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/singeetam-srinivasa-rao-to-talk-about-his-film-aadavallaku-mathrame-on-his-show-pushpaka-vimanam-this-sunday/articleshow/62283238.cms |archive-date=13 March 2019 |access-date=13 March 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Telugu dubbed version was released by actor [[Murali Mohan]] under his company [[Jayabheri Arts]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2018 |title=చెయ్యేసే బాస్‌కు బడితపూజ |url=https://www.sakshi.com/news/movies/adavallaku-matrame-movie-review-1043414 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190311100438/https://www.sakshi.com/news/movies/adavallaku-matrame-movie-review-1043414 |archive-date=11 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |work=[[Sakshi (newspaper)|Sakshi]] |language=te}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Hindi]] as ''Ladies Only'' by Dinesh Shailendra. [[Seema Biswas]], [[Shilpa Shirodkar]] and [[Heera Rajagopal]] were cast as the female leads and [[Randhir Kapoor]] was selected to reprise Nassar's character. Haasan produced the film and appeared as the corpse. Though the film was completed by 1997, it failed to have a theatrical release.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajitha |date=25 January 1999 |title=Where the Shirodkars score! |url=http://m.rediff.com/%0Amovies/1999/jan/25ss.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190311093607/http://m.rediff.com/%0Amovies/1999/jan/25ss.htm |archive-date=11 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Shetty |first=Shakti |date=13 January 2014 |title=Bollywood films that never saw a release |url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/bollywood-films-that-never-saw-a-release/15024041 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190311095215/https://www.mid-day.com/articles/bollywood-films-that-never-saw-a-release/15024041 |archive-date=11 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |work=[[Mid-Day]]}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
''Magalir Mattum'' attained cult status,<ref name="thenewsminute" /> and became a milestone in Tamil cinema for the topics it addresses, being regarded as an early example of the [[MeToo movement in India]].<ref name="ti" /><ref name="hi" /> Nassar's character of Pandian attained iconic status, and later became "the face of all [[meme]]s and [[posting style|posts]] related to harassment at the workplace".<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2019 |title=Greys To Black: The Many Villain Roles Of Nassar |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/greys-to-black-the-many-villains-in-nassar-thevar-magan-bahubali/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314072948/https://www.filmcompanion.in/greys-to-black-the-many-villains-in-nassar-thevar-magan-bahubali/ |archive-date=14 March 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |website=[[Film Companion]]}}</ref> Producer [[Suriya]] obtained permission to reuse the film's title; his production ''[[Magalir Mattum (2017 film)|Magalir Mattum]]'', also featuring Urvashi and Nassar, was released in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pillai |first=Sreedhar |date=12 October 2016 |title=Magalir Mattum first look: Jyothika plays a documentary filmmaker; Suriya to make cameo? |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/magalir-mattum-first-look-jyothika-plays-a-documentary-filmmaker-suriya-to-make-cameo-3046856.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219014848/http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/magalir-mattum-first-look-jyothika-plays-a-documentary-filmmaker-suriya-to-make-cameo-3046856.html |archive-date=19 February 2018 |access-date=15 January 2021 |website=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref>

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="ti">{{Cite news |last=Suganth |first=M. |date=25 February 2019 |title=Celebrating 25 years of Magalir Mattum, a film for the Me Too era |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/celebrating-25-years-of-magalir-mattum-a-film-for-the-me-too-era/articleshow/68138022.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190225183534/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/celebrating-25-years-of-magalir-mattum-a-film-for-the-me-too-era/articleshow/68138022.cms |archive-date=25 February 2019 |access-date=25 February 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
<ref name="hi">{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=25 February 2019 |title='Magalir Mattum' turns 25: Urvashi takes a trip down memory lane |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/magalir-mattum-turns-25/article26361659.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225183347/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/magalir-mattum-turns-25/article26361659.ece |archive-date=25 February 2019 |access-date=25 February 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
<ref name="wcc">{{Cite web |last=Revathi |author-link=Revathi |date=22 October 2018 |title=Memories from Magalir Mattum |url=https://wcc.home.blog/2018/10/22/magalir-mattum/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190313104635/https://wcc.home.blog/2018/10/22/magalir-mattum/ |archive-date=13 March 2019 |access-date=13 March 2019 |website=Women in Cinema Collective}}</ref>
<ref name="malayalasangeetham">{{Cite web |title=Ladies Only [1994] |url=https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?3700 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190919044047/https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?3700 |archive-date=19 September 2019 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=Malayalasangeetham.info |language=ml}}</ref>
<ref name="Ramji">{{Cite web |last=ராம்ஜி |first=வி. |date=25 February 2019 |title=ஜானகி, பாப்பம்மா, சத்யா, மூக்கன்; 25-வது ஆண்டில் மகளிர் மட்டும் |trans-title=Janaki, Pappamma, Sathya, Nosy; ''Magalir Mattum'' in its 25th year |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/156892-25.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200518103848/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/156892-25.html |archive-date=18 May 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>
<ref name="bollywoodhungama">{{Cite web |date=December 1993 |title=Magalir Mattum Cast & Crew |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/magalir-mattum/cast/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200424052605/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/magalir-mattum/cast/ |archive-date=24 April 2020 |access-date=24 April 2020 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]}}</ref>
<ref name="dead body">{{Cite web |last=ராம்ஜி |first=வி. |date=25 February 2019 |title='நாசர், ரோகிணி... அசத்துவாங்கன்னு நினைக்கவே இல்ல!' – கிரேஸிமோகனின் 'மகளிர்மட்டும்' நினைவுகள் |trans-title='Nassar, Rohini... I never imagined they would rock!' – Crazy Mohan's memories of ''Magalir Mattum'' |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/156652-.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200518104953/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/156652--3.html |archive-date=18 May 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>
<ref name="avdigital">{{Cite web |title=Magalir Mattum |url=https://avdigital.in/products/magalir-mattum |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200527043723/https://avdigital.in/products/magalir-mattum |archive-date=27 May 2020 |access-date=27 May 2020 |website=AVDigital}}</ref>
<ref name="thenewsminute">{{Cite web |last=Rajendran |first=Sowmya |author-link=Sowmya Rajendran |date=1 May 2017 |title=Magalir Mattum: Why the 1994 comedy that took on workplace harassment deserves its cult status |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/magalir-mattum-why-1994-comedy-took-workplace-harassment-deserves-its-cult-status-61299 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200603144856/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/actor-prithviraj-sukumaran-tests-negative-coronavirus-125823 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |access-date=3 June 2020 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>
<ref name="NST review">{{Cite news |last=Vijiyan |first=K. |date=12 March 1994 |title=This one is made just for the ladies |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iNJNAAAAIBAJ&pg=3335%2C447220 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820230044/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iNJNAAAAIBAJ&pg=3335,447220 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |access-date=13 March 2019 |work=[[New Straits Times]] |pages=24 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref>
<ref name="silverscreen">{{Cite web |last=Gopalakrishnan |first=Aswathy |date=29 October 2016 |title=Singeetam Srinivasa Rao Interview: "The Golden Rule Of Cinema Is That There Is No Golden Rule" |url=https://silverscreen.in/features/interviews/singeetam-srinivasa-rao-interview-golden-rule-cinema-no-golden-rule/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125020342/https://silverscreen.in/features/interviews/singeetam-srinivasa-rao-interview-golden-rule-cinema-no-golden-rule/ |archive-date=25 January 2019 |access-date=25 February 2019 |website=Silverscreen.in}}</ref>
</references>

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |author-link=G. Dhananjayan |title=The Best of Tamil Cinema, 1931 to 2010: 1977–2010 |publisher=Galatta Media |year=2011 |oclc=733724281}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |author-link1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Willemen |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] and [[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-563579-5 |orig-date=1994}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{Singeetam Srinivasa Rao}}
{{RaajKamalFilmsInternational}}

[[Category:1990s buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:1990s female buddy films]]
[[Category:1990s feminist films]]
[[Category:1994 Indian films]]
[[Category:1990s satirical films]]
[[Category:1994 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1994 comedy films]]
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:Films about companies]]
[[Category:Films about criticism and refusal of work]]
[[Category:Films about sexual harassment]]
[[Category:Films about women in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao]]
[[Category:Films produced by Kamal Haasan]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films set in offices]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Crazy Mohan]]
[[Category:Indian buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian female buddy films]]
[[Category:Indian feminist films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian satirical films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Three girls movie]]
[[Category:Workplace comedy films]]

The Bird of Time (poetry)

2026-03-02T15:48:14Z

Vedpsagar: Made new page - done

{{italic title}}
'''''The Bird of Time''''' is a poetry collection book by Indian poet [[Sarojini Naidu]] in 1912. The book consists of four chapters, which contain 47 poems in total. It is Naidu's second book and most strongly nationalist book of poems, published from both [[London]] and [[New York City]]. Inspired by [[Edmund Gosse]] work Naidu's work is steeped in the Romantic tradition while entirely conscious of the political and social strife of India.<ref name="CGG">{{cite web|title=Presentation of Hyderabad in the poetry of Sarojini Naidu|url=https://ccets.cgg.gov.in/Uploads/files/buttonDetails/30383.pdf|pages=4–10|work=Centre for good governance|year=2017|accessdate=27 July 2022|archive-date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217053301/https://ccets.cgg.gov.in/Uploads/files/buttonDetails/30383.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="N18">{{cite web|title=Sarojini Naidu's 142nd Birth Anniversary: Five facts to Know About the Nightingale of India|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/sarojini-naidus-142nd-birth-anniversary-five-facts-to-know-about-the-nightingale-of-india-3427079.html|work=[[Network18 Group]]|date=13 February 2021|accessdate=22 July 2022}}
*{{cite web|title=On Hindi Diwas, Here's A List of Revolutionary Hindi Poets Who Changed The World With Their Words|url=https://www.news18.com/news/lifestyle/on-hindi-diwas-heres-a-list-of-revolutionary-hindi-poets-who-changed-the-world-with-their-words-4202444.html|work=[[Network18 Group]]|date=14 September 2021|accessdate=22 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="researchlink">{{cite journal|title=The Indian spirit in the poems of Sarojini Naidu|url=http://researchlink.in/FullIssue/Research%20Link%20107/5%20English%20Literature.pdf|publisher=Research Link|journal=English Literature|volume=XI (12)|last=Sindhu|first=CH|pages=45–7|date=February 2013|issn=0973-1628|access-date=24 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003143046/http://researchlink.in/FullIssue/Research%20Link%20107/5%20English%20Literature.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{cite news|title=Poet of India|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/04/27/100615912.pdf|last=Helen|first=Bullis|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=27 April 1913|access-date=29 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2022, a plaque containing the poem "The Hussain Saagar", from the collection, was erected at [[Tank Bund Road]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.siasat.com/sarojini-naidus-poem-hussain-saagar-installed-at-tank-bund-2275071/|title=Sarojini Naidu's poem 'Hussain Saagar' installed at Tank Bund|work=[[The Siasat Daily]]|last=Kirmani|first=Syeda Faiza|date=13 February 2022|accessdate=27 July 2022}}</ref> "[[In the Bazaars of Hyderabad]]" is another poem from ''The Bird of Time''.<ref name="NYT"/>

==Contents==
:''Songs of Love and Death''

:*The Bird of Time
:*Dirge: In sorrow of her bereavement
:*An Indian Love Song
:*In Remembrance: Violet Clarke
:*Love and Death
:*The Dance of Love
:*A Love Song from the North
:*At Twilight: On the way to Golconda
:*Alone
:*A Rajput Love Song
:*A Persian Love Song
:*To Love

:''Songs of the Spring time''

:*Spring
:*A Song in Spring
:*The Joy of the Springtime
:*Vasant Panchami: Lilavati's Lament at the Feast of Spring
:*In a Time of Flowers
:*In Praise of Gulmohur Blossoms
:*Nasturtiums
:*Golden Cassia
:*Champak Blossoms
:*Ecstasy

:''Indian Folk-Songs'' (''To Indian Tunes'')

:*Village Song
:*Slumber Song for Sunalini
:''Songs of my City'':
::*In a Latticed Balcony
::*In the Bazaars of Hyderabad
:*Bangle-sellers
:*The Festival of Serpents
:*Song of Radha the Milkmaid
:*Spinning Song
:*Hymn to Indra, Lord of Rain

:''Songs of Life''

:*Death and Life
:*The Hussain Saagar
:*The Faery Isle of Janjira
:*The Soul's Prayer
:*Transience
:*The Old Woman
:*In the Night
:*At Dawn
:*An Anthem of Love
:*Solitude
:*A Challenge to Fate
:*The Call to Evening Prayer
:*In Salutation to the Eternal Peace
:*Medley: A Kashmeri Song
:*Farewell
:*Guerdon

==See also==
*[[Indian English literature]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/remembering-indias-nightingale-whose-poetry-presented-princely-hyderabad-to-world/articleshow/89541069.cms|title=Remembering India's nightingale, whose poetry presented princely Hyderabad to world|work=[[Times of India]]|last=Akbdar|first=Syed|date=13 February 2022}}

==External links==
* {{wikisource-inline|The Bird of Time|''The Bird of Time''|single=true}}

[[Category:Indian poems]]
[[Category:Works by Sarojini Naidu]]

Mahar

2026-03-01T21:08:49Z

Vedpsagar: made new stub

{{short description|Caste in India found predominantly in the state of Maharashtra}}
{{other uses}}
{{distinguish|Mahar (tribe)|Mahar (Uttarakhand)|}}

{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group =
| image = Mahar.jpg
| image_caption = "A Mahar woman",
a watercolour by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]], 1928
| total = 10 million{{Citation needed|date=October 2021|reason=Mahar make around 10% of Maharashtra population. The number here is too high}}
| region1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| pop1 = 8,006,060
| ref1 =
| region2 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| pop2 = 819,416
| ref2 =
| region3 = [[Chhattisgarh]]
| pop3 = 245,220
| ref3 =
| region4 = [[Karnataka]]
| pop4 = 66,068
| ref4 =
| region5 = [[West Bengal]]
| pop5 = 34,793 {{NoteTag|The Mahar population in West Bengal, specifically in [[Jhargram district|Jhargram]], [[West Medinipur district|West Medinipur]] and [[Bankura district]] might be erroneous entry in 2011 and its four previous decadal census by a section of [[Pastoral society]], As their Historical population was 573, 590, N/A, 1666, 6017, 4206, 6760, 12221, 17706, 23630, 28419 and 34,793 in 1901,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gait |first=E. A |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55931 |title=Census Of India 1901 |volume=V. A (lower Probinces Of Bengal And Their Leudatoties) |others=Part. 2 (Imperial Tables) |date=1902 |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press}}</ref> 1911,<ref name=ePop1951/> 1921, 1931,<ref name=ePop1951/> 1941,<ref>{{cite book|last=Dutch |first=R. A. |title= CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 (Bengal) |volume= IV |others= Caste tables - Appendix |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5094/1/25425_1941_CAS.pdf |year=1942 |page=5 }}</ref> 1951,<ref name=ePop1951>{{Cite book|title=ESTIMATED POPULATION BY CASTES, 1951 |chapter=4. West Bengal |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/ideologie/data/CensusIndia/CensusIndia1951/CensusIndia1951WestBengalCastes.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI |year=1954 |page=4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409100115/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/ideologie/data/CensusIndia/CensusIndia1951/CensusIndia1951WestBengalCastes.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2023}}</ref><ref name=Census1961/> 1961,<ref name=Census1961>{{cite book|last=Gupta |first=J. Datta |title=CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 (West Bengal & Sikkim)
|volume= XVI |issue=V-A(i) |others= Tables on Scheduled Castes |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/32457/download/35638/45574_1961_SC.pdf |year=1953 |page=54 }}</ref> 1971,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ghosh |first=Bhaskar |title=CENSUS OF INDIA –1971, SERIES-22 (WEST BENGAL) |others=PART II-C (i) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TABLES (Tables C-VII and C-VIII) |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5209/1/39724_1971_SCT.pdf |year= |publisher=Director of census operation, West Bengal |page=147}}</ref> 1981,<ref name=Singh1993/> 1991,<ref>{{cite book|first=R. K. |last=Banthia |title=CENSUS' OF INDIA 1991, SERIES-26, WEST BENGAL PART-VIII(I) |others=SPECIAL TABLES ON SCHEDULED CASTES |volume=1|year=2000 |publisher=Director of Census Operations, West Bengal|url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5351/1/39705_1991_SPE.pdf |page=12}}</ref> 2001<ref>{{Cite web|title=SC-14: Scheduled caste population by religious community, West Bengal - 2001 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/15585/download/18717/PC01_SC14_19.xls |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=April 9, 2023 |type=xls}}</ref> and in 2011,<ref>{{Cite web |title=A-10: Individual scheduled caste primary census abstract (PCA) data – West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42929/download/46597/SC-1900-PCA-A-10-ddw.xlsx |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref> subsequently. The district-wise distribution of the Mahar community as of the 1951 census was Midnapur (1,487), Birbhum (840), Burdwan (487), Malda (302), West Dinajpur (243), Jalpaiguri (221), Calcutta (177), Bankura (141), 24 Parganas (108), Murshidabad (81), Hooghly (61), Cooch Behar (33), Howrah (19), Darjeeling (3), and Nadia (1).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Tribes and Castes of West Bengal, Land and Land Revenue Department - Census 1951 |last=Mitra |first=A. |year=1953 |page=107 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/32381/download/35562/41834_1951_TRI.pdf}}</ref> However the actual Mahar population were came to West Bengal from various part of Maharashtra during early 20th century to work in railway workshop and colonies. Nowadays their population thinly scattered all over the state, but mostly in municipal areas. They possess Buddhism except a section of Mahar in Malda district, who are Hindu by religion. By social structure they are divided into exogamous division by their surname, such as ''Hogragorhe, Meshram, Madaom'' and ''Shendey''. The marriage rituals are performed with the help of [[Buddhist priest]] (''vikkhuk''), the birth pollution is observed till six days but don't conduct naming ceremony and ten day mourning are observed after cremation.<ref name=Singh1993>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBowAQAAIAAJ |title=The Scheduled Castes |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-563254-5 |pages=839–841 |language=en}}</ref>}}
| ref5 =
| region6 = [[Gujarat]]
| pop6 = 28,417
| ref6 =
| region7 = [[Odisha]]
| pop7 = 21,304
| ref7 =
| region8 = [[Andhra Pradesh]] (including [[Telangana]])
| pop8 = 12,872
| ref8 =
| region9 = [[Goa]]
| pop9 = 8,536
| ref9 =
| region10 = [[Rajasthan]]
| pop10 = 1,980
| ref10 =
| region11 = [[Assam]]
| pop11 = 1,822
| ref11 =
| region12 = [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu|Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]
| pop12 = 224
| ref12 =
| region13 = [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu|Daman and Diu]]
| pop13 = 110
| ref13 =
| langs = [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Varhadi dialect]], [[Ahirani language|Ahirani]], [[Hindi]], [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], [[English language|English]]
| rels = '''Majority''': [[File:Dharma Wheel (2).svg|18px]] [[Buddhist]] '''Minority''': [[Hinduism]] • [[Sikhism]] • [[Christianity]] • [[Islam]]
| related_groups =
}}

'''Mahar''' is an Indian caste found largely in the state of [[Maharashtra]] and neighbouring areas.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://socialjustice.nic.in/UserView/index?mid=76750 |publisher=MSJE, Government of India |title=State wise list of Scheduled Castes updated up to 26-10-2017 |date=26 October 2017 |access-date=2018-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313113621/http://socialjustice.nic.in/UserView/index?mid=76750 |archive-date= March 13, 2022}}</ref><ref name="Clothey2007">{{cite book|author=Fred Clothey|title=Religion in India: A Historical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s376jMWBcEC&pg=PA213|year=2007|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-94023-8|page=213}}</ref> As of 2017 the Mahar caste is designated as a [[Scheduled Caste]] in 16 Indian states.
Most of the Mahar community followed [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in converting to [[Buddhism in India|Buddhism]] in the middle of the 20th century. This was in response to the injustices of the [[Caste system in India|caste system]] practiced within Brahmanism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|author-link=Christophe Jaffrelot|title=Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste|year=2005|publisher=Orient Blackswan Publisher|isbn=8178241560|pages=119–131|chapter=The ‘Solution’ of Conversion}}</ref><ref name="zelliot">{{cite book |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Bardwell L. |title=Religion and the Legitimation of Power in South Asia |year=1978 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9004056742 |pages=88–90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x2Jzn_LuLasC&pg=PA88 |first=Eleanor |last=Zelliot |author-link=Eleanor Zelliot |chapter=Religion and Legitimation in the Mahar Movement}}</ref>

==History==
The Mahars are considered to be the original inhabitants of Maharashtra.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Claus |first1=Peter J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC |title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka |last2=Diamond |first2=Sarah |last3=Mills |first3=Margaret Ann |date=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-93919-5 |location=New York |pages=366 |language=en |quote=The Mahars, the largest caste of untouchables (now known as "Scheduled Castes" or "Dalits") in Maharashtra (9 percent of the population), are considered the original inhabitants of the area. |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415939195 |archive-date=21 July 2023}}</ref> The community is also known as ''Kathiwale'' (Men with Sticks), ''Bumiputera'' and (Sons of the Soil), Mirasi (Landlords). Traditionally they have the role of defending village boundaries from outsiders, invading tribes, criminals, and thieves. The ''Kathiwale'' name represents their former duty as village administrator. They were also responsible for maintaining law and order throughout the villages as administrators. The Mahars have a long and proud tradition of bearing arms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237864/page/n6/mode/1up |title=THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF INDIA|date=3 December 2023 }}</ref>

From the time of early Islamic rule, villages in [[Maharashtra]] were part of the [[Bara Balutedar|Baluta]] system. In that system, different castes were assigned different roles, each with its own tasks and rights. The duties assigned to the Mahar in the Baluta system included being village watchmen, trackers of thieves, messengers, wall menders, adjudicators of boundary disputes, and suppliers of coarse cloth to the village. In return for these services, the village granted them a ''[[Vatandar|watan]]'', or rights to a small piece of land to do their own cultivation. The ''watan'' also included a share of village produce.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Kosambi |editor-first=Meera |last=Kulkarni |first=A. R. |chapter=The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective |title=Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra|date=2000|publisher=Sangam|location=London|isbn=978-0863118241|pages=121–140|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU8dmAiaZSgC&pg=PA121|access-date=2016-12-13}}</ref> They also worked at times as agricultural labourers.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book |last1=Mendelsohn|first1=Oliver|last2=Vicziany|first2=Marika|author-link2=Marika Vicziany|title=The untouchables : subordination, poverty and the state in modern India|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=0521553628|page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGbp9MjhvKAC&pg=PR10}}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|editor-first=Knut A.|editor-last=Jacobsen |title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India|date=2015|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415738651|pages=362–363|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--9WCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA362 |chapter=Ambedkar's Life and his Navayana Buddhism |first=Eleanor |last=Zelliott |access-date=2016-10-25}}</ref> However, the Mahar were socio-economically above most other untouchable groups because their traditional role had been important in the village administrative system. This had necessitated that they had at least a rudimentary education, and frequently brought them into contact with upper-caste Hindus.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite journal |title=Understanding the Marathwada Riots: A Repudiation of Eclectic Marxism |first=Dipankar |last=Gupta |journal=Social Scientist |volume=7 |issue=10 |date=May 1979 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.2307/3516774 |jstor=3516774}}</ref>In the Baluta system, apart from many traditional duties mentioned above, the Mahar were assigned work of removing dead cattle from the village, they also started eating the meat from the cattle that had died naturally.<ref name="valunjkar">{{cite book |first=T. N. |last=Valunjkar |chapter=Dalit Social Consciousness in Western Maharashtra in Colonial Period 1880-1910 |title=Continuity and Change in Indian Society: Essays in Memory of Late Prof. Narmadeshwar Prasad |editor-first=Bindeshwar |editor-last=Pathak |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1998 |isbn=978-8-17022-726-7 |pages=207–208 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2Qt9tv2nSkC&pg=PA208}}</ref> This formed the basis for the caste being treated as [[Untouchability|untouchables]].<ref name="Kshīrasāgara1994">{{cite book|author=Rāmacandra Kshīrasāgara|title=Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders, 1857-1956|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wx218EFVU8MC&pg=PP11|year=1994|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-43-3|page=33,169}}</ref> The Mahar community defends consumption of beef by saying the [[famine]]s were the reason they started eating the beef.<ref name="2008Basham">{{cite book|author=Ardythe Basham|title=Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNrwIinNdH0C&pg=PA5|year=2008|publisher=Gautam Book Center|isbn=978-81-87733-43-0|page=12}}</ref>

===Islamic Era===
Under Islamic rule, the Mahar served as soldiers in various armies of the [[Deccan Sultanates]], [[Bahmani Sultanate]], and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]].<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> In 14th century, Mahar [[Bhakti]] saint [[Chokhamela]], and many of his family members such as [[Karmamela]], [[Sant Banka|Banka]], [[Sant Nirmala|Nirmala]], and [[Sant Soyarabai|Soyarabai]] became popular for their religious poetry called [[abhang]].<ref name="KingBrockington2005">{{cite book|first1=Anna S. |last1=King|first2=J. L. |last2=Brockington|title=The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhgDL6SwGeQC&pg=PA5|year=2005|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-2801-7|pages=5–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor2=Sir John Stewart-Wallace |editor1=Swami Ghananda |title=Women saints, east & west |year=1979 |publisher=Vedanta |location=Hollywood, Calif. |isbn=0874810361 |pages=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IhLSGtuW_EC&pg=PA62}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Aktor |editor-first=Mikael |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last2=Deliège |title=From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India|year=2008|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |location=Copenhagen|isbn=978-8763507752 |page=86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmKAqAQpIfwC&pg=PA86}}</ref><ref name="Kosambi2000">{{cite book|author1=Eleanor Zelliot|editor=Meera Kosambi |title=Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU8dmAiaZSgC&pg=PA1|year=2000|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-1878-0|pages=187–188}}</ref>

===Maratha era===
Mahar served in various armies over several centuries. The [[Maratha]] king [[Shivaji Maharaj]] recruited a number of them into his army in the 17th century due to their loyalty and bravery.<ref name="White 1994 39–60">{{cite journal |first=Richard B. |last=White |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/23002/Sagar-I.1.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |title=The Mahar Movement's Military Component |journal=SAGAR: South Asia Graduate Research Journal |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=1994 |pages=39–60}}</ref> They served as guards in hill forts and as soldiers.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Shinoda |editor-first=Takashi |title=The other Gujarat |year=2002 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |location=Mumbai |isbn=8171548741 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZNfS7mikMoC&pg=PA1}}</ref> The Mahar along with the Koli and Marathas defended the fort of Purandar from Dilerkhan's Mughal army in 1665.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kantak |first=M. R. |title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of Shivaji's Swarajya |journal= Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume= 38 |issue= 1/4 |year=1978 |pages= 40–56 |jstor=42931051}}</ref>

===British India===
[[File:The tribes and castes of the Central Provinces of India (1916) (14740799376).jpg|thumb|right|A Mahar Man winding thread from ''The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India'' (1916)]]
Under British rule, the Mahars became aware of the scope for social and political advancement. Their traditional role had been low-status but important in the village system.<ref name="Gupta"/>

====Military role under the British====
[[File:Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar.jpg|thumb|right|Bhima Koregaon Victory Pillar]]
During the colonial period, large numbers of Mahars and dhors were recruited for military duties by the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] and the [[British Raj]]. The [[Battle of Koregaon]] (1 January 1818) is commemorated by an obelisk known as the Koregaon pillar{{mdash}}which was erected at the site of the battle{{mdash}}and by a medal issued in 1851. The pillar featured on the Mahar Regiment crest until the [[Independence of India]]; it is inscribed with the names of 22 Mahars killed at the battle. The victory pillar serves as focal point of Mahar heroism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last =Kumbhojkar |first=Shraddha |title=Contesting Power, Contesting Memories - The History of the Koregaon Memorial |journal=The Economic and Political Weekly |publisher=EPW |year=2012 |url=http://www.epw.in/special-articles/contesting-power-contesting-memories.html |access-date=2013-06-11}}</ref>

The Mahar began their service to the East India company around 1750. 20-25% of the British Bombay Army was Mahar. Their conduct as soldiers was praised by many [[British people|British]] officers. Mahars were a vital component of the [[British people|British]] Marine Battalion. In the East India Company Army they participated in various wars including [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]], [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] and [[Second Afghan War]].<ref name="White 1994 39–60"/>

After the 1857 mutiny, the British decided to change their military recruitment policy One report "emphasized that we cannot practically ignore it [the caste system], so long as the natives socially maintain it". This led to the discrimination against the Mahars, other low castes, and some unreliable [[Brahmin]] castes.<ref name="White 1994 39–60"/>

Mahar recruitment reached its nadir in the early 1890s (sources differ as to exact year) when [[United Kingdom|British]] in favour of "[[martial races]]," specially north-western communities halted recruitment of Mahars.<ref name="zelliot" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Kamble|first=N. D.|title=Deprived castes and their struggle for equality|year=1983|publisher=Ashish Publisher House|pages=129–132}}</ref> The Mahar community attempted to confront this block with a petition circulated among the Mahar, [[Chamar]], and [[Mang (caste)|Mang]] former soldiers{{mdash}}all Marathi-speaking lower castes{{mdash}}but the movement was unable to organise and submit their petition.<ref name="zelliot" /> The attempt at a challenge had been spearheaded by [[Gopal Baba Walangkar]], himself a Mahar, dhor and former soldier, but he found that Mahar military pensioners were unwilling to sign because they feared that they might lose their pensions. Thus, by the beginning of World War I, there were few Mahars left in the Army.<ref name="teltumbde">{{cite book |title=Dalits: Past, present and future |first=Anand |last=Teltumbde |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-31552-643-0 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZXgDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT53}}</ref>

A Mahar regiment was created during World War I but only for a few years and because of British desperation for additional troops. In 1941, the [[Mahar Regiment]] proper was created.<ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/html/ch2.htm Mahars Turn Sixty]. Mod.nic.in (1 October 1941). Retrieved on 2012-03-28.</ref><ref name="Basham2008">{{cite book|first=Ardythe |last=Basham |title=Untouchable Soldiers: The Maharas and the Mazhbis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNrwIinNdH0C&pg=PA5 |year=2008 |publisher=Gautam Book Center |isbn=978-81-87733-43-0 |page=12}}</ref>

====Jyotirao Phule====
In 1873, [[Jyotirao Phule]], the founder of [[Satyashodhak Samaj]]{{mdash}}which aimed to abolish religious slavery{{mdash}}organised Mahars.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024|reason=Phule started school for the mahars but what did he do to "organise " them?}} At that time, Mahars were not allowed to enter Hindu temples and were considered [[Ritual purification|unclean]]. Even their entry into the shrines of Hindu gods was restricted.<ref name=Marc>{{cite book|last=Galanter|first=Marc|title=South Asian politics and religion|year=1966|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=283|url=http://marcgalanter.net/Documents/thereligiousaspectsofcaste.pdf|editor-last=Smith |editor-first=D. E. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402143125/http://marcgalanter.net/Documents/thereligiousaspectsofcaste.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-02}}</ref> Their first conference was held in Mumbai in 1903.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Mikael|last1=Aktor |first2=Robert |last2=Deliège|title=From Stigma to Assertion : Untouchability, Identity & Politics in Early & Modern India|year=2008|publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press|location=Copenhagen|isbn=978-8763507752|page=103|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmKAqAQpIfwC&pg=PA103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Keer|first=Dhananjay|title=Mahatma Jotirao Phooley : father of the Indian social revolution|year=1997|publisher=Popular Prakashan|location=Bombay|isbn=817154066X|pages=126–127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFY9fz68KEsC&pg=PA229|edition=New}}</ref>

====Shahu of Kolhapur====
[[Shahu of Kolhapur|Shahu]], the ruler of the princely state of [[Kolhapur State|Kolhapur]], abolished Mahar watan in 1918 and freed the Mahars in his territory from the slavery imposed by the society of the day. He also gave them all the human rights and equality that others enjoy.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU8dmAiaZSgC|title=Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra|last=Kosambi|first=Meera|date=2000|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=9788125018780|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book |editor-last=Kosambi |editor-first=Meera |last=Kulkarni |first=A. R. |chapter=The Mahar Watan: A Historical Perspective |title=Intersections: Socio-Cultural Trends in Maharashtra|date=2000|publisher=Sangam|location=London|isbn=978-0863118241|pages=121–140|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU8dmAiaZSgC&pg=PA121|access-date=2016-12-13}}</ref>

====B. R. Ambedkar====
In the 20th century, top leader [[Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar]] organized the Mahars and created radical political awakening among them and inspired them to pay attention towards [[education]]. Before his death in 1956, Ambedkar, along with millions of his Mahar followers, converted to [[Buddhism]] as a protest against the caste discrimination of Hindus.<ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|302466553}} |last1=Zelliot |first1=Eleanor Mae |date=1969 |title=Dr. Ambedkar and the Mahar movement }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref>

===After Independence===
Despite being the second largest community in Maharashtra after the [[Maratha (caste)|Maratha]], the Mahar community does not command influence in the upper levels of Maharashtra politics.<ref>Dhaware, Milind Suresh. "Disunity and fragmentation among Dalit castes of Maharashtra." International Journal of Innovative Research and Practices 1.9 (2013): 23-37.[https://www.forum4researchers.com/cw_admin/docs/IJIRP-SEP-13-03.pdf]
</ref>

==Demographics==
In 1969, the Mahars constituted about 70% of the total [[Scheduled Caste]] population and also represented about 9% of population of the state of Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dr. Ambedkar: The Hero of the Mahars, Ex-Untouchables of India |first=Indira Y. |last=Junghare |journal=Asian Folklore Studies |volume=47 |issue=1 |date=1988 |pages=93–121 |doi=10.2307/1178254 |jstor=178254}}</ref>
Mahar is numerically the largest Scheduled Caste in Maharashtra, according to the [[2001 Census of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Maharashtra: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_maha.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114021927/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_maha.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 November 2012|date=14 November 2012}}</ref>
{{as of|2017}}, the Mahar community was designated as a Scheduled Caste (SC) in 16 Indian states, being: [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]] [[Assam]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]], [[Daman and Diu]], [[Goa]], [[Gujarat]], [[Karnataka]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], Maharashtra, [[Rajasthan]], [[Telangana]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Haryana]].<ref name="auto"/>

According to the 2011 census, the Mahar population in Maharashtra is 80,06,060, which is 60.31% among Scheduled Castes, and 7.12% in the state.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Hiwale |first=Sandesh |date=2024-04-28 |title=What is the Mahar population in Maharashtra? |url=https://www.dhammabharat.com/mahar-population-in-maharashtra/ |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=Dhamma Bharat |language=en-gb}}</ref>

==Culture and social stratification==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
Historically Mahar had "12 and half" endogamous subcastes. The major subcastes include Ladvanshi (derived from "[[Lata (region)|Lata]] Pradesh" current [[Gujarat]]), Somvanshi, Andhavanshi, Tilvanshi, Bawane ([[Bhavani]] Mahar), Gondvanshi, Kadvanshi and Kosare. These subcaste names are not totemistic. Some of the subcaste names represent the territory they controlled or occupied, while other subcaste names represent the acts their founders did. The Somavanshi Mahar trace their descent (bloodline) from the [[Mahabharata]]'s Pandava. The Somavanshi Mahar claim to have taken part in the Mahabharata war and subsequently settled in Maharashtra. Before converting to Buddhism these subcastes would not marry and eat with one another.<ref>{{cite book |title=Maharashtra: Land and its people |chapter=Major castes and tribes |chapter-url=https://gazetteers.maharashtra.gov.in/cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/land_and_people/L%20&%20P%20pdf/Chapter%20II/2%20Major%20Castes%20and%20Tribes.pdf |series=Maharashtra State Gazetteer |publisher=Government of Maharashtra}}</ref>

The Mahars of the [[Deccan]] speak a non-standard version of [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. When a Mahar meets a man of his own caste he says ''Namastu'', and when he meets anyone other than a Mahar he says ''Johar'' (possibly from the Sanskrit ''Yoddhar'' (''[[Warrior]]''). Mahars belonging to different regions are not permitted to intermarry unless some family connection can be traced between them. The Mahars are divided into number of exogamous ''groups'' or ''[[clans]]'' or ''kuls''. There is evidence that each of the exogamous group historically owned and worshipped ''[[Devak]]'' or ''[[Totem]]'', which is important at the time of a marriage ceremony. Members of families with a common ''Devak'' cannot intermarry.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Clan System of Mahar
|-
! Clan !! Totem
|-
| Bagad || Umbar (Ficus glomerata)
|-
| [[Bhagat]] || Cobra
|-
| [[Gaekwad]] || Crab, sunflower, Kohala (Cucurbita Pivi)
|-
| [[Jadhav]] || Palm (Borassus Flabellzjerz, Pankanis (Typha Angustata), Tortoise(Kasav)
|-
| [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadam]] || Kadamba (Anthocephalus Cadumba).
|-
| Mohite || Umbar (Ficus Glomerata)
|-
| [[Morè (clan)|More]] || Peacock
|-
| [[Satpal]] || Cobra
|-
| Shevale || Nagvel (Pieper Betle)
|-
|Sonkamble || Champa (Mesua Ferrea).
|-
| [[Solar Dynasty|Suryavanshi]] || Sunflower
|-
| Talvatke || Copper
|-
|Tambe || Umbar (Ficus Glomerata).
|-
|Zankare || Mango, Umbar, Zambul.
|}

In most of cases ''Devak'' has become became obsolete and has been replaced by a composite ''Devak'' called [[Panch pallava|
''Panchpalvi'']] composed of the leaves of five trees.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ethnographic Notes – Andhra Pradesh |series=Census of India |volume=II, part V–B, (11) |date=1961 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2806/1/41944_1961_ETH.pdf |publisher=Office of the Director of Census Operations |location=Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128095140/http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2806/1/41944_1961_ETH.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> 
Few examples of Panchpalvi used in different districts / regions of present day Maharashtra state are,
*[[Khandesh]]

**Arkathi
**Borkathi
**Jambul
**Mango
**Ruchkin

*[[Pune|Poona]]
**[[Mango]]
**[[Ficus religiosa|Pipal]]
**[[Calotropis gigantea|Rui]]
**[[Prosopis cineraria|Shami]]
**[[Ficus racemosa|Umbar]]
===Dalit literature===
[[Eleanor Zelliot]] asserts that [[Dalit literature]] originated in Marathi-speaking areas of Maharashtra. She credits Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, a Mahar, for inspiring many Dalit writers. [[Baburao Bagul]] (1930–2008), [[Shankarrao Kharat]], and [[Bandhu Madhav]] were early Marathi writers from the Mahar community.<ref name=chap23>{{cite book|editor-last1=Kachru|editor-first1=Braj B. |editor-last2=Kachru|editor-first2=Yamuna |editor-last3=Sridhar|editor-first3=S. N.|last=Zelliot|first=Eleanor |author-link=Eleanor Zelliot |title=Language in South Asia, Part 9 |chapter=Dalit Literature, Language and Identity |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-52178-141-1 |pages=450–454 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA451}}</ref> The Mahar writer [[Namdeo Dhasal]] (who founded [[Dalit Panther]]) was significant in the Dalit movement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Of art, identity, and politics |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/01/23/stories/2003012300470200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030702073745/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/01/23/stories/2003012300470200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2003|work=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 January 2003 }}</ref> Other notable Mahar authors writing in Marathi include [[Shantabai Kamble]], [[Urmila Pawar]], [[Raja Dhale]], [[Daya Pawar]], and [[Narendra Jadhav]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jadhav|first1=Narendra|title=Untouchables : my family's triumphant escape from India's caste system|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, Calif.|isbn=978-0520252639|pages=53–54|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuU0pc_D-qwC&pg=PA1|access-date=2017-01-04}}</ref>

==Religion==
[[File:Nava Jetavana Temple - Shravasti - 015 Dr Ambedkar and his Followers become Buddhists in 1956 (9241722749).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The [[Dalit Buddhist Movement]] was begun by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] when he converted with his followers in 1956 in [[Deekshabhoomi]], [[Nagpur]].]]
Religion-wise population of the Mahars, as per 2011 census.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Hiwale |first=Sandesh |date=2024-02-23 |title=महाराष्ट्रातील अनुसूचित जातींची धर्मनिहाय लोकसंख्या |url=https://www.dhammabharat.com/religion-wise-population-of-scheduled-castes-in-maharashtra/ |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=Dhamma Bharat |language=en-gb}}</ref>
*Buddhist Mahars – 49,43,821 (61.75%)
*Hindu Mahars – 30,54,158 (38.15%)
*Sikh Mahars – 8,081 (0.10%)
*Total Mahars – 80,06,060 (100%)

In the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], 62% of Mahars stated Buddhism as their religion.<ref name=":1" /> Among the Scheduled Caste Hindus (Dalit Hindus) in Maharashtra, the proportion of Mahars is the highest at 38%. And 95% of Scheduled Caste Buddhists (Neo-Buddhists) and 70% of Scheduled Caste Sikhs (Dalit Sikhs) belong to the Mahar caste.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />

===Buddhism===
{{Main|Marathi Buddhists}}
When [[B. R. Ambedkar]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Stackhouse |editor-first=Max L.|editor-first2=Lalsangkima |editor-last2=Pachuau |title=News of boundless riches : interrogating, comparing, and reconstructing mission in a global era |year=2007 |publisher=ISPCK |location=Delhi |isbn=978-8184580136 |pages=230–232 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OPJ1BJCLw8C&pg=PA229}}</ref> he converted to Buddhism at [[Nagpur]] in 1956, many Mahars among his followers chose to do the same.<ref>{{cite web| last=Pritchett| first=Frances|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/1950s.html| title=In the 1950s| format=PHP| access-date=2006-08-02}}</ref> As Buddhists, they gave up their traditional Hindu occupations and sought to redefine their social status.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} Ambedkar died about two months after this mass conversion,<ref>{{cite web|last=Gautam|first=C|title=Life of Babasaheb Ambedkar|url=http://www.ambedkar.org/Babasaheb/lifeofbabasaheb.htm|publisher=Ambedkar Memorial Trust, London|access-date=2013-06-14}}</ref> and after his cremation more Mahars converted to Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book |first=Detlef |last=Kantowsky |title= Buddhists in India today:descriptions, pictures, and documents|year= 2003 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors}}</ref> Now, the Buddhist (Mahar) community is the third most populous in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="Clothey2007" />

Buddhism appealed to the sense of equality for the Mahars<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pandey|first=Gyanendra|title=The Time of the Dalit Conversion|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=6–12 May 2006|volume=41|issue=18|pages=1779+1781–1788|jstor=4418177}}</ref> to the extent that some Buddhist Mahar leaders maintain that the term ''Mahar'' should no longer be applied to converts to Buddhism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/story/245413.html |title=Maya under fire from Dalit leaders in Maharashtra |work=Indian Express |date=1 December 2007 |access-date=2012-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103184518/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/245413.html |archive-date=2008-01-03}}</ref> As one intellectual of Mahar origin said, "I have accepted Buddhist doctrine. I am Buddhist now. I am not Mahar now, not untouchable nor even Hindu. I have become a human being".<ref>{{cite book |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |author-link=Christophe Jaffrelot |year=2005 |title=The 'solution' of conversion': Dr Ambedkar and Untouchability: Analysing and Fighting Caste |publisher=Orient Blackswan |page=138 |isbn=978-8-17824-156-2}}</ref>

In a 1996 book, authors De and Shastree claimed that it has been difficult for the Neo-buddhists to totally abandon the rituals, practices, and festivals of their old Hindu religion. In 1962, V R Ranpise, an early buddhist convert, wrote a book in Marathi called ''Boudha Samskar Path'' as a guide to his fellow converts. It appears, however, that very few have read the book.<ref name="DeShastree1996">{{cite book|author1=Ranjit Kumar De|author2=Uttara Shastree|title=Religious Converts in India: Socio-political Study of Neo-Buddhists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYInC70BSEgC&pg=PP10|year=1996|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-629-3|pages=65–86}}</ref>

===Hinduism===
Before the Mahar mass conversion to Buddhism, the important deities of Mahar were [[Shiva]], [[Khandoba]], [[Vithoba]] and the ''varkari'' saints, [[Chokhamela]] and [[Dnyaneshwar]]. Family deities of Mahars are typically [[Shiva]], [[Mariamman|Maridevi]], [[Bhūmi|Bhumidevi]], [[Navanathas]] and [[Bhavani]]. The ''Nag'' (king cobra) was particularly revered by the community.{{sfn|Ranjit Kumar De|Uttara Shastree|1996|p=73}}

===Sikhism===
Some Mahars in Maharashtra practice [[Sikhism]]. According to the 2011 census, there were 11,485 Scheduled Caste (SC) Sikhs in Maharashtra, of which 8,081 were Mahars.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />

===Christianity===
{{main|Christianity in Maharashtra}}

In the late 19th century, Otto Weishaupt's attempts to evangelise in the [[Sangamner]] area of Ahmadnagar district met with resistance, but his efforts to promote Christianity did appeal to few Mahars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shelke |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_rM5g2ZmWPkC&pg=PA166 |title=God the Creator : universality of inculturality |publisher=Pontificia università gregoriana |year=2008 |isbn=978-8878391284 |location=Roma |pages=166–167}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rege |first=Sharmila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Msaki69NQHsC&pg=PA139 |title=Writing caste, writing gender: reading Dalit women's testimonios |publisher=Zubaan |year=2006 |isbn=8189013017 |location=New Delhi |page=139 |author-link=Sharmila Rege}}</ref> Legally, ''Christian Mahars'' are not considered as [[Scheduled Castes]] (SCs).<ref name=":1" />

===Islam===
Some Mahars in Maharashtra practice [[Islam]].The Mahar people converted to Islam during the rule of Aurangzeb, a Mughal emperor in India. They have been faithful to Islam ever since. Most live in Maharashtra.The Muslim Mahar are noted for their faithfulness to the tenets of Sunni Islam. Yet they have some of their own spiritual practices that are not found in the Quran.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Project |first=Joshua |title=Mahar (Muslim traditions) in India |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/17613/IN |access-date=2026-01-13 |website=joshuaproject.net |language=en}}</ref> Legally, ''Muslim Mahars'' are not considered as [[Scheduled Castes]] (SCs).

== Notables ==
* [[B. R. Ambedkar]]<ref>{{Cite web | title=Mahar {{!}} Meaning, Caste, & History {{!}} Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mahar | access-date=2025-08-08 | website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Dalit Kitchens of Marathwada]]

==Footnotes==
{{Notefoot}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |title=The Marginalization of a Dalit Martial Race in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Western India |first=Philip |last=Constable |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=60 |issue=2 |date=May 2001 |pages=439–478 |jstor=2659700 |doi=10.2307/2659700|pmid=18268829 |s2cid=40219522 }}
{{Social groups of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Mahar| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist communities of India]]
[[Category:Dalit communities]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Assam]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Daman and Diu]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Goa]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Telangana]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of West Bengal]]

Ahmedabad Town Hall

2026-02-28T06:10:59Z

Vedpsagar: adjust information per sources and corrected details

{{Short description|Former auditorium in Ahmedabad, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Ahmedabad Town Hall
| native_name =
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| image = File:Ahmedabad Town Hall.jpg
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| caption = Ahmedabad Town Hall, in 2014
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| alternate_names = Sheth Mangaldas Girdhardas Memorial Hall
| etymology =
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| building_type = [[Auditorium]]
| architectural_style = [[Art Deco]] with inspirations from [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Gujarati Hindu temples]]
| classification =

| address = Near Ellisbridge
| location_city = [[Ahmedabad]]
| location_country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|display=inline, title}}
| altitude =
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| construction_start_date = 1936<ref>{{Cite book|first=Jon T.|last=Lang|title=A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2002|isbn=9788178240176|pages=18}}</ref>
| est_completion = 1938
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| renovation_date = 1960s, 1997-98
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| material = Brick Wall, Concrete Dome
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| architect = [[Claude Batley]]
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}}
The '''Ahmedabad Town Hall''', officially '''Sheth Mangaldas Girdhardas Memorial Hall''', is an [[auditorium]] in [[Ahmedabad]], [[India]]. It is named after Mangaldas Girdhardas, a textile industrialist.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Colonial Architecture – A Complete Ahmedabad City Guide|author= Dr. Manek Patel |url=https://www.welcometoahmedabad.com/126/colonial-architecture.html|website=www.welcometoahmedabad.com|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref> Built in 1930s and renovated twice, it is now abandoned.

== History ==
The town hall was constructed in 1930s as a memorial to Mangaldas Girdhardas, a noted textile industrialist in the 20th century, with funds donated by the citizens. It is owned by the [[Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Sheth Mangaldas Town Hall {{!}} Kamal Mangaldas Architect|url=http://kamalmangaldas.net/project/sheth-mangaldas-town-hall|website=kamalmangaldas.net|access-date=2020-05-23}}</ref>

It was renovated in the 1960s under [[B. V. Doshi]]. He had opted for a false ceiling for better [[acoustics]].<ref name=":0" />

Extensive renovation was carried out in 1997–98 under architect Kamal Mangaldas, a grandson of Mangaldas Girdhardas. He removed the false ceiling and added a podium around the original building.<ref name=":0" />

It is abandoned now.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-28 |title=Ahmedabad fails its iconic theatres |url=https://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/world-theatre-day/81888154.html |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Ahmedabad Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
The town hall was designed by British architect [[Claude Batley]] in 1939, who also designed the [[M. J. Library]] next to it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Achyut Yagnik]] |title=Ahmedabad: From Royal city to Megacity |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2011 |isbn=9788184754735}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Modern Architecture and Capitalist Patronage in Ahmedabad, India 1947–1969|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/5ceca4c870c2f6262d3f6ba9efd59efe/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y|last=Williamson|first=Daniel|date=2016|website=ProQuest Dissertations Publishing|publisher=New York University|pages=288–291|id={{ProQuest|}}|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pandya|first=Yatin|date=2013-01-07|title=Ahmedabad: Where masters crafted their dreams|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-ahmedabad-where-masters-crafted-their-dreams-1786534|access-date=2021-04-18|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref>

It is an example of an [[Art Deco]] building.<ref name=":0" /> The plan of the building is designed by using two rotating squares placed at 45 degrees forming a star-shape. The resulting [[octagonal]] space is designed as a seating area. Rectangles are added to the front and rear of the central square which formed a [[Vestibule (architecture)|vestibule]] and a stage respectively. The star-shaped building is capped by a dome on an octagonal space. The whole plan takes inspiration from the [[Mandapa|''mandapa''s]] of [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Gujarati Hindu temples]]. The exterior has exposed bricks with stepped back corners invoking the complex exterior of Hindu temples.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Vasavada|first1=Rabindra|last2=Cunha|first2=Dilip da|last3=Tiwari|first3=Meenu|date=2020|title=Modernity – An important phase in History of Architecture of India|url=https://architexturez.net/doc/az-cf-205137|journal=Seminar on Architecture|issue=12 |language=en}}</ref>

The thick walls were constructed from bricks and an octagonal concrete dome was constructed over it. The ''[[Chhajja]]'' and ornate grills in the structure show influence of Gujarati architectural heritage.<ref>{{Cite book|title=India: Modern Architectures in History|publisher=Reaktion Books, 2015|year=2015|isbn=9781780234687|pages=100}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

== See also ==
* [[Tagore Memorial Hall]]
* [[Premabhai Hall]]
* [[Vijali Ghar]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://kamalmangaldas.net/project/sheth-mangaldas-town-hall Building plan drawings]

{{Ahmedabad topics|status=collapsed}}
[[Category:Auditoriums in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:British colonial architecture in India]]
[[Category:Art Deco architecture in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1938]]
[[Category:Māru-Gurjara architecture]]

CIA activities in India

2026-02-11T16:59:59Z

Vedpsagar: Made First Info And Citations!

{{Short description|none}}
{{context|date=April 2019}}
Below is a list of speculated '''CIA activities in India'''.

==1950s==
The Cold War was marked by geopolitical tensions between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union. Both superpowers sought to gain the allegiance of newly independent India, as its alignment could significantly influence the global balance of power. The U.S. and the Soviet Union employed their intelligence and espionage networks to win India over to their respective ideologies. In 1949, [[T.G. Sanjeev]], the director of the Indian Intelligence Service, collaborated with the CIA to monitor communist China. Following China's annexation of Tibet, the CIA, under Indian supervision, supported Tibetan resistance fighters in 1950. The CIA facilitated the safe passage of the [[Dalai Lama]] to India in 1959. A secret CIA military base was established in Charbatia, Odisha, which was utilized for U-2 spy plane operations over China.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mattoo |first1=Shashank |title=Cold War Espionage: How CIA and KGB fought for influence over India in a Secret Intelligence War in the 1940s |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/global/story/cold-war-espionage-cold-war-spies-battled-for-influence-over-india-in-the-1940s-2578435-2024-08-07 |website=indiatoday |date=7 August 2024 }}</ref>

In 1955, a chartered Indian airliner, [[Kashmir Princess#CIA involvement|Kashmir Princess]], was bombed. There is substantial evidence that the [[Kuomintang]] may have planted the bomb, attempting to assassinate [[Zhou Enlai]], who had been expected on it. CIA involvement is much less clear, although some general claims are made.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}

In a 1971 face-to-face meeting in the [[Great Hall of the People]] in [[Beijing]], Zhou directly asked [[Henry Kissinger]] about US involvement, whose response included the line "As I told the Prime Minister the last time, he vastly overestimates the competence of the CIA."<ref name="HAK">{{citation
| volume = Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume E-13, Documents on China, 1969-1972
| series = Foreign
| url = https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e13/72454.htm
| title = Memorandum of conversation (Henry Kissinger, Zhou Enlai, and staff)
| date = October 21, 1971
| publisher = [[United States Department of State]]
}}</ref> Kissinger denied any US policy to kill him, and the two discussed the CIA at some length, in a manner unusual to find in US records.

In 1958, India's nuclear programs were assessed.<ref name="IndiaNuke1958-02-18">{{citation
| author = Office of Scientific Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency
| title = Indian Nuclear Energy Program
| date = February 18, 1958
| url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN01.pdf
}}</ref> Speculations are made by the intelligence experts{{By whom|date=October 2022}} that the CIA orchestrated the plane crash in which [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]], an Indian nuclear scientist, was killed.

During a period of anti-communist protests dubbed the ''[[Vimochana Samaram]]'' ([[English language|English]]: "Liberation Struggle") against the [[First E. M. S. Namboodiripad ministry]], which was led by [[Praja Socialist Party]], [[Nair Service Society]] and others, saw the ovethrowing of the government. The communists claimed that the protests were funded by the CIA.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-03-02 |title=The Hindu : Kerala / Kottayam News : Fresh light on 'Liberation Struggle' |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/12/stories/2008021254000400.htm |access-date=2022-01-13 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302170836/http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/12/stories/2008021254000400.htm |archive-date=2 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sabarimala protest vs Liberation Struggle: What's the link?|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/13/sabarimala-protest-liberation-struggle.html|access-date=2022-01-13|website=OnManorama}}</ref>

==1960s ==
In 1965, [[Special National Intelligence Estimate]] 31-1-65 examined India's nuclear weapons policy for the remainder of the 1960s. In doing so, it examines India's technical capabilities, the pressures for a weapons program, and the opposition to a weapons program. A final section, "The Indian Decision," tries to assess India's decision calculus and notes that India might try to represent any underground test as being for peaceful purposes.<ref name="SNIE31-1-65">{{citation
| author = Central Intelligence Agency
| title = SNIE 31-1-65: India's Nuclear Weapons Policy
| date = October 21, 1965
| url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN09.pdf
}}</ref>

Journalist, conspiracy theorist,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Gregory |title=Regicide: The Official Assassination of John F. Kennedy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GgMAAAACAAJ |publisher=Castle Hill Pub |language=en |date=2002|isbn=9781591482970 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Weber |first1=Mark |title=Not Quite the Hitler Diaries - Gestapo Chief (Review) |url=http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v20/v20n2p40_Douglas.html |website=www.ihr.org |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> and holocaust denier<ref>{{cite web |last1=Douglas |first1=Gregory |title=Conversations With The Crow |url=https://archive.org/details/conversations-with-the-crow-pdf/page/n55/mode/2up?q=gas+chambers |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> Gregory Douglas claimed to have conducted a series of interviews with CIA officer [[Robert Crowley (CIA)|Robert Crowley]] in 1993. Douglas claims that Crowley implied the CIA was responsible for assassinating [[Homi J. Bhabha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/has-a-swiss-climber-traced-mystery-crash-that-killed-homi-bhabha-father-of-indias-atom-bomb-1477249.html|title=Has an Alps Climber Traced Mystery Crash That Killed Homi Bhabha?|website=[[News18]]|date=30 July 2017|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> Douglas wrote that Crowley said that a bomb in the cargo section of the plane exploded mid-air, bringing down the commercial Boeing 707 airliner in Alps with few traces, claiming he described it as "an unfortunate accident".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/operative-spoke-of-cia-hand-in-1966-crash-report/articleshow/59826686.cms|title=Homi Bhabha: Operative spoke of CIA hand in 1966 crash: Report |author=Laxman, Srinivas | agency =Times News Network |date= July 30, 2017|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref>

When India formed its intelligence agency [[R&AW]] in 1968, RAW's first director, [[R.N. Kao]], held meetings with his CIA counterparts in the U.S., as well as the United Kingdom's [[Secret Intelligence Service|MI6]] and the Soviet Union [[KGB]]. Much of the liaison was essentially political in character — what is today known as 'back channel diplomacy' — but R&AW's special operations and SIGINT/IMINT unit, the [[Aviation Research Centre]], received technical assistance from the U.S. in return for information on China.<ref name="ATimes2007-08-18">{{citation
| url = http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IH18Df03.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011030724/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IH18Df03.html
| url-status = unfit
| archive-date = October 11, 2007
| date = August 18, 2007
| title = Book review: India's silent warriors, The Kaoboys of R&AW: Down Memory Lane by B Raman
| first1 = Sreeram | last1 = Chaulia
}}</ref>

==1970s==
India's first nuclear test (codenamed [[Operation Smiling Buddha]]) on May 18, 1974 was a surprise to the international intelligence community, although the overall nuclear program and incentives to build a bomb had been discussed.<ref name="NSAEBB187">{{citation
| title = U.S. Intelligence and the Indian Bomb: Documents Show U.S. Intelligence Failed to Warn of India's Nuclear Tests Despite Tracking Nuclear Weapons Potential Since 1950s
| volume = Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 187
| editor = Richelson, Jeffrey
| series = National
| date = April 13, 2006
| url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/index.htm
}}</ref>

India conducted an underground nuclear test at a site in the desert at [[Pokhran]] - making it the world's seventh nuclear power. As CIA analysts had previously suggested, India claimed the test was for peaceful purposes.<ref name="SNIE31-1-65" /> This Top Secret Codeword item in the Central Intelligence Bulletin relays press reporting and public statements by officials of other governments, including Pakistan, and contains analysts assessments of the implications for China.<ref name="NSAEBB187-17">{{citation
| author = Central Intelligence Agency
| title = India [Redacted]
| volume = Intelligence Bulletin
| date = May 20, 1974
| series = Central
| url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN17.pdf
}}</ref>

==1980s==
[[Sheel Bhadra Yagee]] claimed that the CIA orchestrated the Sikh uprising which later led to [[Indira Gandhi assassination]] by her Sikh body guards.<ref name="Yajee1985">{{citation
| last1 = Yajee | first1 = Sheel Bhadra | authorlink = Sheel Bhadra Yagee
| title =CIA Operations Against the Third World
| publisher = Criterion Publications
| year = 1985
| pages = 120–39
}}</ref>

In 1985, according to ''Frontline'' magazine, R&AW counter-intelligence obtained a confession, from a field officer in [[Chennai]] to admit that he had passed on sensitive information to the CIA and Sri Lankan intelligence. R&AW confronted him with footage showing him making contact with a U.S. national on a beach in Chennai and at a resort in Kerala. R&AW had sought to tighten in-house security after the public fracas that broke out in the wake of the scandal. The Chennai case was a particular embarrassment because it came hot on the heels of another spy scandal involving French and Polish intelligence.<ref name="Frontline2004-06-19">
{{citation|author=Swami, Praveen|title=Our Man in New Delhi|date=June 19, 2004|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2113/stories/20040702004403200.htm|journal=Frontline|volume=21|issue=13|df=mdy-all|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080329115754/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2113/stories/20040702004403200.htm|publisher=The Hindu|access-date=April 28, 2008|archive-date=March 29, 2008|author-link=Praveen Swami|url-status=usurped}}
</ref>

In 1987, when the Indian Peace Keeping Force ([[IPKF]]) was in [[Sri Lanka]] during the [[Sri Lankan civil war|Sri Lankan Civil War]], Paranthan Rajan came into contact with R&AW officials.<ref name="TamilNet2006-06-25">{{citation|title=India & the Struggle for Tamil Eelam: RAW aiding paramilitary recruitment in India|date=June 25, 2006|url=http://www.tamilnation.org/intframe/india/060626raw.htm|journal=TamilNet|access-date=April 28, 2008|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405053720/https://tamilnation.org/intframe/india/060626raw.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> He came to Indian intelligence officials’ attention when he formed a political group, Tamileela Iykkia Viduthalai Munnani. Given his background, observers feel Rajan’s alliance with Karuna{{Who|date=October 2021}} might be R&AW’s handiwork.

==1990s==
In 1992, the US State Department threatened to impose economic sanctions on India after it refused permission for US sleuths to go on an aerial-photography mission along the Sino-Indian border.<ref name="ATimes2007-08-18" />

==2000s==
{{Overly detailed|section|date=October 2021}}
India's ballistic missile capabilities were addressed in a National Intelligence Estimate, which concluded that New Delhi believes that a nuclear-capable missile delivery option is necessary to deter Pakistani first use of nuclear weapons and thereby preserve the option to wage limited conventional war in response to Pakistani provocations in Kashmir or elsewhere. Nuclear weapons also serve as a hedge against a confrontation with China. New Delhi views the development, not just the possession, of nuclear-capable ballistic missiles as the symbols of a world power and an important component of self-reliance.<ref name="SNIE-BalMsl">{{citation
| title = Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat Through 2015; Unclassified Summary of a National Intelligence Estimate
| author = Central Intelligence Agency
| url = http://www.fas.org/irp/nic/bmthreat-2015.htm
|date=December 2001}}</ref>

Until recently, only R&AW was authorised to have contacts with foreign intelligence agencies — and the job was restricted to a select few within its ranks. Under the National Democratic Alliance coalition government, R&AW, IB, and DIA could interact with counterpart organizations in other countries. Former Deputy Prime Minister L.K. Advani, for example, met the heads of the CIA and Israel's Mossad along with Intelligence Bureau staff.<ref name="Rediff2004-09-07">{{citation
| url = http://www.indiaabroad.com/news/2004/sep/07guest.htm
| journal = Rediff India Abroad
| title = For the US: India's untrustworthy
| date = September 7, 2004
| author = Bennett, Richard M
| access-date = April 28, 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080928184457/http://www.indiaabroad.com/news/2004/sep/07guest.htm
| archive-date = September 28, 2008
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>{{Citation needed|reason=Citation does not support previous statement.|date=July 2008}} Brajesh Mishra, former Principal Secretary to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, is known to have had direct contact with the head of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence as well. While meetings in themselves are not inappropriate, they can lead to the breakdown of protocols - for example, that intelligence officers will meet a foreign contact only in teams of two - and eventual penetration.<ref name="Frontline2004-06-19b">{{citation
| url = http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2113/stories/20040702004403200.htm
| first1 =Praveen | last1 = Swami
| title = Our Man in New Delhi
| volume=21
| issue=13
| date = June 19, 2004
| journal = Frontline
| publisher = The Hindu
}}</ref>
There is little oversight of this process, which has had the unexpected consequence that "hundreds of Indian agents have been exposed, the term professionals use to describe individuals whose real jobs are known to foreign intelligence organisations.

[[Rabinder Singh (intelligence officer)|Rabinder Singh]] has been described, in Indian media, as a CIA asset inside the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW), the national intelligence service. It is not clear if he is a member of a larger [[clandestine HUMINT]] network.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} The suggestion has already been made by a number of well-placed observers{{by whom|date=October 2022}} that he had acted as a conduit or cutout for a number of highly placed US 'assets' operating deep within the Indian intelligence community, the military and scientific centres working on nuclear and missile development, and others{{by whom|date=October 2022}} inside the political establishment.

The issue also involved problems with the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], the domestic security agency, and an overall concern with trust of security officers.

In 2002, Singh visited the US under a liaison initiative based on [[counter-terror]], teaching skills for hostage negotiation and dealing with hijackers. Singh, however, is a [[Southeast Asia]] analyst not working on terror issues.<ref name="Hindu2004-06-14">{{citation
|url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/06/14/stories/2004061408020100.htm
|journal = The Hindu
|title = Open doors for mole recruitment
|date = June 14, 2004
|first1 = Praveen
|last1 = Swami
|access-date = April 28, 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081010184027/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/06/14/stories/2004061408020100.htm
|archive-date = October 10, 2008
|url-status = usurped
}}</ref>

In 2002, the last year for which figures are available, the U.S. hosted 80 courses for officers from India, along with 17 other countries in Asia and Africa. "Intelligence cooperation and liaison have always been chaotic," says former R&AW officer and analyst B. Raman, "but we cannot afford complacency any more."

Singh disappeared from India in May 2004, and applied for asylum in the US.<ref name="Rediff2004-09-07b">Rediff2004-09-07</ref> ''Frontline'', an Indian newsmagazine, described him as "Joint Secretary handling South-East Asia" for R&AW.<ref name="Hindu2004-06-14b">Hindu2004-06-14</ref> He came to R&AW as an Indian Army major, who had "served with distinction in Amritsar during Operation Bluestar, the counter-terrorist assault on the Golden Temple in 1984. At some point after this, he again attracted the attention of his superiors, this time by procuring classified U.S. government documentation.

"Rabinder Singh's source seems to have been one of his relatives, a U.S. citizen who has worked for over two decades with the United States [[Agency for International Development]] (USAID). Rabinder Singh's relative is alleged to have visited India regularly on official work, sometimes staying at his residence. This relationship, RAW investigators claim, enabled Rabinder Singh to pass on documents with only a minimal risk of exposure.

"In the early 1980s, the son of then R&AW chief N. Narasimhan left the U.S. after efforts were made to approach the spy chief through him. Narasimhan's son had been denied a visa extension, and was offered its renewal in return for his cooperation with the U.S.' intelligence services. "Not all," says a senior R&AW officer, "would respond with such probity."<ref name="Frontline2004-06-19c">Frontline2004-06-19</ref>

Charges against Singh were filed in 2006. The RAW charges said that they had located Singh in New Jersey and the process should start to seek his extradition. “Now, we will be moving to extradite Singh from the US,” stated the complaint. The Home Ministry had earlier invoked the National Security Act and issued orders to attach Singh’s property.<ref name="IndianExpress2006-11-02">{{citation|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/story/15865.html |title=Rabinder in US, we want him back: RAW in court |author=Tripathi, Rahul |website=IndianExpress.com |date=November 2, 2006 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307091854/http://www.indianexpress.com/story/15865.html |archive-date=March 7, 2008 }}</ref>

After losing a first petition for asylum in the US, Singh won on appeal.<ref name="SinghAppeal">{{cite court
|litigants=Surender Jeet Singh vs. John Ashcroft
|court=United States Court of Appeal for the Ninth Circuit
|date=November 1, 2004
|url= http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/ca9/newopinions.nsf/1979AF53DE5277E988256F7200806B72/$file/0371868.pdf?openelement}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia}}
{{Central Intelligence Agency}}

[[Category:Activities of foreign intelligence agencies in India]]
[[Category:India–United States relations]]
[[Category:CIA activities in Asia|India]]
[[Category:CIA activities by country|India]]

Papam Pasivadu (TV series)

2026-02-05T22:27:16Z

Vedpsagar: Adding First Info From Scratch...

{{Short description|Indian Romantic drama series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Papam Pasivadu (TV series).jpg
| caption = Promotional poster
| genre = [[Romance drama]]
| creator = Lalith Kumar
| developer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| writer = Lalith Kumar
| director = Lalith Kumar
| starring = {{plain list|
*[[Sreerama Chandra]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/caught-in-the-web-sreerama-chandra-to-make-streaming-debut-with-papam-pasivadu-on-aha/article67347746.ece | title=Singer Sreerama Chandra Mynampati to make streaming debut with 'Papam Pasivadu' on Aha | newspaper=The Hindu | date=28 September 2023 | last1=Murthy | first1=Neeraja | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=6 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006180907/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/caught-in-the-web-sreerama-chandra-to-make-streaming-debut-with-papam-pasivadu-on-aha/article67347746.ece | url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Rashi Singh]]
*Srividya Maharshi
*Gayatri Changanti
*Ashok Kumar
}}
| theme_music_composer =
| open_theme =
| composer =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 5
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = {{plain list|
*Bhuvan Saluru
*Arjun Samudrala
}}
| producer = Akhilesh Vardhan
| cinematography = Gokul Bharathi
| editor = Viplav Nyshadam
| music = Jose Jimmy
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime =
| company = The Weekend Show
| network = [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2023|9|29}}
| last_aired =
| related =
}}

'''''Papam Pasivadu''''' is an Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language romance drama television series created by Lalith Kumar and written and directed by him. The series was produced by Akhlilesh Vardhan under the banner The Weekend Show.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2023/sep/24/paapam-pasivadu-trailer-out-47924.html | title=Paapam Pasivadu trailer out | website=[[Cinema Express]] | date=24 September 2023 | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=17 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117155327/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2023/sep/24/paapam-pasivadu-trailer-out-47924.html | url-status=live }}</ref> It stars [[Sreerama Chandra]], [[Rashi Singh]], Srividya Maharshi, Gayatri Changanti and Ashok Kumar.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ragalahari.com/movies/info/96962/papam-pasivadu-sreerama-chandra-rashi-singh-lalith-kumar.aspx | title=Papam Pasivadu | Cast & Crew | News | Galleries | Movie Posters | Watch Papam Pasivadu Movie Online | website=ragalahari.com | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=17 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117155325/https://www.ragalahari.com/movies/info/96962/papam-pasivadu-sreerama-chandra-rashi-singh-lalith-kumar.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref> It premiered on [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]] on 29 September 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/ott/040923/aha-to-release-an-original-web-series-papam-pasivadu-on-september-29.html | title=Aha to release an Original Web Series 'Papam Pasivadu' on September 29 | website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] | date=4 September 2023 | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=1 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001222857/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/ott/040923/aha-to-release-an-original-web-series-papam-pasivadu-on-september-29.html | url-status=live }}</ref> It received negative reviews from critics.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ragalahari.com/movies/review/1629/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review-pure-torture.aspx | title=Papam Pasivadu Telugu Web Series Review & Rating: Pure torture! | website=ragalahari.com | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=17 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117155357/https://www.ragalahari.com/movies/review/1629/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review-pure-torture.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Plot==

Kranthi, portrayed by Sreerama Chandra, is a 32-year-old man facing confusion after his breakup with Dimpy, played by Gayathri Changanti. One night, while dealing with his emotions and under the influence, he meets Chaaru (Raashi Singh) at a bar. This encounter leads him to stay at Chaaru's place, sparking a new interest. Meanwhile, Kranthi's parents arrange a marriage with Anusha (Sri Vidya Maharshi).

Caught in conflicting emotions, Kranthi is torn between choosing Chaaru, fulfilling his parents' wishes with Anusha, or reconciling with Dimpy. The series follows Kranthi as he navigates his emotions and relationships, exploring the consequences of his decisions. The narrative unfolds to reveal subsequent events, providing an exploration of love, choices, and the repercussions within Kranthi's personal journey.

==Cast==

*[[Sreerama Chandra]] as Kranthi
*[[Rashi Singh]] as Chaaru
*Gayathri Changanti as Dimpy
*Srividya Maharshi as Anusha
*Ashok Kumar as Vardhan
*Madee as Nithin

== Episodes ==
=== Series overview ===
{{Series overview
| color1 = #3C5792
| link1 = #Season 1 (2023)
| episodes1 = 5
| released1 = {{Start date|df=yes|2023|9|29}}
}}

===Season 1 (2023)===
{{Episode table |background=#3C5792 |overall= |season=|title= |director= |writer= |airdate= |airdateR= |episodes=
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 1
| EpisodeNumber2 = 1
| Title = Antham
| DirectedBy = Lalith Kumar
| WrittenBy = Lalith Kumar
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=y|2023|9|29}}
| ShortSummary =
| LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 2
| EpisodeNumber2 = 2
| Title = Veta
| DirectedBy = Lalith Kumar
| WrittenBy = Lalith Kumar
| OriginalAirDate= {{Start date|df=y|2023|9|29}}
| ShortSummary =
| LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 3
| EpisodeNumber2= 3
| Title = Aha naa Pellanta
| DirectedBy = Lalith Kumar
| WrittenBy = Lalith Kumar
| OriginalAirDate= {{Start date|df=y|2023|9|29}}
| ShortSummary =
| LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 4
| EpisodeNumber2= 4
| Title = Kshana Kshanam
| DirectedBy = Lalith Kumar
| WrittenBy = Lalith Kumar
| OriginalAirDate= {{Start date|df=y|2023|9|29}}
| ShortSummary =
| LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 5
| EpisodeNumber2= 5
| Title = Nirnayam
| DirectedBy = Lalith Kumar
| WrittenBy = Lalith Kumar
| OriginalAirDate= {{Start date|df=y|2023|9|29}}
| ShortSummary =
| LineColor = 3CB371
}}
}}

==Reception==

A critic from [[123telugu]] gave the series 2.25/5 stars and wrote that "Papam Pasivadu, a coming-of-age web series, falls short of leaving a lasting impression despite Sreerama Chandra's commendable performance. The simple storyline, coupled with occasional moments of laughter, suggests exploring alternative entertainment options for a more engaging weekend."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.123telugu.com/reviews/papam-pasivadu-telugu-web-series-review.html | title=Papam Pasivadu Telugu Movie Review | website=123telugu.com | date=29 September 2023 | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=29 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929154124/https://www.123telugu.com/reviews/papam-pasivadu-telugu-web-series-review.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

Nelki Naresh Kumar of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' stated that "Papam Pasivadu is a light-hearted entertainment series. While it may lack originality in terms of its storyline and plots, it still offers a pleasant viewing experience that can be enjoyed for entertainment purposes. It's worth considering for a leisurely watch, despite the absence of groundbreaking narratives."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review-singer-sri-ramachandra-romantic-comedy-web-series-streaming-on-aha-ott-121695945085995.html |title=Papam Pasivadu Web Series Review: పాపం ప‌సివాడు వెబ్‌సిరీస్ రివ్యూ - క‌న్ఫ్యూజ‌న్ కామెడీ తెలుగు సిరీస్ ఎలా ఉందంటే? | language=Telugu | trans-title=Papam Pasivadu webseries Review |website=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=17 January 2024 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003222300/https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review-singer-sri-ramachandra-romantic-comedy-web-series-streaming-on-aha-ott-121695945085995.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A critic from ''[[Eenadu]]'' wrote that "Lalit Kumar's adept use of humor breathes life into the familiar tale, keeping the audience engaged even during moments of the hero's perplexity. The narrative skillfully balances confusion with clarity, delivering a commentary that ensures both amusement and comprehension."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/movies/papam-pasivadu-web-series--review-starring-sreerama-chandra/0203/123180057 | title=Papam Pasivadu Review: రివ్యూ: పాపం పసివాడు.. సింగర్‌ శ్రీరామ చంద్ర నటించిన వెబ్‌సిరీస్‌ ఎలా ఉందంటే? | trans-title=Papam Pasivadu webseries Review | website=[[eenadu]] | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=27 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127055233/https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/movies/papam-pasivadu-web-series--review-starring-sreerama-chandra/0203/123180057 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Srivathsan Nadadhur of [[OTTPlay]] gave the series 1/5 stars and wrote that "Papam Pasivadu falls flat as a comedy, relying on weak jokes and scenes for laughs. Sreerama Chandra's disappointing acting makes it a weekend watch to skip."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/papam-pasivadu-review-sympathies-only-for-the-viewer/b1030dd9ed46 | title=Papam Pasivadu review: Sympathies only for the viewer | website=ottplay.com | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=17 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117155354/https://www.ottplay.com/review/papam-pasivadu-review-sympathies-only-for-the-viewer/b1030dd9ed46 | url-status=live }}</ref>

A critic from Cinejosh gave the series 1.5/5 stars and stated that "Lalith Kumar effectively depicts Sreerama Chandra as a modern youth in 'Papam Pasivadu,' but the film falters due to a lackluster storyline, unengaging sequences, and a slow-paced narration, ultimately failing to deliver as a typical youthful entertainer."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinejosh.com/review/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review/1511#:~:text=Papam%20Pasivadu%20Web%20Series%3A%20Analysis&text=Lalith%20Kumar%20does%20succeed%20in,and%20a%20slow%2Dpaced%20narration | title=Papam Pasivadu Web Series Review | website=cinejosh.com | date=30 September 2023 | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=17 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117155344/https://www.cinejosh.com/review/papam-pasivadu-web-series-review/1511#:~:text=Papam%20Pasivadu%20Web%20Series%3A%20Analysis&text=Lalith%20Kumar%20does%20succeed%20in,and%20a%20slow%2Dpaced%20narration | url-status=live }}</ref>

Surya Prakash of [[Asianet News]] stated that "The five-episode series falls short of expectations, lacking major twists and suffering from routine elements. While Sri Rama Chandra's acting shines, attempts at showcasing the confusion in youth regarding love and marriage feel somewhat forced, and the overall screenplay could have been more carefully crafted."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://telugu.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/sri-ramachandra-romantic-comedy-web-series-papam-pasivadu-review-jsp-s1u5t1 | title=సింగర్ శ్రీరామచంద్ర 'పాపం పసివాడు' రివ్యూ | trans-title=Singer Sreerama chandra's "Papam Pasivadu Webseries Review" | website=[[Asianet News]] | access-date=17 January 2024 | archive-date=4 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004112211/https://telugu.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/sri-ramachandra-romantic-comedy-web-series-papam-pasivadu-review-jsp-s1u5t1 | url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.aha.video/webseries/papam-pasivadu''Papam Pasivadu''] on [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]]
*{{IMDb title|28870113}}

{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Telugu-language television shows]]
[[Category:Aha (streaming service) original programming]]

Ashwini Shinde

2026-02-05T03:17:51Z

Vedpsagar: Stub

{{Short description|Indian kho kho player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}

'''Ashwini Appasaheb Shinde''' (10 October 2007)<ref>https://kheloindia.gov.in/uploads/Khelo%20India%20Athletes.pdf Serial Number 132</ref> is an Indian kho kho player from [[Maharashtra]]. She plays for the [[India women's national kho kho team]] as a defender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kho Kho Federation of India (KKFI) - KKFI Official Website |url=https://khokhofederation.in/world-cup-team-matches/?id=2 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=Kho Kho Federation |language=en-US}}</ref> She was part of the Indian women's team that won the inaugural [[Kho Kho World Cup]] held at [[New Delhi]] in January 2025.

== Early life and education ==
Shinde is from a farming family in Khandobachiwadi village, [[Mohol]] taluka, [[Solapur district]], Maharashtra. She did her schooling at Zilla Parishad Primary School, Khandobachiwadi. She did her Class 12 at Shripatrao Bhosale Vidyalaya, Dharashiv. She has two sisters, and both played kho kho. She started playing kho kho at a very early age, from Class 2. Her first coaches were Kishore Gund and Hari Shinde.<ref>{{Cite web |last=कुंभार |first=गो रा |date=2025-01-10 |title=Woman Kho Kho World Cup : खंडोबाचीवाडीची लेक खेळणार वर्ल्ड कप; महिलाच्या अंतीम संघात झाली अश्विनीची निवड |url=https://www.esakal.com/paschim-maharashtra/solapur/ashwini-shinde-from-khandoabachiwadi-village-selected-for-womens-kho-kho-world-cup-team-success-motivation-pjp78 |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=Marathi News Esakal |language=Mr}}</ref>

== Career ==
She took part in the Indian women's team that won the first [[Kho Kho World Cup]] at [[New Delhi]] in January 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=IANS |date=2025-01-15 |title=Kho Kho World Cup: Indian women make history with 157-point rout of South Korea |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/sports/kho-kho-world-cup-indian-women-make-history-with-157-point-rout-of-south-korea-1503386655.html |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=The Statesman |language=en}}</ref> The Indian team defeated [[South Korea]], [[IR Iran]] and [[Malaysia]] in the group stages, Bangladesh in quarterfinals and [[South Africa]] in semifinals. They defeated [[Nepal men's national kho kho team|Nepal]] 78–40 in the final.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Women create history at Kho Kho World Cup 2025 with commanding victory over rivals Nepal to secure coveted trophy |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/sports/indian-women-create-history-at-kho-kho-world-cup-2025-with-commanding-victory-over-rivals-nepal-to-secure-coveted-trophy/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Livemint |date=2025-01-19 |title=Indian women win first-ever Kho Kho World Cup 2025; PM Modi hails 'historic' victory {{!}} Mint |url=https://www.livemint.com/sports/indian-women-win-first-ever-kho-kho-world-cup-2025-pm-modi-hails-historic-victory-11737302241435.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201155957/https://www.livemint.com/sports/indian-women-win-first-ever-kho-kho-world-cup-2025-pm-modi-hails-historic-victory-11737302241435.html |archive-date=2025-02-01 |access-date=2025-03-09 |work=mint |language=en}}</ref> She was declared as the Best Player in the quarterfinal match against [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=कारंडे |first=मोहन |date=2025-01-18 |title=खो-खो वर्ल्डकपमध्ये खंडोबाचीवाडीच्या अश्विनी शिंदेची चमकदार कामगिरी |url=https://pudhari.news/maharashtra/solapur/ashwini-shinde-named-best-player-against-bangladesh-kho-kho-world-cup-2025 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=Pudhari News |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-20 |title=Kho Kho World Cup: India's road to the men's and women's title wins |url=https://thebridge.in/kho-kho/world-cup-india-road-men-women-title-wins-51659 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref>

She represented Maharashtra in the Senior National Kho Kho Championships and National Games. At the 42nd Maharashtra State Kho Kho Championship, she was one of the two top players who were awarded electric bikes for outstanding performance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Aakash |date=12 April 2024 |title=Punit Balan Group Honours Kho Kho Players With Electric Bikes |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/pune/photos-punit-balan-group-honours-kho-kho-players-with-electric-bikes |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shinde, Ashwini}}
[[Category:2007 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Kho kho players]]
[[Category:People from Solapur district]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Maharashtra]]

2019–20 Mohun Bagan FC season

2026-02-02T19:35:15Z

Vedpsagar: Done

{{Short description|Indian football club season}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox football club season
| club = [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
| season = [[2019–20 in Indian football|2019–20]]
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager = [[Kibu Vicuña]]
| chrtitle = Secretary
| chairman = [[Srinjoy Bose]]
| stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]; [[Salt Lake Stadium]]; [[Kalyani Stadium]]
| league = {{nowrap|[[I-League]]}}
| league result = '''[[2019–20 I-League|Champions]]'''
| league2 = [[Calcutta Football League|CFL]]
| league2 result = '''[[2019 CFL Premier Division|Runners-up]]'''
| cup1 = [[Durand Cup]]
| cup1 result = '''[[2019 Durand Cup|Runners-up]]'''
| cup2 = [[2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup|Sheikh Kamal Cup]]
| cup2 result = '''[[2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup#Knockout Stages|Semi-finalist]]'''
| league topscorer = [[Baba Diawara]] [[Francisco Javier Gonzalez Munoz|Fran Gonzalez]] (10 each)
| season topscorer = Fran Gonzalez (15)
| highest attendance = 63,756
| lowest attendance =
| average attendance =
| pattern_la1 = _mb1920h
| pattern_b1 = _mb1920h
| pattern_ra1 = _mb1920h
| pattern_sh1 = _mb1920h
| pattern_so1 = _mbhome_1415
| leftarm1 = 91191B
| body1 =
| rightarm1 = 91191B
| shorts1 =
| socks1 = 91191B
| pattern_la2 = _mb1920a
| pattern_b2 = _mb1920a
| pattern_ra2 = _mb1920a
| pattern_sh2 = _mbaway_1213
| pattern_so2 = _mbaway_1213
| leftarm2 =
| body2 =
| rightarm2 =
| shorts2 =
| socks2 = FFFFFF
| prevseason = [[2018–19 Mohun Bagan FC season|2018–19]]
| nextseason = [[2020–21 ATK Mohun Bagan FC season|2020–21]]
}}

The '''2019–20 Mohun Bagan FC season''' was the club's 13th season in [[I-League]] and 130th season since its establishment in 1889. The team finished runners-up in the [[2019 CFL Premier Division|Calcutta Football League]] and [[2019 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]]. They were crowned ''Champions'' in the [[2019–20 I-League|I-League]] and reached the semifinals of the [[2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup|Sheikh Kamal Cup]] where they were defeated by [[Terengganu FC|Terengganu]].

==Players==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; width:80%;"
|-
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:center;"|Squad No.
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:center;"|Name
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:center;"|Nationality
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:center;"|Position
!style="background:#7A1024; color: white; text-align: center;"|{{nowrap|Date of birth}} & Age
|-
!colspan=6 style="background:#7a1024; color:white; text-align:center;"|Goalkeepers
|-
|1
|[[Sankar Roy]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1995|5|9}}
|-
|-
|22
|[[Shilton Paul]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1988|6|10}}
|-
|24
|[[Debjit Majumder]] ''(on loan from [[ATK (football club)|ATK]])''
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1988|3|6}}
|-
!colspan=6 style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:center;"|Defenders
|-
|4
|[[Francisco Morante Martínez]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1992|6|28}}
|-
|5
|[[Gurjinder Kumar]] [[Vice-captain (association football)|('''VC''')]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1990|10|10}}
|-
|6
|[[Ashutosh Mehta]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1991|2|21}}
|-
|15
|[[Lalramchullova]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1995|1|14}}
|-
|25
|[[Dhanachandra Singh]] [[Captain (association football)|('''C''')]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1987|3|4}}
|-
|28
|[[Bikramjeet Singh]] ''(on loan from [[Mumbai City FC]])''
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1992|10|15}}
|-
|45
|[[Daneil Cyrus]]
|{{flagicon|TRI}}
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1990|12|15}}
|-
!colspan=6 style="background:#7a1024; color:white; text-align:center;"|Midfielders
|-
|10
|[[Joseba Beitia|Joseba Agirregomezkorta Beitia]]
|{{flagicon|Spain}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1990|9|29}}
|-
|11
|[[Alexander Romario Jesuraj]] ''(on loan from [[FC Goa]])''
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1996|7|26}}
|-
|16
|[[Nongdamba Naorem]] ''(on loan from [[Kerala Blasters]])''
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|2000|1|2}}
|-
|18
|[[Lalramzauva Khiangte]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1997|1|1}}
|-
|26
|[[Shilton D'Silva]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1992|9|15}}
|-
|27
|[[SK Sahil]] Y
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|2000|4|28}}
|-
|33
|[[Britto PM]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1993|3|15}}
|-
|44
|[[Kiyan Nassiri]]Y
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|2000|11|17}}
|-
|47
|[[Sheikh Faiaz]] ''(on loan from [[ATK (football club)|ATK]])''
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1995|3|3}}
|-
|50
|[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz]]
|{{flagicon|Spain}}
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1989|2|1}}
|-
!colspan=6 style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:center;"|Forwards
|-
|7
|[[Komron Tursunov]]
|{{flagicon|Tajikistan}}
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1996|4|24}}
|-
|9
|[[Baba Diawara]]
|{{flagicon|Senegal}}
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1988|1|5}}
|-
|20
|[[Suhair VP]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|1992|9|27}}
|-
|49
|[[Subha Ghosh]] Y
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{Birth date and age|df=yes|2000|12|22}}
|-
{{Fb_cs_footer|s=[https://themohunbaganac.com/football-player/ themohunbaganac.com]|u=22 December 2019|date=July 2019}}

Y Players promoted from the [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant Reserves and Academy|reserve team]].

==Transfers==
;In

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Date
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Pos.
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Name
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:centre;"|From
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|{{abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
|rowspan="2"|24 May 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Dhanachandra Singh]]
|[[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=Transfer_24_May>{{cite news |title=Mohun Bagan Welcomes Ashutosh Mehta and Dhanachandra Singh|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-welcomes-ashutosh-mehta-and-dhanachandra-singh/ |website=themohunbaganac.com |publisher=Mohun Bagan|date=24 May 2019 |accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
|-
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Mehta]]
|[[FC Pune City|Pune City]]
|-
|rowspan="4"|28 May 2019
|GK
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Dibyendu Sarkar (footballer)|Dibyendu Sarkar]]
|[[Rainbow A.C.|NBP Rainbow]]
|rowspan="4"|<ref name=Transfer_28_May>{{cite news |title=Mohun Bagan Recruits Four New Players for the upcoming season|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-recruits-four-new-players-for-the-upcoming-season/ |website=themohunbaganac.com |publisher=Mohun Bagan|date=28 May 2019 |accessdate=31 May 2019}}</ref>
|-
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Koushik Sarkar]]
|[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|-
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Surabuddin Mollick]]
|[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Babun Das]]
|Pathachakra
|-
|rowspan="2"|3 June 2019
|GK
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Debjit Majumder]] ''(on loan)''
|[[ATK (football club)|ATK]]
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=Transfer_3_Jun>{{cite news |title=Mohun Bagan Welcomes New Goalkeeper and Striker|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-welcomes-new-goalkeeper-and-striker/ |website=themohunbaganac.com |publisher=Mohun Bagan|date=3 June 2019 |accessdate=4 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
|FW
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Suhair VP]]
|[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam]]
|-
|5 June 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Francisco Morante Martínez|Fran Morante]]
|[[Internacional de Madrid]]
|<ref name=Transfer_5_June>{{cite news |title=Mohun Bagan Signs New Spanish Defender Fran Morante|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-signs-new-spanish-defender-fran-morante/ |website=themohunbaganac.com |publisher=Mohun Bagan|date=5 June 2019 |accessdate=5 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
|19 June 2019
|FW
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Salva Chamorro]]
|[[Doxa Drama F.C.|Doxa Drama]]
|<ref name=Transfer_19_1une>{{cite news|title=Spanish forward Salvio Chamorro signs for Mohun Bagan|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/spanish-forward-signs-for-mohun-bagan/|website=themohunbaganac.com|publisher=Mohun Bagan|date=19 June 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3"|20 June 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sheikh Faiaz]] ''(on loan)''
|[[ATK (football club)|ATK]]
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=Transfer_20_June>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan completes double deal for midfielders|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-completes-double-deals-of-midfielders/|website=themohunbaganac.com|date=20 June 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Imran Khan (footballer, born 1994)|Imran Khan]]
|[[FC Goa]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Nongdamba Naorem]] ''(on loan)''
|[[Kerala Blasters]]
|<ref name=Transfers_20_June>{{cite news|title=Nongdamba Naorem signs for Mohun Bagan|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/nongdamba-naorem-signs-for-mohun-bagan/|website=themohunbaganac.com|date=20 June 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|6 July 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|Fran González]]
|[[Lee Man]]
|<ref name=Transfer_6_July>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan signs Fran Gonzalez|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-signs-francisco-javier-gonzalez-munoz/|website=themohunbaganac.com|date=6 July 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"|9 July 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Alexander Romario Jesuraj]] ''(on loan)''
|[[FC Goa]]
|<ref name=Transfer_9_July>{{cite news|title=Alexander Romario Jesuraj completes Mohun Bagan move|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/alexander-romario-jesuraj-completes-mohun-bagan-move/|website=themohunbaganac.com|date=9 July 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Joseba Beitia]]
|[[Real Unión]]
|<ref name=9_July_Transfer>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan completes signing of Spanish midfielder|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-completes-the-signing-of-spanish-midfielder/|date=9 July 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|24 July 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalramchullova]]
|[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|<ref name=Transfer_24_July>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan shakes up transfer market|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-shake-up-the-transfer-market/|accessdate=25 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|10 August 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|TRI}} [[Daneil Cyrus]]
|[[Al-Orobah FC]]
|<ref name=Transfer_10_Aug>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan announce arrival of fifth foreigner|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-announce-arrival-of-fifth-foreigner/|accessdate=10 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|31 August 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Julen Colinas]]
|[[UCAM Murcia CF]]
|<ref name=Transfer_Aug_31>{{cite news|title=Mohun Bagan rope in sixth foreigner|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-rope-in-julen-colinas-as-sixth-foreigner/|accessdate=31 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|17 December 2019
|FW
|{{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Baba Diawara]]
|[[Adelaide United]]
|<ref name=Transfer_Dec_17>{{cite web|title=Mohun Bagan rope in new striker|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-rope-in-new-striker/|accessdate=22 December 2019}}</ref>
|-
|22 December 2019
|FW
|{{flagicon|Tajikistan}} [[Komron Tursunov]]
|[[FC Istiklol]]
|<ref name=Transfer_Dec_22>{{cite web|title=Mohun Bagan sign new Tajikistani forward|url=https://themohunbaganac.com/mohun-bagan-sign-new-tajikistani-forward/|accessdate=22 December 2019}}</ref>
|}

;Out

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Date
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Pos.
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|Name
!style="background:#1A5026; color:white; text-align:centre;"|To
!style="background:#7A1024; color:white; text-align:centre;"|{{abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
|14 May 2019
|FW
|{{flagicon|NGR}} [[Aser Pierrick Dipanda|Dipanda Dicka]]
|[[Southern Samity]]
|<ref name=Dicka>{{cite news |title=Former Mohun Bagan star Dipanda Dicka signs for Southern Samity|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/indian-football-transfer-former-mohun-bagan-player-dipanda-dicka-signs-for-southern-samity |website=sportskeeda.com |publisher=Sportskeeda|date=14 May 2019 |accessdate=8 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"|6 June 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Abhishek Ambekar]]
|[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=Pintu_and_Abhishek>{{cite news |title=East Bengal snatch Pintu, Abhishek from Bagan stable|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/east-bengal-snatch-pintu-abhishek-from-bagan-stable/articleshow/69681209.cms |work=Times of India|date=6 June 2019 |accessdate=8 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Pintu Mahato]]
|[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|-
|7 June 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sourav Das (footballer)|Sourav Das]]
|[[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]
|<ref name=Sourav>{{cite news |title=Mumbai City bolster midfield with addition of Sourav Das|url=https://www.indiansuperleague.com/news/mumbai-city-bolster-midfield-with-addition-of-sourav-das |website=indiansuperleague.com|publisher=Indian Super League|date=7 June 2019 |accessdate=8 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
|9 July 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Tirthankar Sarkar]]
|[[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan SC]]
|<ref name=9_Julys_Transfer>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/players-shaping-up-well-for-new-season-mohammedan-sporting-coach-subrata-bhattacharya/articleshow/70141281.cms|title=Players shaping up well for the new season-Subrata Bhattacharya|work=Times of India|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|10 July 2019
|FW
|{{flagicon|UGA}} [[Henry Kisekka]]
|[[Gokulam Kerala FC]]
|<ref name=Transfer_10_July>{{cite news|title=Henry set for Gokulam return|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/league-henry-kisekka-set-gokulam-120657418.html|website=yahoo.com|date=10 July 2019|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|16 July 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|HTI}} [[Sony Norde]]
|[[Zira FK]]
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Sony Norde is joining Ajerbaijani football club Zira FK|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/sport/sony-norde-is-joining-azerbaijani-football-club-zira-fk-1.1018693|publisher=Anandabazar Patrika|accessdate=23 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
|7 August 2019
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Darren Caldeira]]
|[[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Kerala Blasters signs Darren Caldeira from Mohun Bagan|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/kerala-blasters-darren-caldeira-mohun-bagan-isl-i-league-indian-football-transfer-news/article28859554.ece|publisher=Sportstar|accessdate=10 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
|9 September 2019
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Amey Ranawade]]
|[[FC Goa]]
|<ref>{{cite news|title=FC Goa sign Amey Ranawade from Mohun Bagan|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/indian-football-transfers-fc-goa-sign-amey-ranawade-from-mohun-bagan|accessdate=16 September 2019}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="12" style="text-align:center;"|–
|GK
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ricardo Cardozo]]
|rowspan="12" style="text-align:center;"|Released/Out of contract
|rowspan="12" style="text-align:center;"|–
|-
|GK
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mainak Akuli]]
|-
|DF
|{{flagicon|NGR}} [[Kingsley Obumneme]]
|-
|DF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Dalraj Singh]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Yuta Kinowaki]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[William Lalnunfela]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|EGY}} [[Omar Elhussieny]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mehtab Hussain]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Abhinas Ruidas]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Dipankar Das]]
|-
|FW
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Salva Chamorro]]
|-
|MF
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Julen Colinas]]
|}

==Kits==
{| class="wikitable"
! style = "background:#7a1024; color:white; text-align:center;"|Kit Sponsor
! style = "background:#1a5026; color:white; text-align:center;"|Co-Sponsors
|-
|Shiv Naresh
|Ripley & Stevedoring, [[M.P Birla Group#Businesses|MP Birla Cement]]
|}

{| border-"0" style="margin:1em auto;"
|{{Football kit
| pattern_la = _mb1920h
| pattern_b = _mb1920h
| pattern_ra = _mb1920h
| pattern_sh = _mb1920h
| pattern_so = _mbhome_1415
| leftarm = 91191B
| body =
| rightarm = 91191B
| shorts =
| socks = 91191B
| title = Home
}}
|{{Football kit
| pattern_la = _mb1920a
| pattern_b = _mb1920a
| pattern_ra = _mb1920a
| pattern_sh = _mbaway_1213
| pattern_so = _mbaway_1213
| leftarm =
| body =
| rightarm =
| shorts =
| socks = FFFFFF
| title = Away
}}
|{{Football kit
| pattern_la= _mb1920gk
| pattern_b= _mb1920gk
| pattern_ra= _mb1920gk
| pattern_sh= _mb1920gk
| pattern_so=
| leftarm=
| body=
| rightarm=
| shorts=
| socks= 000000
| title = Goalkeeper
}}
|}

==Staff==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="background:#1a5026; color:white; text-align:center"|Position
!style="background:#7a1024; color:white; text-align:center"|Name
|-
| Chief Coach
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Kibu Vicuña]]
|-
| Assistant Coach
|{{flagicon|POL}} Tomasz Tchórz
|-
| Assistant Coach
|{{flagicon|IND}} Ranjan Chowdhury
|-
|-
| Goalkeeping Coach
|{{flagicon|India}} Dipankar Chowdhury
|-
| Physical Trainer/Sports Therapist
|{{flagicon|LTU}} Paulius Ragauskas
|-
| Team Manager
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Satyajit Chatterjee]]
{{Fb cs footer|s=[https://themohunbaganac.com/meet-the-squad/ themohunbaganac.com]|u=3 June 2019|date=March 2019}}

==Competitions==

===Overview===
{{updated|matches played till 15 March 2020}}
{{Fb overview2
|c1=[[2019–20 I-League|I-League]]
|fm1=30 November 2019 ||lm1=10 March 2020 ||sr1=Round 1 ||fp1=Winners (1st) ||w1=12 ||d1=3 ||l1=1 ||f1=35 ||a1=13
|c2=[[2019 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]]
|fm2=2 August 2019 ||lm2=24 August 2019 ||sr2=Group Stage ||fp2=Runners-up ||w2=4 ||d2=0 ||l2=1 ||f2=9 ||a2=4
|c3=[[2019 CFL Premier Division|CFL]] ||fm3=6 August 2019 ||lm3=29 September 2019 ||sr3=Round 1 ||fp3=2nd ||w3=6 ||d3=2 ||l3=3 ||f3=20 ||a3=10
|c4=[[2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup|Sheikh Kamal Cup]] ||fm4=20 October 2019 ||lm4=29 October 2019 ||sr4=Group Stage||fp4=Semi-finals ||w4=2 ||d4=0 ||l4=2 ||f4=6 ||a4=6
}}

===I-League===
{{main|2019–20 I-League}}

====League table====
{{:2019–20 I-League|showteam=MHB}}

====Results summary====
{{Fb_rs |hw=8 |hd=0 |hl=1 |hgf=20 |hga=9 |aw=5 |ad=2 |al=0 |agf=15 |aga=4 }}
{{Fb_rs footer|u=15 March 2020|s=[https://us.soccerway.com/teams/india/mohun-bagan-ac/3352/ soccerway.com]|date=December 2021}}

====Matches====
{{legend2|#CCFFCC|Win|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFFFCC|Draw|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFCCCC|Loss|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFFFFF|Fixtures|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=1
|time=14:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=30 November 2019
|team1=[[Aizawl FC]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Rajiv Gandhi Stadium, Aizawl|Rajiv Gandhi Stadium]]
|location=[[Aizawl]]
|score=0–0
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6069_Match_Summary_V1_1575110776.pdf
|goals1=*[[Joe Zoherliana|Zoherliana]] {{yel|76}}
|goals2=*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{yel|18}}
*[[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]] {{yel|70}}
|referee=O.P.Thakur
|result=D
|motm=Lalremruata
|attendance=7,642
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=2
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=8 December 2019
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Churchill Brothers]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=2–4
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6077_Match_Summary_V1_1575813449.pdf
|goals1=*[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|33|pen.}}
*[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{goal|90}}
*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{yel|90+2}}
|goals2=*[[Willis Plaza|Plaza]] {{goal|2||38}}
*[[Robert Primus|Primus]] {{goal|29}}
*[[Vinil Poojary|Poojary]] {{yel|45}}
*[[Dawda Ceesay|Ceesay]] {{yel|56}}
*[[Glan Martins|Martins]] {{yel|56}}
*[[Radanfah Abu Bakr|Abu Bakr]] {{goal|76}}
|referee=O.P.Thakur
|result=L
|motm=[[Willis Plaza]]
|attendance=14,386
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=3
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=11 December 2019
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[TRAU F.C.|TRAU]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=4–0
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6082_Match_Summary_V1_1576071888.pdf
|goals1=*[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|5||46}}
*[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|38}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{yel|57}}
*[[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]] {{yel|75}}
*[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{goal|90+1}}
|goals2=*[[Abednego Tetteh|Tetteh]] {{yel|32}}
*[[Denechandra Meitei|Meitei]] {{yel|71}}
|referee=R.Saha
|result=W
|motm=[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|Fran González]]
|attendance=8,834
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=4
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=16 December 2019
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=2–1
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6087_Match_Summary_V2_1576510100.pdf
|goals1=*[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|24||(pen.)||48}}
*[[Ashutosh Mehta|Mehta]] {{yel|28}}
*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{yel|73}}
*Gurjinder {{sent off|2|79|90+4}}
|goals2=*[[Naocha Singh|Naocha]] {{yel|26}}
*Mayakkannan {{yel|63}}
*[[Marcus Joseph|Joseph]] {{goal|45+3||(pen.)}}
|referee=C.John
|result=W
|motm=[[Sankar Roy]]
|attendance=14,137
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=5
|time=11:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=6 January 2020
|team1=[[Real Kashmir F.C.|Real Kashmir]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[TRC Turf Ground]]
|location=[[Srinagar]]
|score=0–2
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6098_Match_Summary_V1_1578211886.pdf
|goals1=*[[Aaron Katebe|Katebe]] {{yel|27}}
*[[Subhash Singh|Subhash]] {{yel|36}}
|goals2=*[[Daneil Cyrus|Cyrus]] {{yel|64}}
*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{goal|72}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{goal|74}}
|referee=U.Bora
|result=W
|motm=[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Fran Morante]]
|attendance=11,521
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=6
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=9 January 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Indian Arrows]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=1–0
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6102_Match_Summary_V1_1578578619.pdf
|goals1=*[[Daneil Cyrus|Cyrus]] {{goal|18}}
*[[Francisco Javier Gonzalez Munoz|Gonzalez]] {{yel|52}}
*[[Dhanachandra Singh|Dhanachandra]] {{yel|61}}
*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{yel|78}}
|goals2=*[[Bikash Yunnan|Yumnam]] {{yel|72}}
*[[Vikram Pratap Singh|Vikram]] {{yel|86}}
|referee=P.Singh
|result=W
|motm=[[Daneil Cyrus]]
|attendance=10,938
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=7
|time=14:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=13 January 2020
|team1=[[Punjab F.C.]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Guru Nanak Stadium]]
|location=[[Ludhiana]]
|score=1–1
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6106_Match_Summary_V1_1578999099.pdf
|goals1=*[[Aser Pierrick Dipanda|Dipanda]] {{goal|20}}
*[[Danilo Quipapá|Danilo]] {{yel|30}}
|goals2=*[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{goal|87}}
|referee=U.Bora
|result=D
|motm=[[Danilo Quipapá]]
|attendance=1,131
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=8
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=19 January 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|stadium=[[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=2–1
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6091_Match_Summary_V1_1579442571.pdf
|goals1=*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{goal|18}}
*[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|González]] {{yel|36}}
[[Daneil Cyrus|Cyrus]] {{yel|45+1}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|65}}
*[[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]] {{yel|66}}
*[[Sheikh Sahil|Sahil]] {{yel|81}}
*[[Sankar Roy|Sankar]] {{yel|90+1}}
|goals2=*[[Martí Crespí|Crespí]] {{yel|41}}
*[[Marcos Jiménez de la Espada|Espada]] {{goal|71}}
|referee=A.Meitei
|result=W
|motm=[[Joseba Beitia]]
|attendance=63,756
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=9
|time=14:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=23 January 2020
|team1=[[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Khuman Lampak Main Stadium|Khuman Lampak Stadium]]
|location=[[Imphal]]
|score=0–3
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6109_Match_Summary_V1_1579776934.pdf
|goals1=*[[Wohengbam Meetei|Meetei]] {{yel|43}}
|goals2=*[[Ashutosh Mehta|Mehta]] {{yel|6}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{goal|27}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|53}}
*[[Komron Tursunov|Tursunov]] {{goal|90+4}}
|referee=T.Nagvenkar
|result=W
|motm=[[Baba Diawara]]
|attendance=8,220
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=10
|time=19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=31 January 2020
|team1=[[Chennai City F.C.|Chennai City]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Coimbatore)|Nehru Stadium]]
|location=[[Coimbatore]]
|score=2–3
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6119_Match_Summary_V1_1580486262.pdf
|goals1=*[[Roberto Eslava|Eslava]] {{yel|24}}
*[[Nauzet Santana|Santana]] {{yel|45}}
*[[Vijay Nagappan|Nagappan]] {{goal|65}}
*[[Jishnu Balakrishnan|Balakrishnan]] {{goal|70}}
*[[Charles Anandraj|Anandraj]] {{yel|75}}
|goals2=*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{yel|24}} {{goal|27||49}}
*[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|González]] {{goal|29}}
*[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{yel|45}}
*[[Ashutosh Mehta|Mehta]] {{yel|59}}
|referee=M.B.Santosh Kumar
|result=W
|motm=[[Baba Diawara]]
|attendance=3,863
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=11
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=9 February 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Punjab F.C.]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=1–0
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6127_Match_Summary_V1_1581257456.pdf
|goals1=*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|42}}
*[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|González]] {{yel|45+1}}
*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{yel|45+1}}
*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{yel|63}}
*[[Sankar Roy|Sankar]] {{yel|83}}
|goals2=*[[Aser Pierrick Dipanda|Dipanda]] {{yel|45+1}}
*[[Samuel Shadap|Shadap]] {{yel|80}}
|referee=M.B.Santosh Kumar
|result=W
|motm=[[Baba Diawara]]
|attendance=14,756
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=12
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=14 February 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=6–2
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6134_Match_Summary_V1_1581687759.pdf
|goals1=*[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|González]] {{goal|11||24||45}}
*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{goal|13}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|37}}
*[[Sheikh Sahil|Sahil]] {{yel|42}}
*[[Dhanachandra Singh|Dhanachandra]] {{sent off|60}}
*[[Alexander Romario Jesuraj|Jesuraj]] {{goal|70}}
|goals2=*Adjah {{goal|41}}
*[[Moirangthem Singh|Moirangthem]] {{yel|43}}
*Subash {{goal|45+2}}
|referee=R.Moses Raj
|result=W
|motm=[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|Fran González]]
|attendance=13,255
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=13
|time=19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=22 February 2020
|team1=[[Churchill Brothers]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Tilak Maidan Stadium]]
|location=[[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco da Gama]]
|score=0–3
|report=https://administrator.the-aiff.com/reports/6140_Match_Summary_V1_1582381916.pdf
|goals1=*[[Jovel Martins|Martins]] {{yel|74}}
*[[Vinil Poojary|Vinil]] {{yel|89}}
|goals2=*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|7}}
*[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|51}}
*[[Komron Tursunov|Komron]] {{goal|58}}
*[[Ashutosh Mehta|Mehta]] {{yel|65}}
|referee=C.R.Srikrishna
|result=W
|motm=[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|Fran González]]
|attendance=4,242
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=14
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=1 March 2020
|team1=[[TRAU F.C.|TRAU]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Khuman Lampak Main Stadium|Khuman Lampak Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Imphal]]
|score=1–3
|report=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/i-league/mohun-bagan-beat-trau-stretch-winning-run/articleshow/74433295.cms
|goals1=*[[Angusana Luwang|Luwang]] {{yel|10}}
*[[Joel Sunday|Sunday]] {{goal|35}}
|goals2=*[[Fran González (footballer, born 1989)|González]] {{goal|14}}
*[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{goal|22}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|23}} {{yel|82}}
*[[Komron Tursunov|Tursunov]] {{sent off|2|43|70}}
|referee=
|result=W
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=15
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=5 March 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Chennai City F.C.|Chennai City]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=1–1
|report=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/i-league-2019-20-with-draw-against-chennai-city-fc-mohun-bagan-better-own-record-of-longest-unbeaten-streak-in-a-season-8126051.html
|goals1=*[[Shilton D'Silva|D'Silva]] {{yel|17}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|45}}
*[[Fran Morante|Morante]] {{yel|70}}
|goals2=*[[Katsumi Yusa|Katsumi]] {{goal|65}}
*[[Jishnu Balakrishnan|Balakrishnan]] {{yel|80}}
*[[Mashoor Thangalakath|Thangalakath]] {{yel|88}}
|referee=
|result=D
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=16
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date=10 March 2020
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Aizawl FC]]
|stadium=[[Kalyani Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|score=1–0
|report=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/mohun-bagan-vs-aizawl-fc-live-i-league-score-updates-commentary-streaming-fran-morante-ashutosh-beitia-suhair-fran-gonzalez-baba-diawara-alfred-jaryan-rochharzela-paul-ramfangzauva/article31025827.ece
|goals1=*[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{yel|78}}
*[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]] {{goal|80}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{yel|87}}
*[[Shilton D'Silva|D'Silva]] {{yel|88}}
|goals2=*Lalrosanga {{yel|8}}
*[[William Lalnunfela|Lalnunfela]] {{yel|75}}
|referee=
|result=W
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=17
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date={{abbr|Canc|Cancelled}}
|team1=[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|score=
|report=
|goals1=
|goals2=
|referee=
|result=
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=18
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date={{abbr|Canc|Cancelled}}
|team1=[[Indian Arrows]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[Cooperage Ground]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Mumbai]]
|score=
|report=
|goals1=
|goals2=
|referee=
|result=
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=19
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date={{abbr|Canc|Cancelled}}
|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=[[Real Kashmir F.C.|Real Kashmir]]
|stadium=[[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|score=
|report=
|goals1=
|goals2=
|referee=
|result=
|motm=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round=20
|time=17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|date={{abbr|Canc|Cancelled}}
|team1=[[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[EMS Stadium]]
|attendance=
|location=[[Kozhikode]]
|score=
|report=
|goals1=
|goals2=
|referee=
|result=
|motm=
}}

===Durand Cup===
{{main|2019 Durand Cup}}

====Group stage====
{{#invoke:Sports table|main|style=WDL

|name_ATK=[[ATK (football club)|ATK]]
|name_Indian Navy=[[Indian Navy (football club)|Indian Navy]]
|name_Mohammedan=[[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|name_Mohun Bagan=[[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]]


|update=17 August 2019 |start_date=2 August 2019
|win_ATK=1 |draw_ATK=1 |loss_ATK=1 |gf_ATK=3 |ga_ATK=3 |status_ATK=E
|win_Indian Navy=0 |draw_Indian Navy=1 |loss_Indian Navy=2 |gf_Indian Navy=2 |ga_Indian Navy=8 |status_Indian Navy=E
|win_Mohammedan=1 |draw_Mohammedan=0 |loss_Mohammedan=2 |gf_Mohammedan=6 |ga_Mohammedan=4
|status_Mohammedan=E
|win_Mohun Bagan=3 |draw_Mohun Bagan=0 |loss_Mohun Bagan=0 |gf_Mohun Bagan=5 |ga_Mohun Bagan=1 |status_Mohun Bagan=Q


|team1=Mohun Bagan
|team2=ATK

|team3=Mohammedan
|team4=Indian Navy
|class_rules=[[#Tiebreakers|Group stage tiebreakers]]
|source=[https://www.goal.com/en-in/news/durand-cup-2019-to-kick-off-in-kolkata-on-august-2/1hja4r4jdve3d1vmp079kxg0n3 goal.com]

|res_col_header=Q
|result1=KO |col_KO=green1 |text_KO=[[2019 Durand Cup#Knockout stage|Knockout stage]]
}}

;Matches
{{football box collapsible
|date= 2 August 2019
|time= 18:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= Mohun Bagan
|score= 2–0
|report= https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football-mohun-bagan-vs-mohammedan-durand-cup-2019-live-streaming-scores-updates-kolkata-salt-lake/article28796986.ece
|team2= [[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|goals1= [[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|2||23}}
|goals2=
|location= [[Kolkata]]
|stadium= [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=38,000
|referee= [[Crystal John]]
|result= W
}}
{{football box collapsible
|date= 8 August 2019
|time= 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= Mohun Bagan
|score= 2–1
|report= https://themohunbaganac.com/mariners-defeat-atk-to-top-group-b-in-durand-cup/
|team2= [[ATK (football club)|ATK]]
|goals1= *[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{goal|34}}
* [[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{goal|53}}
|goals2= [[Ashish Pradhan|Pradhan]] {{goal|78}}
|location= [[Kolkata]]
|stadium= [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|attendance=17,000
|referee= [[C.R. Srikrishna]]
|result= W
}}
{{football box collapsible
|date= 17 August 2019
|time= 18:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= Mohun Bagan
|score=1–0
|report=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/durand-cup-2019-mohun-bagan-maintain-perfect-record-register-1-0-win-over-indian-navy
|team2= [[Indian Navy (football club)|Indian Navy]]
|goals1= [[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|58}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|stadium= [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=4,000
|referee=
|result=W
}}

====Knockout stages====
;Semi-final
{{football box collapsible
|date= 21 August 2019
|time= 19:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= Mohun Bagan
|score= 3–1
|aet= 3–1
|report=https://durandcup.in/matches/mohun-bagan-ac-vs-real-kashmir-fc/
|team2= [[Real Kashmir F.C.|Real Kashmir]]
|goals1= *[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|42}}
*[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|92||112}}
|goals2= *[[Gnohere Krizo|Krizo]] {{goal|90+3}}
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|stadium= [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=23,118
|referee=
|result=W
}}
;Final
{{football box collapsible
|date= 24 August 2019
|time= 18:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= Mohun Bagan
|score= 1–2
|aet=
|report= https://www.goal.com/en-in/news/durand-cup-2019-mohun-bagan-gokulam-kerala-report-marcus/1k9tf04gpwd9c1tf3wx8hle51r
|team2= [[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]
|goals1= *[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|64}}
*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{sent off|0|90+7}}
|goals2= *[[Marcus Joseph|Joseph]] {{goal|45+1|pen.|51}}
*[[Jestin George|George]] {{sent off|0|87}}
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|stadium= [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=41,734
|referee=
|result= L
}}

===Calcutta Football League===
{{main|2019 CFL Premier Division}}
{{:2019 CFL Premier Division|transcludesection=Premier Division A|showteam=MB}}

====Results by round====
{{#invoke:sports rbr table|table|legendpos=b|header=Round
| label1 = Ground
| res1 = H /H /H /A /A /H /A /A /H /H /H
| label2 = Result
| res2 = L /D /W /D /W /W /L /W /L /W /W
| label3 = Position
| res3 = 12/10 /6 /8 /4 /1 /5 /2 /5 /3 /2

|text_H=Home|text_A=Away
|color_W=green2|text_W=Win
|color_D=yellow2|text_D=Draw
|color_L=red2|text_L=Loss
|color_1=1st|color_2=2nd|color_3=3rd|color_11=red2|color_12=red2

|source=[https://us.soccerway.com/teams/india/mohun-bagan-ac/3352/ Soccerway]
|updated=29 September 2019
}}

====Matches====
{{football box collapsible
|round = 1
|date = 5 August 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 0–3
|report = https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/calcutta-football-league-cfl-mohun-bagan-peerless-match-live-streaming-scores-commentary-line-ups-salva-chamorro-ansumana-kromah/article28820909.ece
|team2 = [[Peerless Group|Peerless SC]]
|goals1 =
|goals2 = *[[Ansumana Kromah|Kromah]] {{goal|21||78}}
*[[Laxmikanta Mandi|Mandi]] {{goal|76}}
|stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 18,000
|referee = [[Pranjal Banerjee]].
|result = L
|motm = [[Ansumana Kromah|Kromah]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 2
|date = 14 August 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 1–1
|report = https://www.goal.com/en/news/cfl-2019-mohun-bagan-calcutta-customs-report-fran-gonzalez/cv3h59y6qlta1dbar9htvsr1z
|team2 = [[Calcutta Customs Club|Calcutta Customs]]
|goals1 = *[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|21|pen.}}
*[[Lalchhawnkima]] {{sent off|0|62}}
|goals2 = *[[Eze Stanley|Stanley]] {{goal|89}}
|stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 16,000
|referee = Prateek Mondal.
|result = D
|motm = [[Sankar Roy|Sankar]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 3
|date = 28 August 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 2–1
|report = https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/calcutta-football-league-2019-mohun-bagan-register-their-first-win-chamorro-and-nongdamba-on-target
|team2 = BSS Sporting Club
|goals1 = *[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|29}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{goal|47}}
|goals2 = *[[William Opoku|Opoku]] {{goal|32}}
|stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 13,000
|referee = [[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|result = W
|motm = [[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 4
|date = 1 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|score = 0–0
|report = https://m.timesofindia.com/sports/football/top-stories/mohun-bagan-east-bengal-share-spoils-in-seasons-first-derby/articleshow/70940463.cms
|team2 = Mohun Bagan
|goals1 = *[[Kassim Aidara|Aidara]] {{yel|39}}
*[[Lalrindika Ralte|Ralte]] {{yel|80}}
|goals2= *[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{yel|73}}
|stadium = [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 65,000
|referee = [[C.R. Srikrishna]].
|result = D
|motm = [[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 5
|date = 5 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[Bhawanipore F.C.|Bhawanipore]]
|score = 0–2
|report = https://www.goal.com/en-in/news/houghton-ready-for-biggest-game-of-the-season-against-man/1maeerhfpric510etbngmvuwyl
|team2 = Mohun Bagan
|goals1 =
|goals2 = *Romario {{goal|29}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{goal|56}}
|stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 12,000
|referee = Biplab Poddar.
|result = W
|motm = Sahil
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 6
|date = 8 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 4–0
|report = https://www.goal.com/en-in/news/cfl-2019-mohun-bagan-george-telegraph-report/1igfj8c5r4qu61buqncq8fx5dz
|team2 = [[George Telegraph S.C.|George Telegraph]]
|goals1 = *[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|15}}
*[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|34}}
*[[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]] {{goal|70}}
*[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|84}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 16,000
|referee = Nipen Haldar.
|result = W
|motm = [[Nongdamba Naorem|Naorem]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 7
|date = 12 September 2019
|time = 14:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[Aryan F.C.|Aryan]]
|score = 2–1
|report = https://www.goal.com/en-in/news/cfl-2019-mohun-bagan-vs-aryan-match-report/10sjvv83rh0xq184qx2k9eg2d0
|team2 = Mohun Bagan
|goals1 = *[[Diemando de Gatche|Gatche]] {{goal|63}}
* [[Sandeep Oraw|Oraw]] {{goal|80}}
|goals2 = *[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{goal|89}}
|stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 7,000
|referee =
|result = L
|motm = [[Diemando de Gatche|Gatche]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 8
|date = 15 September 2019
|time = 17:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[Rainbow AC|Rainbow]]
|score = 0–1
|report = https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/calcutta-football-league-cfl-mohun-bagan-nbp-rainbow-live-lineup-streaming-commentary-score-goals-result/article29422794.ece
|team2 = Mohun Bagan
|goals1 =
|goals2 = [[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] {{goal|65}}
|stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 15,000
|referee = Tannoy Dhar.
|result = W
|motm = [[Subha Ghosh|Subha]]
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 9
|date = 19 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 2–3
|report = https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/calcutta-football-league-mohammedan-sporting-beats-peerless-sc-storms-to-top-of-table/article29492485.ece
|team2 = [[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|goals1 = *[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]] {{goal|25}}
*[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|70}}
|goals2 = *Kareem {{goal|6}}
*[[Tirthankar Sarkar|Sarkar]] {{goal|10}}
*Chidi{{goal|61}}
|stadium = [[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 7,000
|referee =
|result = L
|motm =
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 10
|date = 24 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 4–0
|report = https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/calcutta-football-league-cfl-2019-mohun-bagan-vs-southern-samity-salva-chamorro/article29498905.ece/
|team2 = [[Southern Samity]]
|goals1 = *[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|7||63}}
*[[Britto PM|Britto]] {{goal|78||90+4}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 2,000
|referee =
|result = W
|motm =
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = 11
|date = 29 September 2019
|time = 15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Mohun Bagan
|score = 3−0
|report = https://www.kolkatafootball.com/ifa_cfl_premier_a_2019-20/premier_a_mohunbagan.html#google_vignette
|team2 = [[Kalighat Milan Sangha F.C.|Kalighat M.S.]]
|goals1 = *[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|61}}
*[[Sheikh Faiaz|Faiaz]] {{goal|70}}
*[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]] {{goal|78}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
|location = [[Kolkata]]
|attendance = 11,000
|referee = Debashish Mandi.
|result = W
|motm = [[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]]
}}

===Sheikh Kamal Cup===
{{main|2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup}}

====Group stage====
{{Updated|25 October 2019}}
{{#invoke:Sports table|main|style=WDL
|section=Group A

|update =
complete
|source =

|team1=CA|team2=MBAC|team3=YEFC|team4=TSC
|result1=KO|result2=KO

|win_CA=2|draw_CA=|loss_CA=1|gf_CA=8|ga_CA=3|status_CA=H, Q
|win_YEFC=2|draw_YEFC=|loss_YEFC=1|gf_YEFC=6|ga_YEFC=6|status_YEFC=E
|win_MBAC=2|draw_MBAC=|loss_MBAC=1|gf_MBAC=4|ga_MBAC=2|status_MBAC=Q
|win_TSC=|draw_TSC=|loss_TSC=3|gf_TSC=2|ga_TSC=8|status_TSC=E

|name_CA={{flagicon|BAN}} [[Chittagong Abahani]]
|name_YEFC={{flagicon|LAO}} [[Young Elephant F.C.]]
|name_MBAC={{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohun Bagan AC]]
|name_TSC={{flagicon|MDV}} [[TC Sports Club]]

|res_col_header=Q
|col_KO=#ccffcc |text_KO=Advance to [[#Semi-finals|Semi-finals]]
}}

;Matches
{{football box collapsible
|date =20 October 2019
|time =19:00 [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
|team1 =Mohun Bagan
|score =1–2
|report = https://www.dhakatribune.com/sport/football/2019/10/20/10-man-young-elephants-surprise-mohun-bagan
|team2 ={{flagicon|LAO}} [[Young Elephant F.C.]]
|goals1 =
*[[Julen Colinas|Colinas]] {{goal|18}}
|goals2 =
*[[Somxay Keohanam|Keohanam]] {{goal|44||89}}
|stadium =[[M. A. Aziz Stadium]]
|location =[[Chittagong]]
|result=L
}}
{{football box collapsible
|date =23 October 2019
|time =16:00 [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
|team1 =Mohun Bagan
|score =2–0
|report = https://m.timesofindia.com/sports/football/top-stories/mohun-bagan-beat-maldives-club-2-0-in-bangladesh-meet/articleshow/71727295.cms
|team2 ={{flagicon|MDV}} [[TC Sports Club]]
|goals1 =
*[[Daneil Cyrus|Daneil]] {{goal|4}}
*[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]] {{goal|64}}
|goals2 =
|stadium =[[M. A. Aziz Stadium]]
|location =[[Chittagong]]
|result=W
}}
{{football box collapsible
|date =25 October 2019
|time =19:00 [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
|team2 =Mohun Bagan
|score =0–1
|report = https://www.news18.com/news/football/mohun-bagan-enter-sheikh-kamal-international-club-cup-semis-with-win-over-chittagong-abahani-2362719.html
|team1 ={{flagicon|BAN}} [[Chittagong Abahani]]
|goals2 =
*[[Suhair VP|Suhair]] {{goal|62}}
|goals1 =
|stadium =[[M. A. Aziz Stadium]]
|location =[[Chittagong]]
|result=W
}}

====Knockout stages====
;Semi-final
{{football box collapsible
|round=
|time=19:00 [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
|date=29 October 2019
|team1={{flagicon|Malaysia}} [[Terengganu F.C.]]
|team2=Mohun Bagan
|stadium=[[M. A. Aziz Stadium]]
|location=[[Chittagong]]
|score=4–2
|report=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/sheikh-kamal-cup-2019-mohun-bagan-terengganu-fc-semifinals-indian-football-lee-tuck-francisco-gonzalez/article29824682.ece
|goals1=*[[Lee Tuck|Tuck]] {{goal|38||59||79}}
*[[Syafik Ismail|Ismail]] {{goal|74}}
|goals2=*[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]] {{goal|47||61}}
|referee=
|result=L
|motm=
}}

==Statistics==

=== Overall player statistics ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; text-align:center; line-height:15px; width:95%"
|-
!rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center;" style="width:20px;"|{{abbr|No.|Squad Number}}
!rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center;" style="width:20px;"|{{abbr|Pos.|Position}}
!rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center;" style="width:20px;"|{{abbr|Nat.|Nationality}}
!rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:center;" style="width:20px;"|Name
!colspan=6 style="width:85px;"|Total
!colspan=6 style="width:85px;"|[[2019–20 I-League|I-League]]
!colspan=6 style="width:85px;"|[[2019 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]]
|-
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccer field icon.svg|15px]] | Appearances}}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Substitution.svg|15px]] | Substitute appearances }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccerball shade.svg|15px]] | Goals }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Football_shoe.svg|19px]] | Assists }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Yellow card.svg|11px]] | Yellow card }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Red card.svg|11px]] | Red card }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccer field icon.svg|15px]] | Appearances}}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Substitution.svg|15px]] | Substitute appearances }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccerball shade.svg|15px]] | Goals }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Football_shoe.svg|19px]] | Assists }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Yellow card.svg|11px]] | Yellow card }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Red card.svg|11px]] | Red card }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccer field icon.svg|15px]] | Appearances}}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Substitution.svg|15px]] | Substitute appearances }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Soccerball shade.svg|15px]] | Goals }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Football_shoe.svg|19px]] | Assists }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Yellow card.svg|11px]] | Yellow card }}
!{{Abbr| [[File:Red card.svg|11px]] | Red card }}
|-
|align=left|1||GK||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Sankar
|16||0||0||0||2||0
|14||0||0||0||2||0
|2||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>3</s>||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Sukhdev Singh (footballer)|Sukhdev]]
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|4||DF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||align=left|[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]]
|19||0||2||0||5||0
|15||0||1||0||4||0
|4||0||1||0||1||1
|-
|align=left|5||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]]
|10||3||0||1||4||1
|6||2||0||0||4||1
|4||1||0||1||0||0
|-
|align=left|6||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Ashutosh Mehta|Ashutosh]]
|18||0||0||2||4||0
|14||0||0||1||4||0
|4||0||0||1||0||0
|-
|align=left|7||MF||{{flagicon|Tajikistan}}||align=left|[[Komron Tursunov|Tursonov]]
|5||3||2||2||1||1
|5||3||2||2||1||1
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>7</s>||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Imran Khan (footballer, born 1994)|Imran]]
|1||3||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|1||3||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>8</s>||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Koushik Sarkar|Koushik]]
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|9||FW||{{flagicon|Senegal}}||align=left|[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]]
|12||0||10||2||1||0
|12||0||10||2||1||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>9</s>||FW||{{flagicon|ESP}}||align=left|[[Salva Chamorro|Salva]]
|3||3||4||0||0||0
|0||2||0||0||0||0
|3||1||4||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|10||MF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||align=left|[[Joseba Beitia|Joseba]]
|17||0||4||11||3||0
|16||0||3||9||3||0
|4||0||1||2||0||0
|-
|align=left|11||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Jesuraj
|4||8||1||0||0||0
|1||6||1||0||0||0
|3||2||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>14</s>||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Arijit Bagui|Arijit]]
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|15||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Lalramchullova]]
|2||3||0||0||0||0
|2||3||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|16||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Nongdamba Naorem|Nongdamba]]
|21||0||2||5||1||0
|16||0||2||5||1||0
|5||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>17</s>||FW||{{flagicon|ESP}}||align=left|[[Julen Colinas|Julen]]
|4||0||0||0||0||0
|4||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|18||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Lalramzauva
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>19</s>||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Lalchhawnkima]]
|3||0||0||0||1||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|3||0||0||0||1||0
|-
|align=left|20||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Suhair VP|Suhair]]
|19||1||4||3||1||0
|16||0||2||2||1||0
|3||1||2||1||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>21</s>||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Surabuddin Mollick|Surabuddin]]
|4||0||0||0||0||1
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|4||0||0||0||0||1
|-
|align=left|22||GK||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Shilton Paul|Shilton]]
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>23</s>||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Deep Y
|0||1||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||1||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|24||GK||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Debjit Majumder|Debjit]]
|4||0||0||0||1||0
|2||0||0||0||0||0
|2||0||0||0||1||0
|-
|align=left|25||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Dhanachandra Singh|Dhanachandra]]
|12||1||0||0||1||1
|10||0||0||0||1||1
|2||1||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|26||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Shilton D'Silva|D'Silva]]
|1||4||0||0||2||0
|1||4||0||0||2||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|27||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Sahil Y
|17||3||0||0||4||0
|13||3||0||0||2||0
|4||0||0||0||2||0
|-
|align=left|28||DF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Bikramjeet Singh|Bikramjeet]]
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>31</s>||GK||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Dibyendu
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|33||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Britto PM|Britto]]
|2||9||0||2||0||0
|2||9||0||2||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<S>34</s>||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Babun
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|<s>35</s>||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Azharuddin Mallick|Azharuddin]]
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|44||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|Kiyan Y
|0||1||0||0||1||0
|0||1||0||0||1||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|45||DF||{{flagicon|TRI}}||align=left|[[Daneil Cyrus|Daneil]]
|11||0||1||2||2||0
|11||0||1||2||2||0
|0||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|47||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Sheikh Faiaz|Faiaz]]
|1||5||0||1||0||0
|0||4||0||1||0||0
|1||1||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|49||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||align=left|[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] Y
|1||8||3||0||1||0
|0||8||3||0||1||0
|1||0||0||0||0||0
|-
|align=left|50||MF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||align=left|[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]]
|18||2||11||3||6||0
|16||0||10||1||3||0
|2||2||1||2||3||0
|-
|}
Y Youth team player
{{Fb_rs footer|u=10 March 2020|s=[https://us.soccerway.com/teams/india/mohun-bagan-ac/3352/ soccerway.com]|date=December 2021}}

=== Goalscorers ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!width=10|{{Abbr| No. | Squad Number }}
!width=10|{{Abbr| Pos. | Position }}
!width=10|{{Abbr| Nat. | Nationality}}
!Player
!{{nowrap|[[2019–20 I-League|I-League]]}}
![[2019 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]]
![[2019 CFL Premier Division|CFL]]
![[2019 Sheikh Kamal International Club Cup|SK Kamal Cup]]
!Total
|-
|50||MF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||[[Francisco Javier González Muñoz|González]]
|10||1||2||2||'''15'''
|-
|9||FW||{{flagicon|Senegal}}||[[Baba Diawara|Diawara]]
|10||||||||'''10'''
|-
|<s>9</s>||FW||{{flagicon|ESP}}||[[Salva Chamorro|Chamorro]]
|||4||4||1||'''9'''
|-
|20||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||[[Suhair VP|Suhair]]
|2||2||3||1||'''8'''
|-
|16||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||[[Nongdamba Naorem|Nongdamba]]
|2||||3||||'''5'''
|-
|10||MF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||[[Joseba Beitia|Beitia]]
|3||1||1||||'''5'''
|-
|49||FW||{{flagicon|IND}}||[[Subha Ghosh|Subha]] Y
|3||||2||||'''5'''
|-
|4||DF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||[[Francisco Morante Martínez|Morante]]
|1||1||1||||'''3'''
|-
|7||FW||{{flagicon|Tajikistan}}||[[Komron Tursunov|Tursunov]]
|2||||||||'''2'''
|-
|16||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||Romario
|1||||1||||'''2'''
|-
|33||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||[[Britto PM]]
|||||2||||'''2'''
|-
|45||DF||{{flagicon|Trinidad and Tobago}}||[[Daneil Cyrus|Cyrus]]
|1||||||1||'''2'''
|-
|<s>17</s>||MF||{{flagicon|ESP}}||[[Julen Colinas|Colinas]]
|||||||1||'''1'''
|-
|47||MF||{{flagicon|IND}}||[[Sheikh Faiaz|Faiaz]]
|||||1||||'''1'''
|-
|colspan=4|''[[Own goal#Association football|Own-goals]]''
|||||||||'''0'''
|-
!scope="col" colspan=8|Total||70
|}
Y Youth team player.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mohun Bagan Super Giant}}
{{2019–20 in Indian football}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2019-20 Mohun Bagan FC Season}}
[[Category:Mohun Bagan Super Giant seasons]]
[[Category:2019–20 I-League by team]]

Vandana Singh

2026-01-30T18:26:44Z

Vedpsagar: update layout further and updated info

{{short description|Indian writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Vandana Singh
| image = Vandana Singh for The British Library.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Singh at a discussion for [[The British Library]] in 2021
| pseudonym =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| occupation = Author, [[Particle physics]] professor
| nationality =
| period = 2000s–present
| genre = [[Fantasy]], [[Science fiction]], [[Children's Literature]]
| debut_works =
| notableworks = "Delhi", "The Wife", ''Younguncle Comes to Town''
| website = {{URL|vandana-writes.com}} [no longer active]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Vandana Singh''' is an Indian [[science fiction]] writer and physicist. She is a Professor of Physics and Environment at the Department of Environment, Society and Sustainability at [[Framingham State University]] in [[Massachusetts]].<ref>[https://www.framingham.edu/our-people/vandana-singh-phd Framingham State University: Our People - Vandana Singh, Ph.D.]</ref><ref>[https://www.framingham.edu/about-fsu/spotlights/vandana-singh Spotlights, Vandana Singh]</ref> Singh also serves on the Advisory Council of [[METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence)]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20251012062012/https://meti.org/en/advisors METI Advisory Council]</ref>

==Works==
===Collected stories===
* ''Ambiguity Machines and other stories'' (2018) ({{ISBN|9781618731432}}) includes the previously unpublished story "Requiem"
* ''The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet and other stories'' (2008) ({{ISBN|9788189884048}}) includes two previously unpublished stories: "Conservation Laws" and "Infinities"

===Short fiction===
* "The Room on the Roof" in the anthology ''Polyphony'' (2002)
* "The Woman Who Thought She Was a Planet" in the anthology ''Trampoline'' ({{ISBN|9781931520041|}}) (2003)
* "The Wife" in the anthology ''Polyphony'' (Volume 3)
: Collected in ''[[Year's Best Fantasy and Horror]]'' (17)
* "Three Tales from Sky River: Myths for a Starfaring Age" in ''[[Strange Horizons]]'' (2004)
: Honorable mention in ''[[Year's Best Science Fiction]]'' (22) and ''[[Year's Best Fantasy and Horror]]'' (18)
* "Delhi" in the anthology ''[[So Long Been Dreaming]]'' (May 2004)
: Collected in ''[[Year's Best Science Fiction]]'' (22)
* "Thirst" in ''[[The 3rd Alternative]]'' (Winter 2004)
: Longlisted for the [[British Fantasy Award]]
: Honorable mention for ''[[Year's Best Science Fiction]]'' (22) and ''[[Year's Best Fantasy and Horror]]'' (18)
: Collected in the anthology ''The Inner Line: Stories by Indian Women'' (2006)
* "The Tetrahedron" in ''InterNova'' (2005)
: Shortlisted for the [[Carl Brandon#The CBS Parallax and Kindred Awards|Carl Brandon Parallax Award]]
: Honorable mention in ''[[Year's Best Science Fiction]]'' (23)
* "The Sign in the Window" in the chapbook series ''Rabid Transit'' (May 2005)
* "Hunger" in the anthology ''Interfictions'' (April 2007)
* "Life-pod" in ''[[Foundation - The International Review of Science Fiction]]'' (August 2007)
* "Of Love and Other Monsters," a novella published in the Aqueduct Press's ''Conversation Pieces'' Series (October 2007)
* "Oblivion: A Journey" in the anthology ''Clockwork Phoenix'' (Summer 2008)
: Collected in ''[[Year's Best SF 14]]''

===Children's fiction===
* ''Younguncle Comes to Town'' (2004)
* ''Younguncle in the Himalayas'' (2005)

===Poetry===
* "A Portrait of the Artist" in ''[[Strange Horizons]]'' (2003)
: Awarded second place in the 2004 [[Rhysling Awards]] for speculative poetry (long poem category)<ref>https://www.sfadb.com/Rhysling_Awards_2004</ref>
* "Syllables of Old Lore" in the anthology Mythic (2006)
* "The Choices of Leaves" in the anthology Mythic (2006)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite news |title=Younguncle comes to town |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/01/17/stories/2005011700510200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102071547/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/01/17/stories/2005011700510200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-11-02 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=2005-01-07 |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news |title=First Look: Literature |url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main36.asp?filename=hub151207firstlook_literature.asp |work=[[Tehelka]] |date=2007-12-15 |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news |title=In the Himalayas |url=http://www.hindu.com/yw/2005/08/26/stories/2005082600090800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051108075436/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2005/08/26/stories/2005082600090800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-11-08 |date=2005-08-26 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news |title=Fantasy seeker |url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/02/13/stories/2005021300600500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050216092243/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/02/13/stories/2005021300600500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-02-16 |date=2005-02-13 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news |title=Normal, boring |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080102/jsp/telekids/story_8732025.jsp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203212333/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080102/jsp/telekids/story_8732025.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2013 |work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |date=2008-01-02 |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news |title=In cyber world |url=http://www.hindu.com/yw/2008/02/22/stories/2008022250690600.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227133849/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2008/02/22/stories/2008022250690600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-02-27 |date=2008-02-22 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2008-05-15 }}
*{{cite news|title=Notes on Indian Science Fiction: The Parallel Worlds of Jayant Narlikar and Vandana Singh |url=http://mithilareview.com/shah_05_16/ |work=Mithila Review |date=2016-05-04 |access-date=2016-11-20}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Children's literature|Speculative fiction}}
* [http://vandana-writes.com/ Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923213620/http://vandana-writes.com/ |date=23 September 2017 }}
* {{isfdb name|25493}}
* [http://www.bookslut.com/features/2006_08_009677.php An Interview with Vandana Singh by Geoffrey H. Goodwin at Bookslut]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Vandana}}
[[Category:Indian children's writers]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy writers]]
[[Category:Indian science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Indian women children's writers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers]]
[[Category:Indian women novelists]]
[[Category:Women writers from Delhi]]
[[Category:Novelists from Delhi]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:21st-century short story writers]]

{{india-writer-stub}}

History of Kerala

2026-01-21T16:17:24Z

Vedpsagar: quick fix

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Keralahistory}}
[[File:1-keralam.svg|thumb|Kerala]]
''[[Kerala]]'' was first epigraphically recorded as ''Cheras'' ([[Chera dynasty|Keralaputra]]) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by the [[Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]] of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]].<ref name="Kerala 2011">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kerala |title=Kerala |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> It was mentioned as one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]], [[Pandya Empire|Pandyas]] and [[Athiyamān|Satyaputras]].<ref name="SmithJackson2008">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&pg=PA166 |title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent A. |author-link1=Vincent A. Smith |last2=Jackson |first2=A. V. Williams |author-link2=A. V. Williams Jackson |date=2008 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-492-5 |pages=166– |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the [[Arabian Sea]] with all major [[Mediterranean]] and [[Red Sea]] ports as well those of [[Eastern Africa]] and the [[Far East]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=East Africa and oceanic exchange networks between the first and fifteenth centuries |first=Philippe |last=Beaujard |date=2015 |journal=Afriques |volume=06 |number=6 |doi=10.4000/afriques.3097|doi-access=free }}</ref> The dominion of Cheras was located in one of the key routes of the ancient [[Indian Ocean trade]]. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] and [[Rashtrakuta Empire|Rashtrakutas]].

In the 8th century, [[Adi Shankara]] was born in [[Kalady]] in central Kerala. He travelled extensively across the [[Indian subcontinent]] founding institutions of the widely influential philosophy of [[Advaita Vedanta]]. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century until the kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, after which small autonomous chiefdoms, most notably [[Zamorin of Calicut|the Kingdom of Kozhikode]], arose. The ports of [[Kozhikode]] and [[Kochi]] acted as major gateways to the western coast of medieval [[South India]] for several foreign entities. These entities included the [[Chinese people|Chinese]], the [[Arab]]s, the [[Persians]], various groups from Eastern Africa, various kingdoms from [[Southeast Asia]] including the [[Malacca Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1800/indian-ocean-trade-before-the-european-conquest/ |title=Indian Ocean Trade before the European Conquest |first=James |last=Hancock |date=20 July 2021 |website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref> and later on, the [[Europe]]ans.<ref name="Malabar"/>

In the 14th century, the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] was founded by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] in [[Kingdom of Tanur|the Kingdom of Tanur]]. Some of the contributions of the school included the discovery of the [[infinite series]] and taylor series of some trigonometry functions.<ref name=katz>{{Cite journal |last=Katz |first=Victor J. |author-link=Victor J. Katz |date=June 1995 |title=Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India |journal=[[Mathematics Magazine]] |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=163–174 |doi=10.1080/0025570X.1995.11996307 |issn=0025-570X |jstor=2691411}}</ref>

In 1498, with the help of [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] merchants, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] traveler [[Vasco Da Gama]] established a sea route to [[Kozhikode]] by sailing around the [[Cape of Good Hope]], located in the southernmost region of Africa. His navy raised Portuguese forts and even minor settlements, which marked the beginning of European influences in India. European trading interests of the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]], [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French]] and the [[East India Company|British]] took center stage in Kerala.

In 1741, the Dutch were [[Travancore–Dutch War|defeated]] by [[Travancore]] king [[Marthanda Varma]]. After this humiliating defeat, Dutch military commanders were taken hostage by Marthanda Varma, and they were forced to train the Travancore military with modern European weaponry. This resulted in Travancore being able to defend itself from further European aggression. By the late 18th century, most of the influence in Kerala came from the British. The British crown gained control over Northern Kerala through the creation of the [[Malabar District]]. The British also allied with the [[princely states]] of Travancore and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] in the southern part of the state.

When India declared [[Indian independence movement|independence]] in 1947, Travancore originally sought to establish itself as a fully sovereign nation. However, an agreement was made by the then King of Travancore [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]] to have Travancore join India, albeit after many rounds of negotiation. The [[Malabar District]] and the [[Kingdom of Cochin]] were peacefully annexed into India without much hassle. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 from the former state of [[Travancore-Cochin]], the [[Malabar district]] and the [[Kasaragod taluk]] of [[South Canara]] District of [[Madras state]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/yw/2003/11/01/stories/2003110101270300.htm |title=The land that arose from the sea |first=Hemjit |last=Bharathan |date=1 November 2003 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2009-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040117071454/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2003/11/01/stories/2003110101270300.htm |archive-date=17 January 2004}}</ref> The state is called ''Keralam'' in Malayalam, due to its grammatical addition of [[Anusvara]].

== Other names ==
The term ''Malabar'' has historically been used in [[Indian Ocean trade|foreign trade circles]] as a general name for [[Kerala]].<ref name="Malabar">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |title=Kerala Charitram |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |author-link=A. Sreedhara Menon |date=2007 |orig-date=1967 |location=[[Kottayam]] |publisher=[[DC Books]] |edition=Revised |isbn=978-8-12641-588-5}}</ref> In earlier times, the term ''Malabar'' had also been used to denote [[Tulu Nadu]] and [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]] which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3200/page/n1/mode/2up |title=Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume I) |first=J. |last=Sturrock |date=1894 |location=[[Madras]] |publisher=Madras Government Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/travancorestate00aiyagoog/page/n10/mode/2up |title=The Travancore State Manual |last=Nagam Aiya |first=V. |author-link=V. Nagam Aiya |date=1906 |publisher=Travancore Government Press}}</ref> The people of Malabar were known as ''[[Malabars]]''. From the time of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (6th century CE) itself, the Roman sailors used to call Kerala as ''Male''. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the ''Topography'' written by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]]. This mentions a pepper emporium called ''Male'', which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name ''Male'' is thought to come from the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' ('hill').<ref>{{cite book |first1=C. A. |last1=Innes |first2=F. B. |last2=Evans |name-list-style=amp |date=1915 |title=Malabar and Anjengo, Volume 1 |series=Madras District Gazetteers |location=Madras |publisher=Madras Government Press |page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC |last=Narayanan |first=M. T. |date=2003 |title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar |location=New Delhi |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=81-7211-135-5 |page=xvi–xvii}}</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] (AD 973–1048) must have been the first writer to call this state ''Malabar''.<ref name="Malabar" /> Author<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/1Mohamed1999ArabRelationsWithMalabarCoastFrom9thTo16thC/mode/2up | title=Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th C }}</ref> such as [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="KMMohammad">{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/details/1Mohamed1999ArabRelationsWithMalabarCoastFrom9thTo16thC/mode/2up |title=Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries |first=K. M. |last=Mohammad |date=1999 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=60 |pages=226–234}}</ref> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''. According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref name="Malabar" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Logan |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/page/1/mode/1up |title=Malabar Manual, Vol. 1 |date=1887 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press (Madras) |others=Servants of Knowledge |isbn=978-81-206-0446-9 |page=1}}</ref>

== Traditional sources ==
[[File:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|thumb|[[Parashurama|Parasurama]], surrounded by settlers, commanding [[Varuna]] to part the seas and reveal Kerala.]]

=== Mahabali ===
Perhaps the most famous festival of Kerala, [[Onam]], is deeply rooted in Kerala traditions. Onam is associated with the legendary king [[Mahabali]] (Maveli), who according to tradition and Puranas, ruled the Earth and several other planetary systems from Kerala. His entire kingdom was then a land of immense prosperity and happiness. However, Mahabali was tricked into giving up his rule, and was thus overthrown by [[Vamana]] (Thrikkakkarayappan), the fifth ''Avatar'' (earthly incarnation) of Lord ''[[Vishnu]]''. He was banished from the Earth to rule over one of the netherworld ([[Patala]]) planets called Sutala by Vamana. Mahabali comes back to visit Kerala every year on the occasion of Onam.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Legacy of Kerala |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |date=2008 |orig-date=1982 |isbn=978-81-2642-157-2}}</ref>

=== Other texts ===
The oldest of all the Puranas, the [[Matsya Purana]], sets the story of the Matsya Avatar (fish incarnation) of Lord [[Vishnu]], in the [[Western Ghats]].{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name as ''Cherapadah'' is the [[Aitareya Aranyaka]], a late Vedic work on philosophy.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> It is also mentioned in both the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]].<ref name="Menon3">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |date=2008 |orig-date=1978 |isbn=978-8-12641-903-6 |pages=13–15}}</ref>

=== Parasurama and Cenkuttuvan ===
There are legends dealing with the origins of Kerala geographically and culturally. One such legend is the retrieval of Kerala from the sea, by Parasurama, a warrior sage. It proclaims that [[Parasurama]], an [[Avatar]] of [[Mahavishnu]], threw His battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of Kerala arose, and thus was reclaimed from the waters.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nagam Aiya |first=V. |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |pages=210–212 |year=1906 |access-date=2007-11-12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC}}</ref> This legend shares parallels with an earlier legend where Chera King [[Cenkuttuvan|Vel Kezhu Kuttavan]], who when enraged, threw his axe into the sea and caused it to retreat.{{sfn|Menon|2011|p=15|ps=: According to Menon, this etymology of "added" or "reclaimed" land also complements the [[Parashurama]] myth about the formation of Kerala. In it, Parashurama, one of the avatars of [[Vishnu]], flung his axe across the sea from [[Gokarnam]] towards [[Kanyakumari]] (or vice versa) and the water receded up to the spot where it landed, thus creating Kerala.}}{{sfn|Menon|2007|p=21|ps=: Citing K. Achyutha Menon, ''Ancient Kerala: Studies in Its History and Culture,'' pp. 7}}

=== Ophir ===
[[File:Poovar Kerala.jpg|thumb|[[Poovar]] is often identified with Biblical [[Ophir]].]]
[[Ophir]], a region mentioned in the [[Bible]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ophir |title=Ophir |website=[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]}}</ref> famous for its [[wealth]], is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala. According to legend, the [[King Solomon]] received a cargo from Ophir every three years ([[1 Kings]] 10:22) which consisted of [[gold]], [[silver]], [[sandalwood]], [[pearl]]s, [[ivory]], apes, and [[peacock]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924030139236 |title=The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean |last=Schroff |first=Wilfred H. |date=1912 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |location=New York City |page=41}}</ref> ''A Dictionary of the Bible'' by [[Sir William Smith]], published in 1863,<ref name="Smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=William |author-link=William Smith (lexicographer) |editor1-last=Hackett |editor1-first=H. B. |date=1870 |orig-date=1863 |title=[[Smith's Bible Dictionary|A Dictionary of the Bible]] |location=New York City |publisher=Hurd and Houghton |page=1441}}</ref> notes the Hebrew word for parrot ''Thukki'', derived from the Classical Tamil for peacock ''Thogkai'' and Cingalese ''Tokei'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/eastons-bible-dictionary/peacock.html |title=Peacock |date=1897 |website=[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]] |via=Bible Study Tools.com}}</ref> joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of Ophir's location in [[Tamilakam]] is further supported by other historians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K.S. Ramaswami |date=1967 |title=The Tamils and their culture |location=Annamalai Nagar |publisher=[[Annamalai University]] |page=16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory |first=James |date=1991 |title=Tamil Lexicography |location=Tübingen |publisher=M. Niemeyer |page=10 |isbn=978-3-48430-940-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Edna |date=2008 |title=The Last Jews of Kerala |location=London, UK |publisher=Portobello Books |page=98 |isbn=978-18-4627-099-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Almug or Algum Tree |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=9th |volume=I |quote=The Hebrew words Almuggim or Algummim have translated Almug or Algum trees in our version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sandal-wood of India ([[Pterocarpus santalinus]]). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order Papilionaceæ. The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained, and of fine red colour. It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order. Also, see notes by [[George Menachery]] in the ''St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India'', Vol. 2 (1973)}}</ref> The most likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is [[Poovar]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]] District (though some Indian scholars also suggest [[Beypore]] as possible location).<ref name="Menon1967">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=58}}</ref><ref name="Aiyangar2004">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htArUg0OMpcC&pg=PA60 |title=Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India |last=Aiyangar |first=Sakkottai Krishnaswami |date=2004 |orig-date=1911 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8-12061-850-3 |pages=60–}}</ref> The [[Books of Kings]] and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrian]] king [[Hiram I]] from [[Ezion-Geber]], a port on the [[Red Sea]], that brought back large amounts of gold, precious stones and '[[Algum|algum wood]]' and of a later failed expedition by king [[Jehoshaphat]] of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].{{efn-lr|The first expedition is described in ''[[1 Kings]] 9:28; 10:11; [[1 Chronicles]] 29:4; [[2 Chronicles]] 8:18; 9:10'', the failed expedition of Jehoshaphat in ''[[1 Kings]] 22:48''}} The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible.{{efn-lr|''[[Book of Job]] 22:24; 28:16; [[Psalms]] 45:9; [[Isaiah]] 13:12''}}{{notelist-lr}}

=== Cheraman Perumal ===
{{main|Legend of Cheraman Perumals}}
[[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png|thumbnail|A portrait of the sword of the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], related with the legend of Cheraman Perumals.]]
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the ''Cheraman Perumal'' (literally the [[Chera dynasty|Chera kings]]) of Kerala.<ref name=":a">{{cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |author-link=M. G. S. Narayanan |date=2013 |orig-date=1996 |title=Perumāḷs of Kerala |edition=New |location=[[Thrissur]], Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |isbn=978-8-18876-507-2 |pages=31–32}}</ref> The Cheraman Perumals mentioned in the legend can be identified with the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal]] rulers of medieval Kerala ({{circa|8th}}–12th century CE).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala |first=K. N. |last=Ganesh |date=June 2009 |journal=[[Indian Historical Review]] |volume=36 |number=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1177/037698360903600102|s2cid=145359607 }}</ref> The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.<ref>{{cite book |first=Kesavan |last=Veluthat |author-link=Kesavan Veluthat |date=2009 |chapter=The ''Keralolpathi'' as History |title=The Early Medieval in South India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=129–146 |isbn=978-0-19569-663-9}}</ref> The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).<ref name=":b">{{cite book |editor-last=Karashima |editor-first=Noboru |editor-link=Noboru Karashima |date=2014 |title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=146–147 |isbn=978-0-19809-977-2}}</ref><ref name=":c">{{cite book |last=Frenz |first=Margret |chapter=Virtual Relations, Little Kings in Malabar |editor1-last=Berkemer |editor1-first=Georg |editor2-last=Frenz |editor2-first=Margret |name-list-style=amp |date=2003 |title=Sharing Sovereignty: The Little Kingdom in South Asia |location=Berlin |publisher=[[Zentrum Moderner Orient]] |pages=81–91}}</ref> According to the legend, ''Rayar'', the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the [[Western Ghats|Ghats]], invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like ''Udaya Varman Kolathiri'', ''Manichchan'', and ''Vikkiran'' of [[Eranad]]). The ''Cheraman Perumal'' was assured by the ''Eradis'' (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the ''Rayar''.<ref name=":d">{{cite book |last=Logan |first=William |author-link=William Logan (author) |date=1951 |orig-date=1887 |title=[[Malabar Manual|Malabar]] |edition=Reprint |location=Madras |publisher=Madras Government Press |pages=223–240}}</ref> The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).<ref name=":d" /> Then the last ''Cheraman Perumal'' divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. Following this period, local administration and titles reportedly came under Namboothiri Brahminical authority, with allied local chieftains gaining prominence. According to MGS Narayanan, by the 13th century, all the rulers in Malabar had become the sons of Namboothiris, with the offspring being more compliant with Namboothiri authority. By this event in history, the Namboothiri men rose to unmatched power, fullfiling their own concept of 'Netra Nārāyaṇan', god walking on earth. The transfer of power to this new order, did not occur through direct warfare but rather during periods of imperial decline, when influence was gained through intrigue, manipulation, and a willingness to engage in any dirty practices. This dominance continued until the arrival of European colonial powers on the Malabar coast.<ref name=mgsn/>

The system was supported by the Namboothiri men, their concubines, and the offspring born out of those relationships, along with manipulation and mind games, not by valor or power. That is why, when Tipu Sultan came to Malabar, he faced no real resistance. At Chirakkal, the ruling family handed over their kingdom to the British and fled to Travancore. In Kozhikode, upon hearing this news, everyone escaped to South Kerala, and the [[zamorin]] king burned his palace and committed suicide.<ref name=ay>{{cite web|first=Abraham |last=Yeshuratnam |title=The East India Company and the Rajas of Malabar|work=The East India Company and the Malabar Rajas |url=https://www.academia.edu/43826154|date=1977 |accessdate=October 25, 2025}}</ref><ref name=":a" /><ref name=":b" /><ref name=":c"/> The ''Eradis'' of [[Nediyiruppu]], who later came to be known as the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal's sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").<ref name=":c" /><ref name=":d" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ampotti |first1=A. K. |title=Glimpses of Islam in Kerala |date=2004 |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j0QwAAAAYAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |date=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8-190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-70491-8 |page=346}}</ref>

== Prehistory ==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG|caption1=A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]], [[Kerala, India]].
| image2 = Edakkal Stone Age Carving.jpg|caption2=[[Stone Age]] (6,000 BCE) writings of [[Edakkal Caves]] in Kerala.
}}
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowland and the plains of midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near [[Changanassery]], thus supporting the hypothesis.<ref name="Menon2007"/> Archaeological studies have identified many [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites in the eastern highlands of Kerala mainly centred around the eastern mountain ranges of [[Western Ghats]].<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC |first1=Udai Prakash |last1=Arora |first2=A. K. |last2=Singh |name-list-style=amp |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |date=1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8-1-86565-44-5 |page=116}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]], in [[Wayanad]] date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book |first=Subodh |last=Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184 |date=2002 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-8-17755-257-7 |page=2184}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wayanad |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/web/guest/wayanad |website=Government of Kerala |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=28 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528022259/https://kerala.gov.in/web/guest/wayanad }}</ref> These findings have been classified into Laterite rock-cut caves (''Chenkallara''), Hood stones (''Kudakkallu''), Hat stones (''Toppikallu''), Dolmenoid cists (''Kalvrtham''), Urn burials (''Nannangadi'') and Menhirs (''Pulachikallu''). The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [[Paleolithic]] age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic ages.<ref name="AroraSingh1162">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC |first1=Udai Prakash |last1=Arora |first2=A. K. |last2=Singh |name-list-style=amp |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |date=1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8-1-86565-44-5 |pages=118, 123}}</ref> However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC |first1=Udai Prakash |last1=Arora |first2=A. K. |last2=Singh |name-list-style=amp |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |date=1999 |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-8-1-86565-44-5 |page=123}}</ref> The studies suggest possible relationship with [[Indus Valley civilization]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]].<ref name="article26324">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |location=Chennai, India |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala |date=29 September 2009}}</ref>

Archaeological findings include [[dolmen]]s of the [[Neolithic]] era in the [[Marayur]] area. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from ''muni'' ([[hermit]] or [[Index of religious honorifics and titles|sage]]) and ''ara'' (dolmen).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |title=Unlocking the secrets of history |date=6 December 2004 |location=Chennai, India |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050126210416/http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |archive-date=26 January 2005}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]] in [[Wayanad]] are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/30/stories/2007103054660500.htm |title=Edakkal Cave: ASI to conduct survey |date=2007-10-30 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=10 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910215510/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/30/stories/2007103054660500.htm |archive-date=2013-09-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3792:travel-and-tourism&catid=271:about-kerala&Itemid=2267 |title=Travel and Tourism – Wayanad |website=Government of Kerala |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114080354/http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3792%3Atravel-and-tourism&catid=271%3Aabout-kerala&Itemid=2267 |archive-date=14 January 2016}}</ref> Historian [[M. R. Raghava Varier]] of the Kerala state archaeology department identified a sign of "a man with jar cup" in the engravings, which is the most distinct motif of the Indus valley civilisation.<ref name="article26324"/>

== Classical period ==
[[File:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg|thumb|Muziris in the Tabula Peutingeriana, an itinerarium showing the road network in the Roman Empire.]]

=== Early ruling dynasties ===
{{further|Chera dynasty}}
[[File:Ezhimala beach.JPG|thumb|[[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]], the early historic headquarters of [[Mushika dynasty]], which was succeeded by the kingdom of [[Kolathunadu]] later.]]
Kerala's dominant rulers of the early historic period were the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], a [[Tamils|Tamil]] dynasty with its headquarters located in [[Vanchi Muthur|Vanchi]].<ref name="Vimala2007">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZyLVdkA7cIC&pg=PA108 |title=History And Civics 6 |first=Angelina |last=Vimala |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8-1-317-0336-6 |page=107 |access-date=6 October 2012}}</ref> The location of Vanchi is generally considered near the ancient port city of [[Muziris]] in Kerala.<ref name="Menon1987">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA13 |title=Political History of Modern Kerala |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |publisher=DC Books |date=1987 |isbn=978-8-1-264-2156-5 |page=22 |access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Serrano1974">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/serpentofparadis00serrrich/page/76 |url-access=registration |title=The Serpent of Paradise: The Story of an Indian Pilgrimage |first=Miguel |last=Serrano |date=1974 |publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0-7100-7784-4 |pages=76– |access-date=6 October 2012}}</ref> However, [[Karur]] in modern Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the location of the capital city of Cheras.<ref name="Reddy">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4j7Nf_MU24C&pg=SL1-PA243 |title=Indian History |first=K. Krishna |last=Reddy |year=1960 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-132923-1 |pages=1– |access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref> Another view suggests the reign of Cheras from multiple capitals.<ref name="Kapoor2002" /> The Chera kingdom consisted of a major part of modern Kerala and [[Kongu Nadu|Kongunadu]] which comprises western districts of modern [[Tamil Nadu]] like [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]] and [[Salem district|Salem]].<ref name="Reddy" /><ref name="Kapoor2">{{cite book |first=Subodh |last=Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72BjBPBRb6MC&pg=PA1449 |date=2002 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=978-8-17755-257-7 |page=1448 |access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref> The region around [[Coimbatore]] was ruled by the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] during [[Sangam period]] between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the [[Palakkad Gap]], the principal trade route between the [[Malabar Coast]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Trade">{{cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T. S |title=Roman connection in Tamil Nadu |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th |access-date=28 October 2011 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919235748/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007%2F01%2F28%2F&prd=th |archive-date=19 September 2013}}</ref> [[Old Tamil language|Old Tamil]] works such as ''[[Patiṟṟuppattu]], [[Pathinenmaelkanakku|Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku]]'' and ''[[Silappatikaram]]'' are important sources that describe the Cheras from the early centuries CE.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Eight Anthologies |first=John Ralston |last=Marr |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |date=1985 |page=263}}</ref> Together with the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] the Cheras formed the Tamil triumvirate of the ''mūvēntar'' ([[Three Crowned Kings]]). The Cheras ruled the western [[Malabar Coast]], the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] ruled in the eastern [[Coromandel Coast]] and the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] in the south-central peninsula. The Cheras were mentioned as ''Ketalaputo'' (Keralaputra) on an inscribed edict of emperor [[Ashoka]] of the [[Maurya Empire|Magadha Empire]] in the 3rd century BCE,<ref name="SmithJackson2008" /> as ''Cerobothra'' by the Greek ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' and as ''Celebothras'' in the Roman encyclopedia ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' by Pliny the Elder. The [[Mushika dynasty|Mushika kingdom]] existed in northern Kerala, while the [[Ay dynasty|Ays]] ruled south of the Chera kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |title=Kerala History and its Makers |date=2008 |orig-date=1987 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |edition=3rd revised |isbn=978-81-2642-199-2 |page=22}}</ref>

===Trade relations===
{{further|Spice trade}}
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE).]]
The region of Kerala was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with [[Arab]]s, [[Sumer]]ians and [[Babylonia]]ns.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC |first1=Srikumar |last1=Chattopadhyay |first2=Richard W. |last2=Franke |name-list-style=amp |date=2006 |title=Striving for Sustainability; Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala |location=New Delhi |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |page=79 |isbn=81-8069-294-9}}</ref> [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], [[Egyptians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and [[Chinese people|Chinese]] were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially [[spice]]s and [[Cotton Fabric|cotton fabrics]].<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |pages=57–58}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQWboC&pg=PA392 |last=Larsen |first=Karin |date=1998 |title=Faces of Goa: A Journey Through the History and Cultural Revolution of Goa and Other Communities Influenced by the Portuguese |location=New Delhi |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |page=392 |isbn=978-8-12120-584-9}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter [[Malabar Coast]] to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/>

[[Muziris]], [[Tyndis]], Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] kingdom.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |first=K. K. |last=Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |date=1987 |isbn=978-8-1-7099-026-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> [[Megasthanes]], the Greek ambassador to the court of [[Maurya Empire|Magadhan]] king [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan]] trade centre. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Egypt]] purely depending on the [[South west monsoon]] winds. Later, the unknown author of the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' notes that "both Muziris and [[Nelcynda]] are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura near [[Kannur]], Tyndis near [[Kozhikode]], and [[Purakkad|Barace]] near [[Alappuzha]], which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. [[Tyndis]] was a major center of trade, next only to [[Muziris]], between the Cheras and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Yogesh |date=2010 |title=Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-9-38060-700-9}}</ref> Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of ''[[Augustus]]'' and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]]; the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246 |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |first=Abraham |last=Eraly |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 |pages=246– |access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 CE. |last=Srinivasa Iyengar |first=P. T. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=2001 |isbn=81-206-0145-9 |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ([[Chera dynasty]]).<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |title=In Search of Muziris |first1=Rajan |last1=Gurukkal |first2=Dick |last2=Whittaker |name-list-style=amp |date=2001 |journal=[[Journal of Roman Archaeology]] |volume=14 |pages=334–350 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400019978|s2cid=164778915 }}</ref> The [[North Malabar]] region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="Malabar"/> The port of [[Tyndis]] which was on the northern side of [[Muziris]], as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere near [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar"/> Its exact location is a matter of dispute.<ref name="Malabar"/> The suggested locations are [[Ponnani]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Beypore]]-[[Chaliyam]]-[[Kadalundi]]-[[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Koyilandy]].<ref name="Malabar"/>

According to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a region known as ''[[Limyrike]]'' began at ''[[Kannur|Naura]]'' and ''[[Tyndis]]''. However the [[Ptolemy]] mentions only ''[[Tyndis]]'' as the ''[[Limyrike]]''{{'}}s starting point. The region probably ended at [[Kanyakumari]]; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [[Malabar Coast]]. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 [[sesterces]].<ref>According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |author=Pliny the Elder |title=[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]] |chapter=On India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html |archive-date=6 November 2013 |via=Cartage.org.lb |access-date=26 May 2022 }}</ref> He also mentions that the region was prone to pirates.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/60230/60230-0.txt |editor1-last=Bostock |editor1-first=John |editor1-link=John Bostock (physician) |editor2-last=Riley |editor2-first=Henry Thomas |editor2-link=Henry Thomas Riley |date=1855 |title=The Natural History of Pliny |chapter=26. Voyages to India |volume=II |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Henry G. Bohn]] |pages=60–66}}</ref> [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] mentioned that it was also a source of [[Malabar pepper]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cosmas_03_book3.htm |author=Cosmas Indicopleustes |others=Translated by [[J. W. McCrindle]]. Transcribed by Roger Pearse. |date=2003 |orig-date=1897 |title=Christian Topography, Book III |location=London, UK |publisher=The Hakluyt Society |page=120 |via=The Tertullian Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Das |first=Santosh Kumar |date=2006 |orig-date=1925 |title=The Economic History of Ancient India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd |page=301}}</ref> Contemporary [[Sangam literature|Tamil literature]], ''[[Puṟanāṉūṟu]]'' and ''[[Akanaṉūṟu]],'' speak of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of [[Malabar pepper]] and other [[spices]], which had enormous demand in the West. The contact with [[Middle East]] and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of [[Jews]], [[Syriac Christianity|Syrian Christian]]s and [[Malabar Muslims]] in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|330px|[[Silk Road]] map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).]]

=== Formation of a multicultural society ===
{{Further|Religion in Kerala}}
[[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] reached Kerala in this early period. As in other parts of [[Middle kingdoms of India|ancient India]], Buddhism and Jainism co-existed with early Hindu beliefs during the first five centuries. Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 CE. |last=Srinivasa Iyengar |first=P. T. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=2001 |isbn=81-206-0145-9}}</ref> Jews arrived in Kerala as early as 573 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last=d'Beth Hillel |first=David |date=1832 |title=The Travels of Rabbi David d'Beth Hillel; from Jerusalem, through Arabia, Koordistan, part of Persia and India |location=[[Madras]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lord |first=James Henry |date=1976 |orig-date=1907 |title=The Jews in India and the Far East |edition=Reprint |location=Westport, CT |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-83712-615-9}}</ref> The [[Cochin Jews]] believe that their ancestors came to the west coast of India as refugees following the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] in the first century CE. [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] claim to be the descendants of the converts of Saint [[Thomas the Apostle]] of [[Jesus Christ]]. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as [[Herodotus]] (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.<ref name="Kusuman" /> They intermarried with local people, resulting in the formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th century, the [[Knanaya]] Christians migrated from [[Persia]] and settled in southern [[Kodungallur]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fahlbusch |first=Erwin |author-link=Erwin Fahlbusch |date=2008 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5 |location=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing]] |page=285 |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5VQUdZhx1gC |title=The Oxford History of Christian Worship |title-link=The Oxford History of Christian Worship |location=New York |editor1-last=Wainwright |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor1-link=Geoffrey Wainwright |editor2-last=Tucker |editor2-first=Karen Westerfield |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |chapter=Mission and Inculturation: East Asia and the Pacific |first=Anscar J. |last=Chupungco |author-link=Anscar Chupungco|date=2006 |page=666 |isbn=978-0-19513-886-3}}</ref> ''Mappila'' was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities: [[Juda Mappila]]s, [[Malabar Muslims|Muslim Mappila]]s, and [[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]]s.<ref name="BMalieckal">{{cite journal |title=Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India |first=Bindu |last=Malieckal |date=April 2005 |journal=The Muslim World |volume=95 |number=2 |pages=297–316 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2005.00092.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Indian Christians of St. Thomas: An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar |first=Leslie |last=Brown |author-link=Leslie Brown (bishop) |date=1982 |orig-date=1956 |page=171 |edition=Revised & enlarged |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-21258-8}}</ref> According to the legends of these [[communities]], the earliest [[Saint Thomas Christian Churches|Christian churches]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings |first=Susan |last=Bayly |author-link=Susan Bayly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-52189-103-5 |page=40}}</ref> [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|mosque]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |title=The Jews of China |first=Jonathan |last=Goldstein |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-76560-104-9 |page=123}}</ref> and [[Paradesi Synagogue|synagogue]] (CE 1568)<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWX6pF2PTJwC |title=Who Are the Jews of India? |first=Nathan |last=Katz |publisher=University of California Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-52021-323-4 |page=245}}</ref> in India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Jews, Muslims, and Christians was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.<ref name="Dialogue">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters |first=Rolland E. |last=Miller |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |date=1993 |isbn=978-8-12081-158-4 |page=50}}</ref>

== Medieval and Early Modern periods ==

{{See also|Kingdoms of Kerala}}

=== Political changes ===
[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]]. The sixth plate has signatures of witnesses to the grant in [[Arabic]], [[Middle Persian]] and [[Judeo-Persian]].<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams |title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |editor-last1=Sundermann |editor-first1=W. |editor-last2=Hintze |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=de Blois |editor-first3=F. |date=2009 |chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates |last=Cereti |first=C. G. |pages=|location=Wiesbaden |publisher=[[Harrassowitz]] |isbn=978-3-44705-937-4}}</ref>]]
Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.<ref name="Kerala 2011"/> From the [[Kodungallur]] line of the Cheras rose the [[Kulasekhara Dynasty (Second Cheras)|Kulasekhara dynasty]], which was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]]. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara period, the southern region from [[Nagercoil]] to [[Thiruvananthapuram]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Cheras.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book |first=K. Balachandran |last=Nayar |title=In quest of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ |date=1974 |publisher=Accent Publications |page=86 |access-date=8 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=97}}</ref> Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literature, trade and the [[Bhakti movement]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |pages=123–131}}</ref> A Keralite identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became [[Malayalam|linguistically separate]] during this period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chaitanya |first=Krishna |title=Kerala |date=1972 |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[National Book Trust]] |oclc=515788 |page=15}}</ref> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |first=K. V. |last=Sarma |date=1996 |journal=[[Indian Journal of History of Science]] |volume=31 |number=1 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ |last=Richmond |first=Broughton |date=1956 |title=Time Measurement and Calendar Construction |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |page=218}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Kerala |first=R. Leela |last=Devi |publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot |date=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains known as [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123"/> The era witnessed also a shift in political power, as [[Nambudiri|Namboothiri]] Brahmins gained political power.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=138 |access-date=9 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC |last=Narayanan |first=M. T. |date=2003 |title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar |location=New Delhi |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=81-7211-135-5 |page=38}}</ref> As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala, which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".<ref name=":0" /> [[Mamankam festival]], which was the largest native festival, was held at [[Tirunavaya]] near [[Kuttippuram]], on the bank of river [[Bharathappuzha]].<ref name="Malabar"/> [[Athavanad]], the headquarters of ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'', who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.<ref name="Malabar"/>

[[Sulaiman al-Tajir]], a [[Persians|Persian]] merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and [[China]] at that time, based at the port of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=India Charitram |last=Shreedhara Menon |first=A. |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |date=2016 |isbn=978-8-12641-939-5 |page=219}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 CE), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 CE), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 CE), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite thesis |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/13105 |title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar |last=Razak |first=Abdul |publisher=[[University of Calicut]] |date=2007|hdl=10603/13105 }}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 |title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine |last=Kupferschmidt |first=Uri M. |date=1987 |pages=458–459 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-00407-929-8 |access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54 |title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi |last=Kulakarṇī |first=A. Rā |date=1996 |pages=54–55 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |isbn=978-8-17154-579-7 |access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref>

The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |title=The Buddhist History of Kerala |website=Kerala.cc |access-date=25 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010321010740/http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |archive-date=21 March 2001}}</ref> The social system became fractured with divisions on [[Caste system in kerala|caste]] lines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=138}}</ref> The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] and [[Later Cholas|Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand"/> However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad|Venad kingdom]] was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Samuthiri]] in the north, [[Venad]] in the south and Kochi in the middle.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311 |title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places |editor-last=Pletcher |editor-first=Kenneth |date=2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |page=311 |isbn=978-1-61530-202-4 |access-date=15 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.questia.com/read/108994726 |last=Taylor |first=David |date=2002 |title=The Territories and States of India |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Europa Publications]] |pages=144–146 |isbn=1-85743-148-0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106073219/http://www.questia.com/library/108994668/the-territories-and-states-of-india |archive-date=2013-11-06}}</ref> The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [[Kollam]] (Quilon), [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]] (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil">{{cite book |editor1-last=Malekandathil |editor1-first=Pius |editor1-link=Pius Malekandathil |editor2-last=Mohammed |editor2-first=T. Jamal |name-list-style=amp |date=2001 |title=The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew |location=Tellicherry, India |publisher=Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR}}</ref>

=== The Rise of Advaita ===
[[Adi Shankara]] (CE 789), one of the greatest Indian philosophers, is believed to be born in [[Kalady|Kaladi]] in [[Kerala]], and consolidated the doctrine of ''[[advaita vedanta|advaita vedānta]]''.<ref name="Sharma">{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |title=Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey |publisher=Barnes & Noble |location=New York |date=1962 |page=vi |chapter=Chronological Summary of History of Indian Philosophy}}</ref><ref name=DeepakChopraBookLink>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsJbVICEOTcC&pg=PA13 |last=Chopra |first=Deepak |author-link=Deepak Chopra |date=2006 |title=The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga |location=New Delhi |publisher=Winsome Books |isbn=978-8-1265-0696-5}}</ref> Shankara travelled across the [[Indian subcontinent]] to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four ''[[#Mathas|mathas]]'' ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name=DeepakChopraBookLink/> Adi Shankara is believed to be the organiser of the [[Dashanami Sampradaya|Dashanami]] monastic order and the founder of the [[Shanmata]] tradition of worship.

His works in [[Sanskrit]] concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of ''[[advaita]]'' ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]]). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the [[Mimamsa]] school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the ''[[Upanishads]]'', and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (''[[Brahma Sutra]]'', principal ''upanishads'' and ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'') in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the [[Mimamsa]] school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like [[Samkhya]] and certain schools of [[Buddhism]].<ref name=SriAdi>{{cite web |url=http://www.sringeri.net/history/sri-adi-shankaracharya |title=Sri Adi Shankaracharya |website=Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sringeri.net/history/sri-adi-shankaracharya/biography |title=Biography of Sri Adi Shankaracharya |website=Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India}}</ref><ref name=SKChattopadhyaya>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPasbJW-1PwC&q=Mimamsa |last=Chattopadhyaya |first=Shyama Kumar |date=2000 |title=The Philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta |location=New Delhi |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-8-1-7625-222-5}}</ref> His activities in Kerala was little and no evidence of his influence is noticed in the literature or other things in his lifetime in Kerala. Even though Sankara was against all caste systems, in later years his name was used extensively by the Brahmins of Kerala for establishing caste system in Kerala.{{dubious|date=April 2021}}

=== The Kingdom of Kozhikode ===
{{Main|Zamorin of Calicut}}
[[File:Uru.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Uru (boat)|Uru]]'', a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [[Beypore]], [[Kozhikode]].]]
[[File:Map of Kampili kingdom.png|thumbnail|A political map of [[India]] in 1320 CE. Note that most of the present-day state of Kerala had been under the sovereignty of the [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]].]]
Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of [[Kozhikode]] is obscure. However, its generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally the [[Nair]] chieftains of Eralnadu region of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the [[Eradi]]s.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/TheZamorinsOfCalicut |last=Krishna Iyer |first=K. V. |title=The Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806 |date=1938 |location=Calicut |publisher=Norman Printing Bureau}}</ref> Eralnadu ([[Eranad]]) province was situated in the northern parts of present-day [[Malappuram district]] and was landlocked by the [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]] and Polanadu in the west. Legends such as ''[[Keralolpathi]]'' tell the establishment of a local ruling family at [[Nediyiruppu]], near present-day [[Kondotty]] by two young brothers belonging to the [[Eradi|Eradi clan]]. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the [[Chera Kingdom|Cheras]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/history&culture/intrusion.htm |title=History & Culture: The Intrusion of Foreign Powers |website=Government of Kerala |access-date=2010-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204110522/http://www.kerala.gov.in/history%26culture/intrusion.htm |archive-date=4 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Kerala Sanchaaram |last=Divakaran |first=Kattakada |date=2005 |publisher=Z Library |location=Trivandrum}}</ref> [[M.G.S. Narayanan]], an Indian historian, in his book, ''Calicut: The City of Truth'' states that the Eradi was a favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of Kozhikode<ref group="note">To corroborate his assertion that Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Later Chera, M.G.S. cites a stone inscription discovered at [[Kollam]] in southern [[Kerala]]. It refers to ''"Nalu Taliyum, Ayiram, Arunurruvarum, Eranadu Vazhkai Manavikiraman, mutalayulla Samathararum" – "The four Councillors, The Thousand, The Six Hundred, along with Mana Vikrama-the Governor of Eralnadu and other Feudatories."'' M.G.S. indicates that [[Kozhikode]] lay in fact beyond and not within the kingdom of Polanadu and there was no need of any kind of military movements for [[Kozhikode]].</ref> They later assumed the title of ''Samudrāthiri'' ("one who has the sea for his border") and continued to rule from Kozhikode.

Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. They became the most powerful king in [[Kerala|the Malayalam speaking regions]] during the [[Middle Age]]s. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central Kerala following the seize of [[Tirunavaya]] from [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], which was under the control of the king of [[Perumpadappu, Malappuram|''Perumbadappu Swaroopam'']]. He was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from [[Kodungallur]] to [[Kochi]]. In the 15th century, Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler of [[Kolathunadu]] ([[Kannur]]) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.<ref name="Malabar"/>
[[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|left|A panorama of port [[Kozhikode]], shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572).]]
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ([[Quilon]]) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]) in the north.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Varier |first=M. R. Raghava |author-link=M. R. Raghava Varier |editor-last=Kurup |editor-first=K. K. N. |editor-link=K. K. N. Kurup |date=1997 |title=India's Naval Traditions |chapter=Documents of Investiture Ceremonies |location=New Delhi |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8-17211-083-3}}</ref> [[Ibn Battuta]] (1342–1347), who visited the city of [[Kozhikode]] six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Ibn Battuta]] |last2=Gibb |first2=H. A. R. |date=1994 |volume=IV |title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D 1325–1354 |location=London}}</ref> [[Ma Huan]] (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ([[Zheng He]])<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ma Huan |author1-link=Ma Huan |author2=Ying Yai Sheng Lan |name-list-style=amp |others=Translated by J.V.G. Mills |date=1997 |orig-date=1970 |title=The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores |location=Bangkok |publisher=White Lotus Press |isbn=974-8496-78-3}}</ref> states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession. [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzak]] (1442–43), [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1445), [[Afanasy Nikitin]] (1468–74), [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1503–1508), and [[Duarte Barbosa]] witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the [[Indian subcontinent]] where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/travelsludovico00badggoog |last=di Varthema |first=Ludovico |author-link=Ludovico di Varthema |others=Translated from the original 1510 Italian edition by John Winter Jones |date=1863 |title=The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, A.D. 1503 to 1508 |location=London, UK |publisher=Hakluyt Society}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gangadharan |first=M. |date=2000 |title=The Land of Malabar: The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Volume II |location=Kottayam |publisher=Mahatma Gandhi University |isbn=978-8-17218-000-3}}</ref>

==== Vijayanagara Empire Influences ====
The king [[Deva Raya II]] (1424–1446) of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] tried to conquer the present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century but was not able to logistically do so.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/aforgottenempir00paesgoog |last=Sewell |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Sewell (historian) |date=1900 |title=A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India |location=London, UK |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co. |page=87}}</ref> He however accepted the rule of the [[Zamorin]] of [[Kozhikode]], as well as the ruler of [[Kollam]] around on 1443.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/> [[Fernão Nunes]] says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name=":1" /> As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} He built a fort at [[Ponnani]] in 1498.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

=== The Kingdom of Venad ===
{{main|Venad}}
[[File:A view of Coylang Wellcome L0038178.jpg|thumbnail|[[Kollam]], the capital of Venad, in the 1700s.]]
[[Venad]] was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas. Until the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality in the [[Ay Kingdom]]. The ''Ays'' were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from [[Nagercoil]] in the south to [[Thiruvananthapuram]] in the north. Their capital was at [[Kollam]]. A series of attacks by the [[Pandya]]s between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |pages=97–99}}</ref> When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the [[Second Chera Kingdom]]<ref name="Menon139"/> Invasion of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital, [[Mahodayapuram]], fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.<ref name="Menon140">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA140 |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=140 |access-date=18 September 2012}}</ref> Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last king of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings - ''Kulasekara'', was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad.<ref name="Menon141">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=141 |access-date=18 September 2012}}</ref> The Venadu King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.

In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as ''Thrippappur Moopan''. While Chrirava Moopan had his residence at [[Kollam]], the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, {{convert|9|mi}} north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the [[Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple]].<ref name="Menon139">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA139 |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=139}}</ref>

==== The Legacy of Venad ====
The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the era of European influences, [[Travancore]], was developed through the expansion of Venad by Mahahrajah [[Marthanda Varma]], a member of the Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to the throne in the early 18th century.

===The Kingdom of Kolathunadu===
{{main|Kolathunadu}}
{{See also|Kannur|North Malabar}}
The ancient kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] had jurisdiction over the [[North Malabar]] which consisted of two ''Nadu''s (regions)- The coastal ''Poozhinadu'' and the hilly eastern ''Karkanadu''. According to the works of [[Sangam literature]], ''Poozhinadu'' consisted much of the coastal belt between [[Mangalore]] and [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Census_Handbook">{{Cite book |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf |title=District Census Handbook, Kasaragod |date=2011 |chapter=Brief History of the District |publisher=Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala |location=Thiruvananthapuram |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310030111/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf |archive-date=2022-03-10}}</ref> ''Karkanadu'' consisted of [[Wayanad]]-[[Gudalur, Nilgiris|Gudalur]] hilly region with parts of [[Kodagu]] (Coorg).<ref name="wnd">{{cite book |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf |title=District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) |date=2011 |chapter=Brief History of the District |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308151008/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf |archive-date=2022-03-08}}</ref> It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of [[Ezhimala]] dynasty, took refuge at [[Wayanad]] hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], just before his execution in a battle, according to the [[Sangam literature|Sangam works]].<ref name="wnd"/> Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded by [[Mushika dynasty]] in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration of [[Tuluva Brahmin]]s from [[Tulu Nadu]]. The ''[[Mushika-vamsha]] Mahakavya'', written by [[Athula]] in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of the [[Mushika Kingdom|Mushika Royal Family]] up until that point.<ref name="Kola Swaroopam"/> The Indian anthropologist [[A. Aiyappan|Ayinapalli Aiyappan]] states that a powerful and warlike clan of the [[Bunt (community)|Bunt community]] of [[Tulu Nadu]] was called ''Kola Bari'' and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.<ref name="Aiyappan">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXFuAAAAMAAJ |title=The Personality of Kerala |last1=Ayinapalli |first1=Aiyappan |date=1982 |publisher=Department of Publications, [[University of Kerala]] |page=162 |access-date=27 July 2018 |quote=A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.}}</ref>
[[File:City of Cannanore, 1572.jpg|thumbnail|A portrait of [[Kannur]], the largest city of [[North Malabar]], drawn in 1572, from [[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', Volume I.]]
The kingdom of [[Kolathunadu]], who were the descendants of [[Mushika dynasty]], at the peak of its power reportedly extended from [[Netravati River]] ([[Mangalore]]) in the north<ref name="Kola Swaroopam">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |title=Kerala Charitram |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |author-link=A. Sreedhara Menon |date=2007 |orig-date=1967 |location=[[Kottayam]] |publisher=[[DC Books]] |edition=Revised |isbn=978-8-12641-588-5 |page=175 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> to [[Korapuzha]] ([[Kozhikode]]) in the south with Arabian Sea on the
west and [[Kodagu]] hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of [[Lakshadweep]] in Arabian Sea.<ref name="Census_Handbook"/> An [[Old Malayalam]] inscription ([[Ramanthali inscriptions]]), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of [[Alupa dynasty]] of [[Mangalore]], can be found at [[Ezhimala]] near Kannur.<ref>{{cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |author-link=M. G. S. Narayanan |date=2013 |orig-date=1996 |title=Perumāḷs of Kerala |edition=New |location=[[Thrissur]], Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |isbn=978-8-18876-507-2 |page=483}}</ref> The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up |title=Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume I) |last=Innes |first=Charles Alexander |date=1908 |publisher=Madras Government Press |pages=423–424}}</ref> In his book on travels (''[[Il Milione]]''), [[Marco Polo]] recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors included [[Faxian]], the Buddhist pilgrim and [[Ibn Batuta]], writer and historian of [[Tangiers]]. The [[Kolathunadu]] in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e., [[Kadathanadu]] ([[Vadakara]]), [[Dharmadom|Randathara]] or Poyanad ([[Dharmadom]]), [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]] ([[Thalassery]]), [[Nileshwaram]], Iruvazhinadu ([[Panoor (Municipality)|Panoor]]), [[Kurumbranad]] etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book |title=Malabar Manual (Volume I) |last=Logan |first=William |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=2010 |isbn=978-8-12060-447-6 |location=New Delhi |pages=631–666}}</ref> The [[Nileshwaram]] dynasty on the northernmost part of [[Kolathiri]] dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]], in the early medieval period.<ref name="Neeleswaram fete">{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/neeleswaram-fete-to-showcase-its-heritage/article2645520.ece |title=Neeleswaram fete to showcase its heritage |date=21 November 2011 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=24 November 2016}}</ref> The kingdom of [[Kumbla]] in the northernmost region of the modern state of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over the [[Tehsil|Taluk]]s of [[Manjeshwar]] and [[Kasaragod]], and parts of [[Mangalore taluk|Mangalore]] in Southern [[Tulu Nadu]], were also vassals to the kingdom of [[Kolathunadu]] until the [[Kannada|Carnatic]] conquests of the 15th century CE.<ref name="Kola Swaroopam"/>
[[File:Cannonore fort & Bay'; a watercolor by John Johnston, c.1795-1801.jpg|left|thumbnail|[[St. Angelo Fort|Kannur fort and Bay]]; a watercolor by John Johnston (1795–1801).]]
According to [[Malabar Muslims|Kerala Muslim]] tradition, the [[North Malabar]] region was also home to several [[Islam in India|oldest mosques]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who left from [[Dharmadom]] near [[Kannur]] to [[Mecca]] and converted to [[Islam]] during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Jonathan |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-76560-104-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333 |first1=Edward |last1=Simpson |first2=Kai |last2=Kresse |name-list-style=amp |title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean |date=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70024-5 |page=333 |access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179 |last=Raṇṭattāṇi |first=Husain |title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |date=2007 |publisher=Other Books |isbn=978-8-1-903887-8-8 |pages=179– |access-date=25 July 2012}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], Kannur, [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayani]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Prange, Sebastian R. 2018">{{cite book |last=Prange |first=Sebastian R. |author-link=Sebastian Prange |date=2018 |title=Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=98 |isbn=978-1-10842-438-7}}</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |date=2008 |orig-date=1978 |page=58 |isbn=978-8-12641-903-6}}</ref> The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the erstwhile Kolathunadu contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to the 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.106957/page/n77/mode/2up |editor-last=Subrahmanya Aiyar |editor-first=K. V. |editor-link=K. V. Subrahmanya Aiyar |date=1932 |title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume VIII |location=Madras |publisher=Government Press |page=69}}</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/>

==The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics==
[[File:Kerala school chain of teachers.jpg|thumb|right|The list of teachers at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]]
{{main|Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics}}
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was a school of [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]] and [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]] founded by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] in [[Kingdom of Tanur|Tirur]] in the 14th century. Among its members were [[Parameshvara]], [[Neelakanta Somayaji]], [[Jyeshtadeva]], [[Achyuta Pisharati]], [[Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri]] and [[Achyuta Panikkar]]. Some of the contributions of the school included the discovery of the [[infinite series]] and taylor series of some trigonometry functions.<ref name=katz/> The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries.

== European trade and influences ==
[[File:Vascodagama.JPG|thumb|upright|Vasco da Gama landing in Kerala.]]
[[File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg|left|thumbnail|A 1652 Map of India ([[Malabar Coast]] is highlighted separately on the right side).]]
The maritime [[spice trade]] monopoly in the Indian Ocean stayed with the Arabs during the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]]. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]] [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.<ref>{{cite book |last=Corn |first=Charles |date=1999 |orig-date=1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha America |pages=4–5 |isbn=1-56836-249-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ravindran |first=P. N. |date=2000 |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |publisher=CRC Press |page=3 |isbn=978-9-0-5702-453-5 |access-date=11 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Curtin |first=Philip D. |author-link=Philip D. Curtin |date=1984 |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=144 |isbn=0-521-26931-8}}</ref> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their influence between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Sanjay |author-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |date=1997 |title=The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=288 |isbn=978-0-52147-072-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert |first=Knox |author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) |date=1681 |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |pages=19–47 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |place=London, UK |title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon}}</ref>

=== Portuguese trade and influences ===
{{See also|History of Kozhikode|Kingdom of Tanur|History of Kannur|History of Kochi|History of Quilon}}
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach [[Kozhikode]] (black line).]]
[[Vasco da Gama]] was sent by the King of Portugal Dom [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] and landed at Kozhikode in 1497–1499.<ref>{{cite web |title=‌Advent the Europeans: Portuguese (1505–1961) |url=http://www.myeduphilic.com/about-the-europeans/ |website=myeduphilic |access-date=5 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107004355/http://www.myeduphilic.com/about-the-europeans/ |archive-date=7 November 2017 }}</ref> The Samoothiri Maharaja of Kozhikode permitted the Portuguese to trade with his subjects. Their trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Samoothiri and finally led to conflict. The ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tanur]], who was a vassal to the [[Zamorin of Calicut]], sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar"/> As a result, the [[Kingdom of Tanur]] (''[[Tirur Taluk|Vettathunadu]]'') became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] also sided with [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]].<ref name="Malabar"/> Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from [[Vettom Grama Panchayath|Vettom]].<ref name="Malabar"/> However, the [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [[Battle of Cochin (1504)]].<ref name="Logan" /> However, the allegiance of the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]] merchants in [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] region still stayed under the [[Zamorin of Calicut]].<ref name="Makhdoom">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage |last=Nainar |first=S. Muhammad Hussain |date=1942 |title=Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language |publisher=University of Madras}}</ref>
[[File:Mattancherry palace at night.jpg|left|thumbnail|The [[Mattancherry Palace]] at [[Kochi]] was built and gifted by the Portuguese as a present to the [[Kingdom of Cochin]] around 1545.]]

The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Samoothiri and Rajah of [[Kingdom of Kochi|Kochi]]{{snd}}they allied with Kochi and when [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at Kochi. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a number of fortresses along the [[Malabar Coast]].<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324 |last=Mehta |first=J. L. |date=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-1-932705-54-6 |pages=324–327 |access-date=9 August 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks due to attacks by Samoothiri Maharaja's forces, especially naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.joinindiannavy.gov.in/en/about-us/maritime-heritage.html |title=Maritime Heritage |website=Indian Navy |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |title=Give Indian Navy its due |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |date=11 February 2017 |newspaper=[[The Asian Age]] |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">{{cite book |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |title=Kerala History and its Makers |date=2008 |orig-date=1987 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |edition=3rd revised |isbn=978-81-2642-199-2}}</ref><ref name="frontline.in">{{cite magazine |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30179359.ece |title=Islam in Kerala |last=Noorani |first=A. G. |author-link=A. G. Noorani |date=February 26, 2010 |magazine=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]}}</ref><ref name="REMiller">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |author-link=Roland E. Miller |date=2015 |title=Mappila Muslim Culture |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-43845-601-0}}</ref> It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="REMiller"/><ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], who is considered as the father of modern [[Malayalam literature]], was born at [[Tirur]] (''[[Kingdom of Tanur|Vettathunadu]]'') during Portuguese period.<ref name="Malabar"/> The medieval [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] that flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries, was also primarily based in [[Kingdom of Tanur|''Vettathunadu'']] ([[Tirur Taluk|Tirur region]])<ref name="roy">{{cite journal |last=Roy |first=Ranjan |date=1990 |title=Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.2307/2690896 |jstor=2690896}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |title=Hellenophilia versus the History of Science |date=1992 |journal=Isis |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=554–63 |jstor=234257 |doi=10.1086/356288 |quote=One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution. |bibcode=1992Isis...83..554P |s2cid=68570164}}</ref>
[[File:Bekal Fort Kasargod.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bekal Fort]] at [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] built in 1650 CE by [[Shivappa Nayaka]].]]
The [[St. Angelo Fort]] at [[Kannur]] was built by the Portuguese in 1505, which was later captured by Dutch and [[Arakkal kingdom]].<ref name="KMM_1988">{{cite book |last=Mathew |first=K. M. |title=History of the Portuguese Navigation in India, 1497–1600 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kl3IR3RJTIEC&pg=PA165 |date=1988 |publisher=Mittal |isbn=978-8-1-7099-046-8 |pages=165–166}}</ref> The [[Portuguese Cemetery, Kollam]] (after the invasion of [[Dutch people|Dutch]], it became ''Dutch Cemetery'') of [[Tangasseri]] in [[Kollam]] city was constructed in around 1519 as part of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] invasion in the city. [[Buckingham Canal, Kollam|Buckingham Canal]] (a small canal between [[Tangasseri Lighthouse]] and the cemetery) is situated very close to the Portuguese Cemetery.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oocities.org/athens/Acropolis/9669/tangy.htm |title=Tangasseri, Tangassery, Tangy: an Eurasian Anglo-Indian Settlement in Kerala, India |website=Oocities |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asithrissurcircle.in/Monuments.html |title=Monuments |website=Archaeological Survey of India – Thrissur Circle |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516093409/http://www.asithrissurcircle.in/Monuments.html |archive-date=2014-05-16}}</ref> A group of pirates known as the Pirates of Tangasseri formerly lived at the Cemetery.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rotarytangasseri.org/history.html |title=A brief history of Tangasseri |website=Rotary Club of Tangasseri |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122170529/http://rotarytangasseri.org/history.html |archive-date=22 November 2013}}</ref> The remnants of [[St Thomas Fort, Tangasseri|St. Thomas Fort]] and Portuguese Cemetery still exist at Tangasseri. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of [[Arakkal kingdom]], near [[Kannur]], who were the vassals of the [[Kolathiri]], ruled over the [[Lakshadweep]] islands.<ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm |last=Stephens |first=Henry Morse |title=Albuquerque |chapter=Chapter 1: The Predecessors of Albuquerque |series=[[Rulers of India series]] |date=1897 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |via=Project Gutenberg}}</ref> The [[Bekal Fort]] near [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]], which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by [[Shivappa Nayaka]] of [[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi]].<ref name="Bekal">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/a-portion-of-kasaragods-bekal-forts-observation-post-caves-in/article28993345.ece/ |title=A Portion of Kasaragod's Bekal Forts Observation Post Caves in |date=12 August 2019 |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

=== French port in Kerala - Mahe ===
{{See also|Mahé, India}}
[[File:Mappila Bay Fishing Harbour2.jpg|thumbnail|[[Mappila Bay]] harbour at [[Ayikkara]], [[Kannur]]. On one side, there is [[St. Angelo Fort]] (built in 1505) and on the other side is [[Arakkal kingdom|Arakkal palace]].]]
[[File:From a map by Emanuel Bowen, 1744.jpg|thumb|A 1744 map of [[Malabar Coast]] (Malabar coast is on the left side).]]

The [[French Indies Company|French East India Company]] constructed a fort on the site of Mahé in 1724, in accordance with an accord concluded between André Mollandin and Raja Vazhunnavar of Badagara three years earlier. In 1741, Mahé de La Bourdonnais retook the town after a period of occupation by the Marathas.

In 1761 the British captured [[Mahé, India]], and the settlement was handed over to the Rajah of Kadathanadu. The British restored [[Mahé, India]] to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of [[Mahé, India]]. In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and [[Mahé, India]] was handed over to the French in 1785.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html |title=History of Mahé |website=[[Mahe district]] |access-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232052/http://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Dutch trade and influences ===
[[File:Bolgatty Palace.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bolgatty Palace]], built in 1744 by [[Dutch Malabar]], also acted as the [[British Residency]] in [[Kochi]].]]
[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|220px|thumb|[[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] commander [[Eustachius De Lannoy|De Lannoy]] surrenders to [[Marthanda Varma]] at the [[Battle of Colachel]] (1741). Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]].]]
In 1602, the [[Zamorin]] sent messages to [[Aceh]] promising the Dutch a fort at [[Kozhikode]] if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], and handed over to the Portuguese.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2">{{cite book |first=Sanjay |last=Subrahmanyam |title=The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2002 |orig-date=1990 |isbn=978-0-52189-226-1}}</ref> A Dutch fleet under Admiral [[Steven van der Hagen]] arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with [[Kozhikode]] on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the [[Dutch East India Company]] made with an Indian ruler.<ref name="Malabar"/> By this time the kingdom and the port of [[Kozhikode]] was much reduced in importance.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2"/> The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the [[Dutch East India Company]] was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and [[Ponnani]], including spacious storehouses.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2"/>

The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], who took advantage of continuing conflicts between [[Saamoothiri|Kozhikode]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]] to gain control of the trade. In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms |title=50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go |first=M. K. |last=Sunil Kumar |date=26 September 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=1 June 2021}}</ref> The [[Dutch Malabar]] (1661–1795) in turn were weakened by their constant battles with [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore Royal Family]], and were defeated at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. The [[Treaty of Mavelikkara]] was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region. In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of pre-eminence in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA13 |title=Political History of Modern Kerala |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |publisher=DC Books |date=1987 |isbn=978-8-1-264-2156-5 |page=140}}</ref> Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the [[Purakkad|Battle of Purakkad]] in 1763.<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 |last1=Shungoony Menon |first1=P. |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higgin Botham & Co. |location=Madras |pages=162–164 |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref> In 1757, to check the invasion of the Zamorin, the [[Palakkad]] Raja sought the help of Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1766, [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]] of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] defeated the Samoothiri of Kozhikode and absorbed Kozhikode to his state.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2"/>

=== The Kingdom of Mysore and British influences===
{{See also|Kingdom of Mysore|Malabar District}}
[[File:Wellington, soldier and statesman, and the revival of the military power of England (1904) (14593177119).jpg|left|thumbnail|This map includes Kerala in the Southwestern region. The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin are seen in yellow.]]
[[File:Kanakakkunnu Palace DSW.jpg|alt=|thumb|220x220px|[[Kanakakkunnu Palace]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on [[Malabar Coast]] after the ruler [[Marthanda Varma]] annexed all minor kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] to form [[Travancore]] in the 18th century CE.]]
[[File:മലപ്പുറം ജില്ലയിൽ പൊന്നാനിയിലെ ഹാർബർ (1930-37).jpg|thumbnail|[[Ponnani]] harbour in the mid-1930s.]]
The arrival of [[East India Company|British]] on [[Malabar Coast]] can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [[William Keeling]] arrived at [[Kozhikode]], using three ships.<ref name="Malabar"/> It was in these ships that Sir [[Thomas Roe]] went to visit [[Jahangir]], the fourth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], as [[British Empire|British envoy]].<ref name="Malabar"/> The island of [[Dharmadom]] near [[Kannur]], along with [[Thalassery]], was ceded to the [[East India Company]] as early as 1734, which were claimed by all of the [[Kolathiri|''Kolattu Rajas'']], [[Kingdom of Kottayam|''Kottayam Rajas'']], and [[Arakkal kingdom|'' Arakkal Bibi'']] in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following the [[cession]].<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Innes">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up |title=Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume I) |last=Innes |first=Charles Alexander |date=1908 |publisher=Madras Government Press |page=451}}</ref>

In 1788, Tipu issued a proclamation to the Nairs of Malabar, wherein he outlined his new scheme of social reform among Nair quoting their polygamy and polyandry:.<ref name="Malabar">{{harvnb|Menon|1962|pp=155–156}}</ref>

{{blockquote|text="From the period of the conquest until this day, during twenty-four years, you have been a turbulent and refractory people, and in the wars waged during your rainy season, you have caused number of our warriors to taste the draught of martyrdom. Be it so. What is past is past. Hereafter you must proceed in an opposite manner, dwell quietly and pay your dues like good subjects and since it is the practice with you for one woman to associate with ten men, and you leave your mothers and sisters unconstrained in their obscene practices, and are thence all born in adultery, and are more shameless in your connections than the beasts of the fields : I hereby require you to forsake these sinful practices and be like the rest of mankind; and if you are disobedient to these commands, I have made repeated vows to honour the whole of you with Islam and to march all the chief persons to the seat of Government."}}

His proclamation was met with widespread resentment and consequently, [[Zamorin]] of calicut killed himself inside his palace by burning it while his family took protection at Travancore, the Nair of Malabar fled to Travancore.<ref name="Malabar">{{harvnb|Menon|1962|pp=155–156}}</ref> Due to fear 30,000 Brahmins fled to [[Travancore]].<ref name="Malabar"/> The Kottayam and Kadattanand Rajas sought protection from the English East India Company.<ref name="Malabar"/>

The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([[Malabar District|Malabar region]]) including [[Kolathunadu]], [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]], [[Kadathanadu]], [[Zamorin of Calicut|Kozhikode]], [[Kingdom of Tanur|Tanur]], [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], and [[Palakkad]] were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger [[Kingdom of Mysore]] in the latter half of the 18th century CE. [[Hyder Ali]] and his successor, [[Tipu Sultan]], came into conflict with the British, leading to the four [[Anglo-Mysore wars]] fought across southern India. Tipu Sultan ceded [[Malabar District]] to the British in 1792 as a result of the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] and the subsequent [[Treaty of Seringapatam]], and [[South Kanara]], which included present-day [[Kasargod District]], in 1799. The British concluded treaties of [[subsidiary alliance]] with the rulers of Cochin (1791) and Travancore (1795), and these became [[princely state]]s of [[British India]], maintaining local autonomy in return for a fixed annual tribute to the British. Malabar and South Kanara districts were part of British India's [[Madras Presidency]].

Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (Kerul Varma Pyche Rajah, Cotiote Rajah) (1753–1805) was the Prince Regent and the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Kottayam in Malabar, India between 1774 and 1805. He led the Pychy Rebellion (Wynaad Insurrection, Coiote War) against the English East India Company. He is popularly known as ''Kerala Simham'' (Lion of Kerala). The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |title=Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17 October 2014) |website=[[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)|Ministry of Law & Justice]] |access-date=2016-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127075116/http://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |archive-date=2014-11-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |last1=Lewis McIver |first1=G. Stokes |title=Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras, Volume II |date=1883 |publisher=E.Keys at the Government Press |location=Madras |page=444 |access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 2: Statistical Appendix for Malabar District |date=1915 |publisher=The Superintendent, Government Press |location=Madras |page=20 |access-date=2 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frowde |first1=Henry |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908–1909 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |edition=New |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala.

Organised expressions of discontent with British rule were not uncommon in Kerala. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [[Pazhassi Raja|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]], who had popular support in [[Thalassery]]-[[Wayanad]] region.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |title=Kerala Charitram |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |author-link=A. Sreedhara Menon |date=2007 |orig-date=1967 |location=[[Kottayam]] |publisher=[[DC Books]] |edition=Revised |isbn=978-8-12641-588-5 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> Other uprisings of note include the rebellion by [[Velu Thampi Dalawa]] and the Punnapra-Vayalar revolt of 1946. The [[Malabar Special Police]] was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at [[Malappuram]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/beating-the-retreat-the-malabar-special-police-is-no-longer-the-trigger-happy-unit/ |title=Beating the retreat: The Malabar Special Police is no longer the trigger-happy unit |first=K.P. |last=Saikiran |date=10 October 2020 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref> There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 [[Malabar Rebellion]] and the social struggles in [[Travancore]]. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the [[British Raj]].<ref name="Qureshi1999">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C |last=Qureshi |first=M. Naeem |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |date=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-0-04-11371-8 |pages=445–447}}</ref> The [[Battle of Pookkottur]] adorns an important role in the rebellion.<ref name="tottenham grf">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023929700/page/n79/mode/2up |editor-last=Tottenham |editor-first=G. R. F. |date=1922 |title=The Mappila Rebellion 1921–1922 |location=Madras |publisher=Government Press |page=71}}</ref> Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of the 20th century, leading to the 1936 [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes.<ref name="Smith1976">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07Y3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42 |last=Smith |first=Bardwell L. |title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia |date=1976 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-0-04-04510-1 |pages=35–42 |access-date=31 July 2012}}</ref>
Kerala also witnessed several social reforms movements directed at the eradication of social evils such as [[untouchability]] among the Hindus, pioneered by reformists like Sri [[Narayana Guru]], [[Ayyankali]] and Chattambiswami among others. The non-violent and largely peaceful [[Vaikom]] [[Satyagraha]] of 1924 was instrumental in securing entry to the public roads adjacent to the Vaikom temple for people belonging to untouchable castes.

== The Kingdom of Travancore ==
{{Main|Travancore}}
The Kingdom of Travancore was a kingdom in Central and Southern Kerala that existed from ancient times until 1949. Until the reign of Marthanda Varma, the kingdom was known as Venad. In the 11th century, Venad became a vassal of the [[Chola Empire]]. In the 16th century, Venad became a vassal of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. In the late 18th century, Travancore made an alliance with the British Empire and later became a [[princely state|British Protectorate]].
[[File:King Of Travancore sct.jpg|thumb|180px|left|A portrait of Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, the last ruling king of Travancore.]]

=== Details of Chithira Thirunal's Rule and Reforms ===
{{main|Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma}}
The last ruling king of Travancore was [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]], who reigned from 1931 to 1949. "His reign marked revolutionary progress in the fields of education, defence, economy and society as a whole."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/99999990823953TheStoryOfTheIntegrationOfTheIndianStates/page/n299/mode/2up |title=The Story of the Integration of the Indian States |first=V. P. |last=Menon |date=1956 |publisher=[[Orient Longmans]] |page=275 |quote=During his rule, the revenues of the State were nearly quadrupled from a little over Rs 2½ crore to over Rs 9½ crore.}}</ref> He made the famous Temple Entry Proclamation on 12 November 1936, which opened all the [[Kshetram]]s (Hindu temples in Kerala) in Travancore to all [[Hindu]]s, a privilege reserved to only upper-caste Hindus till then. This act won him praise from across India, most notably from [[Mohandas Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]]. The first public transport system (Thiruvananthapuram–Mavelikkara) and telecommunication system (Thiruvananthapuram Palace–Mavelikkara Palace) were launched during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal. He also started the industrialisation of the state, enhancing the role of the public sector. He introduced heavy industry in the State and established giant public sector undertakings. As many as twenty industries were established, mostly for utilizing the local raw materials such as rubber, ceramics, and minerals. A majority of the premier industries running in Kerala even today, were established by Sree Chithira Thirunal. He patronized musicians, artists, dancers, and Vedic scholars. Sree Chithira Thirunal appointed, for the first time, an ''Art Advisor'' to the Government, G. H. Cousins. He also established a new form of University Training Corps, viz. ''Labour Corps'', preceding the N.C.C., in the educational institutions. The expenses of the university were to be met fully by the Government. Sree Chithira Thirunal also built a palace named ''Kowdiar Palace'', finished in 1934, which was previously an old ''Naluektu'', given by Sree Moolam Thirunal to his mother Sethu Parvathi Bayi in 1915.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2007/ctm.pdf |title=Good Governance: Judiciary And The Rule Of Law |publisher=Sree Chithira Thirunal Memorial Lecture, 29 December 2007 |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017164448/http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/speeches/speeches_2007/ctm.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2012 |via=Supreme Court of India}}</ref><ref name="Aswathy Thirunal Gauri Lakshmi Bai">{{cite book |last=Gauri Lakshmi Bai |first=Aswathy Thirunal |title=Sree Padmanabhaswamy Kshetram |date=1998 |publisher=The State Institute of Languages, Kerala |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8-1-7638-028-7 |pages=242–243}}</ref><ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6 |page=273}}</ref>

===Controversial Policies of C.P. Ramaswami Iyer ===
[[File:Punnapra vayalar.jpg|thumb|180px|A memorial of the Punnapra Vayalar Uprising in the village of [[Kalarcode]], which is situated close to [[Alappuzha]].]]
However, his Prime Minister, [[C. P. Ramaswami Iyer]], was unpopular among the communists of Travancore. The tension between the Communists and Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer led to minor riots in various places of the country. In one such [[Punnapra-Vayalar uprising|riot in Punnapra-Vayalar]] in 1946, the Communist rioters established their own government in the area. This was put down by the Travancore Army and Navy.

=== Attempted Independence of Travancore as a fully sovereign nation ===
The Prime Minister issued a statement in June 1947 that Travancore would remain as an independent country instead of joining the Indian Union; subsequently, an attempt was made on the life of Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, following which he resigned and left for Madras, to be succeeded by Sri [[P.G.N. Unnithan]]. According to witnesses such as K.[[Aiyappan Pillai]], constitutional adviser to the Maharaja and historians like [[A. Sreedhara Menon]], the rioters and mob-attacks had no bearing on the decision of the Maharaja.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |date=2019 |orig-date=2001 |title=Triumph & Tragedy in Travancore: Annals of Sir C.P.'s Sixteen Years |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-9-35390-117-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIMS_6Z_WRE |title=Election Special: C. P. Ramaswami Iyer |author=AsiaNet News |date=6 February 2016 |website=YouTube}}</ref>

=== Annexation into the Republic of India ===
After several rounds of discussions and negotiations between Sree Chithira Thirunal and [[V.P. Menon]], the King agreed that the Kingdom should accede to the Indian Union in 1949. On 1 July 1949 the Kingdom of Travancore was merged with the Kingdom of Cochin and the short-lived state of [[Travancore-Cochin|Travancore-Kochi]] was formed.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Joining-hands/article14410304.ece |title=Joining hands |last=Kurian |first=Nimi |date=2016-06-30 |language=en-IN |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=2021-07-22 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Republic of India era ==
=== Formation of the state of Kerala===
{{main|Travancore-Cochin}}
[[File:Administrative Divisions of Kerala (2020).svg|left|thumbnail|A map of Kerala.]]
The two kingdoms of [[Travancore]] and [[Cochin]] joined the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] after independence in 1947. On 1{{nbsp}}July 1949, the two states were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]]. On 1{{nbsp}}January 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The [[Madras Presidency]] was reorganised to form [[Madras State]] in 1947.

On 1{{nbsp}}November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the [[States Reorganisation Act]] merging the [[Malabar District]] (excluding the islands of [[Lakshadweep]]), Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern [[tehsil|taluks]], which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of [[Kasaragod Town|Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf |title=The State Reorganisation Act 1956 |website=Government of India}}</ref><ref name="Plunkett">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Plunkett |date=2001 |title=South India |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |page=24 |isbn=1-86450-161-8}}</ref> with [[Thiruvananthapuram]] as the capital. In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, [[Communist]]-led government came to power, under [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]].<ref name="Plunkett"/> It was one of the earliest communist governments to be democratically elected to power, second only to [[San Marino]]. It initiated pioneering [[land reforms]], aiming to lowering of rural poverty in Kerala. However, these reforms were largely non-effective to mark a greater change in the society as these changes were not effected to a large extent. Lakhs of farms were owned by large establishments, companies and estate owners. They were not affected by this move and this was considered as a treachery as these companies and estates were formed while Travancore was a vassal state of Britain. Two things were the real reason for the reduction of poverty in Kerala one was the policy for wide scale education and second was the overseas migration for labour to Middle East and other countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8546952.stm |title=Conundrum of Kerala's struggling economy by Soutik Biswas |last=Biswas |first=Soutik |date=2010-03-17 |website=BBC News |access-date=2013-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nossiter |first=Thomas Johnson |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |publisher=C. Hurst for the Royal Institute of International Affairs |date=1982 |isbn=0-905838-40-8}}</ref>

=== Liberation struggle ===
The [[Government of Kerala]] refused to nationalise the large estates but did provide reforms to protect manual labourers and farm workers, and invited capitalists to set up industry. Much more controversial was an effort to impose state control on private schools, such as those run by the Christians and the NSS, which enrolled 40% of the students. The Christians, NSS, Namputhiris, and the Congress Party protested, with demonstrations numbering in the tens and hundreds of thousands of people. The government controlled the police, which made 150,000 arrests (often the same people arrested time and again), and used 248 lathi charges to beat back the demonstrators, killing twenty. The opposition called on Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to seize control of the state government. Nehru was reluctant but when his daughter [[Indira Gandhi]], the national head of the Congress Party, joined in, he finally did so. New elections in 1959 cost the Communists most of their seats and Congress resumed control.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Jawaharlal Nehru and the Smoking Gun: Who pulled the trigger on Kerala's Communist government in 1959? |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |date=1991 |journal=Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=29 |number=1 |pages=72–85 |doi=10.1080/14662049108447602}}</ref>

=== Coalition politics ===
{{See also|Saptakakshi Munnani|United Front (Kerala)}}
Later in 1967–82 Kerala elected a series of leftist coalition governments; the most stable was that led by Achutha Menon from 1969 to 1977.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FKepYC6wzwC&pg=PA293 |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy |date=2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |pages=290–301 |isbn=978-0-33054-020-9}}</ref>

From 1967 to 1970, Kunnikkal Narayanan led a [[Naxalite]] movement in Kerala. The theoretical difference in the communist party, i.e. CPM is the part of the uprising of Naxalbari movement in Bengal which leads to the formation of CPI(ML) in India. Due to ideological differences the CPI-ML split into several groups. Some groups choose to participate peacefully in electoralism, while some choose to aim for violent revolution. The violence alienated public opinion.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Naxalites and the New Democratic Revolution: The Kerala Experience 1967–70 |first=K. |last=Sreejith |date=1999 |journal=Bengal Past & Present: A Journal of Modern Indian & Asian History |volume=118 |number=2 |pages=69–82}}</ref>

The political alliance have strongly stabilised in such a manner that, with rare exceptions, most of the coalition partners stick their loyalty to the alliance. As a result, to this, ever since 1979, the power has been clearly alternating between these two fronts without any change. Politics in Kerala is characterised by continually shifting alliances, party mergers and splits, factionalism within the coalitions and within political parties, and numerous splinter groups.<ref name="unhcr.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,AUS_RRT,,IND,,4b6fe22b5,0.html |title=Refugee Review Tribunal, Australia, RRT Research Response |date=19 March 2007 |website=[[UNHCR]] |access-date=2013-09-25}}</ref>

Modern politics in Kerala is dominated by two political fronts: the [[Communism in India|Communist]]-led [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|Left Democratic Front]] (LDF) and the [[Indian National Congress]]-led [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF) since the late 1970s. These two parties have alternating in power since 1982. Most of the major political parties in Kerala, except for the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), belong to one or the other of these two alliances, often shifting allegiances a number of time.<ref name="unhcr.org"/> As of the [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]], the LDF has a majority in the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|state assembly]] seats (99/140).

== See also ==
* [[Culture of Kerala]]
* [[Economy of Kerala]]
* [[Geography of Kerala]]
* [[Cuisine of Kerala]]
* [[List of years in Kerala]]
* [[Timeline of Kerala]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=A. Sreedhara|author-link1=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|date=2007|publisher=D C Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|edition=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C}}
* {{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=A. Sreedhara |author-link=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Kerala History and its Makers |date=4 March 2011 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-81-264-3782-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC |language=en}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |last=Arun |first=Shoba |date=2017 |title=Development and Gender Capital in India: Change, Continuity and Conflict in Kerala |location=London, UK |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13822-196-3}}
*{{cite journal |title=Hindu Kingship and the Origin of Community: Religion, State and Society in Kerala, 1750–1850 |first=Susan |last=Bayly |author-link=Susan Bayly |date=April 1984 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=18 |number=2 |pages=177–213 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00014402|s2cid=143482009 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Radicalised civil society and protracted political actions in Kerala (India): a socio-political narrative |first=V. |last=Bijukumar |date=2019 |journal=[[Asian Ethnicity]] |volume=20 |number=4 |pages=503–521 |doi=10.1080/14631369.2019.1601005|s2cid=164249821 }}
*{{cite book |url=http://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-81-2505-722-2 |editor1-last=Bose |editor1-first=Satheese Chandra |editor2-last=Varughese |editor2-first=Shiju Sam |date= 2015 |title=Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition |location=Hyderabad |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |isbn=978-9-38639-265-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/http://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8-1-250-5722-2 |archive-date=2015-01-02}}
*{{cite journal |title=Trade, Conversion and the Growth of the Islamic Community of Kerala, South India |first=Stephen F. |last=Dale |author-link=Stephen Dale |date=1990 |journal=Studia Islamica |number=71 |pages=155–175 |doi=10.2307/1595642|jstor=1595642 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Communal Relations in Pre-Modern India: 16th Century Kerala |first=Stephen F. |last=Dale |date=December 1973 |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=16 |number=2/3 |pages=319–327 |doi=10.1163/156852073X00184}}
*{{cite journal |title=The 'Kudumbashree woman' and the Kerala model woman: Women and politics in contemporary Kerala |first=J. |last=Devika |author-link=J. Devika |date=2016 |journal=Indian Journal of Gender Studies |volume=23 |number=3 |pages=393–414 |doi=10.1177/0971521516656077|s2cid=151752480 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Back from Shingly: Revisiting the pre-modern history of Jews in Kerala |first=Ophira |last=Gamliel |date=2018 |journal=Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=55 |number=1 |pages=53–76 |doi=10.1177/0019464617745926|s2cid=149268133 |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/157659/1/157659.pdf }}
*{{cite book |last=Heller |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Heller |date=1999 |title=The Labor of Development: Workers and the Transformation of Capitalism in Kerala, India |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-80148-624-1}}
*{{cite journal |title=Indian communism and the Kerala experience of coalition government, 1967–69 |first=Thelma |last=Hunter |date=1972 |journal=Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=10 |number=1 |pages=45–70 |doi=10.1080/14662047208447157}}
*{{cite book |last=Ibrahim Kunju |first=A. P. |date=1975 |title=Studies in Medieval Kerala History |url=https://ksaorg.sgp1.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/uploads/2023/05/24390.pdf |location=Trivandrum, India |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |isbn= |access-date=7 April 2024 |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407114458/https://ksaorg.sgp1.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/uploads/2023/05/24390.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}
*{{cite book |first1=T. M. Thomas |last1=Isaac |first2=Richard W. |last2=Franke |first3=Pyralal |last3=Raghavan |name-list-style=amp |date=1998 |title=Democracy at Work in an Indian Industrial Cooperative: The Story of Kerala Dinesh Beedi |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=[[ILR Press]] |isbn=978-0-80148-415-5}}
*{{cite journal |title=Matriliny, Marxism, and the birth of the communist party in Kerala, 1930–1940 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |author-link=Robin Jeffrey |date=November 1978 |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=77–98 |doi=10.2307/2054238|jstor=2054238 |s2cid=154557831 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |title=Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |date=1987 |journal=[[Pacific Affairs]] |volume=60 |number=3 |pages=447–472 |doi=10.2307/2758883|jstor=2758883 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Jawaharlal Nehru and the Smoking Gun: Who pulled the trigger on Kerala's Communist government in 1959? |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |date=1991 |journal=Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=29 |number=1 |pages=72–85 |doi=10.1080/14662049108447602}}
*{{cite journal |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/19062/2/01_Jeffrey_Legacies_of_Matriliny%3A__the_2005.pdf |title=Legacies of matriliny: The place of women and the 'Kerala model' |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |date=December 2004 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=77 |number=4 |pages=647–664 |jstor=40023536 }}
*{{cite journal |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bb69/0ec821cbf616d266feb7bf9146808c7d6246.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201105811/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bb69/0ec821cbf616d266feb7bf9146808c7d6246.pdf |archive-date=2021-02-01 |title=Testing concepts about print, newspapers, and politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009 |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |date=2009 |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=68 |number=2 |pages=465–489 |doi=10.1017/S0021911809000679|s2cid=146795894 }}
*{{cite book |first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |date=2016 |orig-date=1991 |title=Politics, Women and Well-being: How Kerala became 'a model' |edition=10th |location=London, UK |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-34912-252-3}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/mar/19ems.htm |title=EMS Namboodiripad dead |last=Jose |first=D. |date=1998 |website=[[Rediff]] |access-date=12 January 2006}}
*{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Suresh |date=1994 |title=Political Evolution in Kerala: Travancore 1859–1938 |location=New Delhi |publisher=Phoenix Publishing House |isbn=978-8-17484-003-5}}
*{{cite journal |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf |title=Competitive religious entrepreneurs: Christian missionaries and female education in colonial and post-colonial India |author1-link=Tomila Lankina |first1=Tomila |last1=Lankina |first2=Lullit |last2=Getachew |name-list-style=amp |date=January 2013 |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=43 |number=1 |pages=103–131 |doi=10.1017/S0007123412000178|s2cid=145185494 }}
*{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/53006456/A_Prehistory_of_Violence_Revolution_and_Martyrs_in_the_Making_of_a_Political_Tradition_in_Kerala.pdf |title=A prehistory of violence? Revolution and martyrs in the making of a political tradition in Kerala |first=Dilip M. |last=Menon |date=2016 |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=39 |number=3 |pages=662–677 |doi=10.1080/00856401.2016.1195452|s2cid=148397844 }}{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
*{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=A Survey of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |date=2007 |location=Kottayam |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8-12641-578-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Newitt |first=Malyn |date=2005 |title=A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668 |location=London, UK |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-20332-404-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Nossiter |first=Thomas J. |author-link=Thomas Nossiter |date=1982 |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |location=London, UK |publisher=C. Hurst |isbn=978-0-19561-469-5}}
*{{cite book |first1=Filippo |last1=Osella |first2=Caroline |last2=Osella |name-list-style=amp |date=2000 |title= Social mobility in Kerala: modernity and identity in conflict |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |isbn=978-0-74531-694-9}}
*{{cite book |editor-first1=Antony |editor-last1=Palackal |editor-first2=Wesley |editor-last2=Shrum |name-list-style=amp |date=2007 |title=Information Society and Development: The Kerala Experience |location=Jaipur |publisher=Rawat Publications |isbn=978-8-13160-152-5}}
*{{cite book |first1=Sundar |last1=Ramanathaiyer |first2=Stewart |last2=MacPherson |name-list-style=amp |date=2018 |orig-date=2000 |title=Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality? |edition=2nd |location=London, UK |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-35176-986-0}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC |last=Singh |first=Anjana |title=Fort Cochin in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-00416-816-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Raghubir |author-link=Raghubir Singh (photographer) |date=1986 |title=Kerala: The Spice Coast of India |location=London, UK |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-24125-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Veluthat |first=Kesavan |author-link=Kesavan Veluthat |date=2013 |orig-date=1978 |title=Brahman Settlements in Kerala: Historical Studies |edition=Revised & enlarged |location=Thrissur |publisher=Cosmo Books |isbn=978-8-18876-510-2}}

===Historiography and memory===
*{{cite thesis |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/84828/1/62abraham2020phdfinal.pdf |title=History Writing and Global Encounters in Sixteenth-Century Kerala |first=Renu Elizabeth |last=Abraham |type=PhD |date=2020 |publisher=University of Kent/University of Porto}}
*{{cite journal |title=The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy |first1=Jos |last1=Chathukulam |author-link1=Jos Chathukulam |first2=Joseph |last2=Tharamangalam |name-list-style=amp |date=January 2020 |journal=World Development |volume=137 |number=105207 |article-number=105207 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207|pmid=32989341 |pmc=7510531 }}
*{{cite journal |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2348448918759852 |title=History and Historiography in Constituting a Region: The Case of Kerala |last=Veluthat |first=Kesavan |author-link=Kesavan Veluthat |date=2018 |journal=Studies in People's History |volume=5 |number=1 |pages=13–31 |doi=10.1177/2348448918759852|s2cid=166060066 |url-access=subscription }}

===Primary sources===
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage |title=Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language |last=Nainar |first=S. Muhammad Hussain |date=1942 |publisher=University of Madras}} (The English translation of ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'')
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3379 |title=Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806 |last=Iyer |first=K. V. Krishna |author-link=K. V. Krishna Iyer |date=1938 |location=Kozhikode |publisher=Norman Printing Bureau}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up |title=Malabar Manual (Volume I) |last=Logan |first=William |date=1887 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up |title=Malabar Manual (Volume II) |last=Logan |first=William |date=1887 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up |title=Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume I) |last=Innes |first=Charles Alexander |date=1908 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.30521 |title=Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume II) |last=Innes |first=Charles Alexander |date=1915 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.22142/page/n9/mode/2up |title=The Cochin State Manual |last=Menon |first=C. Achutha |date=1911 |publisher=Cochin Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/travancorestate00aiyagoog/page/n10/mode/2up |title=The Travancore State Manual |last=Nagam Aiya |first=V. |author-link=V. Nagam Aiya |date=1906 |publisher=Travancore Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3200/page/n1/mode/2up |title=Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume I) |last=Sturrock |first=J. |date=1894 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281736/mode/2up |title=Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume II) |last=Stuart |first=Harold A. |date=1895 |publisher=Madras Government Press}}
*{{cite book |title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 |publisher=Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited |date=2018 |location=Kozhikode |edition=Malayalam}}

== External links ==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1700_1799/malabar/malabar.html |title=From the Gulf of Cambay on down the Malabar Coast, c.1700's-1850's: ports (with forts) |website=Columbia University}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.dutchinkerala.com/ |title=Glimpses of World History through Kerala and Dutch |website=Dutch in Kerala}}

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{{Topics related to Kerala}}
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[[Category:History of Kerala| ]]

Government Medical College, Bettiah

2026-01-19T13:28:33Z

Vedpsagar: Content refined for better accuracy

{{Short description|Hospital in Bihar, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Refimprove|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox hospital
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_alt = 
| pushpin_relief = 
| pushpin_map_caption = 
| pushpin_map_size = 
| other_links = http://buhs.ac.in/
| name = Government Medical College and Hospital, Bettiah
| type = [[Medical college]]
| image = Gmc bettiah.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = GMC Bettiah
| coordinates = {{coord|26.80051|N|84.50228|E|region:IN-BR_type:edu|display=title,inline}}
| logo = Gmcbettiah Logo.png
| logo_size =
| region = [[Bettiah]], [[West Champaran district]]
| state = [[Bihar]] 845438
| country = India
| address = Hospital Rd Kali Bagh Colony, Khusi Tola
| healthcare =
| funding = [[Government of Bihar]]
| speciality = 
| standards = 
| emergency = 
| helipad = 
| affiliation = [[Bihar University of Health Sciences]]
| patron = 
| network = 
| founded = {{start date and age|2013}}
| closed = 
| website = https://gmcbettiah.org/citizen-charter
}}[[File:MJK Hospital Bettiah.jpg|thumb|333px|Government medical College and Hospital Bettiah]]

'''Government Medical College and Hospital, Bettiah''' (abbreviated as '''GMCH, Bettiah''') is a government medical college situated at [[Bettiah]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=.:Official Website : Bihar University of Health Sciences, Patna:. |url=http://buhs.ac.in/ |access-date=2021-10-21 |website=akubihar.ac.in}}</ref> in the [[West Champaran district]] of the Indian state of [[Bihar]].This college came into existence into year 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt. Medical College, Bettiah, GMC Bettiah |url=https://www.gmcbettiah.org/ |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=www.gmcbettiah.org}}</ref>[[File:Government medical college bettiah.jpg|thumb|Government medical college bettiah]]

==History==
It is affiliated with Bihar University of Health Sciences. The first batch of the college started from year 2013. It has around 1200- 1400 patient flow per day. It was attached with MJK (Maharani Janki Kunwar) hospital which is nearly 100 years old and is the only government hospital and medical training centre of North Bihar. In present time it's named as GMCH BETTIAH.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}

Bettiah Hospital was established by Maharaja [[Harendra Kishore Singh|Harendra Kishore]] of [[Bettiah Raj]] in October 1892 AD at a cost of ₹40897, at that time it was called Lady Dufferin Hospital, as we have information, Lady Miss Jenny Mars RCPL RCS ([[Eidenberg]]) LRPG ([[Glasgow]]) was the first doctor of this. . , then after Dr. Marsh appointed in November 1893, when the Maharaja died (26-03-1893).[3]

Lady Miss Jenny Marsh used to get ₹ 250 monthly salary with ₹ 75 monthly allowance at that time, later in this hospital, famous female doctor Miss EB Hallway was appointed, who was a famous surgeon in India, Hallway ward is also named after her in this hospital today. also exists.[4]

After the year 2007, its name was changed to Government Medical College, and from that time arrangements for medical studies started in it and by 2013, the first batch of medical was done in it, in which there were about 100 students. Right now this medical college is fifth in Bihar.[https://www.bettiahtimes.com/2020/09/mjk-hospital-bettiah.html <nowiki>[3] [4] [5]</nowiki>]

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in Bihar]]
*[[Education in Bettiah]]
*[[List of educational institutions in Patna]]
*[[All India Council for Technical Education]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* https://www.gmcbettiah.org/
*http://buhs.ac.in/

{{Aryabhatta Knowledge University}}

[[Category:Medical colleges in Bihar]]
[[Category:Hospitals in Bihar]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Aryabhatta Knowledge University]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 2013]]
[[Category:2013 establishments in Bihar]]

{{Bihar-university-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bettiah}}

Pragyan (festival)

2026-01-18T22:27:58Z

Vedpsagar: Adding Basic Post W/ Refs...

{{About|the technical festival of NIT Trichy|other uses|Pragyan (disambiguation){{!}}Pragyan}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{infobox recurring event
|name = Pragyan
|logo = Pragyan '21 logo.png
|genre = Techno-managerial organisation
|filing = Student-run non-profit
|founded = 2005
|location = [[Tiruchirappalli]], India
|coordinates =
|sponsor = [[NIT Trichy]]
|events = Coding, robotics, management, paper presentation, guest lectures, infotainment, core engineering, exhibitions, workshops
|prize_money = ₹12,00,000
|website = {{url|http://www.pragyan.org}}
|footnotes =
}}

'''Pragyan, NIT Trichy''' is the annual techno-managerial festival of the [[National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli]]. Since its inception in 2005, it has been held every year over a period of three and a half days during the months of January, February, or March. Every year, participants from a number of colleges across the country take part in various events conducted as a part of Pragyan, making it one of the largest techno-managerial fests in India. It is also the first student-run organisation in the world and the third overall, next only to the London Olympics and Manchester United to get an ISO 20121:2012 certification for Sustainable Event Management. It also holds the ISO 9001:2015 certification for Quality Management Systems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/iso-certification-for-sustainability-in-event-management/article5752307.ece|title=ISO certification for sustainability in event management|newspaper=The Hindu |date=5 March 2014|accessdate=4 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619062623/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/iso-certification-for-sustainability-in-event-management/article5752307.ece|archivedate=19 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/pragyan-2012-starts-off-with-pride-of-iso-9001-certification/article2926977.ece|title=Pragyan 2012 starts off with pride of ISO 9001 certification|author=Staff Reporter|date=24 February 2012|accessdate=4 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104144642/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/pragyan-2012-starts-off-with-pride-of-iso-9001-certification/article2926977.ece|archivedate=4 January 2018|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

==History and growth==

In 2005, the staff and students of NIT Trichy collaborated to create Pragyan as a technical festival attracting innovation from across the state.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/28/stories/2005012816010300.htm | title=NIT to host 'Pragyan' from tomorrow | date=28 January 2005 | accessdate=8 June 2012 | author=Staff Reporter | pages=Tiruchi | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411003320/http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/28/stories/2005012816010300.htm | work=[[The Hindu]] | archivedate=11 April 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/edu/2005/02/07/stories/2005020700590300.htm | title=Pragyan: intelligence unlimited | date=7 February 2005 | accessdate=8 June 2012 | author=R. Krishnamoorthy | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716183322/http://www.hindu.com/edu/2005/02/07/stories/2005020700590300.htm | work=[[The Hindu]] | archivedate=16 July 2012 }}</ref> Pragyan has since expanded to include teams from over 60 countries taking part in the online events. In recent years, up to 700 volunteers have worked in hosting the event.

==Events==

Pragyan conducts a variety of technical and cultural events throughout the year, including an annual technical festival that attracts participants from all over India. The festival features competitions in coding and robotics, as well as guest lectures from industry leaders. The goal is to promote technical and cultural education and provide opportunities for students to showcase their skills, creativity, and innovation. Pragyan also conducts workshops, seminars, and cultural events such as music, dance, and drama competitions. These events are designed to provide students with a well-rounded educational experience and allow them to explore their interests in technology, culture, and the arts. Pragyan's events are run by students and are open to participation from students across India. Pragyan’s events deal with a broad number of categories and are classified into various clusters.

Crossfire is a panel discussion event held during the fest. Crossfire aims to provide a global platform for academia, industry, and the government to interact with the student fraternity.

[[File:Pragyan 2012 crossfire.jpg|thumb|180px|Panelists of Pragyan 2012 Crossfire]]
[[File:Pragyan 2017 Crossfire.jpg|thumb|180px|Panelists of Pragyan 2017 Crossfire]]

===Guest lectures series===
[[File:Richard Mueller GL.jpg|thumb|Guest lecture by Richard Mueller at Pragyan 2017]]

Each year the fest features lectures from several guest speakers.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Guest lecturers
|-
|2021
|Illumináre series: Dr. [[Vandi Verma|Vandana Verma]], Dr. Rishikesha T. Krishnan, Dr. [[Ken Yeang]], Mr. [[Philip Rosedale|Phillip Rosedale]], Mr. Yogesh Gupta
|-
|2020
|Dr. [[V. R. Lalithambika]], Dr. [[Najeeb Jung]], Dr. [[Ashok Khemka]], Dr. Manish Gupta, Dr. [[Teri W. Odom]], Dr. [[David Reitze]], Dr. [[Rajagopala Chidambaram]], Mr. Josh Foulger.
|-
|2019
|Dr. Spyridon Michalakis, Ms. Amrita Shah, Mr. Ramesh Venkatesan, Dr. Montek Singh Ahluwalia, Dr. Crystal Dilworth, Dr. P. G. Diwakar, Dr. Frederick J. Raab, Dr. Alwyn Didar Singh.
|-
|2018
|Dr.B.N Suresh, [[Ajay Bhatt]], Bhargavi Nuvvula, Dr. Camille Leclercq, Dr.[[Robert Metcalfe]], Dr. A.S Ramasastri, Dr.[[Kevin Grazier]], Meher Pudumjee, [[Shivshankar Menon]], Ramamoorthy Ramesh.
|-
|2017
|[[Richard A. Muller]], Kishore Jayaraman, Henry Throop, [[David J. Peterson]], [[Ada Yonath]], [[A. Sivathanu Pillai]], Rajshekhar Murthy, [[Nandini Harinath]].
|-
|2016
|[[Peter C. Schultz]], [[Varun Agarwal]], [[Ralph Leighton]], Dr. Archana Sharma, Sudhir Kumar Mishra, Gianni Di Caro, Abhas Mitra, Rene Reinsburg.
|-
| 2015 || [[Marshall Strabala]], Dr. Jitendra Joshi, [[Paul Halpern]], Suneet Tuli, [[Robin Chase]], [[T. S. Krishnamurthy]], Ananth Krishnan, [[Jill Tarter]], Raju Venkatraman, Guhesh Ramanathan, Scott R Peppet, Rakshit Tandon, Rakesh Godwani.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pragyan.org/15/home/guest_lectures/|website=Pragyan|accessdate=24 May 2015|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303095450/http://www.pragyan.org/15/home/guest_lectures/|archivedate=3 March 2015|title=Pragyan '15 - Guest Lectures}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || L Sivasankaran, Kiruba Shankar, Anirudh & Pragun, Ram Gopal, Valerie Wagoner, Dr. [[Marcus du Sautoy]], [[Jamie Hyneman]], [[G. Dhananjayan|Dhananjayan Govind]], Venkatesh Basker, Tevenos, [[T. V. Narendran]].
|-
| 2013 || [[Anil Kakodkar]], Tessy Thomas, [[Atul Gurtu]], Rohan Dixit, [[David Christian (historian)|David Christian]], [[Richard Noble]]
|-
| 2012 || Gayle Lackmann McDowell, Gert Lanckriet, [[J. N. Reddy (engineer)|J. N. Reddy]], [[Michael E. Brown]], [[Jeff Lieberman (roboticist)|Jeff Lieberman]], [[S. Gurumurthy|Swaminathan Gurumurthy]], Dr.[[Vijay Chandru]], Dr. [[A. Sivathanu Pillai|Sivathanu Pillai]] and [[Narendra Nayak]]
|-
| 2011 || [[David Hanson (robotics designer)]], [[Sugata Mitra]], [[Narayanan Krishnan]], [[T. V. Padma]], Stefan Engeseth and Ajeet N. Mathur
|-
| 2010 || Dr. [[Ramesh Jain]], N S Ramaswamy, Dr. [[P. M. Bhargava]], Dr. Sreenidihi Varadharajan, Raj Bala, [[Are Holen]].
|-
| 2009 || [[Peter Norvig]], [[Loren Acton]], [[John C. Mather]], Manish Tripathi and Kalyan Banerjee.
|-
| 2008 || Philippe Lebrun, Ronald Mallett, [[Noam Chomsky]], Trilochan Sastry, K.R. Sridhar and [[Philip Zimmermann]]
|-
| 2007 || [[Douglas Osheroff]], [[Rudolph Marcus]], [[Guruswami Ravichandran]], [[Gurcharan Das]] and [[Jimmy Wales]]
|-
| 2006 || [[Yash Pal]], [[Stephen Wolfram]], [[Christopher Gill]], and [[Christopher Charles Benninger]]
|}
 
The 2015 edition saw the introduction of 'Divergent', an inspirational talk series by youngsters who have made a marked contribution to the society. The speakers at the inaugural edition included Roman Saini, Vishnu Nair, Ajit Narayanan and Kartheeban.

===Sangam and Ingenium===

====Sangam====
[[File:Pragyan 2013 sangam.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Pragyan 2013 Sangam project]]

Sangam is an exclusive intra-NITT technical contest involving the display of models and solutions developed by students from various departments. This event, which is held on all four days of Pragyan, provides a platform for students to implement their innovative ideas and earn recognition for the same from other participants, academics, technocrats, and

====Ingenium====
Ingenium, previously known as Anwesh, is a technical contest exclusively for students from colleges other than NIT Trichy. Giving students a chance to showcase their technical prowess through ideas and inventions, Ingenium strives to reignite the love for science and technology in students.

===Infotainment===
[[File:Pragyan 2012 infotainment laser show.jpg|thumb|Pragyan 2012 Infotainment Lasers show]]
Since its inception in 2008, the Infotainment aspect of the fest has provided entertainment across genres that include acrobatics, dance, cardistry, illusion, light shows and comedy.

==Sponsors and partners==

Pragyan is a non-profit organization established in India by students with the goal of advancing technical and cultural education. They hold various events such as technical and cultural festivals, workshops, and lectures. The organization, founded in 2005, is sustained through the support of sponsors from leading companies in the technology and engineering sectors such as [[Tata Steel]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[State Bank of India]], [[Google]], [[Pepsi]], [[Marrybrown]], [[Indian Oil Corporation]], [[McAfee]], [[National Instruments]], [[Larsen & Toubro]] and [[Honeywell]]. These sponsors financially aid in the organization of events, including expenses for equipment and venue rentals. They also offer prizes and incentives for participants in Pragyan's events. Furthermore, the support from sponsors allows Pragyan to invite industry experts as guest speakers, providing students with opportunities to learn from and network with professionals in their field. For the 2022 edition of Pragyan, the principal sponsors were [[Salesforce]], [https://agnostiq.ai/ Agnostiq] and [[Comedy Central]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pragyan.org/22/home/sponsors/ |title=Pragyan 2022 - Sponsors|website=www.pragyan.org|accessdate=1 January 2023}}</ref>

==Pragyan Social Responsibility==

In Pragyan 2012, a new wing of the organisation, called the Pragyan Social Responsibility (PSR) was added. A number of initiatives are conducted by the members of this wing targeted at diverse social groups.

=== Veetukku Oru Vignaani ===
A science exhibition for projects by school students, conducted by [[Puthiya Thalaimurai]] television network was hosted and managed by Pragyan for the first time in 2016.
In 2017 the exhibition achieved acclamation after a grand state-level final was hosted by Pragyan at NIT Trichy. It received media coverage by [[Puthiya Thalaimurai]] with whom Pragyan collaborated to achieve this feat. Students from various schools across the state were invited to attend, participate, and exhibit their models and ideas.

=== Dhisai ===
The event ‘Dhisai’ aimed at educating the school students of Tamil Nadu about the Joint Entrance Examinations (JEE) was first introduced in 2015. Since then every year as a part of Dhisai a mock JEE exam has been conducted annually for the students of class 12 to create awareness about the JEE Examination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/errorpage/|title=Page not found News|accessdate=4 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103165110/http://www.thehindu.com/errorpage/|archivedate=3 January 2018}}</ref>

==Square One==
Pragyan Square One, formerly known as Outreach, was introduced with the aim of expanding the extent of technological advances and create awareness on scientific utilities in regions across the nation.

=== 2018 ===
Pragyan Square One was conducted in SKCET, Coimbatore on 7 and 8 October 2017 as well as in Thiagarajar College of Engineering on 9 and 10 September 2017. While the Coimbatore edition featured a 3D printing and a smart grid automation workshops, the edition held in Madurai focused on robot building and automobile architecture. Also events and competitions offering a grand combined prize pool of INR 50,000 were held.

The Square one edition at Mangalore was held on 3 February 2018 at the Sahyadri College of Engineering and Management. This was the third outreach event conducted by Pragyan which saw three events and a workshop on Introduction to Machine Learning.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/nit-t-students-extend-pragyan-to-mangalore/article22654810.ece | title=NIT-T students extend Pragyan to Mangalore | date=5 February 2018 | newspaper=The Hindu | accessdate=22 January 2019}}</ref>

=== 2017 ===
For the first time ever, Pragyan Square One was conducted in two cities- Chennai and Kochi. A workshop on Ethical Hacking was conducted at CUSAT, Kochi and workshops on robotics and embedded technology was conducted at SRM University, Kattankulathur Chennai simultaneously on 4 and 5 February 2017. Students were invited to take part in the regional rounds of events like Circuitrix, The Ultimate Manager, Hunt the Code and Pragyan Quiz. The top teams of each event were invited to take part in the national finals which were to be conducted during Pragyan 2017 at NIT Trichy.

=== 2016 ===
The 2016 edition of Pragyan saw 'Grab to Smash' a robot building contest, a Quadcopter workshop and a quiz event held in Kochi on 16 and 17 January 2016. The Chennai version held on 30 January saw the robot contest, 'Hunt the Code' competition for coding enthusiasts and an 'Ultimate Manager' contest. A design workshop was also held with CAD and Creo.

=== 2015 ===
The First edition of the Pragyan Square One (2015) was conducted in Chennai. It took place at the Sathyabama University, Chennai on 1 and 2 November 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pragyan.org/15/home/outreach/|title=Pragyan '15 - Outreach|website=www.pragyan.org|accessdate=4 January 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925004147/https://www.pragyan.org/15/home/outreach/|archivedate=25 September 2016}}</ref> Four different events were conducted during the course of the programme. This included a guest lecture, the Circuitrix event, the regional prelims of the Pragyan Open Quiz and a hovercraft workshop, conducted by the AeroSapiens, in association with the Third Dimension Aeromodeling club of NIT Trichy. The guest lecture had a turnout of about 250 students. The winners of the regional prelims in the quiz competition got a direct entry to the National Intercollegiate Pragyan Quiz held during Pragyan.

The 2015 edition of Pragyan saw yet another highlight event, the Hackathon conducted in association with Amazon India at Amazon, Hyderabad. The contest was held on 20 and 21 December 2014 and had more than a hundred participants working on various projects. The contest was a theme based one, with "Collaboration Tools" set as the theme of the contest and contestants had to develop mobile and web-based apps that would help people with 'team work'. The prizes were worth a total of ₹90,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/hackathon-a-crowdpuller/article6719764.ece|title=Hackathon a crowd-puller|date=23 December 2014|accessdate=4 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104144642/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/hackathon-a-crowdpuller/article6719764.ece|archivedate=4 January 2018|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

== Special initiatives ==

=== Human library===
Human Library was a new initiative by Pragyan in 2018 that saw 14 people with their inspiring stories interact with the students. The event held in association with Human Library, Hyderabad was the largest human library conducted by a student-run organisation. The Human Library at Pragyan proved to be an enriching experience, where students were presented with an opportunity to read about various sensitive and thought-provoking issues prevalent in society. The initiative was continued in the following editions.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{National_Institutes_of_Technology}}

[[Category:National Institutes of Technology]]
[[Category:National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Festivals established in 2005]]
[[Category:Technical festivals in India]]
[[Category:Culture of Tiruchirappalli]]

Subramaniya Swamy Temple, Thiruvidaikazhi

2026-01-06T00:14:48Z

Vedpsagar: Made location - done

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
'''Subramaniya Swamy Temple,''' also known as Thiruvidaikazhi Murugan Temple, is a Hindu temple located in the village Thiruvidaikazhi in the [[Sembanar Koil block|Sembanarkoil Block]] of [[Mayiladuthurai district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The temple is dedicated to Subramaniya Swamy, a [[Hindu deities|Hindu deity]] widely known as [[Murugan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=திருவிடைக்கழி கோவிலில் பந்தல்கால் முகூர்த்தம்; திரளான பக்தர்கள் தரிசனம் |url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/sabarimala/detail.php?id=145962 |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=Dinamalar |language=ta}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Temple : Temple Details {{!}} - {{!}} Tamilnadu Temple {{!}} முருகன் |url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/new.php?id=2303 |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=temple.dinamalar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Government of Tamil Nadu – Hindu Religious & Charitable Endowments Department |url=https://hrce.tn.gov.in/hrcehome/temple_list.php |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=hrce.tn.gov.in |series=District Temple List - Mayiladuthurai - search for Thiruvidaikazhi}}</ref>

Apart from the [[Six Abodes of Murugan|six abodes of Murugan]] (Arupadai Veedu), which are associated with his divine plays (Thiruvilaiyadal), only two sacred sites are traditionally believed to have been sanctified by the touch of Lord Murugan’s divine feet. One is [[Vallimalai]], where Lord Murugan is said to have married [[Valli]]. The other is Thiruvidaikazhi, where, according to tradition, Lord Murugan’s [[engagement]] to his consort [[Devasena|Deivanai]] took place, and where he later performed penance to attain absolution from sin (paava vimocanam) following the slaying of the demon [[Hiranyaksha|Hiranyasura]].

The temple is notable for housing the Hindu deities Murugan and [[Shiva]] together within the same sanctum sanctorum (''[[garbhagriha]]''), a feature that is considered distinctive among Murugan temples. The temple is associated with [[Tamil literature|Tamil devotional literature]] and is mentioned in both the [[Tiruvicaippa|Thiruvisaippa]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Shaivam |url=https://shaivam.org/thirumurai/ninth-thirumurai/senthanar-thiruvidaikkazhi-thiruvisaipa-maaluma/#gsc.tab=0 |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=shaivam.org}}</ref> of the [[Tevaram|Thevaram]] corpus and the [[Thiruppugazh]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Thiruppugazh song # 799- திருப்புகழ் , - முலை குலுக்கிகள்- திருவிடைக்கழி San Francisco Bay Area, CA ThiruMurai and ThirupPugazh Group |url=https://www.sivasiva.org/thiruppugazh_song.php?sequence_no=799&thalam=%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF&thiru_name=%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%20%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=www.sivasiva.org}}</ref> hymns.

== Location ==
The temple is located in the village Thiruvidaikazhi, a residential neighborhood in [[Mayiladuthurai]] on the Mayiladuthurai to Tharangambadi state highway, a couple of kilometers south of the [[Thirukkadaiyur]]. It is about {{Convert|288|km|mi|abbr=unit}} southeast of [[Chennai]], the state capital. The nearest railway station is [[Mayiladuthurai Junction railway station|Mayiladuthurai railway junction]], {{Convert|26|km|mi|abbr=unit}} from the temple. The nearest bus stop is [[Mayiladuthurai|Thiruvidaikazhi]], {{Convert|1|km|mi|abbr=unit}} from the temple.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Government of Tamil Nadu – Hindu Religious & Charitable Endowments Department |url=https://hrce.tn.gov.in/hrcehome/temple_list.php |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=hrce.tn.gov.in |series=District Temple List - Mayiladuthurai - search for Thiruvidaikazhi}}</ref>

== Mythology ==
The history of Thiruvidaikazhi temple is related to the mythology of [[Hindu deities|Hindu god]] [[Kartikeya|Murugan]]. As per the [[Tamil literature|Tamil traditions]] of [[Kanda Puranam]] and Hindu Purāṇas, Lord Murugan was engaged in the divine battle against the [[asura]] [[Śūrapadmā|Surapadma]] at [[Tiruchendur|Thiruchendur]], a town in [[Tamil Nadu]]. At [[Surasamharam]], Surapadma was slain, his second son, Iraniyan, withdrew from the battlefield to fulfill his ancestral rites. To evade Murugan, Iraniyan assumed the form of a [[shark]] and concealed himself in the sea near [[Poombuhar|Poompuhar]], close to present-day [[Tharangambadi]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=தினத்தந்தி |date=2019-09-20 |title=திருப்பம் தருவான் திருவிடைக்கழி முருகன் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/others/devotional/2019/09/20165101/the-twist-will-give-thiruvidaikkazhi-murugan.vpf |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=www.dailythanthi.com |language=ta}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Temple : Temple Details {{!}} - {{!}} Tamilnadu Temple {{!}} முருகன் |url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/new.php?id=2303 |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=temple.dinamalar.com}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=பாலு |first=ரேவதி |date=2025-05-04 |title=திருப்பங்கள் தரும் திருவிடைக்கழி முருகன் |url=https://kalkionline.com/lifestyle/spirituality/thiruvidaikazhi-murugan-temple-history |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=Kalki Online |language=ta}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=இந்த முருகன் கோவிலுக்கு ஒரு முறை சென்று வந்தால் வாழ்க்கையே மாறும் |url=https://tamil.samayam.com/religion/temples/tiruvidaikazhi-murugan-temple-changing-many-devotees-life/articleshow/124953499.cms |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=Samayam Tamil |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=dhinasarinews |date=2022-02-04 |title=திருப்புகழ் கதைகள்: திருவிடைக்கழி - Dhinasari Tamil |url=https://dhinasari.com/spiritual-section/spiritual-articles/239804-thiruppugazh-stories-part-243.html |access-date=2025-12-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Iraniyan’s presence caused great distress to the inhabitants of the southern coastal regions of Poompuhar. Unable to bear his afflictions, the people fervently prayed to Lord Murugan for protection. With the grace of his mother, [[Parashakti]], Murugan discerned Iraniyan’s deception, pursued him to the seashore, and ultimately vanquished him.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

Although Iraniyan was an [[asura]], he was a devoted follower of [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]]. According to legend, Murugan incurred a dosha ([[sin]]) for slaying a devotee of Shiva. Following his mother Parashakti’s guidance, Murugan journeyed to Thiruvidaikazhi to atone for this act. There, he bathed in the sacred Saravanapoigai (sacred pond in English) and, beneath the holy Kura tree (commonly identified as the [[Bottle-brush grevillea|bottle-brush tree]]), installed a Shiva [[Lingam]]. He worshipped the Lingam with Kura flowers and performed penance.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

Pleased with his devotion, Lord Shiva absolved Murugan of the sin and requested his son [[Kartikeya|Kumaran]] to remain at this sacred site to bless devotees. As per the legend, Shiva himself took residence just behind Murugan at this location, as reflected in the temple’s layout and history.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

The site where Murugan was absolved of the sin of killing Iraniyan came to be known as Vidaikkazhi (“the place of absolution”). According to another legend, since Murugan worshipped Shiva beneath the Kura tree, the place also came to be called ''Thirukkuravadi''. Stone inscriptions from this temple refer to the presiding deity Murugan as ''Thirukuraithudayar'' also spelled as ''Thirukkuratthudaiyar'', and state that worship at this shrine absolves devotees of their sins.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

== History ==
The temple is mentioned in the [[Tamil literature|Tamil devotional literature]] and is mentioned in both the [[Tiruvicaippa|Thiruvisaippa]]<ref name=":1" /> and the [[Thiruppugazh]]<ref name=":2" /> hymns. In the ''Thiruvisaippa'', the saint Senthanar praises Murugan as Kumaravel; tradition holds that Senthanar attained [[mukti]](liberation) at this temple. The 15th-century poet-saint [[Arunagirinathar]] is also credited with composing ''Thiruppugazh'' hymns in praise of Murugan worshipped at this temple.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

According to the ''sthala purāṇa'' (temple legend), the temple is believed to have been originally built by the Chola king Musukunda Chakravarti.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Musukuntha Chola |url=https://spdurai.tripod.com/id2.html |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=spdurai.tripod.com}}</ref> Historical and architectural evidence suggests that the earliest structure of the temple dates to the 8th–9th century CE, corresponding to the Pallava–early Chola period.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Murugan |date=2025-07-03 |title=Sri Thiruvidaikazhi Murugan Temple – Divine Abode in Tamil Nadu |url=https://arunraj.org/murugan-temples/thiruvellaikadi-murugan-temple/ |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=arunraj.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

== Architecture ==
The temple features an east-facing [[Gopuram|rajagopuram]] with seven tiers, adorned with vibrant sculptures of Hindu gods and decorative elements. The temple entrance has a flagploe ([[Dhvajastambha|kodimaram]]) and the '''sa'''crificial altar ([[Bali pitha|balipitham]]), followed by a shrine to Lord [[Ganesha|Vinayaka]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

The front [[mandapa]] contains stone inscriptions bearing hymns from devotional works such as the ''[[Thiruppugazh]]'', ''Vel Viruththam sung by [[Arunagirinathar]]'', and related compositions, highlighting the temple’s association with Tamil devotional literature.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

On the right side of the main sanctum, [[Devasena|Deivanai]] is enshrined in a separate shrine, depicted in a penitent and ascetic posture. Within the [[Prakaram|prakarams]] (corridors), there are additional shrines, including one dedicated to Vinayaka.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

The [[Sthala Vriksha|sthala vriksha]] (sacred tree) of the temple is the Kuramaram (Kura tree), which stands prominently within the complex. Tradition holds that Lord [[Kartikeya|Murugan]] meditated upon Lord [[Shiva]] beneath this tree. Beneath the Kuramaram, a Patra Lingam has been installed. Devotional belief holds that meditation beneath the Kuramaram aids mental focus and inner tranquility.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

In a separate shrine, Thirukameswarar is worshipped in the form of a Shiva [[Lingam]]. Surrounding this sanctum is a distinctive arrangement unique to the temple: the Spatika Lingam positioned in the front, [[Dakshinamurti|Dakshinamurthy]] to the south, Papanasa Peruman to the west, and the Vasishta Lingam to the north.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

Along the inner corridor, shrines to [[Chandra]] (the Moon God), [[Arunagirinathar]], and Sendanar appear in sequence, followed by those of the Nava Shaktis, Subramanya, Naganatha Lingam, [[Gajalakshmi]], and the festival deity of Lord Muruga, who is depicted holding a [[vel]] in one hand and [[Bow and arrow|bow]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Vastu_Shastram |date=2023-05-12 |title=அறிந்த கோயில்கள் அறியாத ரகசியங்கள் திருவிடைக்கழி |url=https://www.vastushastram.com/%e0%ae%85%e0%ae%b1%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%a8%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%a4-%e0%ae%95%e0%af%8b%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b2%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95%e0%ae%b3%e0%af%8d-%e0%ae%85%e0%ae%b1%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%be%e0%ae%a4-75/ |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=Vastushastram |language=en-US}}</ref> in another hand.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />

== Religious importance and festivals ==

=== Significance ===
The temple is traditionally known as the “''Thiruchendur of the Chola region''”, reflecting its importance among [[Kartikeya|Murugan]] shrines in [[Chola Nadu]].<ref name=":8" />

According to local tradition, this is the sacred site where [[Devasena|Deivanai]], desiring to marry Lord Murugan, performed penance. It is believed that the engagement (nichayathartham) of Murugan and Deivanai took place at this location. Deivanai is depicted with her face gently inclined in shyness, symbolizing modesty and devotion. Devotees believe that worshipping Deivanai on Fridays helps remove obstacles to marriage.<ref name=":3" />

Legend further states that beneath the Kura tree, where Murugan worshipped Lord Shiva, on the same place below the tree [[Rahu]] [[Bhagavan]] also performed penance and worshipped Murugan, wash off his sins. As a result, it is believed that devotees afflicted with Rahu dosha who pray at this temple are blessed with early marriage and harmony between spouses. The temple is notable for the absence of a [[Navagraha]] shrine; instead, Murugan himself is believed to bestow the blessings of all nine planetary deities. Devotional belief holds that worshipping the presiding deity alone alleviates all forms of Navagraha-related afflictions.<ref name=":3" />

The temple complex houses sixteen forms of Vinayaka, which is considered a distinctive feature. Another unique aspect is the depiction of Lord Murugan standing alongside Vinayaka beneath the [[Dhvajastambha|flagstaff]] (kodimaram).<ref name=":3" />

It is also noteworthy that [[Aiyanar|Ayyanar]] shrines are situated along the four boundaries of the temple. Additionally, unlike most Murugan temples where the [[Peafowl|peacock]] serves as the vahana, Murugan is associated with the [[elephant]] vahana at this shrine, marking a distinctive local tradition.<ref name=":3" />

=== Festivals ===
The temple is administered by the [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department|Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments]] (HR&CE) Department of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]. Four daily [[Puja (Hinduism)|pujas]] are performed in accordance with traditions. All major festivals associated with [[Shiva]] and [[Kartikeya|Murugan]] temples are observed in this temple.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

Prominent festivals celebrated at the temple include [[Thaipusam]], [[Panguni Uthiram]], [[Vaikasi Visakam]], and [[Karthika Deepam|Thirukarthigai]].<ref name=":3" />

During the Thaipusam festival, a significant event is the [[padayatra]] (pilgrimage on foot) undertaken by devotees from [[Swaminatha Swamy Temple|Swamimalai]] Murugan temple, which is observed as a major annual celebration.<ref name=":3" />

Another notable pilgrimage associated with the temple is the 50-kilometre padayatra from the town [[Chidambaram]] to Thiruvidaikazhi, conducted annually on the first Friday of the Tamil month of [[Purattasi]]. Devotees commence the journey on Friday and reach the Thiruvidaikazhi Murugan Temple by Saturday night. On the following Sunday, paal (milk) [[Kavadi Aattam|kavadi]] is carried from the mandapa opposite the temple, and a maha [[Abhisheka|abhishekam]] is performed for Lord Murugan beneath the sacred Kura tree, followed by deepa aradhana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=13.9.2025 – சனி சஷ்டி விராலிமலை திருமுருகன் புறப்பாடு விராலிமலை புதுக்கோட்டை மாவட்டத்தில் அமைந்துள்ள முருகன் தலம். இந்த 1500 ஆண்டுகள் பழமையான கோயிலுக்குச் செல்ல மலையில் 201 படிகள் ஏற வேண்டும், மேலும் இப்பகுதி ஏராளமான மயில்களால் நிரம்பி உள்ளது.… {{!}} இந்த வார விசேஷங்கள் {{!}} Dinakaran |url=https://m.dinakaran.com/article/News_Detail/10021777/amp |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=m.dinakaran.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=திருவிடைக்கழி கோவிலில் பந்தல்கால் முகூர்த்தம்; திரளான பக்தர்கள் தரிசனம் |url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/sabarimala/detail.php?id=145962 |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=Dinamalar |language=ta}}</ref>
== References ==

{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Murugan temples in Tamil Nadu]]
<references />

== External links ==
{{Murugan temples}}{{Mayiladuthurai district}}{{Hindu deities and texts}}

Madhusudan Jana

2026-01-04T05:58:43Z

Vedpsagar: made new entry

{{Short description|Bengali doctor, journalist and social worker (1857–1938)}}
[[Acharya]] '''Madhusudan Jana''' (also written as '''Madhusudhan Jana''') (26 September 1857- 21 October 1938) was a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] journalist, [[Medical doctor|doctor]], teacher and Social Worker.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" /> He was the founder of the famous ''Nihar Press'' in [[Contai]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bengal (India) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZE-AQAAMAAJ&dq=madhusudan+jana+nihar&pg=RA2-PR270 |title=Report on the Administration of Bengal |date=1899 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhowmik |first=Arindam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xu4DAAAQBAJ&dq=%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%A8+%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE+%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF&pg=PT232 |title=Medinikatha - Purba Medinipur (Midnapore), Tourism & Archaeology (মেদিনীকথা - পূর্ব মেদিনীপুর, পর্যটন ও পুরাকীর্তি): Combination of History, Heritage, Tourism, Culture of East Midnapore. |publisher=Arindam Bhowmik |isbn=978-81-931892-3-8 |language=bn}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

[[File:Bust of Madhusudan Jana.jpg|thumb|Bust of Madhusudan Jana, at [[Contai]], [[Midnapore district|Midnapore]].]]

==Early life==
Madhusudan Jana was born on 26 September 1857 at Birulia village in [[Nandigram II|Nandigram]], [[Midnapore district]], [[Bengal Presidency]], in a [[Brahmo]] [[Mahishya]] family to Narasimha Jana and Bidyabati Debi.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Srilata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2L81DgAAQBAJ&dq=madhusudan+jana+nihar&pg=PA65 |title=Congress Politics in Bengal 1919-1939 |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-366-3 |language=en}}</ref> His grandfather had converted to [[Brahmoism]] as a result of the influence of [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy|Ram Mohan Roy]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Rajat Kanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K15uAAAAMAAJ&q=madhusudan+jana+nihar |title=Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927 |date=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-561654-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite thesis |last=Gupta |first=Swapan Das |title=Local Politics in Bengal: Midnapur District 1907-1934. |date=1980 |degree=phd |publisher=SOAS University of London |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/34081/ |language=en}}</ref> The family later migrated south to [[Contai]], where Madhusudan attended the newly founded [[Contai High School]], being a graduate of one of its first batches. He stood first in his class.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Senapati and Das |first=Uma and Dulal Krishna |title=মাহিষ্য রত্নাবলী জীবনী শতক |publisher=Tuhina Publications |year=2018 |isbn=9788194434641 |edition=2nd |location=[[Kolkata]] |publication-date=2020 |pages=165 |language=Bengali |trans-title=Mahishya Ratnavali Biographical Century}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Manmatha Nath |title=MEDINIPUR CHARITABHIDHAN |publisher=Arindam's |edition=1st |language=Bengali |trans-title=Biographical dictionery on undivided Medinipur District}}</ref> Subsequently, he took admission into the [[Midnapore College]].<ref name=":8"/>

==Career==
Following his education he began to thoroughly study [[Homeopathy]] because he was deeply affected by the scarcity of [[Medical doctor|Doctors]] in the rural areas of [[Midnapore]], and the countless medical hurdles that the rural population had to face due to a combination of both, the lack of financial means to afford medical care as well as a lack of [[Health professional|medical practitioners]]. Gradually his fame as doctor spread throughout [[Midnapore district]] as well as outside.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=কাঁথির ঈশ্বর মধুসূদন /সন্তু জানা |url=https://www.jaladarchi.com/2021/01/god-of-contai-madhusudan-jana.html |access-date=2025-12-23 |language=bn}}</ref> He specialised in diseases affecting to rural populace in those days such as [[Cholera]], [[Smallpox]] etc. He came to be called "'''Iswar'''" by the people because of the free of cost treatment that he rendered to the sick.<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
[[File:Contai Model Institution.jpg|thumb|[[Contai Model Institution]] at [[Contai]], [[Medinipur district|Midnapore]]. One of the oldest institutions of Medinipur established in 1883, by [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Madhusudan Jana, Padmalochan Panda and others.]]
He was also one of the foremost in spreading education across the district. He was instrumental for establishing many schools in [[Contai]]. He was the founder and the first [[Headmaster]] of the [[Contai Model Institution]], the second school established in Contai in 1883.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Contai Model Institution - About School |url=https://contaimodel.github.io/about_school.html |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=contaimodel.github.io}}</ref> This school went on to become a later model for the "National Schools", established by [[Birendranath Sasmal|Deshapran Birendranath Sasmal]] all across the [[Midnapore district]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Manmatha Nath |title=মুক্তিযুদ্ধে মেদিনীপুর |publisher=Dey's Publishing |edition=1st |location=[[Kolkata]] |language=Bengali |trans-title=Mukti Yudhdhe Medinipur}}</ref> On behalf of the [[Brahmo Samaj]], he along with [[Rai Sahib]] [[Bipin Bihari Sasmal]] and others established the [[Contai Chandramani Brahmo Girls' School]] in the year 1909. He was also involved in the foundation of the Contai Club, an anti British, club only for Indian members at [[Contai]].<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":2" />
[[File:Nihar newspaper of Contai, Medinipore.jpg|thumb|Issue 33 of Nihar newspaper of Madhusudan Jana in [[Contai]], Medinipore published in 1901.]]
Apart from his contributions in the fields of [[Medicine]] and [[Education]], his most notable work was the foundation of the ''Nihar Press'', in 1895,<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Chatterji |first=Suniti Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1oqAAAAMAAJ&q=%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%A8+%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE+%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF |title=Bāṅgalā bhāshā-prasaṅge |date=1975 |publisher=Jijñāsā |language=bn}}</ref> being one of the oldest presses of the district and its flagship newspaper ''Nihar Patrika''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newspapers |first=West Bengal (India) Fact Finding Committee on Small & Medium |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arlFAQAAIAAJ&q=madhusudan+jana+nihar |title=Report of the Fact Finding Committee on Small & Medium Newspapers, 1980 |date=1983 |publisher=Information & Cultural Affairs Department, Government of West Bengal |language=en}}</ref> Published from 17 August 1901, its newspaper [[Nihar Patrika]], became one of the most prolific of the newspapers of [[Midnapore district]] during the [[British Raj]] and the principal mouthpiece of the [[Indian independence movement]] at [[Midnapore district]].<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhattacharyya |first1=Buddhadeva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0EdAAAAMAAJ&q=madhusudan+jana+nihar |title=Satyagrahas in Bengal, 1921-39 |last2=Banerjee |first2=Tarun Kumar |last3=Das |first3=Dipak Kumar |date=1977 |publisher=Minerva Associates (Publications) |isbn=978-0-88386-901-7 |language=en}}</ref> The newspaper's fearless and harsh criticism of the [[Bengal Partition of 1905]] drew huge acclaim throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nihar newspaper of Curzon's decision to partition Bengal |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/digital-district-repository/district-repository/nihar-newspaper-curzons-decision-partition-bengal |website=Indianculture.gov.in}}</ref> Nihar Patrika was acclaimed throughout [[Bengal Presidency]] during the [[Indian freedom struggle]] for its fearless journalism and accurate reasoned arguments.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mksIAAAAIAAJ&q=madhusudan+jana+nihar |title=All-India Press Annual |date=1932 |publisher=Press Bureau |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Apart from the writings in the nationalist newspaper, Jana also translated [[Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)|Jagannatha Dasa's]] ''Bhagabata'' the famous [[Odia language|Odia]] text into [[Bengali language]]. He was made an Honorary Magistrate by the Government for his social works and other contributions.<ref name=":2" /> He was also honoured with the title of [[Acharya]] by the [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the sobriquet of "''Vidyabinode"'' by the [[Pandits]] of Nabadwip Biswajanin Bidyatsabha of [[Nabadwip]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" />
[[File:Chandramani Brahma Balika Vidyalaya - Contai - East Midnapore - 2016-06-18 4166.JPG|thumb|[[Contai Chandramani Brahmo Girls' School]], founded by Madhusudhan Jana, [[Rai Sahib]] [[Bipin Bihari Sasmal]] and others in 1909.]]

==Death==
He died in 21 October 1938 at his house in [[Contai]].<ref name=":8"/> A street, "Madhusudhan Jana Sarani" has been named aftet him at Contai.<ref name=":2" /> After his death, his son, Jatindra Nath Jana, also a teacher, continued his legacy through the publications of the ''Nihar Press''.<ref name=":3" /> The newspapers ran till 1989 through the editorship of his grandson, Nitindranath Jana, the newspaper was published from the family's house built by Madhusudhan Jana at [[Contai]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nihar weekly newspaper, Contai, Medinipur, West Bengal |url=https://eap.bl.uk/collection/EAP921-3 |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=Endangered Archives Programme |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Street named after Acharya Madhusudhan Jana at Contai, Purba Medinipur.jpg|thumb|Plaque installed in Madhusudan Jana Sarani, [[Contai]].]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1857 births]]
[[Category:1938 deaths]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]
[[Category:Bengali people]]
[[Category:Brahmos]]
[[Category:People from Purba Medinipur district]]
[[Category:People from Midnapore]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian medical doctors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian medical doctors]]
[[Category:Medical doctors from British India]]
[[Category:People from the Bengal Presidency]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:Bengali educators]]
[[Category:Indian newspaper editors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Social workers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Scholars from West Bengal]]

Laurie Hammond

2025-12-29T03:19:54Z

Vedpsagar: made a info...

{{One source|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2024}}
{{Short description|British colonial administrator}}
'''Sir Egbert Laurie Lucas Hammond''', [[Order of the Star of India|KCSI]], [[CBE]] (12 January 1873 – 28 January 1939) was a British colonial administrator in India. A leading expert in Indian electoral reform, he was [[Governor of Assam]] from 1927 to 1932.<ref>{{Cite news|date=30 January 1939|title=Sir Laurie Hammond|page=14|work=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

The son of the Rev. Joseph Hammond, Canon of Truro Cathedral, Laurie Hammond was educated at Newton Abbot College, South Devon and [[Keble College, Oxford]]. He passed into the [[Indian Civil Service]] by examination in 1895 and went out to Bengal the following year.{{fact|date=August 2024}}

He was a member of the [[Peel Commission]].{{fact|date=August 2024}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hammond, Laurie}}
[[Category:1873 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:Governors of Assam]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Alumni of Keble College, Oxford]]

Jatar Deul

2025-12-19T05:42:21Z

Vedpsagar: put up article - done

{{Short description|Monument in West Bengal, India}}
{{Infobox Mandir
| name = Jatar Deul
| image = Jatar Deul - WB.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India West Bengal#India
| map_caption = Location in West Bengal##Location in India
| coordinates = {{coord|21|59|33|N|88|29|15|E|type:landmark_region:IN-WB|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = '''An [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]] [[List of Monuments of National Importance in West Bengal|Listed Monument]]'''
| country = India
| state = West Bengal
| district =
| location = Kankan Dighi/Jata South 24 Parganas
| elevation_m = 30
| deity = [[Shiva]]
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Bengal temple architecture#Rekha deul|Rekha deul]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| established = 10th -11th century
| groundbreaking =
| year_completed = 10th -11th century
| creator =
| website =
}}

'''Jatar Deul''' is located in district South 24 Parganas of the [[India]]n state [[West Bengal]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=ASI, Kolkata Circle |url=http://www.asikolkata.in/24parga.aspx#JatarDeul}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> This is a brick temple and is datable between the 10th and 11th century on the basis of its architecture.<ref name=":1" /> However, this type of brick temple we can see at Nebia Khera, [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web |title=On a trail to explore stories behind brick temples |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/on-a-trail-to-explore-stories-behind-brick-temples/articleshow/63154081.cms?from=mdr |website=[[The Times of India]] |publisher=[[The Times Group]] |access-date=9 November 2023 |date=4 March 2018}}</ref>

== Location ==
The Jatar-Deul stands isolated near a village named jata (from which the name comes from) in the surroundings of the locality Kanakan Dighi, about 5 km east of the small town of [[Raidighi]] in the [[Mathurapur II]] community development block in the [[Diamond Harbour subdivision]] of the district of [[South 24 Parganas]] in [[West Bengal]].<ref name="Rangan">{{cite web |last1=Datta |first1=Rangan |title=Jatar Deul horse race: Inexperienced riders, uneven tracks and unbridled fun |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/places/witnessing-the-jatar-deul-horse-race-in-kankandighi-near-kolkata/cid/1860599 |access-date=21 April 2022}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Jatar Deul.jpg|thumb|Jatar Deul]]
The temple is known by the name of "Jatar Deul ".<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=List of Ancient Monuments in Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.38650/page/n79/mode/1up}}</ref> This brick temple is traditionally connected with an inscription (not traceable now) of one Raja Jayantachandra, purported to have been issued in 975 CE.<ref name=":1" /> It was probably dedicated to Mahadev or Siva, who also goes by the name of Jatadhari.<ref name=":3" /> The Archaeological Department board at the temple site places establishment around 11th century.<ref name="Rangan" /> However, there was no deity inside the temple.<ref name=":1" /> The discovery of Jatar Deul dates back to the middle of the nineteenth century, when land surveyors stumbled upon a towering brick structure in the midst of the [[Sundarban]].<ref name="Rangan"/>

==Consecration==
What purpose it served is now a matter of conjecture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Monographs of the Varendra Research Society no. 3 by Majumdar N.G. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22516/page/n15/mode/1up}}</ref> There is neither a cult nor any other sculptural or inscriptional evidence available, it is also the consecration of the temple is unclear – some believe it was originally for a Buddhist structure; others see it as a building in honor of the [[Hindu]] God [[Shiva]] (Mahadev).<ref name="binoyghosh">Ghosh, Binoy, ''Paschim Banger Sanskriti'', {{in lang|bn}}, part III, 1980 edition, pages 152-155, Prakash Bhaban, Kolkata</ref>

==Architecture==
It towers nearly 100 ft. above the plain.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Monographs of the Varendra Research Society no. 3, by Majumdar N.G. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22516/page/n14/mode/1up}}</ref> The entrance which is on the east is 9.5 ft. wide and is spanned by a pointed arch.<ref name=":2" /> The inside is about 10 ft. square and the walls are about 10 ft. thick.<ref name=":2" /> No plinth is visible and the floor is some six feet below the ground, and is reached by a flight of steps.<ref name=":2" />

According to the [[List of Monuments of National Importance in West Bengal]] Jatar Deul is an ASI listed monument.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://asi.nic.in/alphabetical-list-of-monuments-west-bengal/|title=List of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains of West Bengal - Archaeological Survey of India|publisher= ASI|work= Item no. 6|access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jatar Deul}}
* [https://www.facebook.com/south24Parganastourism/posts/588769927915210 ''Jatar-Deul – photos + Infos''] (English)
* [http://www.asikolkata.in/24parga.aspx ''Jatar-Deul-floor plan, photo + short info''] ([[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]], English)
* [http://wikimapia.org/8882517/Jatar-Deul-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B2 ''Jatar-Deul – Satellite photo + Infos''] (English)
* [http://www.indiamapia.com/South_24_Parganas/Kankandighi.html ''Kankandighi und Jatar-Deul – Satellite photo'']
{{Portal bar|Hinduism|India}}

{{Hindu temples in West Bengal}}

[[Category:Shiva temples]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Monuments of National Importance in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in South 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in South 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:11th-century Hindu temples]]

Sidhi

2025-12-12T02:44:57Z

Vedpsagar: Made a article - done

{{About|the municipality in Madhya Pradesh, India|its namesake district|Sidhi District|the TM-Sidhi program|TM-Sidhi program}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sidhi
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Municipality]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 240
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/1
|image1 = Rewa Sidhi Tunnel.png
|image2 = Parsili Banas River.png}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Rewa-Sidhi Tunnel, Banas River Parsili
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24.42|N|81.88|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sidhi district|Sidhi]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = 1949
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 272
| population_total = 54331
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 486661
| registration_plate = MP-53
| website = {{URL|https://sidhi.nic.in}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-MP]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sidhi''' is a city and a municipality in [[Sidhi district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It is the headquarters of the [[Sidhi district]]. Sidhi is also known as the birth place of [[Birbal]] . An advisor of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar]] and [[folk hero]].

Sidhi is home to a vast number of nature reserves and parks; Sanjay Dubri National Park, (Tiger reserve) Son Ghariyal Sanctuary and the Son-Banas Sangam(River Junction). Situated near [[Chandreh]], Sidhi is a starting point for pilgrims visiting Chandreh's Shiva Temple. The population of Sidhi District is 1,500,000 and the population of Sidhi City is 1,000,00. Sidhi is connected to National Highway No.39; Madhya Pradesh State Highway No.52; and Madhya Pradesh State Highway No.09.

==Geography==
Sidhi is located at {{Coord|24.42|N|81.88|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Sidhi.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Sidhi]</ref> It has an average elevation of 272 metres (892 feet) and covers a geographical area of It is a state of Chandela Rajputs who came from Khajuraho. They mainly live in Bardi State and then again divide into a few areas in Sidhi.{{citation needed|date= January 2020}}

==Climate==
{{Weather box
| location = Sidhi (1991–2020, extremes 1958–2011)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| width = auto
| Jan record high C = 32.8
| Feb record high C = 37.4
| Mar record high C = 42.2
| Apr record high C = 48.8
| May record high C = 46.6
| Jun record high C = 47.4
| Jul record high C = 43.2
| Aug record high C = 39.2
| Sep record high C = 39.0
| Oct record high C = 39.6
| Nov record high C = 36.4
| Dec record high C = 34.6
| year record high C = 48.8
| Jan high C = 24.4
| Feb high C = 28.0
| Mar high C = 33.5
| Apr high C = 39.7
| May high C = 42.2
| Jun high C = 38.8
| Jul high C = 33.8
| Aug high C = 32.4
| Sep high C = 32.6
| Oct high C = 32.9
| Nov high C = 29.8
| Dec high C = 26.2
| year high C = 32.7
| Jan low C = 8.5
| Feb low C = 11.7
| Mar low C = 16.3
| Apr low C = 22.0
| May low C = 26.8
| Jun low C = 27.6
| Jul low C = 26.0
| Aug low C = 25.3
| Sep low C = 24.3
| Oct low C = 20.3
| Nov low C = 14.4
| Dec low C = 9.0
| year low C = 19.2
| Jan record low C = 0.8
| Feb record low C = 2.0
| Mar record low C = 4.6
| Apr record low C = 11.8
| May record low C = 17.0
| Jun record low C = 20.0
| Jul record low C = 17.0
| Aug record low C = 17.4
| Sep record low C = 18.2
| Oct record low C = 12.0
| Nov record low C = 4.0
| Dec record low C = 1.0
| year record low C = 0.8
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 12.4
| Feb rain mm = 19.2
| Mar rain mm = 7.6
| Apr rain mm = 6.7
| May rain mm = 14.0
| Jun rain mm = 127.2
| Jul rain mm = 351.6
| Aug rain mm = 330.2
| Sep rain mm = 239.3
| Oct rain mm = 37.5
| Nov rain mm = 7.3
| Dec rain mm = 4.5
| year rain mm = 1157.8
| Jan rain days = 1.3
| Feb rain days = 1.3
| Mar rain days = 0.9
| Apr rain days = 0.8
| May rain days = 1.4
| Jun rain days = 7.2
| Jul rain days = 14.6
| Aug rain days = 15.0
| Sep rain days = 9.7
| Oct rain days = 1.6
| Nov rain days = 0.5
| Dec rain days = 0.1
| year rain days = 54.4
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 45
| Feb humidity = 39
| Mar humidity = 27
| Apr humidity = 21
| May humidity = 27
| Jun humidity = 49
| Jul humidity = 70
| Aug humidity = 76
| Sep humidity = 71
| Oct humidity = 54
| Nov humidity = 50
| Dec humidity = 51
| year humidity = 48
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| title = Climatological Tables of Observatories in India 1991-2020
| publisher = [[India Meteorological Department]]
| access-date = April 8, 2024
}}</ref><ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Sidhi Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 713–714
| access-date = 6 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M132
| access-date = 6 January 2021}}</ref>
}}

==Transportation==

Closest Airport to Sidhi is in [[Prayagraj|Rewa domestic airport]] which is 85 kilometers away and has connecting flights to major destinations such as Delhi, Bangaluru, Mumbai, Kolkata etc.
Closest railway station is [[Madwas]] and Joba which is respectively 50 and 60 km away from the city.And New Railway station is under construction in Sidhi city. Sidhi district is connected to National Highway No.39,state highway 09, Rewa-Sidhi major Roots and Sidhi-Beohari State highways.

==Demographics==
As of the 2001 India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Sidhi had a population of 45,664 with males constituting 54% of the population, females 46%. Sidhi has an average literacy rate of 69%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 77%, and female literacy is 60%. In Sidhi, 15% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==Notable people==

* [[Birbal]], Born in Ghoghra Sidhi, his career started in Sidhi before moving to Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]]'s court.
* [[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1930)|Arjun Singh]], former CM of Madhya Pradesh
* [[Govind Mishra]], Former Member of Parliament, Parliamentary Constituency No. 11 Sidhi
* [[Ajay Singh (Madhya Pradesh politician)|Ajay Singh]], former cabinet minister in Madhya Pradesh Govt., Leader of opposition; Member of Legislative Assembly, Assembly Constituency No. 11
* [[Rajesh Mishra]], Member of Parliament, Parliamentary Constituency No. 11 Sidhi
* [[Riti Pathak]], Member Of Legislative Assembly, Assembly Constituency No. 77
* [[Vishwamitra Pathak]], Member Of Legislative Assembly, Assembly Constituency No. 78
* [[Ajay Pratap Singh (Madhya Pradesh politician)|Ajay Pratap Singh]], Former Member of Parliament, [[Rajya Sabha]]
* [[Kunwar Singh Tekam]], Former Chairman Of National Commission For Scheduled Tribes; Member Of Legislative Assembly Constituency No. 82 Dhauhani Madhya Pradesh
* [[Satish Agnihotri]], Chief Justice of Sikkim, born in Rampur Naikin, and studied at Govt H S School Rampur Naikin.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Rewa Division}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sidhi| ]]
[[Category:Sidhi district]]

Mangal Ram Premi

2025-11-25T06:44:24Z

Vedpsagar: refine lead based on references and fixed typos

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mangal Ram Premi
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date |1925|8|25|df=y}}
| birth_place = Prithvipur, [[Bijnor]], [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], [[British India]]
| residence =
| death_date ={{death date and age|df=yes|2001|12|11|1925|8|25}}
| death_place =[[New Delhi]]
| constituency1 = [[Bijnor (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bijnor]]
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term = 1991-1998
| predecessor = [[Mahi Lal]]
| successor = Chowdhry Girdhari Lal
| term1 = 1980-1984
| predecessor1 = [[Mayawati]]
| successor1 = [[Omvati Devi]]
| party =[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| religion =
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2849.htm
}}
'''Mangal Ram Premi''' (1925 – 2001) was an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from the [[Bijnor (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bijnor constituency]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] in 1980, 1991 and 1996. From Bijnor seat, he won in 1980 and lost in 1984 and 1989,<ref name="To regain lost ground, Maya plays ‘Bijnor’s daughter’ card">{{cite news |title=To regain lost ground, Maya plays ‘Bijnor’s daughter’ card |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/to-regain-lost-ground-maya-plays-bijnor-s-daughter-card-101644686989779.html |access-date=26 June 2025 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250626085402/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/to-regain-lost-ground-maya-plays-bijnor-s-daughter-card-101644686989779.html |archive-date=26 June 2025 |language=en-us}}</ref> while in Charan Singh's party. He joined [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and was elected in 1991 and 1996, but lost in 1998.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rediff.com/election/1999/aug/up05.htm | title=Election News | publisher=Rediff | accessdate=3 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19951115-mayawati-uttar-pradesh-first-dalit-chief-minister-left-her-mark-despite-her-brief-tenure-806811-1995-11-14 | title=Mayawati: BSP's shooting star | publisher=[[India Today]] | work=Dilip Awasthi | date=15 November 1995 | access-date=3 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/lsdeb/ls13/ses8/181201.html | title=Lok Sabha Obituary References | publisher=Parliament of India | accessdate=3 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="With 30% minorities, Bijnor had just one Muslim MP since Independence">{{cite news |title=With 30% minorities, Bijnor had just one Muslim MP since Independence |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/meerut/with-30-minorities-bijnor-had-just-1-muslim-mp-since-independence/articleshow/68529085.cms |access-date=26 June 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250626085528/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/meerut/with-30-minorities-bijnor-had-just-1-muslim-mp-since-independence/articleshow/68529085.cms |archive-date=26 June 2025}}</ref>

When BJP denied him ticket from Bijnor in 1999, he joined Ajit Singh's Lok Dal and contested again, but lost.<ref name="Gupta 1999">{{cite web | last=Gupta | first=Tilak D. | title=News Headings | website=News Headlines | date=8 Sep 1999 | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99sep08/head6.htm | access-date=19 Mar 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2849.htm Official biographical sketch in Lok Sabha website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Premi, Mangal Ram}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:India MPs 1980–1984]]
[[Category:India MPs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:India MPs 1996–1997]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Bijnor district]]
[[Category:Rashtriya Lok Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Janata Party (Secular) politicians]]

Indian Coming Out Day

2025-11-03T03:18:09Z

Vedpsagar: put up post

{{Short description|LGBT Awareness day in India, 2 July}}
{{Infobox holiday
|type = [[List of LGBTQ awareness periods|LGBTQ awareness day]]
|image = Unofficial Pride flag India.png
|caption = Unofficial pride flag representing the LGBT community of India
|official_name =
|nickname =
|observedby = [[LGBT in India|Indian LGBT community]]
|firsttime = 2 July 2012
|duration = 1 day
|frequency = Annual
|scheduling = same day each year
|date = 2 July
|mdy = false
|observances = [[Coming out]]
|relatedto = [[National Coming Out Day]]
}}

'''Indian Coming Out Day''' is an annual [[List of LGBTQ awareness periods|LGBTQ awareness day]] observed on [[2 July]], to support anyone [[coming out of the closet]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Coming Out Day |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/sexuality/column-indian-coming-out-day-2490270 |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> This day is celebrated in commemoration of ''[[Naz Foundation v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi]]'' case which resulted in the decriminalisation of homosexual sexual activity in India by reading down of [[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code]] by the [[Delhi High Court]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chennai's LGBTQIA+ community is coming out in order to take down Section 377 |url=https://www.edexlive.com/news/2018/jul/04/chennais-lgbtqia-community-is-coming-out-in-order-to-take-down-section-377-3341.html |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Edex Live |date=4 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
On July 2, 2009, the Delhi High Court [[Naz Foundation v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi|decriminalised]] homosexual sexual activity by reading down the [[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code]]. A number of organisations across [[India]] celebrated this day with public events.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-12 |title=First LGBTQIA cultural festival in Ahmedabad on July 2 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-lgbtqia-cultural-festival-in-abad-on-july-2/articleshow/92155324.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The first coming out day was celebrated in 2010 and started by Shyam Konnur, founder and director of Mist LGBTQ Foundation.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-07-02 |title=From the closet to the open |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spotlight/from-the-closet-to-the-open/articleshow/14555773.cms |access-date=2023-07-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> This became of special importance with the 2009 judgement was overturned in 2013 in the [[Suresh Kumar Koushal v. Naz Foundation]] case in the Supreme Court of India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Coming Out Day |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/sexuality/column-indian-coming-out-day-2490270 |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> The India Coming Out Day became of special importance after this as organisations celebrated this day as a mark of protest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chennai's LGBTQIA+ community is coming out in order to take down Section 377 |url=https://www.edexlive.com/news/2018/jul/04/chennais-lgbtqia-community-is-coming-out-in-order-to-take-down-section-377-3341.html |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Edex Live |date=4 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Civil awareness days]]
[[Category:LGBTQ events in India]]
[[Category:LGBTQ rights in India]]
[[Category:July observances]]
[[Category:Awareness days]]
[[Category:LGBTQ awareness periods]]
[[Category:LGBTQ-related observances]]

Mahadiga (film)

2025-10-28T22:29:23Z

Vedpsagar: brief improve references after review as per guidelines

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mahadiga
| image =
| caption =
| director = Lelle Suresh
| producer =
| writer =
| narrator =
| starring =
| music =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2004}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language =
| budget =
}}
'''''Mahadiga''''' is a [[documentary film]] about the [[Madiga]] [[Scheduled Caste]] community, directed by Lelle Suresh. It was released in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/lf/2004/09/10/stories/2004091002370200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040927080548/http://www.hindu.com/lf/2004/09/10/stories/2004091002370200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2004-09-27 |title=Starring Madiga and Dappu |date=2004-09-10 |work=[[The Hindu]] |accessdate=2018-02-28}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Documentary films about India]]
[[Category:2004 films]]
[[Category:2004 documentary films]]
[[Category:Films about the caste system in India]]
[[Category:Indian documentary films]]

{{2000s-documentary-film-stub}}
{{Hindu-documentary-film-stub}}

Pinky Beauty Parlour

2025-10-22T14:22:17Z

Vedpsagar: Adding A Info Basic Info

{{Short description|Hindi drama-comedy film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pinky Beauty Parlour
| image = Pinky Beauty Parlour.jpeg
| caption =
| director = Akshay Singh
| writer = Akshay Singh
| producer = Akshay Singh Bahnishikha Das
| starring = Sulagna Panigrahi Khushboo Gupta, Akshay Singh
| cinematography = Gagandeep Singh
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2023|04|14|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}'''Pinky Beauty Parlour''' is a 2023 Hindi drama-comedy film directed by Akshay Singh, who also wrote the screenplay.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Gaekwad |first=Manish |date=2016-10-27 |title=Prejudice based on skin colour ruins many lives, says director of ‘Pinky Beauty Parlour’ |url=https://scroll.in/reel/820012/prejudice-based-on-skin-colour-ruins-many-lives-says-director-of-pinky-beauty-parlour |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> The film stars [[Sulagna Panigrahi]], Khushboo Gupta, and Akshay Singh in the lead roles. It was released in theatres on 14 April 2023. The story is set in a beauty parlour in [[Varanasi]] and addresses color discrimination through [[satire]] and humor.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |title=Pinky Beauty Parlour Movie Review : A poignant drama with an important social message to convey |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/pinky-beauty-parlour/movie-review/99486047.cms |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-03 |title=Pinky Beauty Parlour: हल्के फुल्के ढंग से बड़ी बात कहती है 'पिंकी ब्यूटी पार्लर', ट्रेलर रिलीज |url=https://www.tv9hindi.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/pinky-beauty-parlour-sulagna-parihari-movie-trailer-release-comedy-drama-release-date-out-au569-1801232.html |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=TV9 Bharatvarsh |language=hi}}</ref>

== Plot summary ==
''Pinky Beauty Parlour'' follows two sisters, Pinky (Sulagna Panigrahi) and Bulbul (Khushboo Gupta), who run a beauty parlour in [[Varanasi]]. Their routine is disrupted when a body is discovered in their parlour, leading to a police investigation that uncovers various secrets and societal issues.

The film explores the impact of fairness products and the societal pressures surrounding beauty ideals, particularly the preference for fair skin. It uses a blend of humor and drama to discuss these issues, highlighting the consequences of these beauty standards.

== Cast and characters ==

* [[Sulagna Panigrahi]] as Pinky
* Khusboo Gupta as Bulbul
* Akshay Singh as Shankar
* Arpita Banerjee as Rupa
* Vishwanath Chatterjee as Jata
* [[Abhas Joshi|Abhay Joshi]] as Khanna
* Sami Akhtar as Jogi Malang
* Anupama Negi as Sulagna

== Critical reception ==
''Pinky Beauty Parlour'' was featured in several international film festivals, including the [[Miami Film Festival|MAMI International Film Festival]], the [[International Film Festival of India]] (IFFI Goa), and the [[Melbourne International Film Festival|Melbourne Film Festival]]. The film was selected as the opening Hindi film at the [[International Film Festival of India|Indian Panorama Film Festival]] in [[Delhi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Panorama Film Festival Inaugurated in Delhi |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=157385 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> and received a special mention at the IFFI Goa 2016 closing ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-03 |title=Pinky Beauty Parlour Trailer: Akshay Singh Film On Dodgy Indian Beauty Standards |url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/bollywood/pinky-beauty-parlour-trailer-akshay-singhs-film-talks-about-societys-obsession-with-fair-skin#read-more |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

Critics offered mixed reviews. Archika Khurana of the ''[[The Times of India|Times of India]]'' awarded the film 3.5 out of 5 stars, praising its message about society's obsession with fairness and highlighting the importance of inner goodness.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=Pinky Beauty Parlour Movie Review : A poignant drama with an important social message to convey |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/pinky-beauty-parlour/movie-review/99486047.cms |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

''[[Komal Nahta|Film Information]]'' criticized the story and screenplay, stating "Akshay Singh’s direction is no better than his story and screenplay. Music (Arbind-Lyton and Chintu Saarthak Kalla) is okay. Lyrics (Arbind Kaushal and Prem) are fair. Akshay Singh’s choreography is below the mark. Rakshit Thantry’s background music is weak. Gagandeep Singh’s camerawork is below-average. Mayur Tripathi’s production designing hardly deserves mention. Sandeep Singh Bajeli’s editing is loose".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-14 |title=‘Pinky Beauty Parlour’ Review |url=https://filminformation.com/featured/pinky-beauty-parlour-review-14-april-2023/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>

''[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]'' recommended the film for its social message, particularly for younger audiences.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-13 |title=‘Pinky Beauty Parlour’ Movie Review: Highlights The Plight Of Dark-Skinned Young Women Who Are Oppressed And Insulted |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/-pinky-beauty-parlour-movie-review-highlights-the-plight-of-dark-skinned-young-women-who-are-oppressed-and-insulted-movie_reviews-278097 |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=5589660}}

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films about social issues in India]]

Hemanta Sena

2025-10-18T07:39:12Z

Vedpsagar: corrected references per standard format and cleaned formatting

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}{{Short description|King of Sena dynasty from 1070 to 1096}}{{Infobox royalty
|name = Hemanta Sena
|title = Mahārājādhirāja, Rājarakshāsudaksha
|image =
|caption =
|succession = Sena king
|reign = 1070–1096
|coronation =
|father = Samantasena
|predecessor = Samanta Sena
|successor = [[Vijaya Sena]]
|issue = [[Vijaya Sena]]
|house = [[Sena dynasty]]
|birth_name =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place = [[Sena Empire]]
|date of burial =
|place of burial =
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}
{{Sena dynasty}}

'''Hemanta Sena''' ({{langx|sa|Hemantasena}}) was the founder and the first ruler of the [[Sena dynasty]] in the [[Bengal]] region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He previously served as a statesman of the [[Pala Empire]].

==Biography==
Hemanta Sena was born to a [[Hindu]] [[Vaishnavite]] family, and was the son of Samanta Sena; who settled in the [[Rarh]] region, originally from [[Karnataka]], South India. According to a copper plate, The Senas settled in Western Bengal before the birth of Samanta Sena.{{Sfn|Majumdar|1971|p=219-220}} Their family belonged to the [[Kshatriya]] varna status.{{Sfn|Majumdar|1971|p=220}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Nani Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q85s0AEACAAJ |title=Inscriptions of Bengal |publisher=Varendra Research Society |year=1929 |volume=3 |pages=65}}</ref>

The weakening of the [[Pala Empire]] allowed Hemanta to be granted the opportunity to govern Rarh region and protect the emperors.<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Sena Dynasty|author=AM Chowdhury}}</ref> He served this role from 1070 to 1096 CE. His son, [[Vijaya Sena]], reigned after him as the second ruler of his dynasty.<ref name="sen">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=35–36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534287/Sena-dynasty|title = Sena dynasty | Indian dynasty}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of rulers of Bengal]]
*[[History of Bengal]]
*[[History of India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

=== Source ===
{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqosAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Ancient Bengal |publisher=G. Bharadwaj |year=1971 |language=en}}
[[Category:1206 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Sena kings]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs in Asia]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sena, Hemanta}}

{{India-hist-stub}}
{{India-royal-stub}}

Pul Doda

2025-10-13T19:02:53Z

Vedpsagar: Adding First Post V1...

{{short description|Small township in Jammu and Kashmir}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Pul Doda
| type = Township
| image_skyline = Pul Doda submerged.jpg
| image_alt = Pul Doda
| image_caption = Pul Doda on the bank of river Chenab
| pushpin_map = India Jammu and Kashmir
| pushpin_label_position = center
| pushpin_map_alt = Pul Doda
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Jammu and Kashmir, India
| coordinates = {{coord|33.1366528|75.5515409|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[States and union territories of India|Union territory]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| subdivision_type3 = Division
| subdivision_name3 = [[Jammu region]]
| subdivision_type4 = Region
| subdivision_name4 = [[Chenab valley]]
| subdivision_type5 = [[District]]
| subdivision_name5 = [[Doda district|Doda]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics_name1 =
| demographics_title =
| demographics1_title1 = Spoken
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Bhadarwahi language|Bhaderwahi]], [[Sarazi]]
| demographics1_title2 = Official
| demographics1_info2 = [[Urdu]]
| area_total_km2 =
| population_demonym = Bhaderwahi and [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]]
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_density_km2 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 182204
| registration_plate =
| website =
| population_footnotes =
| official_name =
}}
'''Pul Doda''' is a small township located in [[Doda district]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="puldoda-ct">{{cite news |last1=Ayoob |first1=Anzer |title=Video: Pul Doda, once a bustling town, now almost disappeared |url=https://thechenabtimes.com/2023/01/29/video-pul-doda-once-a-bustling-town-now-almost-disappeared/ |access-date=1 February 2023 |work=[[The Chenab Times]] |date=29 January 2023}}</ref> It was once a bustling town until 2008, when it was submerged in the [[Chenab river|river Chenab]] due to the rise in water levels caused by the [[Baglihar Dam]].<ref name="mongabay">{{cite news |last1=Ayoob |first1=Anzer |last2=Hussain |first2=Mubashir |title=Multiple hydropower projects on the Chenab river ring alarm bells |url=https://india.mongabay.com/2022/07/multiple-hydropower-projects-on-the-chenab-river-ring-alarm-bells/ |access-date=1 February 2023 |work=[[Mongabay|Mongabay-India]] |date=7 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Werleman |first1=CJ |title=The human cost of India's Baglihar dam in disputed Kashmir |url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/the-human-cost-of-india-s-baglihar-dam-in-disputed-kashmir-38796 |access-date=1 February 2023 |work=[[TRT World]] |date=11 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

==Etymology==

The name "Pul Doda" is derived from the bridges that were built in the area.<ref name="puldoda-ct"/>

==History==

The first bridge constructed here was the only way to cross the Chenab river and reach Doda city. In 1957, a suspension motorable bridge was built in Pul Doda after a lorry bridge was damaged. This bridge remained the only one connecting the NH1B (now [[National Highway 244 (India)|NH244]]) with the city of Doda. Over the years, several more bridges were built in Pul Doda, including a concrete bridge in 1997 and the Ganpat Bridge in 2008, which is considered the highest road bridge in India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thakur |first1=Ranjit |title=Year on, Doda’s Ganpat Bridge awaits official inauguration |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/j-k/year-on-doda-s-ganpat-bridge-awaits-official-inauguration-568430 |access-date=1 February 2023 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|Tribune]] |date=4 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bizarre story of Ganpat Bridge |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/bizarre-story-of-ganpat-bridge/ |access-date=1 February 2023 |work=[[Daily Excelsior]] |date=20 June 2013 |language=en}}</ref> Despite the construction of several bridges, only a few remain today. The bridges in Pul Doda hold historical significance, as they were built during the time when [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] was a princely state. They continue to serve as important infrastructure for the local community, providing a crucial connection between different parts of the region.<ref name="puldoda-ct"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Jammu and Kashmir topics}}
[[Category:Doda district]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Doda district]]
[[Category:Chenab Valley]]

Department of Sports (Bihar)

2025-10-09T05:14:21Z

Vedpsagar: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[Department of Sports, Government of Bihar]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

NTPC Port Blair Solar Power Plant

2025-09-06T08:40:38Z

Vedpsagar: made info

{{Short description|Photovoltaic power station in Port Blair, India}}
{{Infobox power station
| name = NTPC Port Blair Solar Power Plant
| name_official =
| image =
| image_caption =
| image_alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|11.611359|N|92.7100687|E|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[India]]
| location = Garacharma, [[Port Blair]], [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| status =
| construction_began = 2017
| commissioned = 2018
| decommissioned =
| cost =
| owner =
| operator = [[National Thermal Power Corporation]]
| solar_type = pv
| ps_units_operational =
| ps_site_area =
| ps_electrical_capacity = 5 [[Megawatt|MW]]
| ps_electrical_cap_fac =
| ps_annual_generation =
| website =
| extra =
}}

'''NTPC Port Blair Solar Power Plant''' is a [[photovoltaic power station]] owned and operated by [[NTPC Limited]] in [[Port Blair]], [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], India.

== History ==
The plant was conceptualized in 2011, and its project design document (PDD) was ratified by the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CDM: 5 MW Solar PV Power Project at Port Blair (A&N) |url=https://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/Validation/DB/DV8L26VN5BB6BEKLVX6PDXPYYOZAHZ/view.html |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=cdm.unfccc.int}}</ref>

In 2018, the 5 MW plant was commissioned and it became the ''"first grid-connected solar photovoltaic project"'' in the [[Andaman Islands]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rishi Kumar |first=V |date=2013-03-30 |title=NTPC commissions new project in Andaman & Nicobar |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/ntpc-commissions-new-project-in-andaman-amp-nicobar/article64122226.ece |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=[[Business Line|The Hindu BusinessLine]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NTPC to set up solar photovoltaic power unit in Andaman & Nicobar Islands |url=https://www.projectstoday.com/News/NTPC-to-set-up-solar-photovoltaic-power-unit-in-Andaman--Nicobar-Islands |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=www.projectstoday.com}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[NLC Dolly Gunj Solar Power Plant]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{authority control}}

{{India-powerstation-stub}}
{{Renewable-power-plant-stub}}

[[Category:Renewable energy power stations in India]]
[[Category:Photovoltaic power stations in India]]
[[Category:2018 establishments in India]]

Nagpuri cinema

2025-08-28T16:47:56Z

Vedpsagar: fixed details for clarity for consistency

{{Short description|Films produced in the Nagpuri language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
'''Nagpuri cinema''' refers to films produced in the [[Nagpuri language]] in state of [[Jharkhand]].<ref name="Hindustan times.com">{{cite news|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/ranchi/balan-may-act-in-nagpuri-film-if-script-is-appealing/story-ShAa4tTNaCLecD0tAnwWkI.html|title=Balan may act in Nagpuri film if script is appealing|date=9 April 2017|newspaper=Hindustan times}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="researchgate">{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355999172_Journey_of_Jhollywood_A_Study_in_the_Context_of_Nagpuri_Cinema|title=Journey of Jhollywood: A Study in the Context of Nagpuri Cinema|website=researchgate|date=November 2021|accessdate=16 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite web |url=http://www.panchayatnama.com/news/aamukh-katha/story/12.html |title=नागपुरी फिल्‍म के 'दादा साहेब' धनंजय नाथ तिवारी ! |website=panchayatnama |date=12 October 2016 |access-date=24 March 2019 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324100842/http://www.panchayatnama.com/news/aamukh-katha/story/12.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
The first Nagpuri feature film was ''Sona Kar Nagpur'' (1992) which was produced and directed by Dhananjay Nath Tiwari.<ref name="telegraphindia">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/6-day-fest-for-100-years-party-state-chips-in-to-celebrate-a-century-of-indian-cinema/cid/390836|date=20 August 2012|title=6-day fest for 100 years' party - State chips in to celebrate a century of Indian cinema|first=The|last=Telegraph|newspaper=The Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bharatsearch.in/home/view_state_category/259/42|title=bharatsearch.in/|website=www.bharatsearch.in|access-date=11 November 2018|archive-date=12 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112021329/https://www.bharatsearch.in/home/view_state_category/259/42|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="auto2"/>

Since then, several films have been produced. Nagpuri cinema faces several challenges such as lack of funds and infrastructure, as most audiences reside in villages. Cinema halls are shutting down in the present day. It is also difficult to release nagpuri films in cinema halls due to the high cost. Despite all these, several films are produced per year and few get released in cinema halls.<ref name="researchgate"/>

==Notable films==
{{Main|List of Nagpuri films}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Director
! Cast
! Notes
|-
|2018
|''[[Mahuua]]''
|{{ubl|Sanjay Verma|Avishek Anand|}}
|{{ubl|Stefy Patel|Prince Sondhi|Ali Khan|Manoj Verma|Shakti Singh|[[Dinesh Deva]]}}
|Won best Nagpuri film Award of 2018 in Jharkhand international Film festival <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/rajapalayam/movies/mahuaa/ET00076415|title=Mahuaa|website=bookmyshow}}</ref>
|-
|2018
|''[[Mor Gaon Mor Desh]]''
|Ashwini Kumar
|{{ubl|Deepak Sinha|Chandan Kumar Jaiswal|Rishi Prakash Mishra|Payal Mukherjee|Varsha Rittu Lakra}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/mor-gaon-mor-desh-hits-theatre.html|title=Mor Gaon Mor Desh' hits theatre|website=dailypioneer|date=18 July 2018}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|''[[Phulmania]]''
|[[Lal Vijay Shahdeo]]
|{{ubl|Komal Singh|Hansraj Jagtap|[[Vineet Kumar]]|[[Ravi Bhatia]]|[[Monika Mundu]]}}
|Premiered at Jharkhand International Film Festival Awards (JIFFA) 2019 and the 72nd Cannes Film Festival in France<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/state-editions/nagpuri-movie----phulmania----to-hit-screens-on-september-6.html|title=Nagpuri movie 'Phulmania' to hit screens on September 6|website=dailypioneer|date=5 September 2019|accessdate=5 September 2019}}</ref>
|-
| 2019
| [[Dhumkkudiya]]
| [[Nandlal Nayak]]
| {{ubl|Rinkal Kacchap|Pradhuman Nayak|[[Rajesh Jais]]|
[[Subrat Dutta]]|Nikhhil R khera|Varsha Rittu Lakra}}
|Won more than 60 awards around the world<ref >{{Cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/cannes-film-festival-2021-to-screen-dhumkkudiya-jharkhandi-film-directed-by-nandlal-nayak-9760151.html|title=Cannes Film Festival 2021 to screen Dhumkkudiya, Jharkhandi film directed by Nandlal Nayak|website=firstpost|date=28 June 2021| access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref>
|-
|2023
|[[Nasoor (2023 film)|Nasoor]]
|Rajiv Sinha
|{{ubl|Vivek Nayak|Shivani Gupta|Vivek Kumar Awasth|Prakash Pathak|Manoj Verma|Arti Mishra|Sukumar Mukherjee|Chitra Mukherjee}}
|<ref name="ETVBharat1">{{cite news|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/jharkhand/state/ranchi/nagpuri-film-nasoor-became-blockbuster-ready-to-rock-third-week-week-in-jharkhand/jh20230706183216482482336|title=नागपुरी फिल्म नासूर हुई ब्लॉकबस्टर, तीसरे हफ्ते भी धूम मचाने को तैयार - झारखंड में नागपुरी फिल्म|work=ETV Bharat|date=6 July 2023|access-date=20 January 2025|lang=Hindi}}</ref>
|}

==Notable people==


===Actor===
*[[Dinesh Deva]]
*[[Raman Gupta]]
*[[Deepak Lohar]]
*[[Mukund Nayak]]

===Actress===
*[[Supriya Kumari]]

===Director===
*[[Nandlal Nayak]]
*[[Lal Vijay Shahdeo]]

===Singer===
*[[Monika Mundu]]
*[[Pankaj]]

== See also ==
*[[Khortha cinema]]
*[[Cinema of Jharkhand]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cinema of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nagpuri Cinema}}
[[Category:Cinema by language of India]]
[[Category:Cinema of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Nagpuri language]]
[[Category:Nagpuri-language films]]
[[Category:Nagpuri culture]]

Sumangali (child labour)

2025-08-07T23:22:42Z

Vedpsagar: Made new biography - done

{{Short description|Form of child labour in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''Sumangali''' is a form of [[child labour]] which, although forbidden, is practised in [[India]], particularly the [[textile industry]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is likened to ''soft trafficking'',{{sfn|Jaishankar|p=410}} a less explicit form of [[Human trafficking in India|human trafficking]]. In the scheme, a girl is hired on contract for three to five years, during which she earns a wage, and after which she is paid a [[lump sum]] to pay for a [[dowry]].{{sfn|Carr|p=58}} It is said to have originated in [[Coimbatore]] in the late 1990s.{{sfn|Fair Labor Association|p=7}}

The scheme is also known as ''Sumungali scheme'', ''Sumungali Thittam'', ''Suba Mangala scheme'', ''Subha Mangala scheme'', ''Mangalya Thittam'', ''Thirumangalam thiruman thittam'', the ''marriage scheme'', and the ''camp coolie'' system.{{sfn|Iyengar|p=16}} The term ''Sumangali'' means "married woman"{{sfn|Jaishankar|p=410}} or "happily married woman" in [[Tamil language|Tamil]].{{sfn|Fair Labor Association|p=7}} It refers to a "single girl becoming a respectable woman through marriage".{{sfn|Matthews}}

==Recruitment==
A recruiter visits households of prospective young female labourers and discusses with the girl and her parents the benefits of Sumangali work. Most of the target girls are from poor families,{{sfn|Jaishankar|p=410}} and usually between 15 and 18 years old.{{sfn|Iyengar|p=16}} Benefits offered may include three meals a day, air conditioning, a swimming pool, and free movies, all available at the employer's dormitory.{{sfn|Nolen}} They may also offer a bonus to be paid at the end of the contract.<ref> {{harv|Nolen}}: For example, 36,000 rupees after three years of employment.</ref> The recruiter is paid a [[Commission (remuneration)|commission]] for each girl hired by the textile manufacturer.<ref>{{harv|Nolen}} A commission of 1500 rupees per girl has been documented.</ref> Some girls are taken without their parents' consent.{{sfn|Jaishankar|p=410}}

More than 80 percent of recruits are hired for work in [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning mills]]. The remainder work in garment manufacturing.{{sfn|Solidaridad Network}}

==Work==
Once hired on contract, the girls move into a company-controlled compound, and are trained for their jobs as [[Apprenticeship|apprentices]].{{sfn|Iyengar|p=16}} The compounds are kept under surveillance, and the girls are rarely permitted to leave and have little contact with their families. The girls are required to work long [[Shift work|shifts]] in noisy factories, are subjected to verbal and physical abuse,{{sfn|Carr|p=58}} and are paid low wages. The girls are expected to work 12-hour shifts six days a week, and sometimes additional night shifts or [[overtime]].{{sfn|Terre des Hommes}}

The purpose of the compound is to prevent contact between the girls and union activists,{{sfn|Luetchford|p=226}} and to supervise the activities of the employees.{{sfn|Luetchford|p=226}} To leave the compound during their employment, they must be accompanied by a warden.{{sfn|Iyengar|p=17}} The girls are permitted to visit their family during [[Diwali]] and [[Thai Pongal]].{{sfn|Palanithurai|Ramesh|p=133}} According to the Tirupur People's Forum, the compounds are dingy and dusty, and may be repurposed buildings, such as poultry barns.{{sfn|Iyengar|p=17}}

Some employers in this industry may also require the girls work a minimum of 26 days a month, and deduct from their wages fifteen rupees per day for missing a single day.{{sfn|Palanithurai|p=201}} The starting wage is 34 rupees a day, increasing by 2 rupees per day every six months{{sfn|Iyengar|p=17}} to a maximum of 45 rupees per day. From this wage, deductions are made by the employer for employer-mandated lodging and meals at the compound,{{sfn|Nolen}} typically 450–550 rupees per month.{{sfn|Iyengar|p=17}}

The bonus promised to them is also deducted from their wages, a form of [[Debt bondage in India|debt bondage]] illegal in India since 1976,{{sfn|Nolen}} and is to be part of a dowry,{{sfn|Nolen}} [[Dowry law in India|illegal in India]] since 1961. Few girls obtain the bonus,{{sfn|Carr|p=59}} as most are injured or become ill and are fired,{{sfn|Nolen}} or simply wear out and quit.{{sfn|Nolen}} Most that approach the employment duration for the bonus are "fired for some pretext or another",{{sfn|Nolen}} such as for contacting union activists.{{sfn|Luetchford|p=226}}{{sfn|Palanithurai|Ramesh|p=133}} As the girls are considered apprentices, the manufacturers calculate the girls' wages with respect to minimum wage laws as the combined contract salary and future bonus.{{sfn|Terre des Hommes}}

==Activism==
According to [[Terre des hommes]] and other [[Aid agency|humanitarian organisations]], this scheme enables [[Child labour|exploitation of the girls]], some of whom are beaten, starved, or [[Sexual assault|sexually assaulted]].{{sfn|Geißler}} Accidents caused by use of outdated or poorly maintained machinery are common, usually resulting in cuts to the fingers or hands, and sometimes amputation.{{sfn|Terre des Hommes}} There is a high rate of suicide amongst Sumangali workers.{{sfn|Overeem|Peepercamp|p=5}}

{{As of|2013}}, approximately 120,000 girls and young women have been hired under the Sumangali system.{{sfn|Geißler}} The ''Campaign Against Sumangali Scheme'' began in [[Tirunelveli]] and ended in [[Tirupur]] on 21 December 2012. It was conducted to raise awareness amongst the poor likely to be exploited by the scheme.{{sfn|Staff reporter}} Because the garment industry requires low-skill labour, there is often little chance for personal and skills development, and the girls become "dispensable" labour.{{sfn|Carr|p=59}}

The Sumangali scheme is described as a side effect of [[Child labour in India|child labour laws in India]] preventing the employment of children less than fifteen years old. As a result, there has been an increase in the employment of adolescents between fifteen and eighteen years old.{{sfn|Nathan|George|p=53}}

In the report ''Understanding the Characteristics of the Sumangali Scheme in Tamil Nadu Textile & Garment Industry and Supply Chain Linkages'', the [[Fair Labor Association]] listed a number of issues related to the Sumangali scheme:{{sfn|Fair Labor Association|p=6}}

*lack of a written employment contract
*girls employed as apprentices, paid a [[stipend]] instead of a wage
*significant and required deductions
*no company payment for the [[Employees' Provident Fund Organisation of India|Provident Fund]] or [[Employees' State Insurance]]
*little or no training, resulting in low health and safety awareness
*long shift work, often 12 hours
*compulsory overtime and extension of shift work
*[[Sexism|gender discrimination]] for wages; boys and men are paid more for equivalent work
*commonly exposed to verbal abuse
*infrequently subjected to physical abuse or sexual abuse
*forced labour and debt bondage

==Reaction==
Some [[fashion design]] houses that source textiles from Tamil Nadu, or from suppliers that do so, have taken action regarding the scheme. [[C&A]] suspended one of its supplier accounts it had determined was practicing the Sumangali scheme, and later closed it when the supplier would not terminate the practice.{{sfn|C&A}} It also stated that Sumangali work had shifted to "earlier parts of the textile chain",{{sfn|C&A}} especially spinning mills outside the purview of their auditors. It has also joined a Terre des hommes project and is part of the Brands Ethical Working Group. [[Ted Baker]] issued a [[press release]] stating it was not aware of any Sumangali work within its supply chain, but that it could "play an important role in condemning practices like these".{{sfn|Ted Baker}} It joined with other brands in support of [[Anti-Slavery International]] and the [[Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations]] (SOMO).{{sfn|Ted Baker}}

The companies [[ASOS.com]], [[Bestseller (company)|Bestseller]], C&A, [[Cortefiel]], [[H&M]], [[Mothercare]], [[Next plc]], [[Primark]], and [[Tesco]] issued a press release condemning the practice, and stating that their suppliers would be required to "demonstrate, in a transparent manner, satisfactory employment practices and working conditions".{{sfn|SOMO}} These companies had been identified in several reports criticizing their supply chain practices, as were those of [[Asda]] (and owner [[Walmart]]), [[Diesel (brand)|Diesel]], [[Inditex]], [[Old Navy]] (and owner [[Gap (clothing retailer)|Gap Inc.]]), [[Marks & Spencer]], [[s.Oliver]], [[The Timberland Company]], and [[Tommy Hilfiger Corporation]].{{sfn|Fair Labor Association|p=4}}

==See also==
*[[Caste system in India]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book|title=Trading Stories: Experiences With Gender and Trade|last1=Carr|first1=Marilyn|last2=Williams|first2=Mariama|publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat|year=2010|isbn=978-0-85092-873-0}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairlabor.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/understanding_sumangali_tamil_nadu_0.pdf|title=Understanding the Characteristics of the Sumangali Scheme in Tamil Nadu Textile & Garment Industry and Supply Chain Linkages|website=[[Fair Labor Association]]|date=2012-05-08|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.berliner-kurier.de/geisslers-nachschlag/unmenschlich-stoppt-endlich-die-ausbeutung-der-textil-sklaven-,11561998,21018058.html|first=Heiner|last=Geißler|title=Stoppt endlich die Ausbeutung der Textil-Sklaven!|newspaper=[[Berliner Kurier]]|date=3 December 2012|access-date=2012-12-30}}
*{{cite journal|journal=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237716|title=Wound on a Spindle|last=Iyengar|first=Pushpa|publisher=Outlook Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd.|volume=48|issue=25|date=June 2008}}
*{{cite book|title=International Perspectives on Crime and Justice|last=Jaishankar|first=K.|year=2009|publisher=K. Jaishankar |isbn=978-1-4438-0198-0}}
*{{cite book|title=Hidden Hands in the Market: Ethnographies of Fair Trade, Ethical Consumption and Corporate Social Responsibility|volume=28|editor1-last=Luetchford|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=De Neve|editor2-first=Geert|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84855-059-9}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.good.is/posts/caste-off|title=Caste Off|last=Matthews|first=Adam|website=Good|publisher=Good Worldwide|issue=27|date=31 May 2012|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite journal |url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/Corporate%20Governance%20and%20child%20labour.pdf|title=Corporate Governance and Child Labour|last1=Nathan|first1=Dev|last2=George|first2=Ann T.|journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]]|volume=47|number=50|date=2012-12-15|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/breaking-caste/in-parts-of-india-dowry-schemes-are-used-to-lure-girls-to-bonded-labour/article6781476/|title=In parts of India, dowry schemes are used to lure girls to bonded labour |last=Nolen|first=Stephanie|newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]]|date=29 December 2012|access-date=2012-12-30}}
*{{cite web|url=http://somo.nl/publications-en/Publication_3818/at_download/fullfile|title=Bonded (child) labour in the Indian garment industry|last1=Overeem|first1=Pauline|last2=Peepercamp|first2=Marijn|publisher=SOMO|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite book|title=Youth as Catalysts and Change Makers|last1=Palanithurai|first1=Ganapathy|last2=Thirunavukkarasu|first2=M. A.|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2010|isbn=978-81-8069-682-4}}
*{{cite book|title=Globalization and Rural Development|last1=Palanithurai|first1=Ganapathy|last2=Ramesh|first2=R.|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2011|isbn=978-81-8069-750-0}}
*{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/campaign-against-sumangali-scheme-culminates-in-tirupur/article4224916.ece |title=Campaign against 'Sumangali scheme' culminates in Tirupur|date=21 December 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=23 August 2020}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.tdh.de/home/meldungen/maedchen-in-textilindustrie-in-tirupur/hintergrund.html|title=Was ist das Sumangali-Schema?|website=Terre des Hommes|year=2012}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.c-and-a.com/uk/en/corporate/fileadmin/mediathek/uk-uk/Pressreleases/CSR_Site/Sumangali_in_India_illegal_and_unacceptable.pdf|title=Sumangali in India: illegal and unacceptable|website=[[C&A]]|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.tedbaker.com/faqs/ethical_+_environmental_issues/what_is_the_sumangali_scheme_and_what_is_ted_baker_doing_in_response_to_it_/answers.aspx|title=What is the Sumangali Scheme and what is Ted Baker doing in response to it?|website=[[Ted Baker]]|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.solidaridadnetwork.org/report-action-plan-sumangali-scheme-india|title=Report: Action Plan for "Sumangali Scheme" in India|website=Solidaridad Network|date=6 August 2012|access-date=2012-12-31}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.primark-ethicaltrading.co.uk/documents/case_study_documents/sumangali|title=Response to SOMO/ICN/CASS Report|website=Primark Ethical Trading|access-date=2012-12-31}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://somo.nl/publications-en/Publication_3673 Captured by Cotton], a report by [[Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations]] and India Committee of the Netherlands
*[http://www.fairwear.org/ul/cms/fck-uploaded/documents/companies/FWFdocs/fwf-india-sumangalischeme.pdf Sumangali Scheme] by the [[Fair Wear Foundation]]

[[Category:Child labour in India]]
[[Category:Debt bondage in South Asia]]
[[Category:Textile industry in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Slavery in India]]

Jitendra Majumder

2025-05-11T03:56:58Z

Vedpsagar: put up a entry - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
'''Jitendra Majumder''' (born 1954)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Jitendra Majumder (Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):Constituency- Kakraban-Shalgarh (SC) (Gomati) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Tripura2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=6911 |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Tripura]]. He is a member of the Tripura Legislative Assembly from [[Kakraban–Salgarh Assembly constituency|Kakraban Salgarh Assembly constituency]], which is reserved for Scheduled Caste community, in [[Gomati district]]. He won the [[2023 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]], representing the Bharatiya Janata Party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jitendra Majumder in Tripura Assembly Elections 2023 |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2023/tripura/jitendra-majumder-kakraban-shalgara-candidate-s23a033c004/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-06 |title=Jitendra Majumder |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/politics/jitendra-majumder/articleshow/97948344.cms |access-date=2025-05-11 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Majumder is from [[Kakraban Assembly constituency|Kakraban]]. His late father Radha Krishna Majumder was a farmer. He completed his B.A. in 1978 at [[Ramthakur College]], [[Agartala]], which is affiliated with [[Calcutta University]]. He is into rubber cultivation and also runs his own business.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Majumder was elected as an MLA from Kakraban Salgarh Assembly constituency representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in the 2023 Tripura Legislative Assembly election. He polled 23,625 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[Ratan Kumar Bhowmik|Ratan Kr. Bhowmik]] of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], by a margin of 5,051 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-02 |title=Tripura Assembly election results 2023: Check full list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/tripura-election-results-2023-constituency-winners-list-8473554/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In the [[2018 Tripura Legislative Assembly election]], he lost to Bhowmik of the Communist Party, by a margin of 3,767 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-13 |title=Kakraban - Shalgara Constituency & Candidates contesting the 2023 Assembly Elections |url=https://northeastlivetv.com/ne-election-2023/tripura-ne-election-2023/constituencies-tripura-ne-election-2023/kakraban-shalgara-constituency-candidates-contesting-the-2023-assembly-elections/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=Northeast Live |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Members of Legislative Assembly {{!}} Official website of Tripura State Portal, India |url=https://tripura.gov.in/members-legislative-assembly |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=tripura.gov.in}}</ref> He polled 21,068 votes against Bhowmik, who got 24,835 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kakraban-salgarah Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/kakraban-salgarah-tripura-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-05-10 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Majumder, Jitendra}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Tripura]]
[[Category:Tripura MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Gomati district]]

{{Tripura-BJP-politician-stub}}